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THE
CYCLOPADIA;
OR,
Universal Dictionary
or
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.
VOL. XXX.
Printed by A. Strahan,
New-Street-Square, London.
THE
CYCLOPADIA;
OR,
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
OF
Arts, Sciences, and Literature,
BY
ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,
BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.
rg
IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXX.
$$ EEE ———__—_—
LONDON:
PrinteD For LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PaternosteErR-Row,
F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.
1819.
2
AS ABRA Rj PR
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Gerairy of ies 1087 ‘ R329
nabelrnd
CVCLOPZADIA:
OR,
A NEW
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS and SCIENCES.
REPUBLIC.
EPUBLIC, Respustica, commonwealth, a popular
; itate or government ; or a nation where the body, or
only a part of the people, have the government in their
own hands.
When the body of the people is poffeffed of the fupreme
power, this is called a democracy. When the fupreme
power is lodged in the hands of a part of the people, it is
then an ari/focracy. See Anistocracy and Democracy.
The celebrated republics of antiquity are thofe of
Athens, Sparta, Rome, and Carthage. At prefent, there
is fcarcely any {uch thing as a real republic, ze. a ftrictly
popular itate. Indeed, the Venetians and Genoefe have
called their ftates republics; but their government was ap-
parently oligarchic.
The Dutch, in their former ftate, came the neareit to the
charaéter of a republic; yet they were very defeétive, at
Jeaft in the fenfe and feverity with which Rome, Carthage,
&c. were republics. See Srares-General.-
It isaremark of M. St. Evremont, that if the Dutch
love the republican form, it is more for the fake of their
trade than of their liberty.
Holland, which was compofed of about fifty republics,
all different from one another, might be confidered as a con-
federate republic; or a convention. by which feveral petty
{tates agree to become members of a larger one, which
they intend to eftablifh. When feveral fovereign and inde-
pendent ftates un:te themfelves together by a perpetual con-
federacy, whilft each of them continues to be a perfe& ftate,
they will form together a federal republic : the deliberations
in common will offer no violence to the fovereignty of each
member, though they may, in certain re{pects, put {ome con-
ftraint on the exercife of it, in virtue of voluntary engage-
ments. A perfon does not ceafe to be free and independent
when heis obliged to fulfil the engagements into which he has
Vou. XXX.
very willingly entered. In this view, Germany, which coa-
fifted of free cities, and of petty ftates, fubject to different
princes, and the Swifs cantons, were confidered in Europe
as perpetual republics.
Of this kind were formerly the cities of Greece ; and in
later times were the feven United Provinces of the Nether-
lands ; and fuch, as we have juit faid, were the members of
the Helvetic body. To this clafs we may likewife refer the
federal government of the United States of America. See
GovERNMENT.
Baron de Montefquieu, in his “ Spirit of Laws,’? enume-
rates the following diftin@tive properties of a republic. It
fhould have a {mall territory ; otherwife it cannot long fubfitt.
In a large republic there are men of large fortunes, and con-
fequently of lefs moderation; there are too great depofits
to intruft into the hands of a fingle fubje& ; interefts are
divided ; an ambitious perfon foon becomes fenfible that he
may be happy, great, and glorious, by opprefling his fellow-
citizens ; and that he might raife himfelf to grandeur on the
ruins of his country.
In a large republic, the public good is facrificed to a
thoufand views ; it is fubordinate to exceptions ; and de-
pends on accidents. In a {mall one, the intereft of the public
is eafier perceived, better underfteod, and more within the
reach of every citizen; abufes have a leffer extent, and of
courfe are lefs protected.
The long duration of the republic of Sparta was owing
toits having always continued with the fame extent of terri-
tory after all its wars. The fole aim of Sparta was liberty ;
and the fole advantage of its liberty, glory.
It was the {pirit af the Greek a se to be as contented
with their territories, as with their laws. Athens was firft
fired with ambition, and gave it to Lacedemon; but it was
an ambition rather of commanding a free people, than of
B governing
REP
governing flaves ; rather of direGing than of breaking the
union. All was loft upon the ftarting up of monarchy, a
government whofe fpirit is more turned to increafe and ad-
Yancement.
Excepting particular circumftances, as when a petty
fovereign fupports himfelf betwixt two great powers by
means of their mutual jealoufy, it is difficult for any other
than a republican government to fubfift long in a fingle town.
A prince of fo petty a ftate would naturally endeavour to
opprefs, becaufe his power would be great, while the means
of enjoying it, or of caufing it to be refpected, would be
very inconfiderable. The confequence of this would be,
that he would trample upon his people. On the other hand,
fuch a prince might be eafily crufhed by a foreign, or even a
domeftic force ; the people might every inftant unite and
rife up againft him. Now, as foon as a prince of a fingle
town is expelled, the quarrel is over ; but if he has many
towns, it only begins.
Repusiic of Letters, isa phrafe ufed in {peaking col-
leGtively of the whole body of the people of ftudy and
learning.
There is a journal, begun in Holland, by M. Bayle,
and continued by M. Bernard, confifting of extradis of
books, printed in the courfe of the year, called «* Nouvelles
de la Republique des Lettres,”” News from the Republic of
Letters. See JouRNAL.
"REPUBLICATION of a Will. See W111.
REPUDIATION, Repuprum, in the Civil Law, the
act of divorcing. See Divorce.
REPULSE Bay; in Geography, a bay on the N.E.
coaft of New Holland, in the South Pacific ocean. S.
lat. 20° 36! W. long. 148° 33’. —Alfo, a bay on the
coaft of Kerguelen’s land. — Alfo, a bay on the W. coaft
of America. N. lat. 66° 40!. W. long. 85°.
REPULSION, Rerursio, in Phyfics, the at of a
repelling power, by which bodies, under certain circum--
ftances, naturally fly from each other.
Repulfion is the counter part to affradion. Attraction
only reaches to a little diftance ; where that terminates, there
repulfion commences. See Arr and Compression.
Indeed, we meet with many obvious inftances of repul-
fion among bodies, as between water and oil, and, in general,
between water and all un€tuous bodies; between mercury
and iron, as alfo between the particles of duft, &c.
Thus, if a fat body, lighter than water, be laid on the
furface of it, or if a piece of iron be laid on mercury,
the furface of the fluid will be depreffed about the bodies
laid on it. This is a plain indication of repulfion; as the
rifing up of the fluid about the furfaces of other incumbent
bodies is of attra¢tion.
In the latter cafe, the fluid is fufpended, by an attrac-
tive power, above the level, and kept from falling by its
gravity : in the former, a depreffion is made by the repel-
ling power, which the liquor, notwithftanding its gravity,
cannot run down into, and fill up.
Upon this depend all the phenomena of very light glafs
bubbles floating on water, about which, when clean, the
water rifes; but when greafed, the water finks into a
ehannel all around them. Hence alfo it is, that in a
glafs-veflel of water, the fluid ftands higher all about the
edges near the glafs than towards the middle; but when
the glafs is filled till the water run down on all fides, then
it ftands higher at the middle than at the fides.
alfo, in 2 glafs not full of water, a clean glafs bubble
always runs to the fide, by reafon the preflure, which is
upon it towards the middle, is partly taken off by the at-
trative force with which the water is raifed near the edge.
I
Hence, ©
RER
If the glafs be fo full as to be ready to run over, the
bubble returns from the fide towards the middle, the force
with which the water is raifed in the middle taking off part
of the preffure.
Juft the reverfe happens if the bubble be greafy ; becaufe
there the force, by which the water and the bubble repel
each other, is greateft where the water is higheit. Two
clean bubbles and two greafy ones always run towards
each other, as being attracted ; and a greafy and aclean one
always fly each other, as being repelled.
REPUTATION, Injuries affeGing. See Ingury.
REQUENA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in New
Caftile, feated on the top of a hill, near the Oliana, on
the borders of Valencia. Bourgoanne, a modern traveller,
fays, that wealth and aétivity proclaim in this place the pre-
fence of induftry, and accordingly the number of filk looms
amounts to goo. It has been fuppofed to be the Salaria,
placed by Ptolemy in the country of the Baftitani; 55
miles S.E. of Cuenga.
REQUEST, in Law, a fupplication or petition pre-
ferred to a prince, or court of juftice, begging relief in
fome confcionable cafes, where the common law grants no
immediate redrefs.
The term requeft is now, fince the inftitution of chan-
cery, much difufed; together with the court of requefts,
where requefts were cognizable.
In the old government of France, requétes civiles, civil
requeits, obtained for the annulling of contraéts, &c. made
by furprize.
They had eighty maiters of requefts to take cognizance
of caufes between the officers of the crown, the fervants
of the houfehold, &c.
Requests, Court of. See Court of Requefis, and Cour?
of Confcience.
Request, in Hunting, is when the dogs have loft the
ueft or tra& of the bealt, and mutt reque/, or gueff it again.
hey fay, ¢o call to the reque/?, come to the requeft, &c.
To requeft the game is chiefly ufed, when, after having
run it down the night before, they feek it again the next
morning with the blood-hound, or the like.
REQUEURIA, in Botany, a genus named in the Flora
Peruviana, page 16, after Louis Requeur, a Spaniard, who
was apothecary to king Philip V. De Theis. We are un-
acquainted with the plant, as well as with the botanical merits
of the perfon to whom it is dedicated.
REQUIEM, a mafs fung in the Romifh church for the
reft of the foul of a perfon deceafed.
It is thus called, becaufe the introit begins with “ Re-
quiem zternam dona eis, Domine,” &c.
REQUINY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Morbihan; 6 miles N.W. of Joffelin.
REQUISTA, a town of France, in the department
of the Aveiron; 18 miles S. of Rhodez.
RERE County. See Rrer County.
Rere Fiefs, a name given in the Scotch laws to thofe fiefs
which were held by inferior tenants or feudatories, that
cultivated the lands under the chief feudatories, who held
by military fervice. :
Rere Ward, arriere-garde. See Rear, and GUARD.
REREDOS, the fkreen at the back of an ancient high
altar, which feparated it from the Lady-chapel, being, for
the moit part, highly ornamented with niches, canopies,
and tracery work. The richeft of thefe which have reached
our time are thofe of Winchefter and Durham cathedrals,
and of St. Alban’s abbey.
RERHUTTAN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Dalecarlia ; 30 miles $.W. of Geile. 4
RERI-
RES
RERIGONIAN Bay, in Ancient Geography, a bay on
the northern fide of ancient Britain, now Loch-rain, formed
by the Mull of Galloway.
RERIGONIUM, called by fome Berigonium, a town
of the Novantz, fituated fomewhere in Galloway, according
to Camden the prefent Bargeny in Carrict; but Horfley
refers Barton or Strathaven. ‘
RERONE, in Geography, a river of Italy, which rifes in
the Vicentin, and runs into the Brenta.
RERRE, a river of France, which runs into the
Saudre, about a league above Romorantin.
RES, Thing. See Reariry, Ens, Essr, Supsrance, &c.
Res Mancipi. See ABALIENATION.
Res Naturales. See NATURALS.
Res Non Naturales, &c. See Non-naturals, &c.
RESAFA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, on
the W. fide of the Euphrates.
RESAIA, a town of Mefopotamia, in Ofrhoené.
RESAINA, or Tueroposiorotis, Ras-vin, or Ain-
verdah, a town of Mefopotamia, upon the banks of the
river Chabotas. This town was famous on account of the
victory obtained over Sapor by the younger Gordian, in the
year 243. Under the empire of Severus, it was elevated to
the dignity of a colony ; and under Theodofius it aflumed
the name of 'Theodofiopolis.
RESAPHE, a town of Palmyrene, according to Pto-
lemy ; but Procopius called it Sergiopolis. It-was at fome
diftance from the Euphrates.
RESAU or Renan, in Geography, a town of Germany,
~ in the principality of Culmbach; 7 miles E.S.E. of Hoff.
RESAVA, a river of Servia, which runs into the
Paflarovitz.
RESCEIT, Recerrio, in Law, an admiffion or receiy-
ing of a third perfon to plead his right, in a caufe formerly
commenced between other two.
As, when an action is brought againft a tenant for life
or years, and he makes default ; in fuch cafe he in the re-
yerlion may come in and pray to be received, to defend the
land, and to plead with the demandant.
Resceir 1s alfo fometimes applied to an admittance of
plea, though the controverfy be only between two. He
in reverfion may come into court, and pray to be received
im a fuit againit his particular tenant.
Resceit of homage, receptio homagii, denotes the lord’s re-
ceiving homage of his tenant, at his admiflion to the lands.
RESCHOUET, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Pomerelia ; 7 miles N.N.E. of Zarnowitz.
RESCIPHA, in Ancient Geography, a place of Mefo-
potamia, on the banks of the Euphrates; fituated S. of
Corfote, and near to it. a
RESCISSION, Rescissio, formed of re, and /cinda,
q. d. L cut or divide again, in the Civil Law, an action in-
tended for the annulling or fetting afide of any deed, con-
traét, or the like.
A thing’s being found damaged, or fold at above double
the juft value, is a good caufe of refciffion.
The deed or contra& thus annulled, or refcinded, is
fometimes called a re/cifory ; though that denomination be
more properly given to the aétion brought for refcinding or
fetting it afide ; which is properly called aGio refcifforia.
RESCOUS, or Ruscur, Refcufus, in Law, an illegal
taking away, and fetting at liberty, a diftrefs taken, or a
perfon arreited, by procefs, or courfe of law. This is
properly a refcous in fa@. If one diltrain beafts for da-
mage feafant in his ground, and as he drives them along
the highway towards the pound, they enter, into the
owner’s houfe, and he withholds them there, and will
not deliver them upon demand; this detainer is a refcous
RES
in law. For a refcous, or the taking of goods by force
when, in a dittrefs, they are in-the cuftody of the tiv.
which is confidered as an atrocious injury, the diftreiner ”
has a remedy in damages, either by writ of refcous (F.N. B.
1o1.), in cafe they were going to the pound, or by writ
de parco fraéo, or pound-breach (ibid. 100.) in cafe they
were actually impounded. He may alfo at his option bring
an aétion on the cafe for this injury, and fhall therein, if
the diftrefs were taken for rent, recover treble damages,
(Stat. 2 W. & M. feff. 1. c..5.) In cafe of the forcible
delivery of a perfon arreited from the officer who is
taking him to prifon, the plaintiff has a fimilar remedy
by action on the cafe, or of refcous (6 Mod. 201.) 5 or,
if the fheriff makes a return to fuch refcous to the court
out of which the procefs iffued, the refcuer will be pu-
nifhed byattachment. Cro. Jac. 419. Salk. 586. See Rescur.
He that commits a refeue or refcous, is’ called the
refcuffor.
Rescous is «lfo ufed for a writ which lie i
called breve de re/cuffis. Pit ee
RESCRIPT, Rescriprum, an anfwer delivered by anem-
peror, ora pope, when confulted by particular perfons, on fome
difficult quettion or point of law, to ferve asa decifion of it
The civil and canon laws are full of fuch re{cripts.
When the refcript was made in anfwer to the enquiry of
a community, it was called a pragmatic /andion.
_ The papal refcripts are a kind of bulls or monitories, be-
ginning with thefe words, Significabit nobis dile@tus
filius,’? &c. They never obtained either in England or
France, when contrary to the liberties of the Enclith and
Gallican churches ; but were declared abufive.
Among the Romans the contending parties and even the
magiftrates themfelves, frequently confulted the emperor
on the meafures they were to take in certain and nice dif-
ficult cafes ; and the anfwers returned by the emperor on
fuch confultations, were called referipts. Thefe had not
indeed, the full force of laws; but they were deemed 4
{trong prejudice or prefumption: and in fucceeding ages,
they had the force of perpetual laws, though they ought
to be carefully diftinguifhed, by every rational civilian,
from thofe general conttitutions which had only the nature
of things for their guides.
Juftinian has inferted a great number of them in the
Code; and by that means given them. the authority they
before wanted.
The author of the life of the emperor Macrinus obferves
of that prince, that he would have his officers judge by
laws, not by refcripts; as elteeming it abfurd ‘to admit
the wills of ignorant men, fuch as Commodus and Cara-
calla, for rules of judging ; and becaufe Trajan never
gave any refcripts at all, as being loth to countenance a
cuftom, where what is frequently granted as a favour, in
particular cafes, might be afterwards pleaded as a prece-_
dent. It is added, that Macrinus had a defign to {trip the
refcripts of all their authority.
M. Schulting, in his Diflertations, does not at ‘all ap-
prove of this defign; and to the emperor’s reafons anfwers,
that indeed all refcripts are not to be admitted; that thofe
which appear diétated out of favour, are to be thrown
afide; but thofe which appear founded in reafon, and
natural equity, are, with Juftinian, to be allowed. He
adds, that it cannot be denied but the worft emperors have
frequently made good laws, and ufeful re{cripts.
As to what is urged of the emperor Trajan’s never giving
any refcripts, it appears but ill f{upported. For what is it
but a refcript that he delivers‘to Pliny on the fubjeé&t of the
Chriftians, lib. x. epift. 28? Or that on the Ifclattici,
lib. x. epilt. 120? The Digeft, and Pliny’s Epiitles, need
Brz only
RES
only to be opened and compared, to find refcripts of Trajan.
The refcripts of the emperor, his grants and decrees, his
ediéts and pragmatic f{anétions, were fubf{cribed in purple
ink, or a compound of vermilion and cinnabar ; and tranf-
mitted to the provinces as general or {pecial laws, which the
magiftrates were bound to execute, and the people to obey.
But as their number continually multiplied, the rule of obe-
dience became each day more doubtful and obfcure, till the
will of the fovereign was fixed and afcertained in the Gre-
gorian, Hermogenian, and the Theodofian codes.
RESCUE. See Rescovs. See alfo Distress, and
Dissristn.
Rescur is one of thofe offences againft public juttice,
which confifts in the forcibly and knowingly freeing an-
other from an arreft or imprifonment ; and it is generally
the fame offence in the ftranger fo refcuing, as it would
have been in a gaoler to have voluntarily permitted an efcape.
A refcue, therefore, of one apprehended for felony, is
telony ; for treafon, treafon ; and for a mifdemefnor, a mif-
demefnor alfo. But here likewife, as upon voluntary efcapes,
the principal muft firfl be attainted, or receive judgment
before the refcuer can be punifhed: and for the fame reafon ;
becaufe perhaps in fact it may turn out that there has been
no ofence committed. By ftatute 11 Geo. II. c. 26. and
24 Geo. II. c. 40. if five or more perfons aflemsble to refcue
any retailers of {pirituous liquors, or to aflault the informers
again{t them, it is felony, and fubject to tranfportation for
feven years. By the flatute 16 Geo. II. c. 31, to convey
to any prifoner in cuftody for treafon or felony any arms,
inftruments of efcape, or difguife, without the knowledge
of the gaoler, though no efcape be attempted, or any way
to affift fuch prifoner to attempt an efcape, though no efcape
be actually made, is felony, and fubjeéts the offender to
tranfportation for feven years: or if the prifoner be in
cultody for petit larceny, or other inferior offence, or charged
with a debt of roo/., it is then a mifdemefnor, punifhable
with fine and imprifonment. And by-feveral {pecial ftatutes,
to refcue, or attempt to refcue, any perfon committed for
the offences enumerated in thofe aéts, is felony without
benefit of clergy ; and to refcue, or attempt to refcue, the
body of a felon executed for murder, is fingle felony, and
fubject to tranfportation for feven years. Nay, even if any
perfon be charged with any of the offences againft the
black aét, 9 Geo. I. c. 22, and, being required by order of
the privy council to furrender himfelf, neglects fo to do for
. forty days, both he and all that knowingly conceal, aid,
abet, or fuccour him, are felons without benefit of clergy.
See ConTEMPT.
RESCUSSOR, in Law. See Rescous.
RESA, or Ruze, in Geography, a town of France,
which runs into the Saudre, at Romorantin.
RESEARCH, formed of the French, recherche, and lite-
rally denoting a fecond fearch, a diligent {earch or enquiry
into any thing.
Resrarcu, in Mufic, isa kind of prelude or voluntary
played on the organ, harpfichord, violin, &c. in which the
compofer feems to fearch or look out for the ftrains and
touches of harmony, which he is to ufe in the regular piece
to be played afterwards.
This is ufually done off-hand; and confequently it re-
quires a mafter’s fkill. When in a motetto, the compofer
takes the liberty to ufe any thing that comes into his head,
without applying any words to it, or fubjecting himfelf to
the fenfe or paflion of it, the Italians call it fantofia ricercata,
the French recherche, and the Englifh refearch and voluntary.
RESEARCHING, in Sculpture, the repairing of a catt,
figure, &c. with proper tools ; or the finifhing it with art and
exactnefs, fo as that the minuteft parts may be well defined.
RES
RESEDA, in Botany, a name which occurs in Pliny,
and is evidently derived from resédo, to allay or mitigate ;
fo that the fecond fyllable, vulgarly pronounced fhort, ought
to be long. Pliny reports that this herb is known in the
neighbourhood of Rimini, and is ufed for difperfing tumours,
and all kinds of inflammations. The perfon who applies
the medicine, fays ‘ Refeda allay thefe difeafes,” repeating
thefe words, with fome others, and {pitting as often. After
this account, the reader may not be anxious to know what
Pliny’s Refeda was. We have certainly no more reafon to
believe it the fame as our’s, than we have to rely on his
fapient prefcriptionm—Linn. Gen. 242. Schreb. 326.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 876. Mart. Mill. Dig. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 512. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 322. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 3. 153. Jul. 245. Tourn. t. 238. La-
marck Iluitr. t. 410. Gertn. t. 76. (Luteola ; -Tourn.
t. 238. Sefamoides; Tourn. t. 238.)——Clafs and order,
Dodecandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Mifcellanee, Linn. Cap-
parides, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
divided into narrow, ereét, permanent fegments, two of
which are further afunder than the reft, for the accommo-
dation of the honey-bearing petal. Cor. Petals feveral, un-
equal ; fome of them always cut half way down into three
fegments; the upper one gibbous at the bafe, bearing
honey, the length of the calyx. Nedtary a flat ereé&t gland,
proceeding from the receptacle, fituated at the upper fide of
the flower, between the ttamens and uppermoft petal, con-
verging with the dilated bafe of the petals. Stam. Fila-
ments eleven or fifteen, fhort; anthers ereét, obtufe, the
length of the corolla. Pf. Germen gibbous, ending in
three or four very fhort ityles; ftigmas fimple. Peric.
Capfule gibbous, angular, coriaceous, tipped with the
ftyles, and gaping at the fummit between them, of one
cell. Seeds numerous, kidney-fhaped, inferted into the an-
gles of the capfule.
Obf. Linnzus obferves, that there is {carcely any genus
whofe character is more difficult to determine, both the
number and fhape of the parts being diflerent in different
fpecies. The effential chara@ter confifts in the three-cleft
petals, one petal bearing honey at its bafe, and the cap-
fule not being clofed, but always gaping.
R. Luteola has the perianth in four deep fegments ; petals
three, the upper, or honey-bearing one, cut half way down
into fix fegments; the lateral ones oppofite, three-cleft ; to
which are often fubjoined, by nature or luxuriance, two
more, very fmall, undivided petals; the /y/es are three:
_jftamens numerous. :
R. alba has fix deep fegments in the perianth: petals fix,
nearly equal, all of them half three-cleft ; fyles four ; cap-
fule with four angles ; flamens conttantly eleven.
Some other {pecies have a deeply five-cleft perianth ; five
diffimilar three-cleft petals ; flyles three ;_/lamens numerous.
Ef Ch. Calyx of one leaf,: deeply divided. Petals
lacmiated. Capfule fuperior, gaping at the top, of one
cell, with many feeds.
1. R. Luteola. Dyer’s-weed, Yellow-weed, or Weld.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 643. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Fl. Brit.
n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 320. . Mart. Ruit. t.420. (Luteola;
Ger. Em. 494. Pfeudoftruthium; Matth. Valgr. v. 2.
643.)—LLeaves lanceolate, undivided, flat. Calyx four-
cleft.—Native of wafte ground, rubbifh, banks, and old
walls, chiefly about villages, in moft of the temperate parts
of Europe. About Norwich it is very common ; partly
perhaps from the difperfion of its feeds, in confequence of
the great ufe made of the cultivated herb, in the woollen
manutaCtory of that city, for dyeing yellow. The colour
it affords is very bright, and is efpecially uleful for making
a good
RESEDA.
a good green; the cloth being firft dyed blue. The derd
1s annual, flowering in July. “Root {pindle-fhaped. Stem
erect, wand-like, two or three feet high, branched, leafy,
ftriated, fmooth. Leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, {mooth,
for the moft part furnifhed with a fmall callous tooth, on
_ each fide, at the bafe. Flowers fmall, cream-coloured,
very numerous, in long, fimple, folitary, terminal, flightly
drooping pikes, which, according to Linnzus, follow the
courfe of the fun, even in a cloudy day—
«© True, as the dial, to the fun,
Although it be not fhined upon.’’
2. R. canefcens. Hoary Bafe Rocket. Linn. Syit. Nat.
ed. 12. v. 2. 330. Willd. n.2. Ait. n.2? Vahl. Symb.
v. 2.52. (R. hexagyna; Forfk. Aigypt-Arab. 92. Se-
famoides falmanticum parvum alterum; Cluf. Hift. y. 1.
296, no figure. S. flore albo, foliis canefcentibus ; Tourn.
Inft. 424.)—Leaves lanceolate, waved, fomewhat hairy.
Branches hifpid.—Native of waite ground near Cairo. For-
Jtall. Probably alfo of the fouth of Europe. The fems
are decumbent, branched, eighteen inches or more in length,
round, leafy, rough with copious, minute, white, {preading,
fhort, briitly hairs. Leaves {cattered, lanceolate, ene and
a half or two inches long; bluntifh, entire, wavy, and*
roughifh at the edges, as well as at the midrib on both fides ;
otherwife fmooth, and fomewhat glaucous ; tapering at the
bafe, and fending down two elevated ribs, for fome diftance,
along the branch. Flowers in long, terminal, ftalked,
hairy clufters, on fhort partial italks. Calyx five-cleft.
. Petals white. Germen, according to Forfkal’s defcription,
ftalked, with fix fy/es——Vahl has well remarked that R.
canefcens of Sp. Pl. cannot be the fame with the above.
Indeed it appears to be no other than either R. /e/amoides
or purpurafcens, the figure of Clufius agreeing beft with the
former ; his defcription and the Linnean definition with
the latter. Yet this fame figure, adopted by Gerarde,
feems to be the only foundation on which R. canefcens de-
pends for a place in Hort. Kew.—We have never feen the
true canefcens living, nor can we find a figure of it.
3. R.- glauca. Glaucous Bafe Rocket. Linn. Sp. Pl.
644. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (R. linariz foliis ; Bauh.
Prodr. 42, no figure. Sefamoides linariz folio glauco, py-
renaica, flore ftamineo ; Morif. feét. 15. t. 1. f. 4.—Leaves
linear ; toothed at the bafe. Styles four.—Native of the
Pyrenean mountains; according to Burfer’s herbarium,
examined by Linneus. Gathered alfo by Leefling, in
Spain. The root is faid to be perennial, but has the ap-
pearance of being annual. Whole herb glaucous, flender,
and fmooth. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, fimple,
round, wand-like, leafy. Leaves about two inches long,
very narrow ; all nearly of equal breadth, furnifhed at the
bafe with a few white briftly teeth. C/ufler terminal, foli-
tary, very long, of numerous white flowers, whofe petals
are lefs divided than in moft other {pecies.
4. R. dipetala. Flax-leaved Bafe Rocket. Ajit. n. 4.
Willd. n.4. Vahl. Symb. v. 2.52. (R. capenfis; Burm.
Prodr. 13.)—Leaves linear, entire. Styles four. Petals
two, undivided.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from
whence its feeds were fent to Kew, in 1774, by Mr. Maffon.
The plant is bienmal, flowering im Auguit, being preferved
in a greenhoufe through the winter. Vahl compares its
general afpect to R. Se/amoides, hereafter defcribed. Stem
fomewhat fhrubby, erect, with round branches. Leaves
about an inch long, rather defhy, {mooth. Clufter terminal,
lax. Segments of the calyx fix, minute, bordered with
white. Petals oaly two, wedge-fhaped, undivided.
5. R. purpura/cens. Purplith Bafe Rocket. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 644. Willd. n. 5. (Sefamoides falmanticum parvum
5
primum; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 296, excluding the figure. S.
foliis craffis, floribus ex herbaceo purpurafcentibus ; Tourn.
Init. 424.)—Leaves linear, obtufe. Styles five.—Native
of Spain. Lefling.—Stems feveral, a fpan high, fimple,
leafy. Leaves feattered, the length of the nail, linear,
obtufe, fmooth. C/ufer, or rather /pike, long, lax. Petals
very white, much divided. Styles five, fometimes, as Clufius
defcribes them, only four. Cap/u/e with as many protu-
berant, fingle-feeded, knobs or pouches.
6. R. Sefamoides. Spear-leaved Bafe Rocket. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 644. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 5. (Sefamoides parvum
falmanticum ; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 295, the figure only. Ger.
Em. 493. Lob. Ic. 353.)—Stem-leaves linear-lanceolate,
obtufe, radical ones lanceolate, ftalked, much larger. Fruit
frellated. Native of Barbary, and the fouth of Europe.
A hardy annual in Kew garden, flowering in July and
Auguit. The root is {pindle-fhaped, very long, tapering,
and branched at the extremity. Stems numerous, {preading
nearly horizontally, from three to twelve inches long, gene-
rally fimple, fmooth, leafy. Radical-Jeaves numerous, lan-
ceolate or fomewhat obovate, entire, fmooth, an inch long,
tapering down into a footfa/k of about the fame length ;
Jtem-leaves much {maller and narrower, linear, and obtufe.
Clufters terminal, rather denfe. Petals white. Styles four
or five. Capfule of the fame number of fpreading lobes,
fringed at the edges, and afluming a itar-like figure.—The
wooden cut of Clufius fo exaély reprefents this plant,
efpecially the radical aves, that we can take it for no other.
Allioni’s plate, t. 88. f. 3, does not accord with this, or
any other Refeda known to us, except having a general
refemblance to canefcens, n. 2, without its roughnefs, or
the undulations of its aves.
7. R. fruticulofa. Shrubby Bafe Rocket.
Pl. 645. Willd. n. 7.
Linn. Sp.
Ait. n. 6. Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 195.
Ic. Rar. t. 474.—Leaves pinnate. Stem fhrubby in the
lower part. Styles three or four. Petals all three-cleft.
Calyx in five fpreading fegments.—Native of Spain, and
ether parts of the fouth of Europe. Joha Symmons, efq.
is recorded by Mr. Aiton as having introduced it into Eng-
land, in 1794. The root, and baie of the fem, are still
and perennial, producing a number of upright, lefs durable,
branches, two or three feet high, leafy, fubdivided, fmooth,
round, with elevated ribs. Leaves alternate, ftalked, pin-
nate, of five, feven, or many more, lanceolate, entire, de-
current, fmooth saflets, feldom regularly oppofite; the
terminal one much the largeft, fometimes, but not always,
recurved at the point; the lower ones gradually {malleit.
Clufters terminal, ereét, long, and rather lax. Petals five,
white, uniform, oblong, all cut, sot nearly half way down,
into three equal fegments. Svy/es often four; fometimes
but three. Stamens eleven. Linneus thought it an inter-
mediate {pecies between a/ba and undata. From the firft of
thefe it is very diftin@. By an accidental error in Sp. Pl.
the prefent fpecies is there called /uffruticulofa, which has -
led to the fame inaccuracy in the Prodr. Fl. Gree. n. 1092.
The name is correét in Herb.. Linn.
8. R. alba. White Bafe Rocket, or Upright Migno-
nette. Linn. Sp. Pl. 645. Willd. n. 8. Ait.n.7. Sm.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 459, unpublifhed. (R. maxima;
Bauh. Pia. roo. Lob. le. 222. Ger. Em. 277.)—Leaves
pinnate. Stem ereét, branched. Styles three or four.
Petals unequally and deeply five-cleft. Calyx in five
{preading fegments.—Native of Spain and the fouth of
France ; as we'll as of Greece andthe ifland of Zante. It
has been cultivated in our gardens ever fince the days of
Gerarde, being a hardy annual or biennial, ornamented,
throughout the fummer, with copious denfe /pikes, of ele-
gant white flowers, whofe petals have deeper, more numer-
ous
RESEDA.
ous fegments, than the foregoing. Otherwife their parts
of fruétification do not much differ. "The number of /yles,
and of fegments of the calyx, varies in both, according to
luxuriance. The /eaflets of alba are more numerous, as
well as more equal in fize, than in fruticulofa, nor is the
terminal one larger than the reft. Sometimes their edges are
roughifh. Dr. Sibthorp obferved, that the whole herb, and
alfo the bruifed feed, were ufed in Zante to dye filk yellow.
g- R. undata. Wave-leaved Bafe Rocket. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 644. Willd. ng. Ait. n. 8. (R. decurfiva; Forfk.
ZEgypt-Arab. cat. 66. R. minor alba, dentatis foliis ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 588.)—-Leaves pinnate, wavy. Styles three
to five. Petals unequally cut.—Native of Spain. Culti-
vated by Miller, at Chelfea, in 1739. A hardy perennial,
flowering in fummer. The jlems are erect, branched,
ftraight and wand-like, one to two feet high. Leaves un-
equally pinnate, very much crifped, or wavy. Flowers
fmaller than in either of the laft, and of a lefs pure white,
compofing very long cluflers, or rather pikes, for each
flower is nearly feffile ; the lower ones very remote. Some
of the petals appear, by the dried {pecimens, to have three,
others five, obtufe fegments, of which the lateral ones are
broadeft. We have great doubts, whether the {pecimen
from which Linnzus took his remark of the great fize of
the capfules, really belongs to this {pecies.
10. R. lutea. Yellow Bafe Rocket, or Wild Migno-
nette. Linn. Sp. Pl. 645. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 9.
Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 321. Jacq. Auftr. t. 353.
Bulliard. t. 281. (R. Plinii; Ger. Em. 277.)—All the
leaves three-cleft; the lower ones pinnate. Petals fix,
very unequal. Calyx in fix fegments.—Native of dry
chalky hills in the temperate and fouthern countries of
Europe; abundant in the chalky parts of England, flower-
ing from June to the end of autumn. The root, generally
annual with us, often furvives a mild winter. Svems {pread-
ing, branched, leafy, a foot or more in height. Leaves
tapering at the bafe ; fome of them with only one pair of
lateral leaflets ; others with many, which are occafionally
fubdivided ; all the leaflets, or fegments, are linear, chan-
nelled, more or lefs wavy; frequently very much crilped
or curled. Such is the variety, meationed as a fpecies, by
Dillenius, in Raii Syn. 366, as R. cri/pa gallica, Bocce.
Sic. 77. t. 41. f. 3; but we have often fufpected, that
Boccone’s plant might be the wndata. It is hazardous,
however, to depend much on fuch imperfeét materials as he
affords. The flowers are numerous, fulphur-coloured,
flightly, and not agreeably, odorous; their two upper
petals with two-fan-like lateral lobes, and a fhort linear one
between ; two lateral petals very unequally and varioufly
three-cleft ; two lower ones narrow, and almoft fimple.
11. R. Phyteuma. Scentlefs Mignonette. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 645. Willd. n. rr. Ait. n. 10. Jacq. Auttr. t. 132.
(Refedz affinis Phyteuma; Bauh. Prodr. 42. Erucago
apula, trifida et quinquefolia; Column. Ecphr. 267. t. 269.
f. z.)—Leaves. undivided, or three-lobed. Calyx in fix,
very large, obovate fegments. Petals four, more or lefs
pectinated.—Native of the fouth of Europe and north of
Africa. On the walls of Rome it is very common, and
having a general refemblance, without the fragrance, of our
garden mignonette, it has given rife to a report of that
charming flower being dettitute of {cent in Italy! Muller
cultivated R. Phyteuma at Chelfea, where it fill fprings up
annually in the garden. The root is long and tapering.
Stems very numerous, a {pan high, compofing a large
rpreading tuft. Leaves broadifh, tapering at the bafe ;
fome of them fimply obovate; others with a pair of lateral
lobes. J*Jowers cream-coloured, in lax fimple clufters.
Calyx very much enlarged, and reflexed, after flowering.
Petals four ; the lower pair, in particular, elegantly peeti-
nated at one fide; but all of them are liable to vary, in
the number and depth of their fegments. Fruit pendulous,
obovate, angular. Styles three.
12. R. mediterranea. Mediterranean Mignonette. Linn.
Mant. 564. Willd. n. 12. Ait. mn. 11. Jacq. Coll.
v. 1. 147. Ic. Rar. t. 475.—Leaves flat, undivided, or
three-lobed. Calyx much fhorter than the corolla. Petals
fix, very unequal. —WNative of Paleftine, according to Lin-
neus, who received it from Schreber. Dr. Sibthorp met
with it in corn fields in the iflands of the Archipelago.
This is a hardy annual, flowering all fummer long, agree-
ing very much in appearance with the laft, but {till more
with the following. The flowers have no fcent. Their
petals are fix, moit refembling thofe of R. Jutea in figure,
but white, not yellow. The /eaves are broader, and lefs
divided, than in Zutea, as well as quite flat; they vary how-
ever greatly in breadth, but are never undulated. The
calyx is fhort, never enlarged like that of R. Phyteuma.
13. R. odorata. Sweet Migaonette. Linn. Sp. Pl.
646, Willd. n.13. Ait. n.12. Mill. Ic. t.217. Curt.
Mag. t. 29.—Leaves flat ; undivided, or three-lobed. Calyx
equal to the corolla: Segments of the petals all very deep,
fomewhat fpatulate.—Native of Egypt. Well known
throughout the ga-dens of Europe, as a hardy annual,
blooming all the year round, if properly fheltered, and ex-
haling from its neat unoltentatious flowers, a moft delici-
ous {ceat, refembling that of the vine-bloffom, or the fruit
of therafpberry. This odour remains long in wooden boxes,
where the flowers are dried. The petals are of a pale buff,
prettily contrafted with the red anthers, and, as Jacquin ob-
ferves, in defcribing the lait, they differ from that in their
uniform, long, wedge-fhaped, or {patulate fesments.
Resepa, in Gardening, contains a plant of the flower-
ing {weet-fcented kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is,
the fweet refeda, or mignonette (R. odorata).
Mr. Curtis obferves, that the luxury of the pleafure-
garden is greatly heightened by the delightful odour which
this plant diflufes; and as it grows more readily in pots,
its fragrance may be conveyed into the houfe: its perfume,
though not fo refrefhing’ perhaps as that of the fweet-briar,
is not apt te offend the moft delicate olfactories.
Method of Culture—This is raifed from feed, which
fhould be fown on a moderate hot-bed in March, and when
the plants are {trong enough to tranfplant, be pricked out
upon another moderate hot-bed to bring them forward, hav-
ing a large fhare of air in warm weather, to prevent their
drawing up weak. Or they may be-fown in pots of light
mould, and plunged in the hot-bed, which is probably the
better practice. In the firft mode, about the end of May
the plants may be planted out, fome into pots, to place in
or near the ‘apartments, and others into warm borders,
where they may remain to flower and feed. The plants
which grow in the full ground, often produce more feeds
than thofe which are in pots; but at the time when the
feed-veflels begin to fwell, the plants are frequently apt to
be infefted with green caterpillars, which, if they are not
deftroyed, eat off all the feed-veffels.
And when the feeds are fown on a bed of light earth in
April, the plants come up very well; and when not tran{f-
planted, grow larger than thofe which are raifed in the hot-
bed; but they do not flower fo early, andin cold feafons{carcely
ripen their feeds. In a warm dry border, however, the feeds
often come up {pontaneoufly, and grow very luxuriantly ;
but to have the flowers early in fpring, the feeds fhould be
fown in pots in autumn, being kept in frames through the
winter, or on a gentle hot-bed in fpring. The plants may
alfo be preferved through the winter ina greenhoufe, where
they
RES
they continue flowering moft part of the year, but the
fecond year they are not fo vigorous as in the firft.
It is cultivated for the fine fragrant {mell which it af-
fords, when pots of it are fet about the houfe.
The feed becomes ripe in the beginning of the autumn,
when it fhould be carefully collected in a dry feafon, and
put by in a dry place for future ufe, after having been pro-
perly cleaned.
RESEISER, Resersire, in Law, a taking of lands
into the king’s hands, where a general delivery, or oufter
le main, was formerly mifufed, contrary to order of law.
RESELE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Anger-
manniand ; 55 miles N.N.E. of Hernofand.
RESEMBLANCE. See Simizitupe.
RESENIUS, Joun Paut, in Biography, a Danifh
bifhop and writer, was born at Refen m 1561. He
ftudied at various {chools, and in 1583 became {ubdireCtor
of that at Viborg. Some time after he travelled into
foreign countries, took a degree at Wittemberg, and re-
turned to Denmark in 1591. He was afterwards ap-
pointed profeffor of logic and theology in the univerfity
of Copenhagen, and received orders to accompany Chrif-
tian IV., who propofed a vifit to England to fee his re-
lation, king James. In confequence of another royal man-
date, he undertook to tranflate the whole of the {criptures
into Danifh. He completed the New Teftament firit,
which he publifhed in two vols. 12mo. in 1605, and the
Old Teftament followed in 1607. This verfion of the
bible gave rife, in 1609, to a controverfy between Refenius
and Ivarus Stubeeus, profeflor of Hebrew at Copenhagen,
the refult of which was, that Stubceus was difplaced from
his, office. In 1614 he was involved in another difpute
with Olaf Coccius, the clergyman of Nicolas’ church,
Copenhagen, which ended in the difgrace and banifhment
of his opponent. Refenius was railed to the epifcopal
chair. He died in 1638, and bequeathed upwards of
5000 dollars to charitable purpofes. He was author of
many works, chiefly on fubje&s couneCied with theology.
Gen. Biog.
Resenius, Peter, counfellor of ftatein Denmark, was
born at Copenhagen in 1625, and in 1646 he went to
Leyden, where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of jurif-
prudence and the belles lettres during the fpace of four
years, and then made a tour to France, Spain, and Italy.
He took the degree of L.L.D. at Padua, and then re-
turned to Copenhagen, where he married in 1655, and two
years after was appointed profeflor of moral philcfophy.
In 1680 he was ennobled, and in 1684 was nominated a
counfellor of ftate. This learned man died in 1688, and
bequeathed a large fum of money, and a very valuable
library, to the univerfity of Copenhagen. He was author
of a great number of works, the titles of which are enu-
merated in the General Biography.
RESENTMENT is a lefler degree of wrath, which is
violent and permanent anger, and is excited by {maller of-
fences, or by offences committed againtt lefs irritable minds :
it is a deep reflective difpleafure again{t the condu& of the
offender. Indignation is a refentment again{t a conduét that
appears peculiarly unworthy :—fome atrocious violation of
the principles of gratitude, or fomething which appears pecu-
liarly defpicable and bafe. Refentment is chiefly excited by
fome perfonal offence againit the laws of focial intercourfe,
of friendfhip, or of gratitude, and may terminate in indif-
ference, and, in weak minds, in maliee; but it is ufually
appeafed by conceflions and acknowledgments.
RESERVATION, Reservatio, in Law, an action
or claufe by which fomething is referved, i, e. is retained,
kept, or fecured to one’s felf.
RES
Thus, when a man lets his land, he referves a rent to be
paid to himfelf for his maintenance, &c.
William the Conqueror, getting all the lands of Eng-
land, except thofe belonging to the church and religious
houfes, into his hands by right of conqueft, beftowed a
great part of them among his followers, referving fome re-
tribution of rents and fervices to him and his heirs ; which
refervation is now, as it was before the Conquett, called the
tenure of the lands.
Sometimes refervation fignifies as much as an exception ;
as, when aman lets a houfe, and referves to himfelf one
room, that room is excepted out of the demife.
Reservation, Mental, 1s a propofition, which, ftriGly
taken, and according to the natural import of the terms,
is falfe ; but if qualified with fomething referved or con-
cealed in the mind, becomes true.
Mental refervations are the great refuge of religious hypo-
crites, who ufe them to accommodate their confciences
with their interefts. The Jefuits are zealous advocates for
mental refervations ; yet are they ftriétly all real lyes, as
including an intention to deceive.
RESERVATORY. See Resrrvorr.
: .RESERVE, in Zaw, the fame with refervation ; which
ee.
Benefices are fometimes refigned with referve of a pen-
fion. By the canon law, no perfon may referve to him-
felf a penfion out of a benefice, unlefs he hath ferved it
ten years.
In the Romifh church the ordinary priefts have only a
power to abfolve, in referve of certain cafes, hence called
referved cafes, as being referved to the bifhop.
The court referves the cognizance of fuch an affair to
itfelf. The lawyers fay, that no prince ever granted fuch a
power by his letters or patents, but that he referves to
himfelf a greater.
Reserve, body of, corps de referve, in War.
of Referve.
Reserve Guard denotes the fame as a picquet guard, ex-
cept that the one mounts at troop-beating, and the other
at retreat-beating. See Guarp.
RESERVED Casgs. See Cases.
RESERVOIR, a large pond or pen of water, arti-
ficially made, in order to retain and colle& it for the ufe of
canals, rivers, mills, &c. See Bason and CANAL.
The refervoir in a building is a large bafon, ufually of -
wood, lined with lead, where water is kept to fupply the
occafions of the houfe. At Cannons, the late noble feat of
the duke of Chandois, there was a very large refervoir at
the top of the houfe, to which the water was raifed by a
curious engine, contrived for the purpofe. This refervoir was
of fuch capacity, as that, befides fupplying all parts of the
houfe by means of pipes and cocks, it likewife turned a mill.
The refervoir is fometimes alfo a large bafon of itrong
mafonry, clayed or paved at the bottom, where the water is
referved to feed jets d’eau, or {pouting fountains.
Such is that large one on the top of Marley, called tron
d’enfer, hell mouth, whofe furface, Daviler tells us, contains
fifty acres, and its depth fuch as to contain a hundred thou-
fand cubic fathom of water.
Refervoirs are of great ufe in colleéting and preferving
the urine or other liquid matters difcharged from the theds
or ftables where’ cattle or other animals are kept, for the
purpofe of manure, and fhould of courfe be formed on all
farm-yards. See Farm-Yard.
Such a refervoir is conceived to be effential, even where
there are no lands proper for being overflowed by the con-
tents of it, particularly where care is taken to fupply it oc-
cafionally with a bottom of fome good rich earthy matter,
to
See Bopy
RES
to be imbued with the rich particles of the more heavy fub-
ftances which are let fall during the ftagnant ftate of the li-
quid. This matter fhould be carried out in a dry time,
when the water has been wholly removed by evaporation,
and be {pread out over the grafs lands, particularly thofe
under the {cythe, as foon as poflible after the hay has been
taken off the ground. The benefit of a refervoir of this na-
ture, whether formed in the intention of flowing the land
below it, or of a pond for catching the mud, will com-
monly be in the proportion of its extent. And the colt of
it will have a relation likewife to its dimenfions. It is fup-
pofed, that if the expence of one be ten pounds, and the
annual increafe of hay only one load, the farmer may well
afford to pay fix per cent. for the ufe of it. Therefore fuch
refervoirs feldom fail to pay amply for the coft of preparing
them. In fome floping fituations they may be conftruéted
at avery trifling expence, in comparifon of their ufefulnefs,
when intended to be thrown over grafs lands, with a valve,
by which, when full, the liquid may be let off, ina fufficient
body, to fpread equally over the whole of the part to which
it is applied, and produce the full effe&t that is wanted.
Reservoir, in Anatomy. See Recerpracutum Chyli.
RESET, in Law, the receiving or harbouring: an out-
lawed perfon. Hence a receiver of an outlawed perfon is
called a re/eiter. ;
RESHD, or Resur, in Geography, a town of Perfia,
and capital of the province of Giulan, built on the fhore of
the Cafpian, and carrying ona contiderable trade in filk, and
other articles, with Aftrachan. The number of houfes,
which lie difperfed, is eftimated at 2000.. The heat in fum-
mer is hardly fupportable, and dangerous, when a particu-
lar wind blows, but happily it does not continue above a
quarter of an hour. The harbour is unfafe in ftormy wea-
ther, fo that the commanders of fhips generally prefer that
of Lankervon, a fmall port in the diftri@ of Talifh, to the
N.W. of Refht. Rice and wheat are cultivated in its vici-
. nity ; 300 miles N. of Ifpahan. N. lat. 37° 20!. E. long.
49° 50'. The province of Ghilan yields a net revenue of
149,490 tomauns, and gos8 dinars.
RESIANCE, Restantia, in Law, a man’s abode, or
continuance in a place. ;
The word has the fame fignification with regard to lay-
men, as refidence with regard to eccletiattics.
Glanville obferves, that in the ancient law, refiance pro-
perly fignified a difeafe, by which the perfon was difabled
from ftirring out of doors. Whence their e/oin de refiantia,
was the fame as our e/foin de malo leo.
RESIANT Rotts, are rolls in which the refiants of a
tithing, &c. are fet down.
RESIDENCE, Resipentia, in Canon and Common
Law, the abode of a perfon, or incumbent, upon his bene-
fice ; and his afliduity im attending on the fame.
By the rule of the ancient canon law, beneficiaries are
obliged to refidence, without juft and neceflary caufe, and
efpecially without the confent of the diocefan, under pain
of deprivation of their benefices. The original reafon is,
that in the primitive church none were promoted to holy or-
ders, but fuch as had a benefice in promptu, which they
were obliged to ferve; fo that this fervice was neceflarily at-
tached to the orders; and whoever was honoured with
them, at the fame time was obliged to perfonal fervice,
Regularly, perfonal refidence is required of ecclefiaftical
perfons upon their cures ; and to that end, by the canon law,
if he that hath a benefice with cure be chofen to an office
of bailiff, or beadle, or the like fecular office, he may have
the king’s writ for his difcharge. The intendment of the
common law is that a clerk is refident upon his cure, 2 Intt,
625.
RES
Retidence is alfo required by ftatute g Ed. II. ftat. x.
c. 8, called the ftatute articuli cleri. Thus allo, by
21 Henry VIII. c. 13, commonly called the flatute of non-
relidence, perfons wilfully abfenting themfelves from their
benefices for one month together, or two months in the year,
incur a penalty of 5/. tothe king, and 5/. to any perfon that
will fue for the fame. And if any perfon or perfons fhall
procure at the court of Rome, or elfewhere, any licence or
difpenfaticn to be non-refident at their faid dignities, pre-
bends, or benefices, contrary to this aét; every fuch perfon,
putting in execution any fuch difpenfation or licence for him-
felf, fhall incur the penalty of 2o0/. for every time fo doing,
to be forfeited and recovered as aforefaid, and fuch licence or
difpenfation fhall be void. f. 24.
Provided, that this aét of non-refidence fhall not extend
nor .be prejudicial to any fuch {piritual perfon as fhall chance
to bein the king’s fervice beyond the fea, nor to any perfon
going to any pilgrimage or holy place beyond the fea, during
the time that they fhall fo be in the king’s fervice, or in the
pilgrimage going and returning home ; nor to any {cholar or
{cholars being converfant and .abiding for ftudy, without
fraud or covin, at, any univerfity within this realm or with-
out; nor to any of the chaplains of the king or queen,
daily or quarterly attending and abiding in the king’s or
queen’s moft honourable houfehold; nor to any of the
chaplains of the prince or princefs, or any of the king’s or
queen’s children, brethren, or fifters, attending daily in their
honourable houfeholds, during fo long as they fhall attend in
any of their houfeholds; nor to any chaplain of any arch-
bifhop or bifhop, or of any fpiritual or temporal lords of
the parliament, daily attending, abiding, and remaining in
any of their honourable houfeholds ; nor to any chaplain of
any duchefs, marquefs, countefs, vifcountefs, or baronefs,
‘attending daily, and abiding in any of their honourable
houfeholds ; nor to any chaplain of the lord chancellor, or
treafurer of England, the king’s chamberlain, or fteward
of his houfehold for the time being, the treafurer and con-
troller of the king’s moft honourable houfehold for the time
being, attending daily in any of their honourable houfeholds ;
nor to any chaplam of any of the knights of the honourable
order of the garter, or of the chief juftice of the king’s
bench, warden of the ports, or of the matter of the rolls,
nor to any chaplain of the king’s fecretary, dean of the
chapel, amner for the time being, daily attending and dwell-
ing in any of their houfeholds, during the time that they
fhall fo abide and dwell, without fraud or covin, in any of
the faid honourable houfeholds ; nor to the matter of the
rolls, or dean of the arches, nor to any chancellor or com-
miflary of any archbifhop or bifhop, nor to as many of the
twelve mafters of the chancery, and twelve advocates of the
arches, as fhall be f{piritual men, during fo long time as they
fhall occupy their faid rooms and offices; nor to any fuch
{piritual perfons as fhall happen by injunction of the lord
chancellor, or the king’s council, to be bound to any daily
appearance and attendance to anfwer to the law, during the
time of fuch injunction. f, 28.
Provided alfo, that it fhall be lawful to the king to give
licence to every of his own chaplains, for non-refidence upon
their benefices; any thing in this aét to the contrary not-
withitanding. f. 29.
Provided alfo, that every duchefs, marquefs, countefs, ba-
ronefs, widows, which fhall take any hufbands under the
degree of a baron, may take fuch number of chaplains as
they might have done being widows; and that every fuch
chaplain may have like liberty of non-refidence, as they
might have had if their faid ladies and miftrefles had kept
themfelves widows, f. 33.
Legal refidence is not only in the parifh, but alfo in the
parfonage
RESIDENCE.
parfonage houfe ; for it hath been refolved, that the ftatute
intended refidence, not only for ferving the cure, and for
‘ hofpitality, but alfo for maintaining the houfe, that the fuc-
ceflor allo may keep hofpitality there. 25 Hen. VIII.
cap-16. 33 Hen. VIII. cap. 28. 28 Hen. VIII. cap. 13.
On a review of thefe itatutes, a queftion has occurred, how
far, taken together, they fuperfede the canon law, fo as to
take away the power which the ordinary had before, of en-
joining refidence to the clergy of his diocefe., It feems to
be clear, that before thefe ftatutes, the bifhops of this
realm had and exercifed a power of calling their clergy to
refidence ; but more frequently, they did not exert this
power, which fo far forth was to the clergy a virtual difpen-
fation for non-refidence. But this not exerting of their
power was in them not always voluntary ; for they were un-
der the controlling influence of the pope, who granted dif-
penfations of non-refidence to.as many as would purchafe
them, and difpofed of abundance of ecclefiaftical prefer-
ments to foreigners, who never refided here at all. The
king alfo, as appears, had a power to require the feryice of
clergymen ; and gonfequently in fuch cafe to difpenfe with
them for non refidence upon their benefices. ‘This power
of the king is referved to him by the aforefaid act of the
21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. But it is the power of difpenfation
in the two former cafes which is intended to be taken away,
namely, by the bifhop, and by the pope ; and by the faid
act refidence is injoined to the clergy, under the penalty
therein mentioned, notwithitanding any difpenfation to the
contrary, from the court of Rome or elfewhere ; with a
provifo neverthelefs, that the faid act fhall not extend nor
‘be prejudicial to the chaplains and others therein {pecially
excepted, Itis argued, that this a@ being made to rectify
what had heen infuificient or ineffeGtual in the canon law, and
inflicting a temporal penalty to inforce the obligation of re-
fidence, the parlidment intended that the faid aét fhould be,
from thenceforth, if no: the fole, yet the principal rule of
proceeding in this particular; and confequently, that the
perfons excepted in the at need no other exemption than
what is given to them by the a@ of their non-refidence.
Unto this it is anfwered, that the intention of the aét was
not to take away any power which the bifhop had of injoining
relidence, but the contrary ; namely, it was to take away
that power which the bifhop or pope exercifed, of granting
difpenfations for non-vefidence, that is to fay, the aét left
to them that power which was beneficial, and only took
from them that which tended to the detriment of the church ;
and, confequently, that the bifhop may injoin refidence to the
clergy as he might before, only he may not difpenfe with
them as he did before for non-refidence. And indeed, from
any thing that appears upon the face of the a&, the con-
trary fuppofition feemeth to bear fomewhat hard againit the
rule which hath generally been adhered to in the conttru€tion
of aéts of parliament, that an a& of parliament in the affir-
mative doth not take away the ecclefiattical jurifdiGion, and
that the fame faall not be taken away in any act of parlia-
ment, but by exprefs words. It is therefore further urged,
that the three fubfequent aéts do explain this act, and by
the exprefs words thereof do eftablifh the foregoing inter-
pretation. In the firft of the three it is faid, that the perfons
therein mentioned may retain one chaplain which may be ab-
Sent from his benefice, and not refident upon the fame ; in the fe-
cond it is faid, that perfons above forty years of age, re-
fiding in the univerfities, /hall not be excufed of their non-refi-
dence, and again, that perfons under forty years of age, /hall
not enjoy the privilege of non-refidence contained in the provifo
of the faid former ad, unlefs they perform the common ex-
ercifes there, and the like, which implies, that if they do
Vor. XXX.
this, they fhall enjoy fuch privilege : and in the third, it is
faid, that the perfons therein mentioned may retain one
chaplain, which may be abfent from his his ei and non-refident
upon the fame ; and it is not to be fuppoted, that the parlia-
ment Intended a greater privilege to the chaplains of the in-
ferior officers mentioned in the faid laft a&, than to the
chaplains of the royal family and principal nobility mentioned
in the firft aét. Unto this the moft appofite anfwer feemeth
to be, that it is not exprefled abfolutely in any of the faid
three acts, that the chaplains or others therein mentioned
fhall enjoy the privilege of non-refidence, or may be abfent
from their benefices, and not refident upon the fame ; but
only this, that they may be abfent or non-refident as afore-
faid, the faid flatute made in the faid twenty-firft year, or any
other flatute or ordinance to the contrary notwithflanding. So
that they are only exempted thereby from the reftraints in-
troduced by the ftatute law; buc in other refpets are left
as they were before. —But concerning this, although it is a
cafe likely enough to happen every day, there hath been no
adjudication, '
By 43 Geo: III. c. 84. it is enatted, that fo much of
21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. as impofes the penalty of ten pounds
on any fpiritual perfon who fhall not keep refidence on one
of his dignities, prebends, or benefices, but abfent himfelf
one month together, or two months, to be accounted at fe-
veral times, in apy oue year, ‘fhall be, and the fame is hereby
repealed ; and that every {piritual perfon, béing poffeffed of
any archdeacenry, deanery, or other dignity, prebend, be-
nefice, donative, or perpetual curacy, or parochial chapelry,
who fhall, without fufficient caufe, asin the faid a@, or the
25 Hen VIII. c. 16. or in 28 Hen. VIII. c. 13. or in
33 Hen. VIII. c. 28. is {pecified, or fuch other fufficient caufe
as would exempt fuch {piritual perfon from any of the pains,
penalties, and forfeitures under the faid recited aéts, for any
non-refidence, and who fhall not have any fuch licence or
exemption as isin this a€t mentioned, wilfully abfent himfelf
therefrom for three months together, or to be accounted at
feveral times in any one year, and make his refidence at any
other place or places, except at fome other dignity, prebend,
benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or parochial chapelry,
of which he may be poffeffed, fhall, when fuch abfence hall
exceed {uch period, and not exceed fix months, forfeit and
pay one-third of the annual value of the dignity, prebend,
benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or parochial chapelry,
from which he fhall fo abfent himfelf ; and when fuch abfence
fhall exceed fix months, and not eight months, one-half of
fuch annual value ; and when fuch abfence fhall exceed eight
months, two-thirds cf fuch annual value; and when fuch
abfence fhell have been for the whole of the year, three-
fourths of fuch annual value ; to be recovered by ation of
debt, bill, plaint, or information, in any of his majefty’s
courts of record at Weftminiter, or the courts of great fef-
fions in Wales, wherein no efloign, privilege, proteétion, or
wager of law, or more than one imparlance, fhall be allowed ;
and the whole of every fuch penalty or forfeiture fhall go and
be paid to the perfon or perfons who fhall inform and fue
for the fame, together with fuch cofts of fuit as fhall be al-
lowed; provided that no parfonage that hath a vicar en-
dowed, or perpetual curate, and having no cure of fouls,
fhall be taken to be or be comprehended under the name of
benefice, within the meaning of this aét. {. 12.
No fpiritual perfon holding any office, in fuch manner as
the fame, under any of the provifions of the faid recited
acts, would exempt fuch {piritual perfons from refidence, or
from the penalties and forfeitures in the faid aéts contained
for non-refidence, or aétually ferving as a chaplain of the
houfe of commons, oras a clerk of his majefty’s clofet, or as
a deputy
v/j
RESIDENCE.
a deputy clerk thereot, or as a chaplain coed of his ma-
jefty’s forces, or brigade chaplain on foreign fervice, or
chaplain on board any of his majetty’s fhips, or of his ma-
jefty’s dock yards, or in any of his majefty’s garrifons, or
chaplain of his majefty’s corps of artillery, or as chaplain to
any Britifh faG@tory, or in the houfehold of any Britifh am-
baffador or public minifter refiding abroad, or as chancellor
er vicar-general, or in his abfence the principal furrogate or
official in any ecclefiaftical court of any diocefe, or as minor
‘canon, or vicar choral, or prieft, vicar, or any fuch other
public officer in any cathedral or collegiate church, or as
deans, fub-deans, priefts, or readers in his majefty’s royal
chapels at St. James’s and Whitehall, or as reader in his
majefty’s private chapel at Windfor, or elfewhere, or as
chaplain at the royal military afylum at Chelfea, or royal
military college at High Wycombe, or teacher at the royal
military academy at Woolwich, or chaplains at the royal
hofpitals at Greenwich and Chelfea, or as chaplains to the
royal hofpitals for feamen at Haflar and Plymouth, or as a
preacher or reader in any of the inns of court, or at the
rolls, or as burfar, dean, vice-prefident or public tutor or
chaplain, or other fuch public officer, in any college or hall,
in either of the univerfities of Oxford or Cambridge, or as
public librarian or public regiftrar, or proétor, or public
orator, or other fuch public officer, in either of the faid uni-
verfities, or as fellow of any college in either of the univer-
fities, or of Eton or Winchefter college, or as warden or
provoft of Eton or Winchetter college, or as fchoolmatter
or ufher in the fame, or as fchoolmafter or ufher of Weft-
minfter-fchool, during the period that they fhall refpectively
be required, by reafon of any fuch office, to perform
the duties of the fame, and actually fhall perform the
duties of the fame, fhall be liable to any of the pains, pe-
nalties, or forfeitures in the faid firft recited a&t or this a@t
contained, for or on account of any non-refidence on any
dignity, prebead, benefice, donative, or perpetual curacy.
Ral = :
It thall be lawful for any bifhop to grant licences to fpi-
ritual perfons within his diocefe, to refide out of the proper
houfe of refidence, or out of the parifh, and within fuch
diftance therefrom, as the cafe may appear to fuch bifhop to
require, if fuch bifhop fhall, in his difcretion, think the
fame fit and proper, in the feveral cafes hereinafter men-
tioned ; (that is to fay,) to any fpiritual perfon who {hall
be prevented from refiding in the proper houfe of refidence,
or in the parifh, by actual illnefs of himfelf, or wife or
child; and alfo to any fpiritual perfon having any dignity,
prebend, benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or parochial
chapelry, where there fhall be no houfe of refidence, or
where the houfe of refidence fhall be unfit fer the refidence
of fuch ecclefiaftical perfon, fuch unfitnefs not being occa-
fioned by fuch ecclefiattical perfon, fuch {piritual perfon
keeping fuch hovfe in fuch repair as fhall be to the fatisfac-
tion of the bifhop ; and alfo to any f{piritual perfon having
any benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or parochial cha-
pelry, and having any manfion or meffuage belonging to him-
felf or any relative, to refide in fuch manfion or mefluage,
fuch fpiritual perfon keeping the houfe-of refidence in good
repair, to the fatisfaGtion of the bifhop3; and alfo to any
fpiritual perfon having any benefice, donative, perpetual
euracy, or parochial chapeiry, of {mall value, and ferving
as a iiipendiary curate elfewhere, with licence, and pro-
viding for the ferving of fuch his benefice, donative, perpe-
tual curacy, or ‘parochial chapelry, to the fatisfa€tion of
the bifhop of his diocefe; and alfo to any mafter or ufher of
any endowed fchool duly licenfed by the bifhop, and a@tually
employed in teaching thercin, or to the mafter of any other
{chool who now is or fhall be, within one month after the
pafling of this a€t, duly licenfed by the bifhop; and alfo to
any matter or preacher of hofpitals or incorporated charitable
foundation, during the period for which he may be required
to refide in the fame, and fhall aCtually refide and perforn:
his duties therein ; or to any perfon holding any endowed lec-
turefhip, chapelry, or preacherfhip, and performing the du-
ties thereof refpetively $ or to any {piritual perfon having:
any benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or parochial cha-
pelry of {mall value, and ferving as preacher in any proprie-
tary chapel in cities or towns, with the licence of the bifhop
in whofe diocefe he fhall fo officiate; or to the librarians of
the Britifh mufeum, or of Sion college; or to the truttees
of lord Crewe’s charity, during the times off their perfonal
attendance on the duties of their office: provided always,
that for any fuch licence, the party obtaining the fame fhall
not pay more than the fem of ten fhillings, exclufive of any
fuch ftamps as may be required by law: provided always,
that if any fpiritual perfon, applying to any bifhop for any
fuch licence, fhall think himfelf aggrieved by the refufal
thereof, it fhall be lawful for fuch fpiritual perfon to appeal
to the archbifhop of the province, who fhall confirm fuch
refufal, or grant a licence under this aé, as fhall feem juit
and proper. f. 19.
Tt fhall be lawful fer any bifhop, in cafes not enumerated,
to grant licences to refide out of the proper houfe of refi-
dence, or out of the parifh, and to aflign to a curate fuch
falary as he fhall judge fit: provided, that in every fuch
cafe, the reafous that have induced fuch bifhop to grant fuch
licence fhall be tranfmitted to the archbifhop of the province
to whick fuch bifhop fhall belong, who fhall allow or difal-
low fuch licence, in the whole, or in part, or make any alter-
ation theréin, as to the period for which the fame may have
been granted, or otherwife, and likewife as to the ttipend
affigned to the curate, as to fuch archbifhop fhall feem fit ;
and no fuch licence fhall be good unlefs it fhall have been fo
allowed and approved by fuch archbifhop: provided alfo,
that no licence fhall be made void by the death or removal
of the bifhop or archbifhep granting the fame, but the fame
fhall be good and valid, unlefs the fame fhall be revoked by
the next or any fucceeding bifhop or archbifhop: provided
alfo, that any {piritual perfon may appeal againit any fuch
revocation by the bifhop alone: provided alfo, that the re-
{peGtive archbifhops may, in their refpettive dioceies of
which they are bithops, grant licences in all cafes in which
any licences may be granted by any bifhop, either by his own
authority, or with the allowance and approval of the arch-
bifhop as aforefaid: provided alfo, that it fhall be lawful
for any fuch archbifhop to order reafonable fees and charges
to be paid by any fuch {piritual perfon appealing ; provided
always, that in every cafe when any cofts and charges directed
by fuch archbifhop or bifhop as aforefaid, fhall remain un-
paid for the period of twenty-one days after demand thereof,
it fhall be lawful for fech bifhop or archbifhop to caufe the
fame to be recovered by fequeftration. {. 21.
Provided always, that it fhall be lawful for any bifhop or
archbifhop to revoke any fuch licence: provided alfo, that
no licence fer non-refidence granted under this ac fhall con-
tinue in force for more than two years from the granting
thereof.
Every bifhop or archbifhop fhall caufe a copy of fuch li-
cence or revocation to be filed in the regiftry of the diocefe ;
and a lift fhall be made out by the regifter of the faid dio-
cefe, and entered in a book, and kept for the infpetion of
all perfons ; and a copy of every fuch licence and revocation
fhall be tranfmitted to the churchwardens of the parifh te
which the fame relates, within one month after the grant
thereof,
|
RESIDENCE.
thereof, to be by them depofited inthe parifh cheft; and a
copy of the fame fhall likewife be read at the vifitation of the
archdeacon. {f. 22.
Provided, that during the vacancy of any fee, the power
of granting licences under this a¢t fhall be exercifed by the
- vicar-general of the diocefe ; and that during the abfence of
any prelate out of the realm, or fuch infirmity as difables
him from exercifing in perfon the funétions of his office, it
fhall be exercifed by fuch perfon or perfons as is or are law-
fully empowered to exercife his general jurifdiction in the
diocefe. f. 28. ;
And nothing in this aét fhall exempt any perfon or perfous
from any canonical or ecclefiaitical cenfures, or affect any
proceedings in any ecclefiaftical court, in relation to non-re-
fidence, not being duly licenfed according to the provifions
of this at, to be abfent therefrom, nor having any other
lawful caufe of abfence ; provided no fuch cenfures, by rea-
fon of any non-refidence, not exceeding three months in any
*one year, fhall be put in force at the fuit or inftance of any
perfon or perfons other than the archbifhop, bifhop, or arch-
deacon. f. 29.
In every cafe in which it fhall appear to any bifhop or arch-
bifhop, that any fpiritual perfon, not being licenfed accord-
ing to this a&, nor having any other lawful caufe of ab-
fence, does not fufficiently refide, it fhall be lawful for fuch
bifhop or archbifhop to iffue a monition to fuch fpiritual per-
fon, to refide thereon, and to make a return to fuch monition
within acertain number of days after the iffuing thereof ; fo
as that there fhall be thirty days between the time of exe-
cuting fuch monition, and the time fpecified for the return
thereto ; and it fhall be lawful for the bifhop or archbifhop
to whom any fuch return fhall be made, to require fuch re-
turn to be verified by the oath of fuch fpiritual perfon, or
others; and where no fuch return fhall be made, or where
fuch retura fhall not be deemed fatisfactory, it fhall be law-
ful forfuch bifhop or archbifhop to iflue an order to require
fuch perfon to proceed to and refide, within thirty days after
fuch order fhall haye been delivered ; and in cafe of non-com-
pliance, to fequefter the profits of fuch benefice, donative,
perpetual curacy, or parochial chapelry of fuch fpiritual per-
fon, and to direét the application ef fuch profits, after de-
duéting the neceffary expences of ferving the cure, tu the
payment of fuch expences as fhall have been incurred in rela-
tion to fuch monition and fequeftration, and in the next place,
towards the augmentation or improvement of any fuch par-
fonage, vicarage, donative, or perpetual curacy, or the
houfe of refidence, or any of the buildings and appurte-
nances, or any of the glebe or demefne lands ; or may order
and dire the fame, or any portion thereof, to be paid to the
‘governors of the bounty of queen Anne, to be appliéd as
fuch bithop or archbifhop fhall in his diferetion think fit ;
and it fhall alfo be lawful for any fuch bifhop or archbifhop,
within fix months after fuch order for fequeflration, or with-
in fix months after any money fhall have been a¢tually levied
by fuch fequeltration, to remit ta any fuch fpiritual perfon
any part of fuch profits, or caufe the fame or any part
thereof that fhall have been paid to fuch governors of queen
Anne’s bounty, to be repaid to fuch {piritual perfon, in any
eafe in which, by reafon of the fubfequent obedience of any
fuch {piritual perfon, fuch bifhop or archbifhop fhall think
the fame proper: provided, that when any fuch fpiritual
perfon fhall think himfelf aggrieved by reafon of any fuch
fequeftration, it fhall be lawful for any fuch fpiritual perfon
to appeal to the archbifhop, who fhall make fuch order as
thall be juft and proper: provided, that the party fo appeal-
ing thall give fecurity to the bifhop for the payment of ex-
pences occafioned by the appeal: provided alfo, that no fuch
order for any fequeitration fhall be put in force during fuch
appeal. f. 30.
Perfons who fhall return to refidence on monition, fhal}
pay the coits. f. 31.
[f any perfon, returning to refidence on monition, fhall
before fix months thereafter abfent himfelf, the bifhop
may, without monition, fequeftrate the profits of the bene-
fice.- f. 32.
And if any clerk fhall continue under any fequeftration
for non-refidence for the {pace of three years, or fhall in-
cur three fequeitrations in the faid fpace of three years,
not being relieved with refpect to any of fuch fequeftra-
tions, upon appeal, the benefice fhall become if/o faGo
void, and the patron or perfon entitled to prefent or no-
minate fome clerk thereto, other than the clerk who hall
pe fo continued under fuch fequeltratien or fequeftrations,
waar :
Provided, that if an ation be brought before the iffuing
of the monition, the bifhop or archbifhop shall retain out
of the profits of the benefice fufficient to fatisfy the penalty
and colts ; but if at the time of filing the monition, no ac-
tion fhall have been commenced, none fhall be brought after-
wards. {. 36.
But nothing in this act contained fhall affeét his majef-
ty’s royal prerogative in the granting of difpenfations for
non-refidence, nor any privilege of clerks retained in his
majelty’s fervice under the itatute 9 Edward II. c. 8.—
+ 40.
No archbifhop or bifhop having any dignity, prebend,
benefice, donative, or perpetual cure, fhall, by reafon of ron-
megeenery be fubjeé or liable to any penalties or forfeitures.
~ Ar.
By 54 Geo. III. c. 175. bifhops are empowered to punifh
paft non-refidence by monition and fequeitration, as well as
to compel refidence in future, and to exercife the fame
powers of remitting or ordering the repayment of any part
of fuch penalties as is dire@ed or allowed in 43 Geo. III.
c.84. Perfons may appeal, as under the laft cited a@, and
penalties may be remitted ; nor are penalties reeoverable for
more than one year. This itatute repeals the provifion of the
former at 43 Geo. IIT. as to perfons negleGing to notify the
caufe of exemption from refidence, for which it is not ne-
ceffary to obtain a licence, and enaéts that a perfon charge-
able with fuch negleét fhall forfeit and pay for fuch offence
the fum of 2o/. to be levied by fequeltration, if not other-
wife paid after monition, to be applied as the archbifhop or
bifhop of the diecefe to whom the notification ought to have
been made fhall direét, who poffefles the power of remitting
or ordering the repayment of any part of fuch penalties, as
is allowed in the faid a@, in cafes of non-compliance with an
order for refidence. A perfon who has na houfe of refidence,
but who fhall have refided nine months in the year within the
limits of his benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or paro-
chial chapelry, fhall not be liable to any penalties on account
of non-refidence, nor be obliged to take out any licence for
it; but the fame fhall be deemed a legal refidence ; and in all
returns made by the bifhops, perfons fo refiding fhall be re-
turned as refident, It is enacted alfo, that hens purchafed
by the governors of queen nne’s bounty, though not
fituated within the parithes for which they are purchafed,
fhall be deemed refidences ; and in all cafes of finecure rec-
tories having vicarages endowed, the refidence of the vicar in
the reétory houfe fhall be deemed a fufficient legal re-
fidence.
For leafes of non-refideuts, fee Lease.
ers We
RESIDENCE.
We obferve here, that the a&tof 13 Eliz. c. 20, referred
to under Lease, which was at firft temporary, but made
perpetual by 3 Car I. c. 4, is repealed by 43 Geo. Ill.
c. 84, as well as feveral other ftatutes, fo far as they relate to
wt. This ftatute enaéts, that fpiritual perfons may take
houfes, &c. though not in a city, &c. and fuch as have not
fufficient glebe may, by confent of the bifhop, take farms.
They may alfo hold eftates as property, but not any farm
for cultivation, unlefs under a leafe granted on or before
Jan. 1, 1803, or by confent of the bifhop. They. may
alfo buy or fell cattle or corn for the occupation of farms.
Vicars or curates may take leafes of the impropriate par-
fonages of their parifhes; but if not occupied by a fpiritual
perfon before the pafling of this att, the licence of the
bifhop is’ neceflary. A licenfed clergyman, or one exempt
from refidence, may occupy, where he refides, fuch lands as
the bifhop may allow. This ftatute is amended, in feveral
refpects, by 54 Geo. III. c.175. By one claufe in this lait
at, fo much of 53 Geo. III. c. 149, as enacts that incum-
bents, negleGting to notify the death of a curate, fhall lofe
his exemption from refidence, or licence for non-refidence, 1s
repealed ; anda penalty of 2o/. is impofed. ,
By 53 Geo. IIl.c. 149. f. 2, the bifhop or ordinary is
empowered to appoint falaries to licenfed curates; the h-
cence fpecifying the amount of fuch falary; and curates
may be directed to refide in the parfonage houfe in cafe of
the non-refidence of incumbents for four months in each
year, during the faid non-refidence: but the diltance of the
refidence of fuch curate, licenfed to refide out of the parifh,
from any church or chapel which he fhall be licenfed to
ferve, hall not exceed five ftatute miles, except in cafes of
neceflity, to be approved by the bifhop or ordinary, and {pe-
cified inthe licence. The bifhop may direét the curate to
give up pofleffion of the parfonage or vicarage honte, and in
afe of refufal, he fhall forfeit to the reétor or vicar, all
fuch parts of his ftipend as fhall then be unpaid, or fhall
thereafter become due, and allo the fum of 5o/. to fuch rec-
tor or vicar, recoverable in an aétion of debt. The falaries
payable to curates fhall be in proportion to the value of
the benefices ; in no cafe lefs than 80/. per annum, or than the
annual value of the benefice, donative, perpetual curacy, or
parochial chapelry, if the faid value fhall not amount to
Sol. per annum ; nor lefs than 10o0/. per annum, or the whole
value as aforefaid, if the faid value fhall not amount to 1oo/.
per annum in any parifh or place where the population, (ac-
cording to the returns then laft made in purfuance of any
aét or acts of parliament,) fhall amount to or exceed 300
perfons; and fuch falary fhall not be lefs than 120/. fer
annum, or the whole value as aforefaid, if the faid value
fhall not amount to 120/. per annum, in any parifh or place
where the population fhail appear as aforefaid to amount to
or exceed 500 perions; and fuch falary fhall not be lefs
than 1so/. per annum, or than the whole value as afore-
faid, if the faid value fhall not amount to 150/. per
annum, in any parifh or place where the population fhall
appear, as 2forefaid, to amount to or exceed 1000 perfons:
provided always, that the annual value of all benefices, do-
natives, perpetual curacies, or parochial chapelries, of which
the faid value, eitimated as is herein provided, does not
amount to 150/. per annum, fhall be eftimated from the re-
turns made by the bifhops of the feveral diocefes to the go-
vernors Of queen Anne’s bounty, in purfuance of an addrefs
of the honfe of lords, or from any future returns which may
‘be made by the {aid bilhops to the faid governors, ref{pecting
parifhes or places omitted in the faid returns, or refpecting
parifhes or places in the a€tual income of which it fhall be
made appear to the faid bifhops that any confiderable varia-
tion has taken place, either by augmentations made by the
faid governors or otherwife. :
However, where the curate’s falary is of the value of the
benefice, it fhall be liable to the charges affeGting it. When
the curate is permitted to ferve in an adjoining parifh, it fhall
be lawful for the bifhop or ordinary to appoint for fuch in-
cumbent, or perpetual curate, fo licenfed, a falary lefs by a
fum not exceeding 30/. per annum, than the falary which in
the feveral cafes herein before mentioned the bifhop or ordi-
nary is refpectively required by this a&t to appeint ; and in
every cafe where the bifhop or ordinary fhall find it neceflary
or expedient as aforefaid, to licenfe one and the fame perfon
to ferve as curate for two adjoining or other parifhes or places,
it fhall be lawful for fuch bifhop or ordinary to direct that
during fuch time as fuch curate {hall ferve fuch two.churches
or chapels, the falary to be received by him for ferving each
of the faid churches or chapels {hall be lefs by afum not ex-.
ceeding 30/. per annum, than the falary which in the feveral»
cafes herein before mentioned the bifhop or ordinary is re-
quired by this a& to appoint: Provided always, that no
fuch falary fhallin any cafe beefs than 50/. per annum, or
than the whole value of the faid benefice, donative, perpe-
tual curacy, or parochial chapelry, which fuch incumbent,
perpetual curate, or curate, fhall be licenfed to ferve, if the
faid value fhall not amount to 50/. per annum: Provided al-
ways, that no incumbent, perpetual curate, or curate, fhail
be licenfed to ferve as curate in any church or chapel which
is diftant more than five ftatute miles from any church or
chapel already ferved by fuch incumbent, perpetual curate,
or-curate, except in cafes of neceflity, to be approved by
the bifhop or ordinary, aad fpecified im the licence.
Tn certain cafes, {maller falaries are to be allowed to cu-
rates. The bifhop isto allow the rector, &c. to deduct irom
the curate’s falary for repairs to a limited amount, fo that it
fhall not in any year exceed one-fourth part of the falary
allotted to the curate. The curate is required,.in certain
cafes, to pay the taxes of the parfonage houfe. Where the
benefice, clear of all dedudtions, exceeds 400/. per annum, the
bifhop may affign to the curate of fuch parith or place, reflident
within the fame, and ferving no other cure, a falary-of 1o0/. per
annum, though the population may not amount to 300 perfons ;
andif the population fhould amount to 5900 perfons, the bifhop
may affign to the curate any larger itipend or allowance, fo
that the fame fhall not exceed by more than 50/. per anuuin
the amount of the itipend or allowance before {pecitied, as
required to be affigned to fuch curate. No licence fhall be
granted to ferve more than two churches in one day ; except-
ing only in certain cafes, where three chapels or churches are
not-diftant from each other more than four meafured miles,
the reafons for granting fuch licence being ftated in it ; and
it is required that the refidence of the curate be fuch, that it
{hall not be neceflary for him to travel more than fifteen miles
to perform his whole duty. An incumbent applying for
licence for non-refidence fhall ftate what falary he propofes
to give to his curate. See Curare.
Bifhops are not punifhable by the itatute of the
21 Hen. VIII. for non-refidence upon their bifhoprics ; but
although an archbithop or bifhop be not tied to be refident
upon his bifhopric by the fkatutes; yet they are thereto
obliged by the ecclefiaftical law, and may be compelled to
keep refidence by eccletfiaitical cenfures. (Watf. c. 37.) See
alfo the conftitutions of archbifhop Langton, of Otho, and
of Othobon. By canon 42, every dean, malter, or warden,
or chief governor of any cathedral or collegiate church, {hall
be refident in the fame fourfcore and ten days, conjendim or
divifim,
RESIDENCE.
dmifim, in every year at the leaft, and then fhall continue
there in preaching the word of God, and keeping good hof-
pitality ; except he fhall be otherwife let with weighty and
urgent caufes, to be approved by the bifhop of the diocefe,
or in any other lawful {ort difpenfed with.
By can. 44 no prebendaries nor canons in cathedral or col-
legiate churches, having one or more benefices with cure,
(and not being refidentiaries in the fame cathedral or colle-
giate churches,) fhall, under colour of their faid prebends,
abfent themfelves from their benefices with cure above the
{pace of one month in the year, unlefs it be for fome urgent
caufe, and certain time to be allowed by the bifhop of the dio-
cefe. And fuch of the faid canons and prebendaries, as by
the ordinances of the cathedral or collegiate churches do
itand bound to be refident in the fame, fhall fo among them-
felves fort and proportion the times of the year, concerning
refidence to be kept in the faid churches, as that fome of
them always fhall be perfonally refident there; and all thofe
who be, or fhall be refidentiaries in any cathedral or colle-
giate church, fhall, after the days of their refidency~ap-
pointed by their local ftatutes or cuftom expired, prefently
repair to their benefices, or fome one of them, or to fome
other charge where the law requireth their prefence, there to
difcharge their duties according to the laws in that cafe pro-
vided. And the bifhop of the diocefe fhall fee the fame to
be duly performed and put in execution.
So that, befides the general laws direéting the refi-
dence of other clergymen, thefe dignitaries have another
law peculiar to themfelves, namely, the local itatutes of
their refpeétive foundations, the validity of which local
ftatutes this canon fuppofeth and affirmeth. And, with
refpect to the new foundations in particular, the aét of
parliament of the 6 Anne, c. 21. enacteth that their local
itatutes fhall be in force, fo far as they are not contrary
to the conttitution of the church of England, or the laws
of the land. This .canow is undoubtedly a part of the
contlitution of the church: fo that if the canon inter-
fereth in any refpe&t with the faid local ftatutes, the ca-
non is to be preferred, and the local {tatutes to be in force
only fo far forth as they are modified and regulated by the
canon.
There doth not appear to be any difference, either by
the ecclefiaitical or temporal laws of this kingdom, between
the cafe of a rector and of a vicar concerning refidence ;
except only that the vicar is {worn to refide, (with a provifo,
unlefs he fhall be otherwife difpenfed withal by his diocefan, )
and the reétor is not f{worn. And the reafon of this dif-
ference was this: in the council of Lateran, held under
Alexander II1., and in another Lateran council, held under
Innocent III., there were very {trict canons made againtt plu-
ralities ; by the firft of thefe councils pluralities are re-
itrained, and every perfon admitted ad ecclefiam, vel eccle-
Jfaafticum miniflerium, is bound to refide there, and perfonally
ferve the cure; by the fecond of thefe councils, if any per-
fon, having one benefice with cure of fouls, accepts of a
fecond, his firft is declared void ip/a jure. Thefe canons were
received in England, and are {till part of our ecclefiaftical law.
At the firlt appearance of thefe canons, there was no
doubt made but they obliged all redors ; for they, accord-
ing to the language of the law, had churches in title, and
had beneficium ecclefiafticum: and of fuch the canons {poke.
But vicars did not then look upon themfelves to be bound
by thefe canons, for they, as the glofs upon the decretals
fpeaks, had not ecclefiam quoad titulum ; and the text of the
law deferibes them, not as having benefices, but as bound per-
fonis et ecclefiis defervire, that is, as afliftant to the reétor in
his church,
Upon this notion a praétice was founded, and prevailed in
England, which eluded the canons made againft pluralities.
A man beneficed in one church could not accept another,
without avoiding the firft; but a man pofleffed of a bene-
fice, could accept a vicarage under the reétor in another
church, for that was no benefice in law, and therefore not
within the letter of the canon, which forbids any man hold-
ing two benefices.
The way then of taking a fecond living in fraud of the
canon was this: a friend was prefented, who took the intti-
tutica, and had the church quoad titulum ; as foon as he was
poffefled, he conitituted the perfon vicar for whole benefit
he took the living, and by confent of the diocefan, allotted
the whole profit of the living for the vicar’s portion, except
a {mall matter referved to himfelf. ;
This vicar went and refided upon his firft living, for
the canon reached him where he had the benefice ; but
having no benefice where he had only a vicarage, he
thought himfelf fecure againit the faid canons requiring
refidence. 4
This piece of management gave occafion to feveral pa-
pal decrees, and to the following conftitution of arch-
‘bifhop Langton; viz. No ordinary fhall admit any one
to a vicarage, who will not perfonally officiate there.
Lind. 64.
And to another conftitution of the fame archbifhop, by
which it is injoined, that vicars who will be non-refident hall
be deprived. Lind. 131.
But the abufe {till continued, and therefore Otho, in
his legatine conititutions, applied a ftronger remedy, or-
daining, That none fhall be admitted to a vicarage, but
who, renouncing all other benefices (if he hath any) with
cure of fouls, fhall fwear that he will make refidence
there, and fhall conftantly fo refide: otherwife his inititu-
tion fhall be null, and the vicarage fhall be given to an-
other. Athon. 24.
And it is upon the authority of this conftitution that the
oath of refidence is adminiltered to vicars to this day. And
this obligation of vicars to refidence was further inforced b
a conftitution of Othobon, as followeth : If any fhall detain
a vicarage contrary to the aforefaid conititution of Otho, he
fhall not appropriate to himfelf the profits thereof, but fhall
re(tore the fame; one moiety whereof fhall be applied to
the ufe of that church, and the other moiety fhall be diitri-
buted half to the poor of the parifh, and half to the archdea-
con. And the archdeacon fhall make diligent inquiry every
year, and caufe this conttitution to be {triétly obferved.
And ifhe fhall find that any one detaineth a vicarage contrary
to the premifes, he fhall forthwith notify to the ordinary
that fuch vicarage is vacant, who fhall do what to him be-
longeth in the premifes ; and if the ordinary fnall delay to
inftitute another into fuch vicarage, he fhall be fufpended
from collation, inftitution, or prefentation to any benefices
until he faall comply. And if any one fhall {trive to detain
a vicarage contrary to the premifes, and perfift in his obfti-
nacy for a month ; he fhall, befides the penalties aforefaid,
be ip/o _fado deprived of his other benefices (if he have any) ;
and fhall be difabled for ever to hold fuch vicarage, which he
hath fo yexatioufly detained, and from obtaining any other
benefice for three years. And if the archdeacon fhall be
remifs in the premifes, he fhall be deprived of the fhare of
the aforefaid penalty affigned to him, and be fufpended from
the entrance of the church, until he fhall perform his duty.
Athon. 95.
So that, upon the whole, the doubt was not, whether
rectors were obliged to refidence ; the only quettion was,
whether vicars were alfo obliged; and to inforce the refi-
dence
RESIDENCE.
dence of vicars, in like manner as of rectors, the afore-
{aid conftitutions were ordained. Sherl. ibid. p. 20, 21, 22.
By the 43 Geo. III. c. 84. no oath fhall be required of
or taken by any vicar in relation to refidence on his vicarage.
Lev 3h)
Cin. 47. Every beneficed man licenfed by the laws of
this realm, upon urgent occafions of other fervice, not to
refide upon his benefice, fhall caufe his cure to be fupplied
by a curate that is a fufficient and licenfed preacher, if the
worth of the benefice will bear it. But whofoever hath two
benefices, fhall maintain a preacher licenfed in the benefice
where he doth not refide, except he preach himfelf at both
of them ufually.
And by the laft article of archbifhop Wake’s directions
it 1s required, that the bifhop fhall take caré, as much as
poffible, that whofoever is admitted to ferve any cure, do
yefide in the parifh where he is to ferve ; efpecially in livings
that are able to fupport a refident cure : and where that can-
not be done, that they do at at leaft refide fo near to the place,
that they may conveniently perform all their duties, both in
the church and parifh.
By the 36 Geo. III. c.83. the ordinary, befides ap-
pointing to. curates an allowance not exceeding 75/. per ann.
may, on livings where the reétor or vicar does not perfonally
refide four months in the year at leaft, grant the ufe of the
rectory or vicarage houfe, and the garden and ftable thereto
belonging, fuch ufe to be granted to the faid curate for the
fpace of twelve calendar months by the authority of the
ordinary, under his hand and feal, with power in the faid
ordinary to renew and grant from time to time, or a fur-
ther fum, not exceeding t5/. per ann. in leu of fuch houfe,
garden, and ftable, in cafe there fhall be none fuch, or it
fhall appear to him not to be convenient to allot and affign
the fame to fuch curate. Provided that the faid houfe,
garden, and ftable, fhall be for the ufe of the faid curate
and his family only during his a@ual refidence in the faid
re€tory and vicarage houfe. Provided alfo, that the ordi-
nary fhail have power at any time under his hand and feal, to
revoke the grant to the faid curate of the faid houfe,
garden, and ftable, or any of them, and alfo to iniert in fuch
grant fuch terms and conditions to be obferved on the part
of the curate as he fhall think reafonable.
By the faculty of difpenfation, a pluralift is required, in
that benefice from which he fhall happen to be moit abfent,
to preach thirteen fermons every year; and to exercife hof-
pitality for two months yearly, and for that time, according
to the fruits and profits thereof, as much as in him lieth, to
fupport and relieve the inhabitants of that parifh, ef{pecially
the poor and needy.
By the 1 W.c. 26. if any perfon prefented or nomi-
nated by either of the uniyerfities to a popith benefice with
cure, fhall be abfent from the fame above the {pace of fixty
days in any one year; in fuch cafe, the faid benefice fall be-
come void. Burn’s Eccl. Law, art. Refdence.
REsIDENCE, in Chemifiry, &c. the /ettling, or what remains
of a liquor, or other fubitance, in the veffel after the chief
part of it has been poured or taken out, to change the
manner of the eperation on what is left.
ResiDENCE, Country, im Ornamental Gardening, a rural
habitation, manfion, or other kind of place, where it, as
well as the ground which furrounds it, are formed and laid
out in fome fort of ornamental ftyle. There have been a
reat. many ways of accomplifhing this propofed at dif-
fact times, which have given rife to the variety of ftyles
that have prevailed at different periods; but the avoqedly
formal, and the afféGedly graceful, are the two which have
been chiefly had recourfe to, according to the writer of the
‘by the belt of planting.
7
« T'reatife on Country Refidences,”? before that of the free,
charaéteriftic, natural one, which he has fuggefted the in-
troduction of ; which is confined to no particular ftyle or
mode, but which furnifhes and fupplies beauties and effects
which are fuitable to the fcene and fituation, whatever the
age or country may be from which they are borrowed, or
by whatever epithets they may be called or known.
Suppofe a piece of ground containing from four to five
hundred acres, of which more than three hundred are to be
formed into a refidence ; that a brook may pafs through it,
partly among meadows or wattes of copfe and pafture, and
partly along the hedge fences; that two farm-houfes, fome
cottages, and belts of planting may likewife appear ; that
the farm-houfe in the centre is on the higheft ground, which
defcends in varied and gentle flopes on every fide to the
margin of the brook, except toward a clufter of cottages
upon the banks of it, where it abruptly terminates in a
wooded precipice of rocks or gravel, or fomething of a
fimilar kind.
The manner of forming a refidence, in fuch a fituation, ac-
cording to the ancient formal {tyle of a century ago, would,
in the firft place, have been to clear away every cottage,
hedge, and tree ; then to level down the precipice, and alk
irregularities. After which to form it into f{quare fields and
avenues, planting belts of trees between them. Two finall
woods would have been placed on each fide of the houfe,
and a large one near the garden. The water of the brook
would have been introduced through a conduit, to an ob,
long canal; from that to two round bafins in the centrat
garden ; thence to another oblong canal anfwering to the
firft. From that, under ground, as before, to two ponds
in the large wood ; after which to be carried by the fide of
the outer ftrip of plantation until it rejoined the former
eanal. The other parts are not very material. But it may
be noticed that the furrounding fields would have nothing
done to them, but the remoyal of the cottages, and the belt
of planting, which would otherwife have clofed the view _
from the avenue. The fhort avenues would probably be
continued through the fields in fingle rows of trees.
And according to the affeCtedly graceful, or more modern
{tyle of Brown and his followers, the fame portion of land
would have been laid eut by means of clearing, levelling,
and {moothing the irregularities of the furface in the firit
inftance, only leaving a fingle {mall cottage properly hidden
“he houfe would be built on the
higheft part of the ground. The whole of the offices funk
under or below it, with the exception of the ttables; and
the part of the houfe which is feen, in the form of a cube,
with a large front, vifible only on the fide on which is the
approach. The brook elevated upon the fide of the rifing
ground, and formed into a ftill river, with cafcades and iflands,
which are capable of being feen all round from the houfe.
The park furrounded with a belt, inclofing a ride or drive
within this, the whole diverfified with clumps of various
fizes, but moftly fimilar in fhape. The park ted with deer,
fheep, and cattle, and the more confiderable {paces in the
drive, with the whole of the pleafure ground, regularly
mown. Buildmgs would be introduced in various places in
the drives as well as the park. The approach and walks
formed in different turns and windings, and the pleafure
ground, and kitchen garden, in a regular manner, the latter
moftly in the perfeétly fquare form. From each of the
drives, the approach, walks, and the pleafure ground, the
objects of view are either the ornamental buildings or the
manfion, viltas being made in all places from the one to the
other ; the belt excludes the whole of the diftant country
from the lower parts of the ground, and the clumps from
9 the
RESIDENCE.
the higher, as well as from the houfe. It may be fuppofed
that nothing would be done to the furrounding country,
only, perhaps, that in the place of the removed cottages, a
formal ftreet, under the title of improved village, might be
formed and raifed at a fuitable diftance from the manfion and
its approach. It is fuggelted that numbers of places in
this country, as well as in Scotland, are laid out nearly in
this manner; and that-the general paftures, the deft, the
clump, the tame and _/ill river, abound in both countries, and
continue to be formed in the fame way, whatever may be
the natural charaéter of the fituation er place.
But according to the characteriftic or natural manner
which the writer has advifed, fuch a fituation fhould be laid
out fomewhat in this way. The houfe fhould be placed on
the abrupt termination of the rifing grounds, the whole of
the offices be brought more or lefs into view, each of fuch
buildings being made low, irregular, and fuitable to the
nature of the ground. The brook be rendered more ‘cha-
racteriltic as fuch, by having little aits and iflands formed
in it, as well as occafional pools, or ttagnated fpots of water,
in the opea parts, and under the fhade of the grove where
not feen. Near the houfe, in the hollow, it fhould fpread
out in the manner of a lake, being varied by prominences,
iflands, and wood. The {table offices, kitchen garden, and
farm, fhould be placed near each other, and at no great dif-
‘tance from the main refidence. The wood fheuld be feen in
one extenfive irregular mafs, crowning the large eminence,
and connecting it with the lower grounds in which the
brook runs. Inftead of furrounding the whole with a belt
of planting, the borders of the park fhould every where
‘blend in an irregular manner with the country; in fome
places a hedge only, in others a funk fence, and in a few
open paling fhould feparate it from the corn-fields; in
different places large portions of it may be united to the
‘country by means of hurdle fences, in which way more or
lefs of it may be inclofed and let out to tenantry as thought
proper. Inthis mode, the wood does not terminate abruptly
with the park; but gradually lofes itfelf in {cattered trees,
hedge-rows, and occafional ftrips among the corn lands of
the neighbouring farms. Hence, it is fuggefted, arife the
beauty of the views in walking round the outfide border of
the park. An irregular village fhould be formed by fcat-
tered cottages, wood, and pafture, from which the approach
is led to the houfe; with a branch ‘to the offices and the
garden; the farm road is moftly concealed, but might often
be partially feen with advantage. Walks fhould be formed
in different parts of the grounds; thofe for morning and
evening fhould be extenfive and open ; thofe for noon wholly
under the wood. They both afford confiderable variety,
whether the beauty and wildnefs of the park, the views of
the diftant corn-fields and hedge-rows, the village, the brook,
or the different picturefque compofitions formed by the
houfe and offices be regarded; without faying any thing con-
cerning diftant profpeét, which, in the other practice, is
often loft by the belt, and at all events conitantly prevented
from harmonizing with the park, by its dark ditant boundary.
The cattle may be guarded and kept off from the front of
the manfion by fome proper fort of fence, and a certain
tpace along the border and rivulet be preferved as pleafure
ground, in which exotic fhrubs and flowers may be planted
in difperfed natural-like groups and thickets. The whole
of the other parts of the ground may be fed with cattle,
horfes, deer, and fheep, as well as other animals. The
kitchen garden, in fuch a fituation, need not be fo large as
in other cafes, as many culinary vegetables may be grown
in other places, and the fields of the farm. Nor will an or-
chard be neceflary in many cafes, as a fufficient number of
fruit-trees may be introduced in the groups, and pleafure-
ground fcenery. ‘There may, befides thefe, be fome other
differences made, which need not be noticed in this place,
A drive may be made through the park as thought proper,
and through the furrounding country according to the cir-
cumftances of it as connected withthe park. The planting
in the park fhould abound with low growths and wildnefles,
in the nature of the trees and the various mafles of wood
in It.
The fame {pot of ground is difplayed as formed and laid
out after thefe three different methods, in the work already
alluded to, which may be confulted with much advantage
by the inquirer on this head.
In comparing the leading diftinGtions between the two
latter of the above methods of forming and laying out
rural refidences, or that followed by Brown, Repton, and
others, and that which has been fuggelted by the writer ; it
is remarked that, in relation to the-whole, the objeét of the
former is to render a refidence feparate from the country ;
while the /atter, or the charatteriftic ftyle of forming, and
the improvements propofed in refidences already formed on
bad principles, tend to harmonize it. In relation to the
parts, that fort of gardening forms and places every thing
diftin@ly and alone; while this groups and conneéts them
with each other, and with the whole.
In what regards-wood, the vulgar prattice is, it is faid,
to fhut out the country by a belt, and to vary the fpace
within by the clumps: while that which is propofed tends
to increafe the expreflion and charaéter of the fituation or-
place, whatever part of the grounds it may direc to be
wooded, whether.in the middle or the boundaries ; and in-
ftead of fhutting out the country, the wood diverges ina
gradual manner into hedge-rows, fo as to unite and harmonize
it as much as poffible with the refidence.
In refpeét to buildings, the former or common way is to
conceal every thing except the manfion: while this, on
the contrary, fhews every building, not as fingle obje&s,
but as compound parts of the fcenery of the place.
In relation to water. the old or former plan is to produce
quantity or extent of furface, and to render it as -confpicu-
ous as pofflible: while the ityle here propofed is to produce
natural character.
In refpect to ground, the former or modern fyftem is to
{mooth and form undulating furfaces: while that of this is
to attend to natural character.
In what regards parks, modern land{cape gardening, it is
faid, makes them {mooth and deftitute of under-growths,
ferns, and other plants: while this, by introducing hol-
lies, thorns, briars, ferns, and fometimes furze, broom,
and brambles, gives them a wild foreit charaéter, which
is the great and main obje& of their formation and arrange-
ment.
In refpe& to pleafure-ground, the common mode, it is faid,
is to form many acres «of lawn, which are to be kept in
prefervation at a great expence, while they produce nothing.
The plan here propofed admits of more or lefs, according
to cireumftances and fituation, but generally forms little
that is not grazed by fheep or covered by flowers, exten-
five mowing being therefore never requifite, and it commonly
permits the cattle te come within a {mall diftance of the
refidence.
The difference of expence will, it is fuppofed, be very
confiderable, as muft be evident from the general confideration
of the difference between aflifting what Nature has alread
begun, and counteraéting her altogether. This will be fo
whether it relates to the manfions, buildings, planting, water,
gardens, farms, or pleafure-grounds. And there will be
differences
RESIDENCE.
differences of aminor nature on all thefe heads, as well as on
many others.
The ideas refpe€ting the latter of thefe methods of form-
ing and laying out refidences of this nature, have yet been
but little put in praétice, nor their union in the mind of any
one perfon been fuch as to produce a diftin& flyle in regard
to them, except, perhaps, with the writer of the work before
alludedto. They are, however, of confiderable importance,
and highly deferving of attention, not only as being founded
on the principles of nature, but as according fo well with
the nature of rural fcenery.
In chufing fituations for refidences of this defcription, it
is advifed, that attention fhould be particularly paid to fuch
as are mot{t convenient in what refpects {cite and pofition, as
they relate to the adjoining country ; that they fhould be the
moit dtriking which the grounds will afford; and that they
fhould furnifh the beit views from the refidences of the
furrounding country which it is capable of fupplying.
A perfect knowledge of what is deficient, and whether
that which is wanted can be {upplied by the propofed fcite,
or is wholly wanting, or fome others deficient that ‘can-
not readily be afforded, will greatly contribute to the de-
cifion of the firft point. And much affittance, infome refpects,
may often be derived from the neighbouring refidences, efpe-
cially as to climate, weather, fprings, rivulets, roads,
markets, and many other fimilar particulars; though they
can-moitly be afcertained with little trouble in other ways.
In regard to the next point, it is of very great importance,
as the effet depends much upon it. Where the furfaces are
only gently varied, fome of the higheft eminences may be
moitly fixed upon for this purpofe. But where they are
varied in a high degree, and where a number of hills are
within the propofed fpace: if fuch hills flope gently, fome
of their fides may commonly be feleCted for this ufe ; or,
when they are very iteep, it may be upon fome gentle rifing
or eminence near their bottom parts. Occafionally, where.
rivers pafs through the grounds, it may be on fome of their
banks, where they are rendered interelting either by rocks,
bends, or other fimilar means. Where there are lakes, the
margins of them may be proper for the purpofe, as produc-
ing good effects in fuch cafes; and the rocky margins of
the fea, in fome inflances, may be very fuitable. Many
other appropriate fituations for this purpofe might be noticed,
but thefe may fhew the nature of ftriking ones, and the
means of {electing them.
The proper accomplifhment of this object is very material,
as any error in it may be highly injurious in various ways ;
while its being properly done faves expence, and at the fame
time affords a far fuperior effeét, as is feen in a variety of,
inftances.
In refpeG to the laft matter, or that of the views towards
the furrounding fcenery being agreeable, it is fuppofed to
be the beft accomplifhed by the proper arrangement or dif-
pofition of the apartments of a refidence. Where recula-
rity isto prevail this cannot always be fo ealily done, but
where the irregular is had recourfe to, which fhould mottly
be the cafe in this fort of refidence, there can be little dif
ficulty in effecting it, either by means of projeCtions or
recefles.
Thus, the breakfafting room fhould front a morning {cene,
and afford a profpeét fomewhat inviting to exercife throughout
the day ; the drawing room fhould have fuch a difpofition
as to difplay the effects of the fetting fun, &c. In fhort,
to every view, fome object, it is fuppofed, fhould appear
fufficiently ftriking to charaGterife it; asa hill, a fpire, or
fome other thing of a fimilar nature; as, unlefs this be the
cafe, too trifling an impreffion is left uponthe mind. All
thefe matters, itis fuppofed, are the beft decided upon the’
particular {pots where they fhould be marked out and left for
the obfervations of others, with the view of their being after-
wards finally fettled. They fhould never be determined
upon in the clofet of the defigner.
In forming refidences of this nature, the ityle of the
buildings fhould, in fome meafure, it is thought, be adapted
to, or reculated by, the nature of the place, and the general
growth of the trees in it; the forms of the particular trees
which may be peculiar to it; the general charaéter of the
furrounding fcenery ; and the colour of the rocks, as well
as.of the ground. It is found that the more common forts
of trees, in their natural growth, whether fingle or in groups,
deviate a little in their general form, and the delicacy of
their parts, according as their fituation may be. Thus,
where much expofed, they are moitly broad and low, being
more hardy, rough, and pifturefque, than when covered
with young fhoots, which are comparatively foft, frefh, and
beautiful. In high rocky {pots and expofures, trees are
much broken, or divided into parts, and diltant from each
other, but apparently firmly attached to the place; thefe
are hardier than others, with much lefs foftnefs and beauty.
In low fertile plains, trees are moftly large and ere€t, throw-
ing out their branches on all ‘fides; the fohage is full and
freth ; and the whole outline round, full, and flowing.
When fingle in this fort of fituation, the balance of the
branches in-the trees is better preferved, than in the. contrary
cafes. Where vallies are confined between hills, trees grow
high and upright, rarely broad, or putting forth many
horizontal branches : the growth is quick ; the fhoots and
foliage are tender and delicate ; the trunk comparatively’
flender ; and the whole trees more elegant and capable of
graccful motions than in any of the former fituations or
afpects.
It is fuppofed that thefe different circumftances in the
growth of trees may ealily fuggelt ftyles of building fomewhat
analogous in their general magnitude, height, and finifhing.
On rocky expofed {pots, where trees grow low and irregu-
lar ; low irregular edifices in the caftle ftyle may be raifed,
In vallies, where they grow high and elegant, houfes in the
tower ityle, which implies much height, fhould commonly
be had recourfe to. In rich extended plains, buildings of
the Grecian order, or fuch as are in a more mafly and regu-
lar ftyle than the others, fhould be formed. ‘“ This mode
is,” itis faid, ‘certainly deferving of attention, wereit for
no other reafon than that the trees might group well with
the buildings ; that when full grown they might neither be
too large, nor too fmall; that they might neither diminifh
it into infignificance, nor leave it ftarmg through trees,
which, from want of due proportion toit, appear as copfe-
wood.”? Many inftances of thefe different evils are to be met
with in different places.
And it is noticed, that this mode of fixing onthe ftyle of
refidences of this kind muit be attended to, though trees
be not growing on the fituations at the time of forming
and raifing them. This is to be determined in fuch cafes,
by the nature of the climate and the qualities of the foil, as
the growth of trees chiefly depends upon them.
With regard tothe forms of trees, moft places are capa-
ble of affording common ones, fuch as oaks, elms, beeches,
and others of fimilar kinds. But there are many fpots,
where refidences of this fort may be formed, that are only
capable of raifine certain defcriptions to the ftate of trees.
This frequently occurs in hilly and maritime fituations; which
therefore require the particular attention of the defigner ;
as the kinds of trees that fuit them are fo very different from
the ordinary fort, that if he were to be attempting to group
8 with
STH eeeeetersdteeeeeeeeteeeeenseecteees
RES
with oaks and beeches, he might be grievoufly difap-
pointed, as not any would probably grow, but fpiry larches,
dark Scotch firs, birches, and mountain afh, or perhaps only
ivy andelder. his may furnifh a variety of ufeful hints to
the defigner, as well as others.
The general charaéter of the furrounding fcenery is equally
deferving of attention as the trees, and fhould concur in decid-
ing on the ftyle of the refidence. It is a common notion that
buildings fhould form ftrong contrafts to the works of nature,
from which various ityles of them have been fuggefted
under different circumitances; but more full inquiry will
fhew that very fudden contratts are not found in general
nature, though they may accidentally occur in fome cafes,
confequently that they are highly improper to be ufed in
this way.
With refpeé to the colour of the rocks, and the ground,
it is faid, that, not merely the general forms of the furface,
but the appearances of the foil and the rocks, fhould deferve
attention, as contributing greatly to promote the principle
of harmony. The tints of rocks, ftones, gravel, and the
foil, are mottly the fame in one part of the country. Where
they agree with the colour of the refidence, the effe& mutt,
it is fuppofed, be fingularly happy, as feen in the works of
painters, as well asin the ancient refidences of the country
kind. But where they difagree, it mutt be difgutting, as is
feen in many cafes of white-wafhing buildings in rocky fitu-
ations. This furnifhes hints which may be ufeful in managing
that procefs to the moift advantage in other cafes ; and others
are likewile thrown out upon different matters, which are
‘equally ufeful. But the defigner is cautioned again{t carry-
ing thefe, or any other notions, into the extreme, contrary to
the common practice ; as where the expreffion of gaiety, or
itriking beauty, is defirable, no reafons fuggeited from the
colour of the rocks or foil are intended to hinder the pro-
duétion of thefe characters, if in general harmony with what
furrounds them.
There are many other matters which relate to the fubje@,
that are forcibly pointed out, and the means of executing
them well explained, in the work alluded to above, fuch as
the methods of uniting refidences of this fort with the
grounds by means of the offices and appendages of other
kinds ; and with the furrounding country or fcenery by the
former, as well as by architeCtural appendages principally
of the ornamental defcription. Alfo as to the modes of ex-
ecuting and finifhing them.
More full information on the whole of this fubje& may be
obtained from the above treatife, and the writings of Knight,
Price, and others on the fame head.
RESIDENT, a public minifter, who manages the
afairs of a king in the court of a prince, or petty ftate; or
the affairs of a prince, or petty {tate, in the court of a king
or prince.
‘Thus, the king of England has refidents in the courts of
the eleétors, and other princes of Germany and Italy ; at
the republics of Genoa and Lucca; and they, reciprocally,
have refidents inthe court of Great Britain.
Refidents are a clafs of public minifters inferior to am-
baffadors and envoys; but, like them, they are under the
proteétion of the law of nations.
The refident does not reprefent the prince’s perfon in his
dignity, but only in his affairs. His reprefentation is in
reality of the fame nature as that of the envoy ; and he is
accordingly, together with the envoy, often termed a mi-
milter of the fecond order ; and thus the public minifters
are diftinguifhed only into two claffes ; ambafladors, who
have the reprefentative character, fo termed by way of
OE KK Ds
RES
excellence, and all the miniiters who are not invefted with
that eminent character.
RestpENT, Refidens, in our Ancient Cuftoms, was a tenant
who was obliged to refide on his lord’s land, and not to
depart from the fame, called alfo somme devant and couchant,
and in Normandy reffeant du fief.
* Quantumque de aliis teneat, ci magis obnoxius eft ;
& ejus refidens effe debet, cujus legius eft.” Leg. H. I.
RESIDENTIARY, ResipENTIARIUS, a canon in-
ftalled to the privileges and profits of refidence.
RESIDUAL Awa ysis, is a branch of algebra invented
by Landen, and applied to the folution of thofe problems
ufually folved by means of the differential and integral
calculus, or the direct and inverfe method of fluxions; by
which the ingenious author thought to be able to avoid the
objections generally made to the new calculus under either
of the above forms. With regard to the fluxional procefs,
he thought it more free from objeétion than the differential
calculus ; although many important ones might be difco-
vered in it. However natural, fays the author, it may be, in
certain problems, to confider fuch magnitudes as enter there-
in, to be generated by motion, it feemas very unnatural to
bring motion into confideration in the folution of queftions
purely algebraical. Nor does it feem natural in the folutior
of problems concerning the motion of bodies, to fuper-
induce imaginary motions, and thereby bring into confidera-
tion the velocity of time, the velocity oF velocity, &c. ;
nor yet does it appear more natural, in the refolution of
other problems, to make ufe of the fluxionary method, when
(as is moft commonly the cafe in that do€trine) the fluxions
introduced into the procefs can, only in a figurative fenfe,
be faid to be the velocities of increafe of the quantities
called their fluents; fuch figurative expreffions not being
the natural language of analytics, but frequently, inftead of
conveying clear and diitinét ideas, are confufedly employed
in treating of quantities as generated by motion, which in
reality cannot be conceived to be fo generated. That thefe
are legal objections to the doGtrine of fluxions we are not
difpofed to deny; but it is now generally admitted, that
the defect of the fluxionary calculus is by far lefs than that
which has place in the refidual analyfis, which M. Landen was
defirous of fubftituting for it. Indeed, we believe its defeAs
were fo obvious, that few, if any, mathematicians were induced
to make it the foundation of any of their inveftigations ; and
it would, therefore, be ufelefs for us to occupy our pages in
explaining the principles on which the author retted his cal-
culus. We fhall, therefore, merely obferve, that in this
analyfis, a geometrical or phyfical problem is reduced to
another purely algebraical; and the folution is then ob-
tained without any fuppofition of motion, and without
confidering quantities as compofed of infinitely {mall par-
ticles.
Inftead of finding the fluxion of a variable quantity, in
the refidual analyfis, the author proceeds by taking the
difference of the fame funétion of the variable, in two dif-
ferent {tates of that quantity, and expreffing the relation of
this difference to the difference between the two {tates of the
variable quantity itfelf. This relation, being firft expreffed
prevails is then confidered in the cafe in which the dif-
erence of the two ftates of the variable quantity is equal to
zero.
Thus when, in the fuxionary calculus, it would be ne-
ceflary to find the fluxion of fuch a quantity v', which is
™ 7
m "s ,
— wv v, M. Landen takes the quotient of
r vp— w
D when
are eee
.
RES
a iy Er :
when v = w, and finds it to be — vr , as above ; and in
r
the fame manner he determines what is commonly called the
fluxions of a*, x*, log. x, &c.
The firft book of the refidual analyfis was publifhed in
1764, which contains its application to a variety of alge-
braical inquiries, and in determining the tangents, evolutes,
ordinates, points of contrary flexure, double and triple
points, &c. Andin the fecond book it was intended to
fhew its application in a variety of mechanical and phyfico-
geometrical inquiries ; but, for fome reafon not known, that
book was never publithed.
Resipuat Figure, in Geometry, the figure remaining af-
ter fubtraction of a lefler from a greater.
ResipuaL Root, is a root compofed of two parts or
members, only conneéted together with the ficn —.
Thus, a—4, or 5 — 3, is a refidual root; and is fo
called, becaufe its true value is no more than its refidue, or
difference between the parts @ and 4, or 5 and 3.
RESIDUARY Lecarer. See Lecarer.
RESIDUE, Resipuum, the remainder or reliqua of an
account, debt, or obligation.
RESIDUUM of a Charge, in Eleéricity, firft difcovered
by Mr. Gralath, in Germany, in 1746, is that part of the
charge that lay on the uncoated part of a Leyden phial,
which doth not let go all its electricity at once; {fo that it is
afterwards gradually diffufed to the coating.
Restpuum of an Inteflate’s Effeds. See INTESTATE.
See alfo Executor, and Refiduary LEGATEE.
RESIGNATION, in £zhics, is a moral virtue, which
fuperadds to patience a fubmiffive difpofition, refpeGing
the intelligent caufe of our uneafinefs. It acknowledges
both the power and the right of a fuperior to affli@: it is
ufually conneéted with a confidence in his juftice, and in-
dulges a hope alfo in fome future exemption, and thus it
oppofes a fretful repining temper of mind. P
RESIGNATION, Refignatio, in the Canon Law, the fur-
render or giving up of a benefice into the hands of thofe
from whom it was received. =
Refignation is of equal import with furrender ; only the
former is reftrained to {piritual benefices, and the latter to
temporal offices or employments.
It is a maxim in the ecclefiaftical law, that all refignations
muft be made to fome fuperior (Gibf. 822.) ; therefore a
bifhop mutt refign, not to the dean and chapter, but to his
metropolitan, from whom he received confirmation and con-
fecration ; but the archbifhop can refign to none but the
king himfelf. :
Refignation muft be made to the next immediate fuperior,
and not to the mediate; as of a church prefentative to the
bifhop, and not to the metropolitan. (2 Roll. Abr. 358.)
Donatives are not refignable to the ordinary, but to the
patron who hath power to admit; and if there be two
patrons of a donative, and the incumbent refign to one of
them, it is good for the whole. Regularly, refignation
muft be made in perfon, and not by proxy. It is ufually
done either by perfonal appearance before the ordinary, or
elfewhere before a public notary, by an inftrument directed
immediately to the ordinary, and attefted by the faid notary,
in order to be prefented to the ordinary by a proper perfon,
who may pray his acceptance. No relignation can be valid,
till accepted by the proper ordinary ; that is, no perfon ap-
pointed to a cure of fouls can quit that cure, or difcharge
himfelf of it, but upon good motives, to be approved by
the fuperior who committed it to him; for it may be, that
ke would quit it for money, or to live idly, or the like.
Nor is there any pretence to fay, that the ordinary is
RES
obliged to accept; fince the law hath appointed no known
remedy if he will not accept, any more than he will not or-
dain. x Still. 334.
Lindwood makes a diftin&tion in this cafe, between a cure
of fouls, and a fine-cure. The refignation of a fine-cure,
he thinks, is good immediately, without the {uperior’s con-
fent ; becaufe none but he that refigneth hath intereft in
that cafe: but where there is a cure of fouls, it is otherwife,
becaufe not he only hath intereft, but others alfo unto
whom he is bound to preach the word of God; wherefore,
in this cafe, it is neceflary that there be the ratification of
the bifhop, or of fuch other perfon as hath power by right
or cuftom to admit fuch refignation. (Gibf. 823.) After
acceptance of the refignation, lapfe fhall not run but from
the time of notice given. The church, indeed, is void im-
mediately upon. acceptance, and the patron may prefent, if
he pleafe ; but as to lapfe, the general rule that is here laid
down is the general doétrine of all the books: infomuch
that if the bifhop, who accepted the refignation, dies before
notice given, the fix months fhall not commence till notice
is given by the guardian of the fpiritualities, or by the fuc-
ceeding bifhop, with whom the act of refignation is pre-
fumed to remain. Gibf. 283.
Refignations are either /imple or conditional.
REsIGNATIONS, Simple or Pure, are thofe by which the
incumbent {trips himfelf of all his right, abfolutely, and
without any conditions, or referve of penfion. Thefe are
made to the bifhop, or ordinary.
By the 31 Eliz. cap. 6. § 8. if any incumbent of any
benefice, with cure of fouls, fhall corruptly refign the fame,
or corruptly take for, or in refpect of refigning the fame
direétly or indireétly, any penfion, {um of money, or other
benefit whatfoever ; as well the giver, as the taker, fhall
lofe double the value of the fum given or received ; half to
the queen, and half to him that fhallfue for the fame. Be-
fore the ftatute, the bifhop, in cafes of refignation, might,
and did frequently, affign a penfion, during life, out of the
benefice refigned, to the perfon refigning. But by the
aforefaid at, no penfions whatfoever can be referved. But
a man may bind himfelf by bond to refign, and it is not un-
lawful. For bonds of refignation, fee Sony.
Resignations in Favour, or Conditionol Refignations, are
fuch as are only made on condition that fuch other perfons
fhould be invetted with them; fo that the refignations are
null, unlefs the conditions be punétually executed. Thefe
refignations in favorem are not of above two hundred and
fifty years ftanding. Strong oppofition was at firlt made
to them, they being efteemed a kind of fucceffion or tranf-
miffion of benefices, as of patrimonies belonging to a family.
Accordingly, thefe refignations are not made into the hands
of the ordinary, or collator, as pure refignations are, but
to the collator paramount, who in the Romifh church is
the pope; there being a fufpicion of fimony or other un-
lawful pation therein, where admitted of in prejudice to
the lay patron.
RESIGNEE, in Law, the party to whom a thing is
religned.
RESINS, in Chemifiry and the Arts, peculiar inflam-
mable compounds, furnifhed by fome vegetables, and in
fome cafes by animals.
Agreeably to what we have obferved under Oirs, all
bodies coming under the head of the latter, although per-
fe& liquids in their ordinary itate, are fufceptible of a folid
form, by long expofure to the air, and more fpeedily by
expofure to bodies furnifhing oxygen with facility. Thofe
oils we term fat oils, fuch as olive, {fpermaceti, rape, &c.
by treating with nitric acid, become folid like tallow, and
poflefs
RES
poflefs fimilar properties. The oils termed drying, fuch as
linfeed and nut-oil, by the prefence of oxygen, alfume a
folid form, unlike the greafy fubftance afforded by the fat
oils, and more like horn, or elaftic gum (caoutchouc.)
The volatile oils are fufteptible of the fame change, from
liquidity to folidity, by the agency of oxygen; the refult
being refins, which differ from each other in nothing ma-
terial, excepting their degrees of folidity, and their peculiar
odour. If we are to conclude that every effential or volatile
oil is capable of being converted into a refin, which is
highly probable, the number of refins will be very great.
Indeed the known fpecies are vaftly too numerous for our
notice in this place: we fhall, therefore, confine our atten-
tion to a few of the moft particular refins, efpecially thofe
which are valuable in the arts, and in medicine. Dr.
Thomfon gives the following lift of refins, with the names
of the vegetables from which they are obtained.
. Turpentine of Chio, from the piftacia terebinth us.
. Venice turpentine.
. Strafburgh turpentine, from the common fir.
Pitch, from the pinus picea.
Elemi, from the amyris elemifera.
Mattic, from the piitacia lentifcus.
. Sandarach, from the juniper.
. Guaiac, from the guaiacum officinale.
. Laudanum, from the ciftus ladaniferus.
Dragon’s blood, from the dracena draco.
11. Balfam of Mecca, from the amyris opobalfamum.
. 12. Balfam of Copahu, from the copaifera officinalis.
To thefe may be added,
13. Balfam of Canada, from the pinus balfamea.
14. Guaiacum, from the lignum vite.
15. Copal, from the copallinum of North America.
Some of the refins are combined with benzoic acid, by
which their properties are altered: of thefe are benzoin, bal-
fam of Tolu, balfam of Peru, and ftorax.
Another clafs of thefe bodies are combined with gum,
and hence have been called gum refins': of thefe are oli-
banum, galbanum, feammony, affafcetida, myrrh, ammoniac,
aloes, and opium. They admit of analyfis, either by fepa-
rating the refinous part by alcohol, or the gummy part by
water.
Thefe latter fubftances are ufed in medicine. Some of
the firft clafs, or the pure refins, are ufed as cements ; and
ee folution in alcohol conftitutes a variety of ufeful var-
nifhes.
Thofe refins which are diftinguifhed by the name of bal-
fams are faid to be fuch as contain benzoic acid. It ap-
pears, however, they have alfo been diftingufhed for their
liquidity, and from their excefs of odour; fo that at pre-
fent the phrafe appears to be very indefinite. See BALSAM.
The refins are of various degrees of confiftence and hard-
nefs. The balfams of Canada and Mecca are thickih fluids :
the former is often fo liquid as to be fpread with a brufh,
and is fometimes ufed for varnifhing pi€tures. It gradually
hardens, on expofure to the air, and ultimately may be
rubbed with the hand without foiling.
Others of the refins become hard with very little expofure
to the air, and are found in hard tears, rot fens to the tree
which affords it: of thefe are maftic, fandarach, and copal.
Thofe which do not eafily become folid may be obtained in
that form, by diftilling off the thin part. Refin and pitch
are obtained in this way: the former is obtained by dif-
tilling turpentine, the latter by diftilling tar. Tar is no
other than turpentine contaminated with the foot, which is
produced by the partial combuftion employed for its ex-
traction from the wood.
ow ox ANpw ym
RES
All the refins become harder by expofure to a moderate
heat. It is upon this faét that the art of the japanner de-
pends. If the furface to be japanned be covered with com-
mon tar only, and expofed to the temperature of 300° for
a length of time, the coating becomes hard and infufible.
At the fame temperature, any other refin applied in the
fame way, would affume a fimilar hardnefs.
Some animals and minerals, as well as the vegetables,
afford refins, or bodies very analogous to them. ‘The con-
crete part of the bile of animals has moft of the properties
of arefin, and fhell-lac is furnifhed from the infect called
ceccus lacca.
Ear-wax is alfo found to have the properties of a refin ;
and the fubftances well known as perfumes, caitor, civet,
and mufk, are no other than animal refins. For the par-
ticular application of refins to varni/bing and japanning, fee
thofe articles.
Refins are employed for many purpofes. Thofe of the
cheapeft kind are ufed for torches, and to cover the outfides
of fhips and boats. The fine tranfparent refins compofe
varnifhes. Many of them are employed medicinally : fuch
are thofe which enter into the compofition of ointments and
plafters ; or internally, as the refins of fcammony, jalap, and
turpeth, which are purgative. Other refins, the fmell of
which is agreeable, as benjamin and ftorax, are employed as
perfumes.
Resin, Elaflic. See Caourcuouc.
Resin, Maflic. See Mastic.
RESISTANCE, or Resistive Force, in Phyfics, any
power which aéts in oppofition to another, fo as to deftroy
er diminifh its effect. d
Of refiftance there are various kinds, arifing from the va-
rious natures and properties of the refifting bodies, and go-
verned by various laws: as the refiftance of folids, the
refiftance of fluids, the refiftance of the air, &c.
Resistance of Solids, in Mechanics, is the force with
which the quiefcent parts of folid bodies oppofe the motion
of others contiguous to them.
Of this there are two kinds. The firft, where the refift-
ing, and the refifted parts, i. ¢. the moving and quiefcent
bodies, are only contiguous, and do not cohere ; i. e. where
they conftitute feparate bodies or maffes.
This is what M. Leibnitz calls refiflance of the furface ;
but which is now more commonly denominated friction ;
for the laws of which, fee Friction.
The fecond cafe of refiftance is where the refifting and
refitted parts are not only contiguous, but cohere ; i. e. are
parts of the fame continued body or mafs ; for the pheno-
mena and laws of which, fee ConesIon.
To which we may alfo add, the refiftance which takes
place between furfaces of folids, when completely in con-
ta, though not forming one and the fame body, or the
refiftance they offer to feparation, the particulars of which
are treated of under the article ADHESION.
Resistance of the Fibres of folid Bodies, Theory of the.
To form an idea of this refiftance or renitency of the parts,
{uppofe a cylindrical body fufpended vertically by one end.
Here all its parts, being heavy, tend downwards, and en-
deavour to feparate the two contiguous planes, where the
body is the weakeft ; but all the parts refift this feparation
by the force with which they cohere, or are bound to-
gether. Here then are two oppofite powers; viz. the
weight of the cylinder, which tends to break it ; and the
force of cohefion of the parts, which refifts the fra€ture.
If the bafe of the cylinder be increafed without increafing
its length, it is evident the refiftance will be mcreafed in the
fame ratio as the bafe ; but the weight alfo increafes in the
fame ratio: whence it is evident, that all cylinders of the
Dz fame
RESISTANCE.
fame matter and iength, whatever their bales may be, have
an equal refiftance, when vertically fufpended.
But if the length of the cylinder be increafed, without
increafing its bafe, its weight 1s increafed, while the refift-
ance or {lrength remains the fame: confequently it is
weakened by its additional length, and has a greater teu-
dency to break.
Hence, to find the greateft length a cylinder of any
matter may have, to break with its own weight ; it is only
neceflary to know what weight is juit fufficient to break
another: cylinder of the fame bafe and matter:. for the
length of the required cylinder muit be fuch, that its weight
may be equal to the weight of the firft cylinder, together
with the additional weight that was employed in producing
the feparation.
Thus let / denote the firft length of the cylinder, ¢ its
weight, g the given weight the lengthened cylinder is’ to
bear, and.w the leaft weight that breaks the cylinder /,
alfo x the length fought: then as Dee soe a TF = the
weight of the longeft cylinder ; and this, together with
the given weight g, muft be equal to c + w: hence
c+ w—
fy AM SDR pi gh
CX
then, Ei +gectwi ores
c
length fought. When the cylinder-is juft to break with its
own weight only, then g =, and the expreflion-is fimply
x= salts /.
c
If one end of the cylinder were fixed horizontally into a
wall, and the reft fufpended thence, its weight and refiftance
would then a@ in a different manner ; and if it be broke by
the aGtion of its weight, the rupture would be at the end
fixed into the wall. A circle or plane contiguous to the
wall, and parallel to the bafe, and confequently vertical,
would be detached from the contiguous circle within the
plane of the wall, and would defcend. All the motion is
performed on the loweft extremity of the diameter, which
remains immoveable, while the upper extremity defcribes a
quadrant of a circle, and till the circle, which before was
vertical, become horizontal ; 2. e. till the cylinder be entirely
broken.
In the fraGture of the cylinder it is vifible two forces
have acted, and the one has overcome the other: the weight
of the cylinder, which arofe from its whole mafs, has over-
come the refiftance which arofe from the largenefs of the
bafe ; and as the centres of gravity are points in which all
the forces, arifing from the weights of the feveral parts of
the fame bodies, are conceived to be united, one may con-
ceive the weight of the whole cylinder applied in the centre
of gravity of its mafs, i.e. ma point in the middle of its
axis: and the refiftance of the cylinder applied in the centre
of gravity of its bafe, i.e. in the centre of the bafe; it being
the bafe which refifts the fracture.
When the cylinder breaks by its own weight, all the mo-
tion is on an immoveable extremity of a diameter of the
bafe. This extremity, therefore, is the fixed point of a
lever, whofe two arms are the radius of the bafe, and half
the axis; and, of confequence, the two oppofite forces do
not only ac of themfelves, and by their abfolute force, but
alfo by the relative force they derive from their diftance with
regard to the fixed point of the lever.
Hence it evidently follows, that a cylinder, e. gr. of
copper, which, vertically fufpended, will not break by its
own weight, if lefs than four hundred and eighty fathom
long, will break with a lefs length in an horizontal fitua-
tion; becaufe the length, in this latter cafe, contributes
two ways to the fracture; both as it makes it of fuch a
weight, and as it is an arm of a lever to which the weight
is applied. Hence, alfo, the fmaller the bafe is, the Tels
length or weight will fuffice to break it ; both becaufe the
refiftance is really lefs, and becaufe it a€ts by a lefs arm of
a lever.
Hence, to find the length a prifm will bear, when fixed
in an horizontal pofition, before it breaks, either by its own
weight, or by the addition of any adventitious weight ;
take any length of fuch a prifm, and load it with weights
till it break ; then put iy
the length of this prifm,
its weight,
the weight that breaks it,
the diftance of the weight w,
any given weight to be borne,
its diltance, ;
the length required to break it.
Hue ww ea
Leet sistas
cw : 5
"Then wgsrecues dope: 7? the weight of the prifim a; and
cx i Piety 0
Ui xin = a = its momentum; alfo dg = the mo-
: Gite
mentum of the weight g; —
21
prifm x, and its additional weight g.
+ dg = momentum of the
In like manner we have 4 c/ + aw, for the mo-
mentum of the fhorter prifm, together with the weight 2w.
Confequently we obtain the following equation ;
Goce
aiite
2l
Ilel—_ds
from which is found « = Vo ah ae ag) athe
dg =iclt+aw;
length fought, or that by which the cylinder will break
with the weight g, at the diftance d. If this laft weight be
nothing, or the length be required when the cylinder would
jult break with its own weight, then we fhall have dg = o,
t1-j)\2
and the expreffion becomes fimply « = JR Bra D2 iN
c
If two cylinders of the fame matter, having their bafes
and lengths in the fame proportion, be fufpended hori-
zontally ; it is evident, that the. greater has more weight
than the lefler, both on account of its length, and of its
bafe. But it hath lefs refiftance on account of its length,
confidered as a longer arm of a lever, and has only more re-
fiftance on account of its bafe ; therefore it exceeds the lefler
in its bulk and weight more than in refittance, and confe-
quently it muft break more eafily.
Hence, we fee why, upon making models and machines
in fmall, people are apt to be miftaken as to the refiftance
and itrength of certain horizontal pieces, when they come
to execute their defigns in large, by obferving the fame pro-
portion as in the {mall. Galileo’s doétrine of refiftance,
therefore, is no idle {fpeculation, but becomes applicable in
architecture, and other arts.
The weight required to break a body, placed horizontally,
being always lefs than that required to break it in a vertical
fituation ; and this weight being to be greater or lef, ac-
cording to the ratio of the two arms of the lever, the whole
theory is always reducible to this: viz. to find what part
of the abfolute weight the relative weight is to be, fappofing
the figure of the body known; which indeed is neceflary,
becaule it is the figure that: determines the two centres of
gravity, or the two arms of the lever. For if the body,
e+ Fe
RESISTANCE.
é gr. were a cone, its centre of gravity would not be in
the middle of its axis, as in the cylinder ; and, if it were a
femi-parabolical folid, neither would its centre of gravity be
in the middle of its length or axis, nor the centre of gravity
of its bafe in the middle of the axis of its bafe. But {ftill,
wherefoever thefe centres fall in the feveral figures, the two
arms of the lever are eftimated accordingly.
It may be here obferved, that if the bafe, by which the
body is- fattened into the wall, be not circular, but, e gr.
parabolical, and the vertex of the parabola be at the top,
the motion of the fraGture will not be on an immoveable
point, but on a whole immoveable line; which may be
called the axis of equilibrium; and it is with regard to
this that the diftances of the centres of gravity are to be de-
termined,
Now, a body horizontally fufpended, being fuppofed
fuch as that the {malleft addition of weight would break it,
there is an equilibrium between its pofitive and relative
weight ; and of confequence thofe two oppofite powers are
to each other reciprocally as the arms of the lever to which
they are applied. On the other hand, the refiftance of a
body is always equal to the greatelt weight which it will
fuftain in a vertical fituation, without breaking, 7. e. is equal
to its abfolute weight. Therefore, fubftituting the abfo-
lute weight for the refiftance, it appears that the abfolute
weight of a body, fufpended horizontally, is to its relative
weight as the diftance of its centre of gravity from the axis
of equilibrium is to the diftance of the centre of gravity of
its bafe from the fame axis.
The difcovery of this important truth, at leaft an equi-
valent to it, and to which this is reducible, we owe to Ga-
lileo. From this fundamental propofition are eafily deduced
feveral confequences ; as, for inftance, that, if the diftance
of the centre of gravity of the bafe from the axis of equi-
librium be half the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
body, the relative weight will only be half the abfolute
weight ; and that a cylinder of copper, horizontally fuf-
pended, whofe length is double the diameter, will break,
provided it weigh half what a cylinder of the fame bafe,
4801 fathoms long, weighs.
On this theory of refiitance, which we owe to Galileo,
M. Mariotte made a very ingenious remark, which gave
birth to a new fyftem. Galileo fuppofes, that, where the
body breaks, all the fibres break at once; fo that the body
always refifts with its whole abfolute force, or with the
whole force. that all its fibres have in the place where it is
to be broke. But M. Mariotte, finding that all bodies,
even glafs itfelf, bend before they breke, fhews that fibres
are to be confidered as fo many little bent {prings, which
never exert their whole force till itretched to a certain point,
and never break till entirely unbent. Hence, thofe neareft
the axis of equilibrium, which is an immoveable line, are
ftretched lefs than thofe farther off; and, of confequence,
employ a lefs part of their force.
This confideration only takes place in the horizontal fitu-
ation of the body: in the vertical, the fibres of the bafe all
break at once; fo that the abfolute weight of the body mutt
exceed the united refiftance of all its fibres ; a greater weight
is, therefore, required here than in the horizontal fituation ;
that is, a greater weight is required to overcome their
united refiftance, than to overcome their feveral refiltances
one after another. The difference between the two fitua-
tions arifes hence, that, in the horizontal, there is an im-
moveable point or line, as a centre of motion, which is not
in the vertical.
Varignon has improved on the fyftem of M. Mariotte,
and fhewn, that, to Galileo’s fyftem, it adds the confidera-
tion of the centre of percuffion. The comparifon of the
2
centres of gravity with the centres of percuflion afford a
fine view, and fet the whole doétrine in a moft agreeable
light.
ot each fyftem, the bafe, by which the body breaks,
moves on the axis of equilibrium, which is an immoyeable
line in the fame bafe ; but in the fecond, the fibres of this
bafe are continually ftretching more and more, and that in
the fame ratio as they recede farther and farther from the
axis of equilibrium; and, of confequence, are {till exerting
a greater and greater part of their whole force.
Thefe unequal extenfions, like all other forces, muft have
fome common centre where they all meet, and with regard
to which they make equal efforts on each fide; and as they
are precifely in the fame proportion as the velocities which
the feveral points of a rod moved circularly would have to
one another, the centre of extenfion of the bafe, by which
the body breaks, or tends to break, muft be the fame with
its centre of percuffion. Galileo’s hypothefis, according to
which the fibres are fuppofed to ftretch equally, and break
all at once, correfponds to the cafe of a rod moving paral-
lel to itfelf, where the centre of extenfion or percuffion
does not appear, as being confounded with the centre of
gravity.
The bafe of fraétion being a furface, whofe particular
nature determines its centre of percuffion, it is neceff:
that this fhould be firft known, to find on what point of the
vertical axis of that bafe it is placed, and how far it is from
the axis of equilibrium. Indeed, we know in the general,
that it always aéts with fo much the more advantage as it is
farther from it ; becaufe it ats by a longer arm oF a lever ;
and of confequence it is the unequal refiftance of the fibres
in M. Mariotte’s hypothefis, which produces the centre of
percuffion ; but this unequal refittance is greater or lefs, ac-
cording as the centre of percuffion is placed more or lefs
high on’ the vertical axis of the bafe, in the different fur-
faces of the bafe of the fra@ture.
To exprefs this unequal refiftance, accompanied with all
the variation it is capable of, regard muft be had to the
ratio between the diftance of the centre of percuffion from
the axis of equilibrium, and the length of the vertical axis
of the bafe. In which ratio, the firft term, or the nume-
rator, is always lefs than the fecond, or the denominator ;
fo that the ratio is always a fraétion lefs than unity ; and
the unequal refiftance of the fibres in M. Mariotte’s hypo-
thefis is fo much the greater, or, which amounts to the
fame, approaches fo much nearer to the equal refiftance in
Galileo’s hypothefis, as the two terms of the ratio are
nearer to an equality.
Hence it follows, that the refiftance of bodies in M. Ma-
riotte’s fyftem is to that in Galilco’s, as the leaft of the
terms in the ratio is to the greateft. Hence, alfo, the re-
fiftance being lefs than what Galileo imagined, the relative
weight mult alfo be lefs; fo that the proportion already
mentioned between the abfolute and relative weight cannot
fubfift in the new fyitem, without an augmentation of the
relative weight, or a diminution of the abfolute weight ;
which diminution is had by multiplying the weight by the
ratio, which is always lefs than unity. This done, we find
that the abfolute weight, multiplied by the ratio, is to the
relative weight, as the diftance of the centre of gravity of
the body from the axis of equilibrium, is to the diftance of
the centre of gravity of the bafe of the fra€ture from the
fame axis: which is precifely the fame thing with the gene-
ral formula given by M. Varignon for the fyitem of M.
Mariotte. In effeét, after conceiving the relative weight of
a body, and its refiftance equal to its abfolute weight, as
two contrary powers applied to the two arms of a leyer, in
the hypothefis of Galileo, there needs nothing to convert it
into
RESISTANCE.
into that of M. Mariotte, but to imagine that the refiftance,
or the abfolute weight, is become lefs, every thing elfe re-
maining the fame.
One of the moft curious, and perhaps the moft ufeful
qucttions in this refearch, is to find what pews a body mutt
have, that its refittance may be equal in all its parts, whe-
ther it be loaded with an additional weight, or as only fui-
taining its own weight.
To this end it is neceflary that fome part of it fhould be
conceived to be cut off by a plane parallel to the fracture,
fo that the momentum of the part retrenched, be to its re-
fiftance in the fame ratio as the momentum of the whole is
to its refiftance. 'Thefe four powers at .by arms of levers
peculiar to themfelves, and are proportional in the whole,
and in each part, of a folid of equal refiftance. From this
proportion Varignon deduces two folids, which fhall refift
equally in all their parts, or be no more liable to break in
one part than in another. Galileo had previoufly found one
of thefe, which is that in which the fides are parabolical ;
the other, found by Varignon, is in the form of a trumpet,
which is to be fixed into the wall by its greater end; fo
that its magnitude or weight is always diminifhed in pro-
portion as its length, or the arm of the lever by which it
a¢ts, isincreafed. It is remarkable, that, however different
the two fyftems may be, the folids of equal refiftance are
the fame in both.
We cannot purfue the theory of refiftances to a greater
length in the prefent article ; but fhall confine ourfelves to
exhibiting a general fynopfis of the moft important refults
which have been drawn by different writers on this fubje&t,
both praétical and theoretical.
1. The refiftance of a beam, or bar, to a fraCture, by a
force acting laterally, is as the folid made by a feétion of
the beam in the place where the force is applied, into the
diftance of its centre of gravity from the point or line where
the breach will end.
2. In fquare beams, the lateral ftrengths are as the cubes ~
of their breadths or depths.
3. In cylindric beams, the refiftances or ftrengths are as
the cubes of the diameters.
4. Inre€tangular beams, the lateral ftrengths are conjointly
as the breadths and {quares of the depths.
5. The lateral refiftances of any beams, whofe feCtions are
fimilar figures and alike placed, are as the cubes of the like
dimenfions of thofe figures.
6.. The lateral ftrength of a beam, with its narrower face
upwards, is to its ftrength with the broader face upwards,
as the breadth of the broader face to the breadth of the
narrower.
7. The lateral ftrengths of prifmatic beams of the fame
materials, are as the areas of the feCtions, and the diftance
of their centre of gravity, direétly, and as their lengths
and weights reciprocally.
8. When the beam is fixed at both ends, the fame property
has place, except that, in this cafe, we muft confider the
beam as only half the length of the former.
g. Cylinders and {quare prifms have their lateral ftrengths
proportional to the cubes of their diameters, or depths, di-
reétly, and their lengths and weights inverfely.
10. Similar prifms and cylinders have their ftrength in-
verfely proportional to their linear dimenfions.
For other propofitions relative to the refiftance or ftrength
of beams of various forms and in various pofitions, fee the
article STRENGTH and Stre/s of Materials.
The following refults are wholly drawn from experi-
ments on different fubftances, by Emerfon and other
writers, by means of which the propofitions ftated in
7
the preceding part of this article may be fubmitted to
computation.
The relative Refiftances or Strengths of Wood and other
Bodies.
Proportional
Refifiance.
Box, yew, plum-tree, oak 2 3 II
Elm, afh - Fs = 3 Se ata
Walnut, thorn = = \- u oh
Red fir, hollin, elder, plane crab-tree, apple-tree 7
Beech, cherry-tree, hazel - - 62
Alder, afp, birch, white fir, willow 6
Tron a c = = = 107
Brafs 5 . 4 = B 50
Bone - - - = : 2
Lead - - - = = 62
Fine free-{tone -— - - Tak
A cylindric rod of good clean fir, of a inch circum-
ference, drawn in length, will bear at its extremity 400 lbs. ;
and a {pear of fir, of two inches diameter, will bear about feven
ton weight. A rod of good iron, of an inch circumference,
will bear nearly three ton weight. A good hempen rope, of
an inch circumference, will bear 1000 lbs. at its extremity.
Hence Emerfon concludes, that if a rod of fir, or a rope,
or a rod of iron, of d inches diameter, were to lift a quarter
of the extreme weight that they would fupport, then
The fir would bear 82 d? hundred weight.
The rope - .22 d° ditto.
The iron - 62 d* tons.
To thefe refults we may add, from the experiments and
inveftigations of profeflor Robifon, that a prifm of white
marble, an inch fquare and a foot long, bears about 500 lbs.
And that, from the various authors he has collected, the co-
hefive force of a fquare inch of gold, when cait, is about
20,000 lbs. ; of filver, 40,000 lbs. ; catt iron from 40,000 to
60,000 lbs. ; wrought iron from 60,000 to go,000 lbs. ; foft
fteel, 12,000 lbs. ; razor fteel, 15,000 lbs. ; oak and beech,
in the direétion of their fibres, from 8000 to 17,000 lbs.
willow, 12,000 lbs. ; cedar, sooo lbs. ; fir, 8000 lbs. ; ivory,
16,000 Ibs. ; bone, 50co lbs. ; rope, 20,000 Ibs. And a
cylinder, an inch in diameter, loaded to one-fourth, will
carry, if of iron, 135 cwt. ; of rope, 22 cwt.; oak, 14 cwt. 5
and fir, g cwt.
The refiftance of fome metals is doubled, or tripled, by
the operation of forging and wire-drawing ; and the co-
hefive, as well as the repulfive, force of wood, is often in-
creafed by moderate compreffion. Oak will /u/pend much
more than fir; but fir will /upport twice as much as oak $
which difference is fuppofed to arife from the curvature of
the fibres of oak ; yet oak has been known to fupport, with
fafety, more than two tons for every {quare inch. Stone
will fupport from 250 to 850 thoufand pounds, on a foot
f{quare ; brick, 300 lbs. ; and fometimes they are pra¢tically
made to fupport one-fixth as much. Stone is faid to be ca-
pable of bearing a much greater weight in that pofition in
which it is found in the quarry, than in any other pofition.
See SrrenGTH of Materials.
Resistance of Fluids, in Hydroftatics, is the force with
which bodies, moving in fluid mediums, are impeded and
retarded in their motion.
A body moving in a fluid is refifted from two caufes :
the firft, the cohefion of the parts of the fluid. Fora
body, in its motion, feparating the parts of a liquid, muft
overcome the force with which thofe parts cohere.
The fecond is the inertia, or inactivity of matter, by
which
RESISTANCE.
which a certain force is required to move the particles from
their places, in order to let the body pafs.
The retardation from the firft caufe is always the fame
in the fame fpace, the body remaining the fame, whatever
be the velocity, that is, the refiftance 1s as the {pace run
through in the fame time ; in which ratio the velocity alfo
increales ; and therefore the refiftance from the firft caufe
is as the velocity itfelf.
The refiltance from the fecond caufe, when the fame
body moves through different fluids with the fame volccity,
foliows the proportion of the matter to be removed in the
fame time, which is as the denfity of the fluid.
When the fame body moves through the fame fluid with
different velocities, this refiftance increafes in proportion
to the number of particles ftruck in an equal time ; which
number is as the {pace run through in that time, that is,
as the velocity. But it alfo increafes in proportion to the
force with which the body {trikes againft every part ;
which force is alfo as the velocity of the body ; and there-
fore, if the velocity be triple, the refiftance is triple, from
atriple number of parts to be removed. It is alfo triple
from a ftroke three times ftronger againft every particle ;
therefore the whole refiftance is nine-fold, that is, as the
fquare of the velocity. Hence, a body moved in a fluid
is refifted partly in a ratio of the velocity, and partly in a
duplicate ratio of it.
Hence, therefore, if d denotes the denfity of the fluid,
v the velocity of the body, and aand 4 conftant co-efficients ;
then adv + bv will be proportional to the whole refiftance
~ to the fame body, moving with different velocities, in the
fame diretion through fluids of different denfities, but of
the fame tenacity. But to take into confideration the dif-
ferent tenacities of fluids, let ¢ denote the tenacity, or the
cohefion of the parts of the fluid; then adv’ + 4¢v will
be as the faid whole refiftance.
The quantity of refiflance, however, arifing from the
cohefion of the parts of the fluids, is very trifling with
refpect to the other refiftance, except in very glutinous
ones ; and it alfo increafes in a much lower degree, being
only as the velocity, while the other is as the fquare of the
velocity. Hence then the term 4/ v is very {mall, in refpect
of the other term adv*, and, confeqnently, the refiftance
is nearly as the latter term, or nearly as the fquare of the
velocity: which formula has been employed by moft
authors, and is, indeed, very nearly the truth in flow
motions; but in very rapid ones it is far from correé&, not
fo much from the omiffion of the {mall term 4#v, due to
the cohefion; but from the want of the full counter pref-
{ure on the hinder part of the body, by which means a
vacuum, either perfect or partial, is left behind the body in
its motion; and alfo perhaps to fome compreffion or ac-
cumulation of the fluid again{t the fore-part of the body.
Therefore, in order to conceive the refiftance of fluids
to a body moving in them, it is neceffary to diftinguifh be-
tween thofe fluids which, being compretled by fome incum-
bent weight, perpetually clofe up the {pace behind the
body in motion, without permitting, for an inftant, any
vacuity to remain behind it; and thofe fluids which, not
being fufficiently compreffed, the {pace left behind the
moving body remains for fome time empty. ‘hefe dif-
ferences, in the refifting fluids, will occafion very remark-
able varieties in the laws of their refiftance, and are abfo-
lutely neceffary to be confidered in the determination of
the aGtion of the air on fhot and fhells ; for the air partakes
ef both thefe affeCtions, according to the different velocities
of the projected body.
In treating of thefe refiftances, the fluids may likewife be
confidered as continued or difcontinued, that is, as having
their particles contiguous, or as being feparated and un-
conneéted, and alfo as either elaftic or non-elattic.
If a fluid was fo conttituted, that all the particles com-
pofing it were at fome diftance from each other, and there
was no action between them, then tHe refiftance of a body
moving in it would be eafily computed, from the quantity
of motion communicated to thefe particles: for inftance, if
a cylinder moved in fuch a fluid in the dire&tion of its axis,
it would communicate to the particles it met with a velocity
equal to its own, and in its own dire@tion, fuppofing that
neither the cylinder, nor the parts of the fluid, were elattic ;
whence, if the velocity and diameter of the cylinder be
known, and alfo the denfity of the fluid, there would thence
be determined the quantity of motion communicated to the
fluid, which, action and re-action being equal, is the fame
with the quantity loft by the cylinder, confequently the
refiftance would be thereby afcertained.
In this kind of difcontinued fluid, the particles being
detached from each other, every one of them can purfue
its Own motion in any dire@tion, at leaft for fome time, in-
dependent of the neighbouring ones; wherefore, if inftead
of a cylinder, moving in the direétion of its axis, a body,
with a furface oblique to its direétion, be fuppofed to moye
in fuch a fluid, the motion which the parts of the fluid
will hereby acquire, will not be in the direGtion of the re-
fifted body, but perpendicular to its oblique furface ; whence
the refiftance to fuch a body will not be eftimated from the
whole motion communicated to the particles of the fluid,
but from that part of it only which is in the dire&tion of
the refifted body. In fluids then, where the parts are thus
difcontinued from each other, the different obliquities of
that furface, which goes foremoft, will occafion confiderable
changes in the refiftance ; although the feGtion of the folid,
by a plane perpendicular to its direCtion, fhould in all cafes
be the fame. And fir Ifaac Newton has particularly deter-
mined, that, in a fluid thus conftituted, the refiftance of a
globe is but half the refiftance of a cylinder of the fame
diameter, moving in the direétion of its axis with the fame
velocity.
But though the hypothefis of a fluid, thus conftituted,
be of great ufe in explaining the nature of refiftances ; yet,
in reality, we know of no fuch fluid exifting in nature ;
all the fluids, with which we are converfant, are fo formed,
that their particles either lie contiguous to each other, or
at leaft aét on each other in the fame manner as if they did ;
confequently, in thefe fluids, no one particle contiguous to
the refifted body can be moved, without moving at the
fame time a great number of others, fome of which will
be diftant from it ; and the motion thus communicated to
a mafs of the fluid, will not be in any one determined direc-
tion, but will in each particle be different, according to
the different manners in which it lies in contaét with thofe
from which it receives its impulfe ; whence great numbers
of the particles being diverted into oblique direétions, the
refiftance of the moving body, which will depend on the
quantity of motion communicated to the fluid in its own
dire&tion, will neceffarily be different in quantity, from
what it would be in the preceding fuppofition, and its efti-
mation becomes much more complicated and operofe.
If the fluid be compreffed by the incumbent weight of
its upper parts, as all the fluids are with us, except at their
very furface, and if the velocity of the moving body be
much lefs than that with which the parts of the fluid would
rufh into a void fpace, in confequence of their compreffion ;
it is evident, that in this cafe the fpace left by the moving
body will be inftantaneoufly filled up by the fluid ; and the
parts
RESISTANCE.
parts of the fluid, againft which the foremoft part of the
body preffles in its motion, will, inftead of being impelled
forwards in the dire€tion of the body, circulate in fome
meafure towards the hinder part of it, thereby to reftore
the equilibrium, which the conftant influx of the fluid
behind the body would otherwife deftroy ; whence the
progreflive motion of the fluid, and confequently the re-
fiftance of the body, which depends on it, would be in
this inftance much lefs than in the hypothefis, where each
particle is fuppofed to acquire, from the {troke of the re-
fifting body, a velocity equal to that with which the body
moved, and in the fame direétion. Sir Ifaac Newton has
determined, that the refittance of a cylinder, moving in
the dire€tion of its axis, in fuch a comprefled fluid as we
have here treated of, is but one-fourth part of the refiftance
which the fame cylinder would undergo, if it moved with
the fame velocity, in a fluid conftituted in the manner de-
{cribed in the firlt hypothefis, each fluid being fuppofed to
be of the fame denfity.
But again, it is not only in the quantity of their refilt-
ance that thefe fluids differ, but likewife in the different
manner in which they aét on folids of different forms, mov-
ing inthem. In the difcontinued fluid, firft defcribed, the
obliquity of the foremoft furface of the moving body
would diminifh the refiftance ; but in comprefled fluids this
holds not true, at leaft not in any confiderable degree ; for
the principal refiftance in compreffed fluids arifes from the
greater or lefler facility with which the fluid, impelled by
the fore-part of the body, can circulate towards its hinder-
mott part ; and this being little, if at all, affe€ted by the
form of the moving body, whether it be cylindrical, conical,
or {pherical, it follows, that while the tranfverfe fection of
the body, and confequently the quantity of impelled fluid
is the fame, the change of figure in the body will {carcely
affeG the quantity of its refiftance.
And this cafe, that is, the refiftance of a compreffed fluid
to a folid, moving in it with a velocity much lefs than what
the parts of the fluid would acquire from their compreflion ;
this cafe has been very fully confidered by fir aac Newton,
who has afcertained the quantity of fuch a refiftance ac-
cording to the different magnitudes of the moving body,
and the denfity of the fluid. But he very exprefsly in-
forms us, that the rules he kas laid down are not generally
true, but upon a fuppofition that the compreffion of the
fluid be increafed in the greater velocities of the moving
body : however, fome unfkilful writers, who have followed
him, overlooking this caution, have applied his determina-
tion to bodies moving with all kinds of velocities, without
attending to the different compreffions of the fluids they
are refitted by; and by this means they have accounted
the refiftance of the air to mufket and cannon-fhot, to
be but one-third part of what it is found to be by ex-
perience.
It is indeed evident, that the refifting power of the
medium muit be increafed, when the refifting body moves
fo faft that the fuid cannot inftantaneoufly prefs in behind
it, and fill the deferted fpace; for when this happens the
body will be deprived of the preffure of the fluid behind
it ; which in fome meafure balanced its refiftance, and mult
fupport on its fore-part the whole weight of a column of
the fluid, independent of the motion it gives to the parts of
the fluid ; and befides, the motion in the particles driven
before the body, is, in this cafe, lefs affe€ted by the com-
preflion of the fluid, and confequently they are lefs deflected
from the direétion in which they are impelled by the refifted
furface ; whence this fpecies of refiftance approaches more
and more to that defcribed in the firft hypothefis, where
each particle of the fluid being unconnected with the neigh-
bouring ones, it purfues its own motion, in its own direc-
tion, without being interrupted or deflected by their
contiguity ; and therefore, as the refiftance of a difcon-
tinued fluid to a cylinder, moving in the direétion of its
axis, is four times greater than the refiftance of a fluid
{ufficiently compreffed of the fame denfity ; it follows, that
the refiftance of a fluid, when a vacuity is left behind the
moving body, may be nearly four times greater than that of
the fame fluid, when no fuch vacuity is sea for when a
void {pace is thus left, the refiltance approaches in its na-
ture to that of a difcontinued fluid.
This, then, may probably be the cafe ina cylinder moving
in the fame comprefled fluid, according to the different de-
grees of its velocity ; fo that if it fet out witha great velo-
city, and moves in. the fluid till that velocity be much
diminifhed, the refitting power of the medium may be
nearly four times greater in the beginning of its motion
than in the end.
In a globe the difference will not be fo great, becaufe,
on account of its oblique furface, its refiitance in a dif-
continued medium is but about twice as much as in one
properly compreiled ; for its oblique furface diminifhes its
refittance in one cafe, and not in the other: however, as
the compreffion of the medium, even when a vacuity is left
behind the moving body, may yet confine the oblique mo-
tion of the parts of the fluid, which are driven before the
body, and as in an elaftic fluid, as the air is, there will be
fome degree of condenfation in thofe parts; it is highly
probable, that the refiftance of a globe moving in a com-
prefied fluid may greatly exceed the proportion of the. re-
fiitance to flow motions.
And as this increafe of the refifting power of the medium
will take place, when the velocity of the moving body is fo
great that a perfect vacuum is lett behind it, fo fome degree
of augmentation will be fenfible in velocities much fhort of
this; for even when, by the compreflion of the fluid, the
{pace left behind the body is inftantaneoufly filled up ; yet,
if the velocity with which the parts of the fluid rufh in be-
hind, is not much greater than that with which the body
moves, the fame reafons we have urged above, in the cafe
of an abfolute vacuity, will hold in a lefs degree in this in-
ftance; and therefore we are not to fuppofe, that, in the
increafed refiftance which we have hitherto treated of, it
immediately vanifhes, when the compreffion of the fluid is
jutt fufficient to prevent a vacuum behind the refifted body ;
but we mutt confider it as diminifhing only, according as the
velocity with which the parts of the fluid follow the body,
exceeds that with which the body moves.
Hence, then, we may conclude, that if a globe fets out in
a refifting medium, with a velocity much exceeding that with
which the particles of the medium would rufh into a void
{pace, in confequence of their compreffion, fo that a vacuum
is neceflarily left behind the globe in its motion: the refift-
ance of this medium to the globe will be near three times
greater, in proportion to its velocity, than what we are fure,
from fir Ifaac Newton, would take placc in a flower motion,
We may alfo farther conclude, that the refifting power of
the medium will gradually diminifh as the velocity of the
globe decreafes, till at lait, when it moves with a velocity
which bears but a {mall proportion to that with which the
particles of tne medium follow it, the refiftance becomes the
fame with what is afligned by fir Ifaac Newton in the cafe of
a comprefled fluid. 5
And from this determination we fee how falfe that po-
fition is, which aflerts the refiftance of any medium to be
in the duplicate proportion of the velocity of the refifted
body ;
RESISTANCE.
body ; for it is evident by what we have faid, that this can
only be confidered as nearly true in fmall variations of ve-
locity, and can never be applied in the comparing together
of the refiftances to all velocities whatever, without the moft
enormous errors. See New Principles of Gunnery, by
” Mr. Robins, chap. 2. prop. 1. See Resistance of the Air.
Sce alfo Proyectite and GuNNERY.
Refiftance and retardation are ufed indifferently for each
other, as being both in the fame proportion, and the fame
refiftance always generating the fame retardation. But,
with regard to different bodies, the fame refiftance frequently
generates different retardations; the refiftance being as the
quantity of motion, and the retardation as that of the ce-
lerity.. For the difference and meafure of the two, fee Rz-
TARDATION-
The retardations from this refittance may be compared
together, by comparing the refiftance with the gravity or
quantity of matter. Thus, let v = the velocity ; a = the
area of the face, or end of a cylinder; » = the {pecific
gravity of the fluid; g = 323 feet, the force of gravity ;
then the altitude due to the velocity v being - » the whole
refiftance, or motive force m, will be expreffed by the fol-
lowing formule ;
vw anv? anv’s?
m= anx —> >; r= :
2g 2g 2g
the latter having place when the motion is not in a direc-
‘tion perpendicular to the plane or end, but is inclined to it
at a given angle, whofe fine iss. For it is a known pro-
perty, that, in this cafe, the refiftance varies as the cube of
the fine of the angle of inclination. If now w be made to
denote the weight of the body, and f the retarding force ;
then, on the fame principles, we derive
m
eerts <a 2gw
If the body be acylinder, moving in the diretion of its
axis, and the diameter of the bafe equal d, or radius, and
x = 3.14159, &c. then
m and*v*
GTB pe
But when the cylinder moves in a dire¢tion perpendicular to
its axis, then writing 4 for the height or length of the cy-
linder, we have
wnr? vy?
2gw
m nv*hd
a, = — =
nvehr
3gw
And when it moves obliquely to its axis, then writing s for
the fine of the angle of inclination, we have
nv*rhs3 ete nelhg its 1)?
4 2g igs baad 40 ‘i
(s*+5)(s*-—1)? i: xe. pERBats, (- yt
112 2g
See Moore’s Theory of Military Rockets.
If the body be a cone, then the fame notation remaining,
only writing s for the fine of the angle of inclination of
the fide of the cone; then
m rs
— w 8gw ee 2gw :
For, in this cafe, the inclination has no effe& in re-
ducing the fe&tion oppofed to the refiftance of the fluid,
this being the fame as ia the cylinder, and therefore will
vary ass.
VoL. XXX.
The fame notation itill remaining, it 1s found, from a flux-
ional inveftigation (fee Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. i.) that
the refiftance of the body, when terminated with a hemi-
{pherical furface, is
ee rar? y*
ytd)
| a gw 4gu
that is, half what it is when the end is a plane furface.
Hence the refiftance of a fphere, when impelled through
any fluid, is equal to half the dire¢t refiftance to a great
circle of it, or to a cylinder of the fame diameter. Since
4d’ is the magnitude of the globe, if N denotes its den-
fity, or fpecific gravity, its weight w = 32Nd°; and,
xnd*v*
_ therefore, the retardive force becomes
xnv*d? 6 gnv* vu?
* =aNdi~ 8gNd 2g5°
where s isthe {pace defcribed ; for 2 fgs = v’, by the law
of accelerated or retarded motions. From which it appears,
that the refiltance varies as the fquare of the velocity di-
retly, and as the diameter inverfely, all things elfe being
the fame; and hence the reafon, why a large ball overcomes
refiftance better than a {maller one.
James Bernouilli demonftrates the following theorems,
AGa Erud. Lipf. for June 1693, p. 252, &c.
1. If an ifofceles triangle be moved in a fluid according
to the direGtion of a line perpendicular to its bafe; firft,
with the vertex foremoit, and then with its bafe ; the refift-
ances will be in the duplicate ratio of the bafe, and of the
fum of the legs.
2. The refiftance of a {quare, moved according to the di-
rection of its fide, is to the refiftance of the fame {quare,
moved with the fame celerity in the dire¢tion of its diagonal,
as the diagonal is to the fide.
3. The refiftance of a circular ferment, lefs than a femi-
circle, carried in a direction perpendicular to its bafis, when
it goes with the bafe foremoit, and when with its vertex
foremott (the fame direétion and celerity continuing), is as
the fquare of the fame diameter to the fame, lefs one-
third of the fquare of the bafe of the fegment. Hence,
the refiftances of a femicircle, when its bafe and when its
vertex go foremoit, are to one another ina fefquialterate
ratio.
4- A parabola moving in the direGtion of its axis, firft
with its bafis, and then its vertex foremoit, has its refift-
ances as the tangent to an.arc of a circle, whofe diameter
is equal to the parameter, and the tangent equal to half the
bafis of the parabola.
5. The refiftances of an hyperbola and ellipfis, when the
vertex and bafe go foremoft, may be thus computed. Say,
as the fum (or ae of the tranfverfe axis and latus
rectum is to the tranfverfe axis, fois the {quare of the latus
rectum to the fquare of the diameter of a certain circle ;
in which circle apply a tangent, equal to half the bafis of
the hyperbola or ellipfe. ‘Then fay again, as the fum (or
difference) of the axis and parameter is to the parameter,
fo is the aforefaid tangent to another right line. And
farther, as the fum (or difference) of the axis and parame-
ter is to the axis, fo is the circular arc correfponding to the
aforefaid tangent to another arc. This done, the refift-
ances will be as the tangent to the fum (or difference) of the
right line thus found, and the arc laft mentioned.
6. In the general, the refiftances of any figure whatever,
going now with its bafe foremoit, and then with its vertex, are
as the figures of the bafe to the fum of all the cubes of the
elements of the bafe, divided by the {quares of the elements
of the curve line,
f=—=
w 16gw
E All
RESISTANCE.
All which rules may be of ufe in the conftruGtion of hips,
and in perfe€ting the art of navigation univerfally ; as alfo
for determining the figures of the balls of pendulums for
clocks, &c.
Resistance of Fluid Mediums to the Motion of Falling
Bodies. —A body freely defcending ina fluid is accelerated
by the refpective gravity of the body, which continually aéts
upon it, yet not equably, asin a vacuum : the refiftance of
the fluid occafions a retardation, that is, a diminution of
acceleration, which diminution increafes with the velocity of
the body. Now there is a certain velocity, which is the
greateft a body can acquire by falling ; for if its velocity be
fuch, that the refiftance arifing from it becomes equal to
the refpective weight of the body, its motion can be no
longer accelerated ; for the motion here continually gene-
rated by the refpective gravity, will be deftroyed by the re-
fiftance, and the body forced to go on equably. A body
continually comes nearer and nearer to this greateft celerity,
but can never attain to it.
When the denfities of a fluid body are given, the
vefpedtive weight of the body may be known ; and by know-
ing the diameter of the body, it may be found from what
height a body falling in vacuo can acquire fuch a velocity as
that the refiftance in a fluid thall be equal to that refpective
weight, which will be that greateft velocity above-men-
tioned. If the body bea {phere, it is known, that a {phere
is equal to a cylinder of the fame diameter, whofe height is
two-third parts of that diameter ; which height is to be in-
creafed in the ratio in which the refpeCtive weight of the
body exceeds the weight of the fluid, in order to have the
height of a cylinder of the fluid, whofe weight is equal to
the refpetive weight of the body; but if you double this
height, you will have a height from which a body falling in
vacuo acquires fuch a velocity as generates a refiftance equal
to this refpeGtive weight, and which therefore is the greateft
velocity which a body can acquire, by falling in a fluid,
from an infinite height. Lead is eleven times heavier than
water ; wherefore its refpective weight is to the weight of
water, as ten to one; therefore a Teac ball, as appears
from what has been faid, cannot acquire a greater velocity,
in falling in water, than it would acquire in falling in vacuo,
froma height of 13 of its diameters.
A body lighter than a fluid, and afcending in it by the
ation of the fluid, is moved exaétly by the fame laws as a
heavier body falling in the fluid. Wherever the body is
placed, it is fuftained by the fluid, and carried up with a
force equal to the difference between the weight of a quan-
tity of the fluid of the fame bulk as the body, and the body
itfelf ; by which not only the-aétion of gravity of the body
is deftroyed; but the body isalfo carried upwards by a mo-
tion equably accelerated, in the fame manner as a body heavier
than a fluid defcends by its refpective gravity : but the equa-
bility of the acceleration is deftroyed in the fame manner by
the refiftance, in the afcent of a body lighter than the fluid,
as it is deftroyed in the defcent of a body heavier.
When a body fpecifically heavier than a fluid is thrown
in it, it is retarded upon a double account ; on account of
the gravity of the body, and on account of the refiftance of
the fluid; confequently, a body rifes to a lefs height than
it would rife to in vacuo with the fame celerity. But the
defects of the height in a fluid from the height to which a
body would rife in vacuo with the fame celerity, have. a
greater proportion to each other than the heights them-
felves ; and in lefs heights the defects are nearly as the
{quares of the heights in vacuo.
In order to fubmit the above principles to accurate com-
putation, we mult refer back to our preceding determination
of the retardative force of a fluid to a body moving it, whicle
we found to be
ipo
m anv’ d* 6 3nv™ v?
ST
sy «Nd 8gNd_ 2gs°
16g
from the two latter terms of which we have s = N x 3d;
n
which is the fpace that would be defcribed by the globe,
while its whole motion is generated or deftroyed by a con-
ftant force, which is equal to the forces of refiftance, if no
other force aéted on the globe to continue its motion.
And if the denfity of the fluid were equal to that of the
globe, the refilting force is fuch as, aéting conftantly on
the globe without any other force, would generate or deitro
its motion in defcribing the {pace 3d, or + of its diameter,
by that accelerating or retarding force.
Hence the greateft velocity that a ball will acquire by
defcending in a fluid by means of its relative weight in that
fluid, will be found by making the refifting force equal to
that weight. For, after the velocity has arrived at fuch a
degree, that the refifting force is equal to the weight that
urges it, it will increafe no longer, and the globe will then
continue to defcend with an uniform velocity.
Now N and z being the feparate fpecific gravities of the
globe and fluid, N — a will be the relative gravity of the
globe in the fluid ; and, therefore, w = 3 rd (N — 2)
is the weight by which it is urged, m = eee is the
10g
vy? da?
refiftance ; confequently er = i7d) (N — 2)
when the velocity becomes uniform ; whence we obtain
N-2x
n )
for the uniform or greateft velocity of the globe.
Thus, for example, if a leaden ball one inch in diameter
defcend in water, and in air of the fame denfity as at the
earth’s furface; the three {pecific gravities being, lead
3
= 111, water = 1, and air = —?—
250
; then
As
apie AL AG2 Ze 56 x 103) = 8.5944 feet
per fecond for the greateft velocity in water; and
193 4 34
v= d(x a Con 3 x A
per feeond for the greateft velocity in air.
But as this velocity, all other things being the fame,
variesas ,/ d; it follows that a ball of -1,th of an inch dia-
meter would only acquire velocities +1,th of thofe given above.
Hence it appears, how foon fmall bodies come to their
greateft or uniform velocity in defcending in fluids, and
how very {mall that velocity is; which explains the reafon
of the flow precipitation of mud and {mall particles in
water, as alfo why, in precipitations, the larger and grofs
particles defcend fooneft and lowett.
It appears alfo, from the preceding formulz, that where
N = 2, or the denfity of the body is equal to that of the
fluid ; then N — x= o, and confequently the velocity and
ne are in this cafe both equal to zero, as they ought
to be. :
Again, when the body is lighter than the fluid, then
N — z becomes negative, and the motion and force both
tend the contrary way ; that is, the ball will afcend by the
6 fame
2500
) = 259.82 feet
RESISTANCE.
fame laws by which, in the preceding cafe, the heavier body
defcended, as {tated in the preceding part of this article.
Resistance of the dir, in Pneumatics,is the force with which
the motion of bodies, particularly of projectiles, is retarded by
the oppofition of the air or atmofphere. See Gunnery.
Theair being a fluid, the geueral laws of the refiftance of
fluids obtain in it, except that the different degrees of denfity,
in the different {tages or regions of the atmofphere, occafion
fome irregularity.
As to the refiftance of the air, it has been thus deter-
mined from experiments. Mr. Robins, in his New Prin-
ciples of Gunnery, chap. 2. prop. 2, &c. having taken a
mufket barrel, and charging it fucceflively with a leaden
ball of three-quarters of an inch diameter, and about half
its weight of powder, and taking fuch precaution in weigh-
ing of the powder, and placing it, as to be fure, by many
previous trials, that the velocity of the ball could not differ
by 20 feet in 1” from its medium quantity, fired it againit
a pendulum, called the balliftic pendulum, (defcribed under
Gunnery), placed at 25 feet, at 75 feet, and at 125 feet
diftance from the mouth of the piece refpectively. In the
firft cafe, it impinged againft the pendulum with a velocity
of 1670 feet in 1; in the fecond cafe, with a velocity of
1550 feet in 1’; and in the third cafe, with a velocity of
1425 fect in 1!; fo that in pafling through 50 feet of air,
the bullet loft a velocity of about 120 or 125 feet in 1;
and the time of its pafling through that {pace being about
sd or sth of 1, the medium quantity of refiftance mutt,
in thefe inftances, have been about 120 times the weight of
the ball; which, as the bali was nearly +,th of a pound,
amounts to about rolbs. avoirdupois.
Now, if a computation be made, according to the method
laid down for comprefled fluids, in the 38th propof. of
hb. ii, of fir Ifaac Newton’s Principia, fuppofing the weight
- of water to be to the weight of air as 850 to 1, it will be
found that the refiftance of a globe of three-quarters of an
inch diameter, moving with a velocity of about 1600 feet in
«’, will not, on thofe principles, amount to any more than
a force of 4lbs. avowdupois ; whence we may conclude,
the rules in that propofition for flow motions being very
accurate, that the refilting power of the air in flow motions
is lefs than in {wift motions, in the ratio of 43 to 10, a pro-
portion between that of 1 to 2, and I to 3. rr.
Again, charging the fame piece with equal quantities of
nowih, and balls of the fame weight, and firing three times
at the pendulum, placed at 25 feet diltance from the mouth
of the piece, the medium of the velocities with which the ball
impinged was nearly that of 16go feet in 1”, Then removing
the piece 175 feet from the pendulum, the velocity of the
ball, at a medium of five fhots, was that of 1300 feet in 1.
Whence the ball, in pafling through t50 feet of air, loft a
velocity of about 390 feet in 1; and the refiftance, com-
puted ie thefe numbers, gives fomething more than in the
preceding inftance, vega: to between 11 and 12 pounds
avoirdupois : whence, according to thefe experiments, the
refilting power of the air to {wilt motions is greater than in
flow ones, in aratio which approaches nearer to the ratio of
3 to 1, than in the preceding experiments. Next, to examine
this refilance in {maller velocities, thg pendulum being
placed at 25 feet diftance, was fired at five times, with an
equal charge each time, and the mean velocity with which
the ball impinged, was that of 1180 feet in 1. Then re-
moyirig the pendulum to the diftance of 250 feet, the me-
dium’ velocity of five fhot, at this diftance, was that of gso
‘feet'in 1; whence the ball, in pafling through 225 feet of
air, loft a velocity of 230 feet in 1’, and as it pafled through
that interval in about 2,ths of 1, the refiftance to the mid le
velocity will come out to be near 334 times the gravity of
the ball, or 2lb. 100z. avoirdupois. Now the refiftance
to the fame velocity, according to the laws obferved in
flower motions, amounts to 42,ths of the fame quantity ;
whence, in a velocity of 1065 feet in 1! (the medium of 1180
and 950), the refitting power of the air is augmented in io
gress proportion than that of 7 to rr ; whereas, in greater
egrees of velocity, as before, it amounted very nearly to the
ratio of 1 to 3.
By other experiments, it appears, that the refiftance of
the air is very fenfibly increafed, even in fo {mall a velocity
as that of 4oo feet in 1,
That this refilting power of the air to f{wift motions is
very fenfibly increafed beyond what fir [faac’s theory for
flow motions makes it, feems hence to be evident. It
being, as has been faid, in mufket, or cannon fhot, with
their full charge of powder, nearly three times the quantity
afligned by that theory.
However, this increafed power of refiltance diminifhes as
the velocity of the relifted body diminifhes, till at length,
when the motion is fufficiently abated, the aétual refiftance
coincides with that fuppofed in the theory.
The refiltance of a bullet of three-quarters of an inch
diameter, moving in air with the velocity of 1670 feet in 1",
amounting, as we faid, to rolbs., the refiftance of a cannon ball
of 2ylbs., fired with r6lbs., or its full charge of powder, and
thereby moving with a velocity of 1650 feet in 1", (which
fearcely differs from the ara may hence be determined.
For the velocity of the cannon ball being nearly the fame as
the mufket bullet, and its furface above 54 times greater, it
follows, that the refiftance on the cannon ball will amount
to more than 54olbs. which is nearly 23 times its own weight.
Euler has fhewn, that the common do@trine of refiftance
anf{wers very, well when the motion is not very fwift, but
in very {wift motions it gives the refiftance lefs than it
ought to be, on two accounts. 1. Becaufe in very quick
motions the air does not fill up the {pace behind the body
fait enough to prefs on the hinder parts, that the refiftance
on the fore part is increafed. 2. The denfity of the air
before the ball, being increafed by the quick motion, will
prefs more {trongly on the fore part, and, being heavier
than in its ee ate, will retard its motion.
He has alfo fhewn, that Mr. Robins has reftrained his
rule to velocities not exceeding 1670 feet in 1"; whereas,
had he extended it to greater velocities, the refult muft have
been erroneous ; as he apprehends that it is not perfectly
exact, when the motion is not extremely fwift. He has in-
veltigated a formula for determining the degree of this re-
fiftance, and deduced conclufions differing from thofe of
Mr. Robins. See Principles of Gunnery inveltigated, &c.
1777) ps 224, &c.
Mr. Robins having proved that, in very great changes
of velocity, the refiltance does not accurately follow the
duplicate proportion of the velocity, lays down two pofi-
tions, which may be of confiderable fervice in the practice
of artillery, till a more complete and accurate theory of
refiftance, and the changes of its augmentation, may be
obtained. The firlt of thefe is, that till the velocity of the
projectile furpafles that of 1100 feet in a fecond, the re-
filtance may be efteemed to be in the duplicate proportion
of the velocity : and the fecond is, that if the velocity be
greater than that of 1100 or 1200 feet in a fecond, the
abfolute quantity of the refiftance will be nearly three times
as great as it fhould be by a comparifon with the fmaller
velocities. Upon thefe principles, he proceeds in approxi-
mating the actual ranges of pieces with {mall mies of
elevation, viz. fuch as do not exceed 8° or 10°, which he
{ets down in a table, compared with their correfponding poten«
tialranges. See his Mathematical Tracts, vol. i. p+ 179) &e,
I 2 Since
RESISTANCE.
All which rules may be of ufe in the conftruGtion of fhips,
and in perfeGting the art of navigation univerfally ; as alfo
for determining the figures of the balls of pendulums for
clocks, &c.
Resistance of Fluid Mediums to the Motion of Falling
Bodies. —A body freely defcending in:a fluid is accelerated
by the refpective gravity of the body, which continually aéts
upon it, yet not equably, asin a vacuum: the refiftance of
the fluid occafions a retardation, that is, a diminution of
acceleration, which diminution increafes with the velocity of
the body. Now there is a certain velocity, which is the
greateft a body can acquire by falling ; for if its velocity be
fuch, that the refiftance arifing from it becomes equal to
the refpective weight of the body, its motion can be no
longer accelerated ; for the motion here continually gene-
rated by the refpeétive gravity, will be deftroyed by the re-
fiftance, and the body forced to go on equably. A body
continually comes nearer and nearer to this greatett celerity,
but can never attain to it.
When the denfities of a fluid body are given, the
vefpective weight of the body may be known ; and by know-
ing the diameter of the body, it may be found from what
height a body falling in vacuo can acquire fuch a velocity as
that the refiftance in a fluid hall be equal to that refpective
weight, which will be that greateft velocity above-men-
tioned. If the body bea {phere, it is known, that a {phere
is equal to a cylinder of the fame diameter, whofe height is
two-third parts of that diameter ; which height is to be in-
creafed in the ratio in which the refpeétive weight of the
body exceeds the weight of the fluid, in order to have the
height of a cylinder of the fluid, whofe weight is equal to
the refpe¢tive weight of the body; but if you double this
height, you will have a height from which a body falling in
vacuo acquires fuch a velocity as generates a refiftance equal
to this refpective weight, and which therefore is the greatett
velocity which a body can: acquire, by falling in a fluid,
from an infinite height. Lead is eleven times heavier than
water ; wherefore its re{pective weight is to the weight of
water, as ten to one; therefore a leaden ball, as appears
from what has been faid, cannot acquire a greater velocity,
in falling in water, than it would acquire in falling in vacuo,
froma height of 13: of its diameters.
A body lighter than a fluid, and afcending in it by the
aGtion of the fluid, is moved exaétly by the fame laws as a
heavier body falling in the fluid. Wherever the body is
placed, it is fuftained by the fluid, and carried up with a
force equal to the difference between the weight of a quan-
tity of the fluid of the fame bulk as the body, and the body
itfelf ; by which not only the-aGtion of gravity of the body
is deftroyed ; but the body isalfo carried upwards by a mo-
tion equably accelerated, in the fame manner as a body heavier
than a fluid defcends by its refpeCtive gravity : but the equa-
bility of the acceleration is deftroyed in the fame manner by
the refiftance, in the afcent of a body lighter than the fluid,
as it is deftroyed in the defcent of a body heavier.
When a body fpecifically heavier than a fluid is thrown
in it, it is retarded upon a double account ; on account of
the gravity of the body, and on account of the refiftance of
the fluid ; confequently, a body rifes to a lefs height than
it would rife to in vacuo with the fame celerity. But the
defects of the height in a fluid from the height to which a
body would rife in vacuo with the fame celerity, have. a
greater proportion to each other than the heights them-
felves ; and in lefs heights the defects are nearly as the
{quares of the heights in vacuo.
In order to fubmit the above principles to accurate com-
putation, we muft refer back to our preceding determination
of the retardative force of a fluid to a body moving it, which
we found to be
fz m anv’ d* 6 Y 32n07 v?
“aNd! 8gNd~ 238°
ga abe
from the two latter terms of which we have s = ay x 3d;
which is the fpace that would be defcribed by the globe,
while its whole motion is generated or deftroyed by a con-
ftant force, which is equal to the forces of refiftance, if no
other force aéted on the globe to continue its motion.
And if the denfity of the fluid were equal to that of the
globe, the refilting force is fuch as, a¢ting conftantly on
the globe without any other force, would generate or deitroy
its motion in defcribing the {pace 3d, or + of its diameter,
by that accelerating or retarding force.
Hence the greateft velocity that a ball will acquire by
defcending in a fluid by means of its relative weight in that
fluid, will be found by making the refifting force equal to
that weight. For, after the velocity has arrived at fuch a
degree, that the refifting force is equal to the weight that
urges it, it will increafe no longer, and the globe will then
continue to defcend with an uniform velocity.
Now N and z being the feparate fpecific gravities of the
globe and fluid, N — » will be the relative gravity of the
globe in the fluid; and, therefore, w = 3 7d (N—2)
is the weight by which it is urged, m = ee is the
10g
- 2 d?
refiftance ; confequently — = 37d! (N — 2)
when the velocity becomes uniform ; whence we obtain
N-2z
v= Vf (2 gx td ox )
2
for the uniform or greateft velocity of the globe.
Thus, for example, if a leaden ball one inch in diameter
defcend in water, and in air of the fame denfity as at the
earth’s furface; the three f{pecific gravities being, lead
= 11!, water = 1, and air = ke ; then
2500
4
rns, U2 eget x AG X 103) = 8.5944 feet
per fecond for the greateft velocity in water; and
I 4 2500
v= PAG x “78 x 36 x i ) = 259.82 feet
per feeond for the greateft velocity in air.
But as this velocity, all other things being the fame,
variesas \/ d; it follows that a ball of -,th of an inch dia-
meter would only acquire velocities +,th of thofe given above.
Hence it appears, how foon fmall bodies come to their
greateft or uniform velocity in defcending in fluids, and
how very {mall that velocity is; which explains the reafon
of the flow precipitation of mud and {mall particles in
water, as alfo why, in precipitations, the larger and grofs
particles defcend fooneft and lowett.
It appears alfo, from the preceding formule, that where
N = 2, or the denfity of the body is equal to that of the
fluid ; then N — x= o, and confequently the velocity and
cea are in this cafe both equal to zero, as they ought
to be. :
Again, when the body is lighter than the fluid, then
N — x becomes negative, and the motion and force both
tend the contrary way ; that is, the ball will afcend by the
6 fame
RESISTANCE.
fame laws by which, in the preceding cafe, the heavier body
defcended, as ftated in the preceding part of this article.
Resistance of the Air, in Pneumatics,is the force with which
the motion of bodies, particularly of projeétiles, is retarded by
the oppofition of the air or atmofphere. See Gunnery.
Theair being a fluid, the geueral laws of the refiftance of
fluids obtain in it, except that the different ee of denfity,
in the different ftages or regions of the atmofphere, occafion
fome irregularity.
As to the refiftance of the air, it has been thus deter-
mined from experiments. Mr. Robins, in his New Prin-
ciples of Gunnery, chap. 2. prop. 2, &c. having taken a
mufket barrel, and charging it fucceflively with a leaden
ball of three-quarters of an inch diameter, and about half
its weight of powder, and taking fuch precaution in weigh-
ing of the powder, and placing it, as to be fure, by many
previous trials, that the velocity of the ball could not differ
by 20 feet in 1! from its medium quantity, fired it againit
a pendulum, called the balliftic pendulum, (defcribed under
Gunnery), placed at 25 feet, at 75 feet, and at 125 feet
diftance from the mouth of the piece refpeCtively. In the
firft cafe, it impinged againft the pendulum with a velocity
of 1670 feet in 1'’; in the fecond cafe, with a velocity of
1550 feet in 1’; and in the third cafe, with a velocity of
1425 feet in 1'; fo that in pafling through 50 feet of air,
the bullet loft a velocity of about 120 or 125 feet in 1;
and the time of its pafling through that fpace being about
2d or =th of 1, the medium quantity of refiftance mutt,
in thefe inftances, have been about 120 times the weight of
the ball; which, as the bali was nearly 34th of a pound,
amounts to about rolbs. avoirdupois.
Now, if a computation be made, according to the method
laid down for comprefled fluids, in the 38th propof. of
lib. ii. of fir Ifaac Newton’s Principia, fuppofing the weight
- of water to be to the weight of air as 850 to 1, it will be
found that the refiftance of a globe of three-quarters of an
inch diameter, moving with a velocity of about 1600 feet in
r, will not, on thofe principles, amount to any more than
a force of 4:lbs. avoirdupois ; whence we may conclude,
the rules in that propofition for flow motions being very
accurate, that the refilting power of the air in flow motions
is lefs than in {wift motions, in the ratio of 43 to 10, a pro-
portion between that of 1 to 2, and 1 to 3. a
Again, charging the fame piece with equal quantities of
powder, and balls of the fame weight, and firing three times
at the pendulum, placed at 25 feet diftance from the mouth
of the piece, the medium of the velocities with which the ball
impinged was nearly that of 1690 feet in 1”, Then removing
the piece 175 feet from the pendulum, the velocity of the
ball, at a medium of five fhots, was that of 1300 feet in 1".
Whence the ball, in pafling through 150 feet of air, loft a
velocity of about 390 feet in 1; and the refiftance, com-
puted from thefe numbers, gives fomething more than in the
preceding inftance, amounting to between 11 and 12 pounds
avoirdupois : whence, according to thefe experiments, the
refifting power of the air to {wift motions is greater than in
flow ones, in aratio which approaches nearer to the ratio of
3 to 1, than in the preceding experiments. Next, to examine
this refiftance in {maller velocities, thg pendulum bein g
placed at 25 feet diftance, was fired at five times, with an
equal charge each time, and the mean velocity with which
the ball impinged, was that of 1180 feet in 1. Then re-
moying the pendulum to the diftance of 250 feet, the me-
dium’ velocity of five fhot, at this diftance, was that of g5o0
‘feet in 1"; whence the ball, in pafling through 225 feet of
air, loft a velocity of 230 feet in 1’, and as it paffed through
that interval in about -2,ths of 1, the refiftance to the middle
velocity will come out to be near 334 times the gravity of
the ball, or 2lb. 100z. avoirdupois. Now the’ refiftance
to the fame velocity, according to the laws obferved in
flower motions, amounts to 7,ths of the fame quantity ;
whence, in a velocity of 1065 feet in 1! (the medium of 1180
and 950), the refifting power of the air is augmented in no
greater proportion than that of 7 to 11 ;_ whereas, in greater.
degrees of velocity, as before, it amounted very nearly to the
ratio of 1 to 3.
By other experiments, it appears, that the refiftance of
the air is very fenfibly increafed, even in fo {mall a velocity
as that of 400 feet in 1.
That this refifting power of the air to fwift motions is
very fenfibly increafed beyond what fir Lfaac’s theory for
flow motions makes it, feems hence to be evident. It
being, as has been faid, in mufket, or cannon fhot, with
their full charge of powder, nearly three times the quantity
afligned by that theory.
However, this increafed power of refiftance diminifhes as
the velocity of the refifted body diminifhes, till at length,
when the motion is fufficiently abated, the a€tual refiftance
coincides with that fuppofed in the theory.
The refiltance of a bullet of three-quarters of an inch
diameter, moving in air with the velocity of 1670 feet in 1",
amounting, as we faid, to rolbs., the refiftance of a cannon ball
of 24lbs., fired with 16lbs., or its full charge of powder, and
thereby moving with a velocity of 1650 feet in 1", (which
fearcely differs from the other), may hence be determined.
For the velocity of the cannon ball being nearly the fame as
the mufket bullet, and its furface above 54 times greater, it
follows, that the refiftance on the cannon ball will amount
to more than §4olbs. which is nearly 23 times its own weight.
Euler has fhewn, that the common doétrine of refiftance
anfwers very, well when the motion is not very fwift, but
in very f{wift motions it gives the refiftance lefs than it
ought to be, on two accounts. 1. Becaufe in very quick
motions the air does not fill up the {pace behind the body
faft enough to prefs on the hinder parts, that the refiftance
on the fore part is increafed. 2. The denfity of the air
before the ball, being increafed by the quick motion, will
prefs more ftrongly on the fore part, and, being heavier
than in its natural itate, will retard its motion.
He has alfo fhewn, that Mr. Robins has reftrained his
rule to velocities not exceeding 1670 feet in 1; whereas,
had he extended it to greater velocities, the refult muft have
been erroneous: as he apprehends that it is not perfeCly
exadt, when the motion is not extremely fwift. He has in-
veftigated a formula for determining the degree of this re-
fiftance, and deduced conclufions differing from thofe of
Mr. Robins. See Principles of Gunnery inveftigated, &c.
17775 Pp» 224, &c.
Mr. Robins having proved that, in very great changes
of velocity, the refiftance does not accurately follow the
duplicate proportion of the velocity, lays down two pofi-
tions, which may be of confiderable fervice in the practice
of artillery, till a more complete and accurate theory of
refiftance, and the changes of its augmentation, may be
obtained. The firlt of thefe is, that till the velocity of the
projectile furpafles that of 1100 feet in a fecond, the re-
fiftance may be efteemed to be in the duplicate proportion
of the velocity : and the fecond is, that if the velocity be
greater than that of 1100 or 1200 feet in a fecond, the
abfolute quantity of the refiftance will be nearly three times
as great as it fhould be by a comparifon with the fmaller
velocities. Upon thefe principles, he proceeds in approxi-
mating the actual ranges of pieces with {mall angles of
elevation, viz. fuch as do not exceed 8° or 10°, which he
{ets down in a table, compared with their correfponding poten-
tialranges. Seehis Agplienstcal Tracts, vol, i. p. aio &e,
2 ince
RESIST
Since the above experiments of Mr. Robins, Dr. Hutton
has profecuted the fubje&t to a much greater length. His
experiments were made not only with the whirling machine
invented by the former, but with cannon balls of different
weights, from ilb. to 6lbs. 5 as alfo with figures of various
fhapes, and with planes fet at a variety of angles of inclina-
Taste l. Of Refiftan
i Velocity | Small Hemi- Large Hemifphere.
oper fphere, flat
| Second. Side. Flat Side. | Convex Part.
feet. oz.
-028
-048
072
el 03
sI4t
+184
233
487
349
-418
492
573
661
154
-853
-959
1.073
~’ ¥.196
Oz.
O51
-096
OZ.
-028
-048
O71
098
-129
-168
-211
2260
+315
-376
440
igr2
19
Mean
propor-
tional
numbers.
140
I
Tn this table are contained the refiftances of feveral forms
of bodies, when. moved with feveral degrees of velocity,
from 3 feet per fecond to 20 feet per fecond. The names
of the bodies are at the tops of the columns, as alfo which
end went foremoft through the air; the different velocities
. are in the firft column, and the refiftance, on the fame line in
their feveral columns in avoirdupois ounces and decimal
parts. Thus, on the firft line are contained the refiftances
when the bodies move with a velocity of three feet in a
fecond’; viz. in the fecond column, for the {mall hemifphere
of 42 inches diameter, its refiftance .028 ounces, when the
flat fide went foremoft ; in the third and fourth columns, the
refiftances to a large hemifphere, firft with the flat fide, and
next with the convex part foremoft ; the diameter of this, as
well as all the following figures, being 6$inches, and there-
fore the area of the great circle = 32 {quare inches, or 2 of
afquare foot ; then in the fifth and fixth columns are the re-
fiftances of a cone, firft, with its vertex, and then with its
bafe foremoft; the altitude of the cone being 6% inches,
the fame as the diameter of its bafe; in the feventh column,
the refiftance to the end of the cylinder; and in the eighth,
that dgainit the whole globe or {phere. All the numbers
fhew the real weights which are equal to the refiftances ; and
at the bottoms of the columns are placed proportional num-
bers, which fhew the mean proportions of the refiltances of
all the figures to each other with any velocity. Liaftly, in
the ninth column are placed the exponents of the power of
the velocity which the refiftances in the eighth column bear
5
Vertex.
ANCE.
tions to the path of motion. From thefe experiments the
author has afcertained the refiftance of bodies to all velo-
cities, from 1 to 2000 feet per fecond ; the bodies being
different, and their faces at different angles of elevation.
Some of his general tables, and conclufions from thofe expe-
riments, are as follows.
ces of different Bodies.
Refiftance as
the Power of
the Velocity.
to each other, viz. which that of the 10 feet velocity bears
to each of the following ones; the medium ofall them being
as the 2.04 power of the velocity ; that is, very little above
the fquare, or fecond power, fo far as the velocities in this
table extends.
From this table the following inferences are readily de-
duced.
1. That the refiftance is nearly in the fame proportion as
the furfaces ; a {mall increafe only taking place in the greateft
furfaces, and for the greater velocities: thus, by comparing
together the numbers in the fecond and third columns for
the bafes of the two hemifpheres, the areas of which bafes
are in the proportion of 172 to 32, or 5 to g very nearly, it
appears that the numbers in thefe two columns, exprefling
the refiftances, are nearly as I to 2, or 5 to 10, as far as
the velocity of 12 feet: but after that, the refiftances on
the greater furface increafe gradually more and more above
that proportion.
2. The refiftance to the fame furface, with different velo-
cities, is, inthefe flow motions, nearly as the {quare of the
velocity ; but gradually increafes more and more above that
proportion, as the velocity increafes. This is manifeft from
all the columns; and from the index of the power of the
velocity fet down in the ninth column for the refiftances in
the eighth, the medium of which being 2.04, fhews that the
refiftance to the fame body is, in thefe flow motions, as the
2.04 power of the velocity, or nearly as the fquare of it.
3. The round ends, and the fharp ends, of folids, fuffer
lefs
RESISTANCE.
lefs refittance than the flat or plane ends of the fame dia-
meter; but the fharper end has not always the leaft refift-
ance. Thus, the cylinder, and the flat ends of the hemi-
{phere, and cone, have more refiftance than the round or
fharp ends of the fame, but the round fide of the hemi-
. {phere has lefs refiftance than the fharp end of the cone.
4. The refiftance on the bafe of the hemifphere is to that
of its convex part, as 24 to 4, inftead of 2 to 1, as given by
theory. The experimented refiftances alfo exceed the
theoretical by nearly 3th.
5- The refiftance on the bafe of the cone is to that on its
vertex, nearly as @3, to 1, whichisthe fame as the ratio of
the fine of the angle of inclination of the fide of the cone
to its axis; fo that, in this inftance, the refiftance is as the
fine of the angle of incidence.
6. When the hinder parts of different bodies are of dif-
ferent forms, the refiftances are different, although the fore
parts be exaétly the fame ; owing probably to the different
preffures of the air on the hinder parts.
Thus the refiftance to the fore-part of the cylinder is lefs
than on the equal flat furface of the cone, or of the hemi-
{phere ; and the refiftance on the bafe of the hemifphere
lefs than that of the cone; andthe round fide of the hemi-
{phere lefs than the whole {phere.
Tasre Il. Refiftance, both by Experiment and Theory,
to a Globe of 1.965 Diameter.
: Ratio of Refiftance
Velocity | Refiftance by | Refiftance E 2 - | as the
per Second | Experiment in| by Theory *perl= | Power of
in Feet, Ounces. in Ounces. ea tO! the Velo-
eory, :
city.
5 0.006 0.005 | 1.20
Io 0.0242] 0.020] 1.23
15 0.055 0.044} 1.25
20 0.100 0.079) 1.27
25 0.157 0.123 | 1.28 2.022
30 0.23 0.177 | 1.30 | 2.052
49 0.42 0.314] 1.33 | 2.068
50 0.67 0.491 | 1.36 | 2.075
100 2.72 1.964] 1.35 >| 2.059
200 Il 7-9 1.40 | 2.041
300 25 18.7 1.41 | 2.039
400 45 31.4 1.43 2.039
300 72 49 Bei] 2 2OA
600 107 71 E51 |) 2.05.0
700 151 96 1.67 | 2.059
800 205 126 1.63 | 2.067
goo 271 159 1.70, |. 2.9077
1000 350 196 1.78 | 2.086
1100 442 238 1.86 | 2.095
1200 546 283 1.90 | 2.102
1300 661 332 1.99 | 2.107
1400 785 385 2 OAT |p Zee
1500 916 442 2.07 |: 2eT13
1600 | 1051 503 2.09* |) 2.113
1700 || 1186 568 2.05 || \2onad
1800 | 1319 636 2.07 | 2.108
1900 | 1447 709 2.04. | 2.104
2000 | 1569 786 2.00 | 2.098
In the firft column of this table are contained the feveral
velocities, gradually, from 5 feet per fecond to the greateft
velocity of 2000 rae er fecond, with which a globe or
ball is moved. In the fecond column are the experimented
refiftances in avoirdupois ounces. In the third, the cor-
refponding refiftances as deduced from theory. In the
fourth column the ratio of thefe two refiftances, or the
quotients of the former divided by the latter ; and the fifth,
or laft, the indices of the power of the velocity which is
proportional to the experimented refiftances, and which are
found by comparing the refiftance of 20 feet velocity with
each of the following ones.
The following tables are of a fimilar kind, but the expe-
riments are repeated on balls of different fizes.
Taste 1I11.—Refiftances to a ball of 1.965 inch diame-
ter, and 16 oz. 13 dr. weight.
Refiftances.
Velocity. 1ft Dif. | 2d Dif.
feet. Ibs. oz,
100 0.17 23
200 0.69 1 bt 53
300 1.56 25 9 6
400 2.81 45 A 7
500 4.50 72 f 8
- 600 6.69 107 35 9
700 9-44. 151 ae 10
800 12.81 205 ee 12
goo 16.94 271 13
1000 21.88 350 79 13
IT0O 27-63 442 ee 12
1200 34.13 546 2 t II
1300 41.31 661 as) 9
1400 49.06 785 ar 7
1500 57-25 916 : 4
1600 65.69 IOS 35 °
1700 74-13 1186 135 —2
1800 82.44. 1319 28 —5
1900 90.44. 1447 138 —6
2000 98.06 1569
TasLe V.— Refift-
ances to a ball 3.55 inc.
diameter, and 6lb. 1 oz.
8dr. weight.
Tasre 1V.— Refit.
ances to a ball 2.78 ince.
diameter, and 3lb. weight.
Velocity. | Ref. | Diff. Velocity. | Ref. | Diff.
feet. Ibs. feet. abs.
goo 35 6 1200 | 125
950 41 6 1250 | 124 9
1000 47 6 1300 | 133 9
1050 53 1350 | 142 9
1100 60 7 1400 | 152 ‘| 7°
1150 67 d ECO) *|,.102 +i
1200 74 8 1500 | 1722 | 192
1250 82 5 1550) |. 14% 0.2
1300 gt 4 1600 |. 197 %3
1350 | 101 te 1650 | 211 ot
1400 | -112 1 1700 | 226
1450 1225 oe 1750 | 242 oh
1500 1329 9 1800 | 259 7
1950 | 1413 | gr
1600 150 8°
1650 | 158
1700 | 165 Z
1750 | 171
1800 176 5
—_—_ SS
The
RESISTANCE.
The analogy among the numbers in all thefe tables is very
remarkable and uniform, the fame general law obtaining in
them all, by means of which, together with our preced-
ing remarks, we may anfwer many interefting queftions
relating to this fubje&t, as connected with artillery prac-
tice. For example, fuppofe it were required to determine
what would be the refiftance of the air againft a 241b. ball,
difcharged with a velocity of 2000 feet per fecond. By
Table III. the ball of 1.965 inch diameter, when mov-
ing with 2000 feet velocity, fuffered a refiftance of g8lbs. ;
then fince the refiftances, with the fame velocity, are as the
furfaces, and the furfaces as the {quares of the diameters; alfo
the diameter of a 24-pound ball being 5.6 inches, we have as
(1.965)*: (5-6)%, or as 3.86: 31.36:: g8lbs. : 796lbs., the
refiltance which a 24lb. ball experiences when difcharged
with the above velocity. And generally, if the diameter of
any propofed ball be d inches, and x the tabular refiftance
correfponding to any velocity v; then we fhall generally
d* r d*
have as (1.065)?:d* ::9: ee == ——~, or very nearl
(1.965) GbOse 1h 5.8° y nearly
a7 d*.
Thefe refiftances relating to certain and determinate velo-
cities, a principal object of inveftigation has been, amonstt
experimentalifts, to determine fome rule or formula by which
the refiftance may be found for any velocity whatever, and
the refult of Dr. Hutton’s invettigations on this fubjeét is
as follows, viz.
Refiftance = + = .c0002576 v* — .00388 v, in avoir-
dupois pounds, the velocity being v.
This rule .00002576 v* — .00388 v = r denotes the re-
fiftance for a ball whofe diameter is 1.965 inch, the {quare
of which is 3.9 or 4 nearly. Hence to adapt it to any other
ball, whofe diameter in inches is d, we fhall have, by the fame
2
proportion as above, 5 (.00002576 v? — .00388 v) =
(.00000667 v? — .o010) d* = (.00c00 $v? — .oo1 v) a’,
for the refiftance of any ball whofe diameter is d, and velo-
city v.
In fmaller velecities the fame author finds the theorem
200001725 v* = ¢ fufficiently correct, and this is adapted
toa ball whofe diameter is din exactly the fame manner,
giving the refult .00000447 d* v* = r for the refiftance
when the velocities are {mall.
For the application of thefe theorems to the folution of
certain problems conne¢ted with the dottrine of projediles, fee
that article: and for various other formule and refults
equally curious and intereiting, fee Dr. Hutton’s Tracts,
as alfo vol. iii. of his Courfe of Mathematics; Robins’ Gun-
nery ; Moore’s Theory of Rockets; Gregory’s Mechanics ;
and Prony’s Archite€ture Hydraulique.
Resistance, Different, of the fame Medium to Bodies of
different Figures.— Sir Ufaac Newton fhews, that if a globe and
a cylinder, of equal diameters, be moved with equal velocity
ina thin medium, confifting of equal particles, difpofed at
equal diftances, according to the dire€tion of the axis of the
cylinder ; the refiftance of the globe will be lefs by half than
that of the cylinder.
Resistance, Solid of the leaf?.—¥rom the latt propofition
the fame author deduces the figure of a folid which fhall
have the leatt refiftance of any containing the fame quantity
of matter and furface.
The figure is this. Suppofe DN¥G (Plate XXXVI.
Mechanics, fig. 15.) to be fuch a curve, as that if from any
point N be let fall a perpendicular NM to the axis AB ;
ang from a given point G be drawn a right line G R pa-
rallel to a tangent to the figure in N, and cut the axis,
when continued, in R; MNbetoGR as GR cud. ta
4BR x GBq; a folid defcribed by the revolution of this
figure about its axis AB, moving ina medium from A tos
wards B, is lefs refitted than any other circular folid of the
fame area, &c.
This theorem, which fir Ifaac Newton has given without
ademonttration, has been demonttrated by feveral mathema-
ticians, as Fatio, Craig, M. d’Hofpital, Bernouilli, &c.
(See Dr. Horfley’s edition of Newton, vol. ii. p. 390, and
Maclaurin’s Fluxions, feét. 606 and 607.) For a more par-
ticular inveftigation of this folid, fee prob. 64under the article
IsoPpERIMETRY.
Resistance of a Globe perfe€tly hard, andin a medium
whofe particles are fo too, is to the force with which the
whole motion may either be deftroyed, or generated, which
it has at the time when it has defcribed four-thirds’ of its
diameter, as the denfity of the medium to the denfity of the
globe. Hence, alfo, fir Ifaac Newton infers, that the re-
fiftance of .a globe is, ceteris paribus, in a duplicate ratio of
its velocity. Or its refiftance is, ceferis paribus, in a dupli-
cate ratio of its diameter ; or, ceteris paribus, as the denlity
of the medium. Liattly, that the aCiual refiltance of a globe
isin aratio compounded of the duplicate ratio of the velocity,
and of the duplicate ratio of the diameter, and of the ratio
of the denfity of the medium.
In thefe articles the medium is fuppofed to be difconti-
nuous, as air probably is: if the medium be continuous, as
water, mercury, &c. where the globe does not {trike imme-
diately on all the particles of the fluid generating the refift-
ance, but only on thofe next it, and thofe again on others, &c.
the refiftance willbe lefs by half: anda globein fuch a me-
dium undergoes a refiftance which is to the force with which
the whole motion it has after defcribihg eight-thirds of its
diameter, might be generated, or taken away, as the denfity
of the medium to the denfity of the globe.
Resistance of a Cylinder, moving in the dire€tion of its
axis, is not altered by any augmentation or diminution of
its length ; and therefore is the fame with that of a circle of
the fame diameter, moving with the fame velocity in a right
line perpendicular to its plane.
The refiftance of acylinder, moving in an infinite non-elaf-
tic fluid, arifing from the magnitude of a tranfverfe fection, is
to the force with which its whole motion, while it defcribes
four times its length, may be taken away, or generated,
as the denfity of the medium to that of the cylinder, very
nearly.
Hence, the refiftance of cylinders moving lengthwife,
in infinitely continued mediums, are in a ratio compounded
of the duplicate ratio of their diameters, the duplicate ratio
of their velocities, and ratio of the denfity of mediums. °
The refiftance of a globe, in an infinite non-elaftic medium,
is to the force by which its whole motion, while it defcribes
eight-thirds of its diameter, might be either generated or
taken away, as the denfity of the fluid to the denfity of the
globe, guam proxime.
Resistance of Matter. (See Matter.) The meaning
of this expreflion is not, that matter makes any ofpo-
Jfition to a change of its ftate, or exerts a force to maintain
itfelf in the ftate it is, as fome have very improperly
exprefled themfelves. This would imply that a€tivity which
is inconfiftent with its nature ; and if it were true, a part
of the force of every impulfe would be fpent merely in
overcoming this oppofition, without producing any other
effet ; and, therefore, the fum of the motions the fame way
would always be greater before than after collifion, which is
impoflible. The Jarge/? body will be moved by any the
Sughteft
RES
Jlighteft impulfe-of the /mallef? ; but then it can be moved
only in proportion to the force of the impulfe, and this is
what is chiefly meant by the refflance of matter: e. gr. a
body at reft will refi? another which is moving towards it ;
_ that is, it will be an obfruion to the motion of this other ;
the Jatter will be retarded by the former, and will lofe juft
as much motion as it communicates. In other words; the
refiftance of matter is that in its nature which makes it re-
quire an adequate foreign caufe of every change of {ftate, or
from whence it is wholly paffive, and incapable of receiving
any motion from impulle, that is not in a certain fixed pro-
portion to the re/ative momentum of the impelling body, and
itri€tly equal to the change of {tate it fuffers in confequence
of the impulfe. In this proportion matter is always moved
without difficulty ; but beyond this there is not only a difi-
culty, but an impoffibility of moving it ; and whatever motion
it can be fuppofed to receive from any impulfe that is greater
than that which the impelling body lofes, it muft derive from
nothing at all. The aétivity which is denied to matter, is a
power of changing its own {tate, not that of acting upon
other matter by impulfe. This fort of a@tivity, or power,
follows from, and. is neceffarily implied in its perfec paf-
fivenefs or inertia. See Price’s Diflertations, p. 35, note.
Non-Resistance, in Politics. See Passive Obedience.
RESITU, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Capitanata; 16 miles N.N.W. of Viette.
RESLEU, a river which rifes in Bavaria, and runs into
the Egra, in Bohemia.
RESOLIF, a town of Scotland, in the county of Cro-
marty; 7 miles W. of Cromarty.
RESOLVENTS, Resotventta, inthe Materia Medica,
remedies proper to refolve and diffipate tumours and gather-
ings; to foften indurations, and, by their tenuity and
warmth, evacuate redundant or peccant humours through
the pores.
Under this clafs come various unguents, emplafters, &c.
RESOLUTION, Resoturio, or Solutio, in Phyfics, the
reduction of a body into its original or natural ftate, by a
diffolution or the feparation of its aggregated parts.
Thus fnow and ice are faid to be refolved into water ; and
a compound is refolved into its ingredients, &c.: water re-
folves into vapour by heat ; and vapour is again refolved
into water by cold.
Some of the moderm philofophers, particularly Mr. Boyle,
M. Mariotte, Boerhaave, &c. maintain that the natural
itate of water is to be congealed, or in ice ; inafmuch as a
certain degree of heat, which is a foreign and violent agent,
is required to make it fluid: fo that near the pole, where
this foreign force is wanting, it conftantly retains its fixed
or icy ftate. On this principle, the refolution of ice into
water mutt be allowed an improper expreffion.
ResoxLuTion, in Chemifiry, is the reduétion of a mafs, or
mixed body, into its component parts, or firft principles, by
proper analyfis.
The refolution of bodies is performed varioufly ; by dif-
tillation, fublimation, diffolution, fermentation, &c. See
each operation under its proper article. See alfo Dissoxv-
TION and SOLUTION.
Resotution, in Ethics, is that paffion which encounters
difficulties and dangers ; but when it has to do more pe-
culiarly with dangers, it is called boldnefs. Defire, joy,
and forrow, enter into its conftitution ; but jeyis much the
principal ingredient. When refolution degenerates into a
concern to maintain our miftakes, humours, or vices, it is
more properly denominated obftinacy. See Passrons.
Resotution, in Logic, is a branch of method, called
alfo analy/is.
RES
The bufinefs of refolution is to inveftigate or exatiine
the truth or falfehood of a propofition, by afcending from
fome particular known truth, as a principle, by a chain of
confequences, to another more general one in queftion.
Refolution, or the analytic method, ftands in dire& oppo-
fition to compofition, or the fynthetic method ; in which Jaft
we defeend from fome general known truths to a particular
one in queftion.
For an inftance of the method of refolution ; fuppofe the
queftion this: Whether, on the fuppofition of man’s exift-
ence, we can prove that God exifts ?
To refolve this, our method is thus: Mankind did not
always exiit. It is evident, from a thoufand confiderations,
the fpecies had a beginning; and that, according to all
hiftory, not fix thoufand years ago; but if it had a begin-
ning, there muft be fome caufe of its beginning ; fomething
to induce it to exift then more than it did before ; in effed,
there muft be a caufe or author of its exiftence ; for from
nothing, nothing arifes: this caufe, whatever it is, mutt, at
leait, have all the faculties we find in ourfelyes ; for none
can give more than he has: nay, he mutt have others, which
we have not, fince he could do what we cannot do, i. e. cre-
ate, make man exift, &c. Now, this caufe either exifts ftill,
or has ceafed to do fo: if the former, he did not exift from
eternity ; for what is from eternity is neceflary, and can
neither by itfelf, nor any other caufe, be reduced to nothing :
if the latter, it muft have been produced from fome other ;
and then the fame queftion will return upon the producer.
There is then fome firft caufe, and this caufe has all the pro-
perties and faculties we have ; nay more, has exifted from
eternity, &c. Therefore, from the fuppofition of man’s
exiftence, it follows that there isa God.
ResoLutTion, or Solution, in Mathematics, is an orderly
enumeration of feveral things to be done, to obtain what is
required in a problem.
Wolfius makes a problem to confift of three parts. The
propofition (which is what we properly call the problem), the
refolution, and the demon/flration.
The general tenor of all problems is, thofe things being
done which are injoined by the refolution, the thing is done
which was to be done.
As foon as a problem is demonttrated, it is converted into
a theorem ; of which the refolution is the hypothefis ; and
the propofition the thefis. ;
The procefs of a mathematical refolution, fee in the fol-
lowing article.
ReEsoLuTion, in Algehra, or algebraical, is of two kinds ;
the one praétifed in numerical problems, the other in geo-
metrical ones.
ResotuTion of Equations, is the determination of the
values of the unknown letters or quantities of which it is
compofed ; in order to which it is neceflary, firit, to exter-
minate or eliminate all the unknown quantities but one out
of the equation, and then the value of the remaining quantity
is to be found by the proper rules for this purpofe, viz. by
the rules given for fimple, quadratic, cubic, or biquadratic
equations, according to which of thefe it may belong ; or, by
the general method of approximation, for which fee the re-
fpective articles. But as all thefe cafes have reference only
to one unknown quantity, it will not be amifs, in this place,
to explain fome of thofe methods which are moft com-
monly employed for reducing equations to one unknown.
Firft, it may be obferved, that in any determinate problem
there are always as many equations independent of each
other, as there are unknown quantities ; if there are not fo
many, the quettion is indeterminate, and if there be more, it is
impoffible.
We
RESOLUTION OF
We cannot, in a limited article like the prefent, give all
the methods that may be employed for exterminating the
unknown letters; thefe being extremely various, and de-
ending much upon the praétice and proficiency of the ana-
lyft himfelf, and the manner in which thofe quantities are
involved; but the moft applicable and general methods are
the three following, viz.
1. Find the value of one and the fame unknown quantity
in each equation, and put all thefe values equal to each
other, which will eliminate one of the quantities, and reduce
the number of equations to one lefs. Then do the fame in
thefe new equations ; and again in the laft ; and fo on, till
there be but one equation and one unknown quantity, the
value of which muft be found by the proper rules, as above
referred to.
2. Find the value of one of the unknown quantities in
one of the equations, in terms of the other quantities ; then
fubftitute this value for that quantity in all the other equa-
tions ; again, find the value of one of the remaining quan-
tities, and fubftitute its value as before ; and fo on, till there
remains but one equation and one unknown quantity, whofe
value is to be found as before.
3. Multiply each of the equations by fuch numbers as
will render the co-efficients of one of the letters the fame in
all; then, by adding or fubtraéting thefe equations ac-
cording as the equal co-efficients have unlike or like figns,
the quantity whofe co-efficients were equal will difappear ;
which being repeated again upon the remaining quantities,
there will ultimately be found only one equation and one
unknown quantity. And it may be proper to obferve, that
in all thefe cafes, if any of the unknown quantities have frac-
tional co-efficients, the whole equation in which they are
found fhould be multiplied by fuch a number as will convert
thefe fractions into integers.
Thus, in the equations
a2 + y= to
Tec Su ea oD,
multiply the firft by 15, and the latter by 2, gives
gx + 2y = 150
x + 6y = 190
the folution of which, by each of the preceding rules, will
be as follows.
Or, putting letters inftead of the above numerical co-effi-
cients, in order to render the folution more general, let there
be given
by =
aq. + a es ,; to find + and y.
rit method. is i fe _ bby tran{pofition.
ec—by f—ey Mi
w= hw aan by divifion.
de — dby = af — aey, by multiplication.
(ae — db)y = af — de
af — dc
+= Ge — db
And in the fame manner we find,
eects
~ ae — db
ax + by =e
dx tey=f
c—by
2d method. to find x and y.
a as above.
EQUATIONS.
dc — dby =e
an ce + ey = f, by fubftit.
dc — dby + aey = af, by multiplication.
(ae — db) y = af — de
—d
y= = = — as before.
ec — bf
ae — db
d method. =
Sh gee cL be = Ff to find x and y.
dax + dby = de, mult. by d.
adx + acy = af, mult. bya.
(db— ac) y = dc — af
dc — af af —dc
so =
This will, in fome meafure, illuitrate the preceding rules,
which we fhall not infift upon any further; but, in the fol-
lowing examples, fhall avail ourfelves of any advantages that
the equations prefent, in order to arrive at the folution in
the eafieft manner poffible.
Examples. \
1. Given 2° + y? =a be find x and
xy =b 2
x +
2xy=
a
2b, doubling the 2d.
x? + 2xy + y =a + 25, by addition.
a — 2xy + yy? = a — 25, by fubbtit.
x+y = Vv (24+24))
x—y= v(a- 26) 5 OY extration.
ee MEAD (a — 25)
SOSGaPEL Ie Gea ete
J (a+ 26) — (a—28)
ers aie ee
2. Given e + y =a
ne to find x and y.
a+ 2xy + y = a’, by fquaring.
4ny = 46, mult. by 4.
we —2xy +p =a — 44, by fubltit.
«—y= VJ (@ — 44), by extrac.
x + y= a, rit equat.
at/ (@— 46) :
Il
2
a— J (@ — ad)
j= ;
3. Given x» —y =a to find andy.
avy =b
x? — 2axy + y* = a’, {quaring.
4xy = 46, mult. by 4.
x 2xy + yy = a + 45, by adding.
aty= /(@ + 46), by extrac.
x—y=a@
a+ /(a@+ 44)
z=
2
2a Vv (e+44)
4. Giver
RESOLUTION
Bi te it to find x and y.
yy = a@, {quaring.
y? = 26, doubling.
y? = 26 — a’, fubtr.
This method of refolution will apply in many problems,
and fometimes faves confiderable labour.
5. Given 2* + xy =
‘ i} to find x and y.
pray = db .
x + 2ay + y =a + J, by adding.
wx +y= / (a+ 4), by extra&.
(x ty)x =x V/(a+b) =a
(ety y=HaVv (2+4) = 6
= ed and y = Z
~VGty 7 vers
6. Find three numbers in arithmetical progreffion, whofe
{um is a, and fum of their fquares 4. :
Let x — y, x and x + y, be the numbers required.
Then x —ytxurfrty=3x=a
(ey? tat (x+y) = 34+ 2¥ = 5
a b—29
9 3
Whence a* = 35 — 65"
f=
j=
And afimilar fubftitution, viz. one which anfwers one of
the conditions of the queftion, may frequently be employed
to great advantage. : ;
7. Sometimes it will be convenient to fubftitute for the
fums and differences of numbers, as in the following ex-
ample.
2
x =
a
— a
and lie and « =
Gi x
on a v, \ st to find x and y.
r=m+n
yrom—n
(m+n)? + (m—n)j = 4,
or 2m*+ + 12m? + 20+ = 5b;
a ‘
but 2m = a, or m = —; therefore m is known, and the
2
above becomes
2nt + 12m 2? = b — 2 mt
n+ 6m? n= 5b — m*
m= — 3m + (55 4+ 8m!)
and n = [3m*+ ,/ (464 8 m*)]?-
Whence mand 2 being known, « and y are alfo known ;
for «=m +n, and y=m—n.
§. Sometimes it is advantageous to confider one of the
quantities as an unknown multiple of the other; thus:
Given zy = x — y* = 2? + y’, to find and y.
VoL. XXX.
>
OF EQUATIONS.
Make y = x2, then thefe become
22 = 23 — 2* x*
oo) Pee
2 = I — x’, from the firlt,
@+2=t1,0r2,=>—24+ 5 5;
whence x is a known quantity. Now,
z= x + 2) x, from the fecond,
sxiBvoe wlend saith Sul 5
Repahe Bah a/5)!
LS
aatavs yd
LS thw 5 t
your=— 54 5/5, as required.
Sometimes it faves confiderable labour, to find the fum,
produét, or difference, of the two quantities, inftead of the
quantities themfelves ; thus:
g. Given a 4+ y —vw—yo=a
aytoety =;
by addition 2? + xy + y'= a+b
e+ 2ey+ P=atb+ xy
x +y= /(a+b4+ xy);
but xe+t+y=b—--wy;
therefore 8° — 2bxy4x*y=a+b4xy
; vy — (264 1)xy=a+hb—B:
3 _ 2641 vA ayy h
whence wy = 5 ag ( 3 +a+b—b*.
Now make «y = p a known quantity, and we have,
from the fecond equation,
whence e—2xy +7 = (b6—p) — 4p
«—y= /[(6— p) — 49)
av 2p
therefore k= Cl sale se) air
= 6 = py LO p47)
J hw a ne 3
Thefe, and a variety of other artifices peculiar to certain
equations, will occur to the praéti¢al analyft; of which,
numerous examples may be feen in Bland’s Algebraical
Problems, as alfo in Bonnycaftle’s and Euler’s Algebra.
RESOLUTION of a geometrical Problem algebraically. The
procefs in the former article is to be obferved throughout ;
but as it rarely happens we come at an equation in geo-
metrical problems by the fame means as in numerical ones,
there are fome farther things to be noted: rft, then, fup-
pofe the thing done, which was propofed to be done.
2. Examine the relations of all the lines in the diagram,
without any regard to known or unknown, in order to find
which depends on which ; and from which being had, what
others are had, whether by fimilar triangles, or rectangles,
&c. 3. To obtain the fimilar triangles or reétangles, the
lines are to be frequently produced, till they become either
direétly or indireétly equal to given ones, or interfeét others,
&ec. Parallels and perpendiculars to be frequently drawn ;
points to be frequently connected; and angles to be made
equal to others. If thus you do not arrive at a neat equa-
tion, examine the relation of the lines ia another manner.
Sometimes
RES
Sometimes it is not enough to feek the thing direéily,
but another thing mutt be fought, whence the firft may be
found.
The equation being reduced, the geometrical conftruétion
is to be deduced from it, which is done in various manners,
in the various kinds of equations. See APPLICATION of
Algebra to Geometry.
Resotution, Problematical. See PROBLEMATICAL.
ResoLution, in Medicine, the termination of an inflam-
mation, without any change in the texture of the part in-
flamed, in contradiftinétion to the termination in fuppuration
or gangrene. ‘The great object of medicine, in all inflam-
matory difeafes, in the commencement, is to obtain the re-
folution of the inflammation, fo that the ftru€ture and func-
tions of the part affeGed may not be injured by the difeafe :
and the means of obtaining a refolution, when the inflam-
mation is feated in an internal part, are evacuations of blood
by the lancet, cupping, or leeches ; and of ferum, by purging
the bowels, applying blifters in the vicinity, &c. ; and when
the inflammation is external, by local evacuations by fimilar
means, and by the application of cold fubftances. See In-
FLAMMATION.
ResotuTion, in Mujic, is when a canon or perpetual
fugue is not written all on the fame line, or in one part ;
but all the voices that are to follow the guida, or firft voice,
are written feparately, either in fcore, 7. e. in feparate lines,
or feparate parts, with the paufes each is to obferve, in the
beginning, and in the tone proper to each.
The refolution of difeords, in mufic, is generally by their
defcent upon concords; except the ¢rifonvs, or fharp 4th,
and the xote /enfible, or fharp 7th of a key, which afcend,
while the bafe defcends or remains ftationary.
ResoLution, in Surgery, the moft favourable manner in
which the procefs of inflammation can terminate, confifting
ofa gradual abatement of the pain, rednefs, {welling, throb-
bing, and heat of the part, without any formation of matter,
and without any floughing. Alfo, the difperfion of {well-
ings and indurations, through the medium of abforption.
RESOLUTION of Motion, in Mechanics. See Motion.
ResotuTion Bay, in Geography, a name given by cap-
tain Cook to the port of Madre de Dios, fituated near the
middle of the W. fide of St. Chriftina, one of the Marquefas
iflands, in the South Pacific ocean, and under the higheit
land in the ifland, in S. lat. 9° 55! 30", W. long. 139° 8!
4o", and N. 15° W. from the W. end of La Dominica.
The fouth point of the bay is a fteep rock of confiderable
height, terminating at the top in a peaked hill, above which
may be feen a path-way leading up a narrow ridge to the
fummit of the hills. The north point is not fo high, and
rifes with a more gentle flope. They are a mile from each
other in the direétion of N. by E., and S. by W. In the
bay, which is near three quarters of a mile deep, and has
from 34 to 12 fathoms water, with a clean fandy bottom,
are two fandy coves, divided from each other by a rocky
point. In each is a rivulet of excellent water. The
northern cove is the moft commodious for wooding and wa-
tering. Here is the little water-fall mentioned by Quiros,
Mendana’s pilot ; but the town, or village, is in the other
cove. There are feveral other coves or bays on this fide of
the ifland; and fome of them, efpecially to the northward,
may be miltaken for this: therefore the beft diretion is the
bearing of the weft end of La Dominica. Cook’s Voyage,
vol. 1. p. 307-
Resotution J/fland, one of the newly-difcovered Society
iflands, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat..17° 24’. W.
long. 141° 15/—Alfo, an ifland in the North Atlantic
ocean, 60 miles In circumference, fituated on the N. fide of
RES
the entrance into Hudfon’s ftraits.
long. 65°.
ResoLuTion Port, a bay or harbour of the ifland of
Tanna, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 19° 324. E.
long. 169° 40!.
RESONANCE, in Mufic, is founding again, repeating
or continuing the found. he refonance of a itring, a bell,
or other fonorous body, ceafes with the vibration.
It exprefles the found returned by the air inclofed in the
bodies of ftringed mufical inftruments, as lutes, &c. ; or even
in the bodies of wind initruments, as flutes, &c.
Elliptic and parabolic vaults refound ftrongly, 7. e. they
ftrongly reflect or return the found. ‘See Ecuo.
The mouth, and the parts thereof, as the palate, tongue,
teeth, nofe, and lips, Monf. Dodart obferves, contribute
nothing to the tone of the voice; but their effect is very
great as to the refonance. .
Of this we have a very fenfible inftance in that vulgar in-
ftrument called Jecus-harp, or trompe de Bearn: for if you
hold it in your hand, and {trike the tongue or fpring thereof,
which yields all the found of the inftrument, it {carcely makes
any noife at all; but, holding the body of the inftrument
between the tecth, and ftriking the fpring as before, it
makes a mufical buzz, which is heard to a good diftance,
and efpecially in the lower notes.
So alfo in the hautboys, the tone of the reed is always the
fame ; being a fort of drone: the chief variety is in the tone
of the refonance, produced in the mouth by the greater or
lefs aperture, and the divers motions of the lips.
RESORT. See Ressort.
RESOUZE, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Saone, near Pont de Vaux, in the department
of the Ain.
RESP, a difeafe in fheep, the fame as red-water. See
Rup-/Vater.
RESPECT, in Ethics, denotes that favourable impref-
fion which the goodnefs of a charaéter has made upon the
perfon contemplating it, united with a fhare of good fenfe.
An union of both thefe qualities is neceflary to create re-
fpe&t. Goodnefs alone is not fufficient to produce it ; for
if it be feated in a mind that indicates extreme imbecility, it
cannot be deemed refpeétable. On the other hand, fuperior
fenfe in a mind deftitute of goodnefs, will not infpire re-
{pet : it will either wafte itfelf in idle fpeculations, which
renders it indifferent to us; or it may degenerate into low
cunning, which renders it hateful. Should it be conneéted
with power in/a wicked and perverfe mind, it will excite
horror and difmay, which are very remote from refpe@.
RESPECTU computi vicecomitis habendo, in Law, a
writ for the refpiting of a fheriff’s accompt, upon juit occa-
fion, directed to the treafurer and barons of the exchequer.
RESPECTUANDO Homacto. See Homaaio.
RESPIRATION, in Phy/fology, that function of animal
bodies, in which the air, either in its elaftic ftate, as it con-
flitutes the atmofphere, or held in folution in water, is
brought into contaét with fome organ or organs, undergo-
ing alterations in its own conititution, and producing changes
in the nature of the animal fluids, which are eflential to the
continuance of life. In the mammalia, birds, and reptiles,
the ref{piratory organs confift of lungs, that is, of mem-
branous cavities, differently conftruCied in the three clafles,
but agreeing in the circumftance of alternately receiving
N. lat. 61° 4c’. “W.
and emitting a-portion of atmofpherical air. This alternate.
ingrefs and egrefs of air conftitutes properly what is called
in common language breathing, to which the philofophical
term re/piration 1s {ynonimous. We extend the term to ani-
mals of the lower clafles, which have no lungs, and fome
of
RESPIRATION.
of which do not even breathe, that is, do not receive and
emit air at all. In confequence of the medium in which
fifhes are immerfed, they cannot take in the atmofpheric air
in its elaftic ftate, and they confequently have an apparatus,
altogether different from that which exifts in the three
clit already named, for the purpofe of producing anaio-
-gous effects in their economy. They are furnifhed with a
paffage communicating with the fauces or efophagus, and
terminating in the external furface of the body, through
which a part of the water received into the mouth is forci-
bly propelled. In this paflage, the branchie or gills are
fituated ; and the blood, which circulates in their fringed
extremities, is thus expofed to the ation of a quantity cf
air, which the water always holds in folution. Cruftaceous
animals, and many of the mollufca, have organs more or
lefs fimilar in ftructure and funétions to the gills of fithes.
Infe€is, both in their larva and perfe& itates, poflefs nume-
rous ramified tubes, diftributed over their whole body, and
provided with open mouths, which admit the paflage to and
fro of the external air. Although the ftru€ture of the or-
gans in fithes and infects is fo different from that which we
find in mammalia, birds, and reptiles, they perform an ana-
Jogous office, aniwer the fame general purpofes in the ani-
mal economy, and are confidered equally in the light of
organs of re/piration ; this term being employed now to de-
note the general effeG produced by thefe various organiza-
tions, without any reference to the means through which
it is produced; although it was originally applied to the
paflage of the air to and from the lungs, when the refults
of that procefs were unknown.
Is refpiration, confidered in, its molt extenfive fenfe, a
funétien neceffary to the exiftence of all animals? The re-
fults of all the inveitigations hitherto made, induce us to
anfwer this queftion in the affirmative ; but the point is not
yet demonftrated in all cafes.
In Cuvier’s clafs of zoophytes, excepting the echinoder-
mata, no refpiratory apparatus has been found; nor has any
been yet difcovered in the inteftinal worms, or in fome of
the external worms, as the leech, earth-worm, and others.
It may be doubted, fince the analogy on which we ground
our opinion of the necefflity of air to animal exiftence is fo
very {trong, whether the apparent exception afforded by the
animals jut enumerated may not arife from our imperfect
knowledve of their organization, and whether more accu-
rate inquiries may not either difclofe to us in thefe cafes
fome particular organ of refpiration, or fhew us that the
function is performed by the external furface of the body
in general. We know, in faét, by dire experiment, that
fome of thefe animals produce changes in the air, and can-
not live when debarred from its accefs. ‘
The differences which animals exhibit in their mode “of
breathing, or in the manner of effecting the changes which
their nutritive fluid undergoes from the ation of the atmo-
{phere, depend on other circumttances in their organization.
Vegetables, and animals which have no circulation, re/pire
by their whole furface, or by means of veflels, which con-
vey air to all points of their interior. ‘Thofe only which
have a true circulation breathe by a particular organ. The
heart being in them a common point of departure and return
for the blood, the veffels containing that fluid could eafily
be fo arranged as to convey it to the lungs, after it had cir-
culated through the body; this was obvioufly impra¢tica-
ble in inftances, when the nutritive fluid is every where uni-
formly expanded, without being contained in veflels. Hence
refpiration by lungs or gills is a fun@tion dependent on that
of circulation, and may be regarded asa remote confequence
of thofe faculties which chara¢terife animals. ,
Refpiration prefents to our obfervation two very different
kinds of phenomena: rit, the motions of the lungs, gills,
or other initruments of breathing, or of parts connetted
with them, by which the former are alternately dilated and
contraéted for the admiffion and expulfion of air, and the
latter are expofed to a current of water; and 2dly, the
changes produced in the blood or other animal fluids, and
in the air or water, in confequence of their mutual expofure
in thefe organs. The firfl may be termed the mechanical,
and the fecond the chemical phenomena of refpiration. The
former, including all the modifications which breathing un-
dergoes in laughing, crying, and fighing, in coughing, {neez~
ing, hiccoughing, in ttraining or holding the breath, &c.
have been fully confidered under the article Lune ; in which
the anatomy of the organs of refpiration in man is alfo fully
detailed. In the articles Mammatia, Birps, Fisues, Rep-
TILES, Insects, and Vermes, the breathing organs, and
their mechanical phenomena in animals, are confidered. "he
chemical phenomena are the objeét of the prefent article.
The funétions of the refpiratory organs are clofely con-
nected with the other great procefles of the animal economy.
The heart, brain, and lungs, more particularly influence each
other, and prefent, in their mutual relations, numerous and
highly interefting confiderations for the phyfiologift. On
thefe points we refer to Heart, Lunes, and Nervous
Syftem.
In the following article we fhall fpeak, rft, of the quan-
tity of air received into the cheft; 2dly, of the changes
which this undergoes in breathing, as they have been made
out by refearches on the refpiration of man and the mam-
malia; 3dly, of the changes produced in the blood ; 4thly,
of the various explanations of the mode in which thefe
changes are produced; sthly, of the refpiration of the dif-
ferent gafes; 6thly, of the chemical phenomena of refpira-
tion in other animals, and 7thly, of animal heat.
I. Number of Refpirations, and Quantity of Air refpired.—
“Tt eae ae Dr. Thontes red of igen
Vv. 5. p- 732-), “that the number of refpirations made in a
given time differs confiderably in different men. Dr. Hales
reckons them at 20 in a minute. A man, on whom Dr.
Menzies made experiments, breathed only 14 times in a
minute. Mr. Davy informs us that he breathes between 26
and 27 times ina minute. I myfelf make-about rg refpi-
rations at an average. ‘The average of all is 20. Now 20
in a minute make 28,800 in 24 hours.’”
In his “ Inquiry,” p. 102, et feq. Mr. Ellis has brought
together, from the moft authentic fources, a ftatement of
the faéts hitherto collected concerning the quantity of air
ordinarily infpired. To afcertain this point, many modes
of experiment have been adopted, and the conclufions
which have been drawn from them very widely differ.
Borelli eftimated the bulk of air taken in at a fingle infpira-
tion at 15 cubic inches (de Mot. Animal.); Mr. Kite from
12 to 17 (Effay on Apparent Death, p. 24.) ; Dr. Goodwyn
at 14 (Conneétion of Life with Refpiration, p. 28, et feq.) ;
Mr. Davy from 13 to 17 (Refearches, -p. 410 and 433.) ;
and Drs. Jurine, Hales, Haller, and Sauvages, at 40 cubic
inches. With the conclufion of thefe latter authors the ex-
periments of Dr. Menzies nearly coincide, and as the me-
thods which he adopted feem lefs liable to obje€tion than
thofe of any other author, it may not be improper fhortly
to give the detail of them.’ He procured an allantoid, and
fixed to it a machine confifting of two pretty large tubes,
joined at right angles, nearly in the form of a common brafs
cock, One end of the horizontal tube was conneéted with
the allantoid, and the other received into the mouth, while
the upright tube, which ic from its centre, communicated
P 2 with
RESPIRATION.
with the atmofphere. The tubes were large, and valves,
made out of an allantoid, were affixed to the end of the
upright tube, and to that attached to the allantoid, fo that
the air, when expelled from the lungs, fhould not efcape
into the atmofphere, nor return from the allantoid, after
having once entered it. Precautions were taken alfo, by
covering the mouth and noftrils, to prevent any air from
pafling in or out of the lungs, except by the tubes above
mentioned. Things being thus prepared, he began to re-
{pire, and did not remove his ‘mouth from the tube till he
had filled the allantoid, taking care to ftop his noftrils dur-
ing expiration, The allantoid was filled, in repeated trials,
by about 56 expirations, as natural as poffible ; and as its
capacity was 2400 cubic inches, the average bulk of air
thrown out of the lungs by each expiration, was 42.8 cubic
inches. He then fixed another allantoid, whofe capacity
had been previoufly afcertained, to the end of the upright
tube; and having filled it with atmofpheric air, he infpired
the air from one allantoid and expired it into the other, and
the quantities were found to be nearly the fame. Several
perfons cf the middle fize repeated this experiment with
nearly the fame refult; the difference being fcarcely ever
more than one or two cubic inches. By another mode of
experiment, firft propofed by Boerhaave, of plunging a man
into a tub of water up to his chin, and judging of the dila-
tation of the lungs from the afcent and defcent of the water,
he obtained, by feveral trials, nearly the fame refults ; and
when thefe fame men were made to breathe from and into
the allantoids, in the manner above defcribed, the corre-
{pondence by the two methods was almoft complete. . (Men-
zies on Refpiration, p. 21, et feq.) As there feems no ob-
vious fource of inaccuracy in the proceffes here employed,
and their refults fo remarkably coincide; and as they pre-
fent the average bulk deduced from 56 refpirations, we may
conclude, fays Dr. Bottock, that 40 cubic inches is the
quantity of air employed in an ordinary aét of refpiration.
Effay on Refpiration, p. 34. Inquiry into the Changes,
&c. § 85.
Meflrs. Allen and Pepys endeavoured to determine the
quantity of air received into the lungs in an ordinary infpi-
ration: 3460 cubic inches of atmofpheric air were patled
through the lungs in 11 minutes, by 58 refpirations. As,
on ordinary occafions, the perfon breathed rg times in a mi-
nute, it is inferred that, by multiplying the time confumed
in the experiment by the number of natural refpirations.in a
minute, and dividing the whole bulk of air by the product,
we obtain the true bulk of air received into the lungs
at each natural infpiration; thus Ir x. 19 = 2093 and
3489 = 16.5 cubic inches, the quantity of a fingle natural
infpiration. (Phil. Tranf. 1808, p.256.) Mr. Ellis juitly
obferves, that not only do the efforts of the mind, and the
operations of the apparatus, interfere greatly with the na-
tural actions of the refpiratory organs, but’ the grofs quan-
tity of air received in 58 preternatural infpirations can never
with juftice be aflumed as a true meafure of the quantity
breathed in 209 natural refpirations. The experiments of
Dr. Menzies therefore {till feem the moft unexceptionable
on this fubje&.
The difficulty in arriving, by experiment, -at certain
conclufions refpecting the volume of air taken into the
lungs in each infpiration, may arife from a difference in the
flate or capacity of thofe organs in different individuals ;
from. the relative vigour or debility of the mufcular powers
carrying on the refpiratory funétion ; from the cireum-
ftances in which the animal is placed; the compofition’ of
the air itfelf; or the manner in which it is breathed. In
many modes of experiment alfo, the fri€tion between the
I
air and apparatus employed, or the refiftance which this
latter may create to the ordinary procefs, will greatly vary
the refult : and confiderable errors muft likewile have arifen
from the variation in bulk, occafioned by the change of
temperature, which the air, during its refpiration, fuffers ;
from the difficulty of breathing in a natural manner when
the mind is direéting that procefs ; and from the embarraff-
ments oppofed to the natural ation of the refpiratory or-
gans by the contrivances adapted to them.
It will not be denied, that the fize and capacity of the
cheft muft, in a certain degree, regulate the quantity of air
which is taken into, or expelled from it; and fince refpi-
ration is neither wholly a voluntary nor an involuntary act,
but, within certain limits, partakes of the nature of both,
and is carried on by the exertion of mufcular powers, the
bulk of refpired air muft vary alfo, either from an altera-
tion in the action of thefe powers, or froma change in the
will of the agent who exerts them. This may be illuftrated
by confidering the different quantities of air taken into the
lungs in different ftates of natural and forced refpiration.
Dr. Goodwyn, {uppofing a perfon at death to make a com-
plete expiration, endeavoured to afcertain the bulk of air
then remaining in the lungs, which he eftimated at 109 cubic
inches. (Connection of Life with Refpiration, p. 27.)
This eftimate he formed by meafuring the capacity of the
cheft, in fubjeéts who had died a natural death by difeafe,
previous to which the expiratory powers mult have been
much weakened, and unable, in confequence, to expel fo
much air as when in a ftate of health and vigour; and in
fuch cafes, therefore, expiration might be final without
being complete. Mr. Cruickfhank obferves, accordingly,
that the lungs in the dead body, (though expiration is the
laft action of life,) always retain more air than is given out
at feveral expirations. (On Infenfible Perfpiration, p. 97.)
By a very different mode of experiment, we find Mr. Davy
to conclude that his lungs, after a forced expiration, contain
only 32 cubic inches of air, when it is reduced to the tem-
perature of 55°, but which, by the heat of the lungs, and
faturation with moifture, are increafed to 41 eubic inches ;
and, after a natural expiration, they contained 118 cubic
inches (Refearches, p. 409, 410.) ; fo that the difference
between the two {tates of natural and forced expiration is 77,
which is fomewhat more than Dr. Menzies allows, who re-
marked that many men, after an ordinary expiration, could
ftill expel from their lungs 70 cubic inches of air. (Diff.
on Refpiration, p. 31.), Mr. Davy adds, that his eftimate
of 118 cubic inches, as the capacity of the lungs after
natural expiration, agrees very well with that of Dr. Good-
wyn,- who makes it about 109; and, on the fuppofition
that the general. debility which precedes the ordinary ex-
tinétion of life, fo weakens the expiratory mufcles, as to
difable them from making fo complete an expulfion of the
air, as they can effeé&t when in health and vigour, the agree-
ment is very {triking ; for nearly the fame quantity of air
would, in that cafe, remain in the lungs at the period of
natural death, as after that of ordinary eXpiration.
Meflrs. Allen and Pepys found that the healthy lungs of
a ftout man, five feet ten inches high, contained 108 cubic
inches of air after death. Phil. Tranf. 1809, p. 410, et
eq. :
Dr. Bottock conceives, that Dr. Goodwyn’s eftimate of
tog cubic inches of air remaining in the lungs after com-
plete expiration, is not very remote from the truth; and he
objects to Mr. Davy’s mode of afcertaining the refidual air
of the lungs after a forced expiration, from a fuppofition
that the hydrogen gas which he infpired for that purpofe
was not, in confequence of its low fpecific gravity, uni-
formly
7
RESPIRATION.
formly diffufed through all the cavities of the lungs; and
therefore, that the proportions of the gas difcharged could
furnifh no accurate eftimate of thofe which were retained.
(Effay, p. 17—25.) But Mr. Dalton has fhewn, that hy-
gas and atmofpheric air intermix, when the former
is in a phial above the latter, and communicating only
~ by the fmall tube of a tobacco-pipe; and both in a {tate of
reft. (Manchefter Memoirs, vol. i. new feries.) How
much more readily then may this be expected to take place,
where the gafes are expofed to fo large afurface, fuch great
agitation, and increafed temperature, as they muit have been
in the experiments of Mr. Davy. Neither is the {mall
quantity of air, which Mr. Davy afligns, fo incompatible,
as Dr. Boftock fuppofes, with the anatomical ftructure of
the thorax ; for if we call to mind the fpace which the heart
and the lungs occupy, and recolleét, that, under a violent
exertion, the cheft is made to contraé in every direétion,
and more efpecially by the afcent of the diaphragm nearly
to the fourth or fifth rib, there is no difficulty in imagining
the quantity of air in the lungs, in fuch circumftances, to
be nearly that which Mr. Davy’s experiments affign.
From a review, therefore, of all the fats and experi-
ments above ftated, we venture to draw the followimg con-
clufions, as approaching neareft tothe truth. Firft, then,
according to Mr. Davy, the lungs contain, after a forced
expiration, a bulk of air equal to about 41 cubic inches ;
and according to the fame author and Dr. Goodwyn, they
contain, after a natural expiration, from 109 to 118 cubic
inches; therefore the ftate of forced is to that of natural
expiration, as 41 to 118. Secondly, according to Dr.
Menzies, 40 cubic inches of air are received into the lungs
at each ordinary infpiration ; therefore the ftate of natural
expiration to that of natural infpiration will be as 118 to
#58. Mr. Davy found likewife, that by a forced expira-
tion after a forced infpiration, he could expel from his lungs
§g0 cubic inches of air, and Dr. Menzies often found it to
amount to 200 inches; therefore the ftate of greateft ex-
hauftion of the lungs is to that of greate{t repletion, as 41
to 231. But the 41 cubic inches of air, when infpired at
temperature 55°, occupied a bulk equal only to 32; and
therefore, by the fame rule of proportion, 190 cubic
inches, infpired at the fame temperature, will be increafed
to 241.5; confequently, the greateft diminution of the
capacity of the cheft to its greatelt expanfion will be as 41
to 241, inthe cafe of Mr. Davy. But thefe numbers mutt
be confidered as indicating proportions only, the abfolute
quantities being different in different perfons. Thefe faéts
decidedly fhew how much the volume of air in the lungs
will, at all times, depend on the relative capacity of thoie
orgars, on the more or lefs vigorous ftate of the expiratory
powers, and on the degree of voluntary exertion with which
the funGion may be performed. -
The circumitances in which the animal may happen to be
placed, will render this variation {till more ftriking. Thus,
from the experiments of Mr. Kite (On Apparent Death,
p- 27. 29.) and Mr. Coleman (On Sufpended Refpiration,
Pp: 7; et feq.), we learn, that in the at of drowning, animals
are able to expel almoft all the air which their lungs con-
tain, by which thofe organs are brought into a ftate of col-
lapfe. Dr. Goodwyn, on the other hand, found, that in
three executed perfons, the lungs were expanded almoft to
their utmoft extent, coptaining 250, 262, and 272 cubic
inches of air (Effay, p.25.) ; and Mr. Coleman obferves,
that when, previous to their fufpenfion, he fecured the
trachea of: animals by a ligature at the mftant an infpiration
was made, in lefs than four minutes they ceafed to ftrugele,
thongh the whole of the air was confined within the lungs,
and no obftruétion to the pailage of the blood exifted from
their collapfe (p. 111—138). Dr. Baillie alfo has often
obferved the lungs filling the cheit, and diftended with air
and mucus, in perfons who have died afthmatic; fo that to
die and to expire are by no means fynonimous terms,—an
obfervation long fince made by Mayow, who remarked,
that if air be drawn into the lungs, and the mouth and
noftrils afterwards clofed, “ quamvis inflati maneant pul-
mones, mori tamen necefle erit, quia non licet expirare.”?
(Traéat. Quinque, p. 300.) If indeed we refleét, that
during fubmerfion in water no frefh air can enter into the
lungs, but that all which they contam may freely efcape ;
and if we confider, that before fufpenfion by the neck in
the human fubje@t, a deep infpiration, under the influence
of fear, as Dr. Goodwyn obferves, is made, and that no
air can afterwards pafs out, if the cord completely clofe up
the trachea; it is reafonable to expe, that this variation
in the bulk of air contained in the lungs fhould obtain, under
the very different circumftances in which refpiration is
brought to a itand.
How much the compofition of the air itfelf, and the
manner in which it is breathed, will vary the bulk of refidual
air in the lungs, we may colleét from the experiments of
various authors. Dr. Hales moiiteneda bladder, and fixed
to it a foffet, both of which would contain 74 cubic inches
of air. Having blown up the bladder, he put the {mall end
of the foffet into his mouth, and, at the fame time, pinched
his noftrils clofe, that no air might efcape through them,
and he then breathed to and fro the air contained in the
bladder. In lefs than half a minute, he found a confiderable
difficulty of breathing, and was forced after that to draw
his breath very fait ; and at the end of the experiment, the
fuffocating uneafinefs was fo great as to oblige him to take ~
away the bladder from hismouth. Towards the end of the
minute, the bladder was become fo flaccid that he could
not blow it above half full, with the greateft expiration that
he could make. (Statical Effays, vol. i. p. 238.) When
alfo Mr. Davy refpired atmofpheric air in a natural manner,
he took in, he fays, only 13 cubic inches and expelled 12.75
fo that only about .+,d part of the original bulk was re-
tained ; when he made one refpiration of 100 cubic inches
ef air, the diminution was to 99, Or +i+3; when, after a
complete exhauftion of his lungs, he refpired 141 cubic
inches of air, once only for one-fourth of a minute, they
were reduced to 139, or —,th nearly ; and when 161 cubic
inches were breathed for about a minute, their bulk was di-
minifhed to 152, or sth (Refearches, p. 432—435.) ;—in
every cafe, the diminution augmenting with the repetition
of the refpiration, and confequent impurity of the air, and
diftrefs of the refpiratory organs. So likewife, when Dr.
Henderfon breathed from and into the gafometer 600 cubic
inches of air for four minutes, they were reduced to 570,
or loft .:,th of their bulk ; and he adds, that he held on
refpiring until the fenfe of oppreffion about the chet obliged
him to defiit. (Nicholfon’s Journal, May i804.) Thefe
diftrefling fymptoms, brought on by the repeated breathing
of the fame quantity of air, were felt in a fill greater degree
by Mr. Kite; for on refpiring 591 cubic inches bee
mofpheric air from and into a bladder, he experienced, in
one minute, great anxiety at the breaft, which in half a
minuté more became intolerable ; his face fwelled, became
black, and felt exceffively hot, and {parks of fire danced
before him; lofs of ficht, giddinefs and confufion of the
fenfes fucceeded, and at the end of little more than two
mimutes, he fell back into a chair. He was relieved by
frefh air, but remained confufed and giddy (Effay on
Apparent Death, p. 25.) The amount of the diminution
of
RESPIRATION.
of refpired air, fays profeffor Pfaff, depends not only on
the time during whicha given volume of air is refpired, but
principally on the magnitude of the volume of air itfelf; it
mutt be proportionally lefs the greater the quantity infpired.
He breathed 144 cubic inches of air once only in the time
of ten or twelve feconds, andthe diminution was four cubic
inches, or -;!-th of the primitive volume ; when he refpired
the fame volume of air twice, during twenty feconds, it loft
eight cubic inches, or <ith ; and when it was thrice refpired,
during thirty feconds, the, diminution amounted to twelve
cubic inches, or +4-th of the primitive volume. (Nichol-
fon’s Journal, December 1805.) Now, in all thefe cafes,
the volume of air refpired was precifely the fame, and could
not, therefore, affeGt the ratio of\ diminution: but. as the
times were doubled and tripled, fo nearly were the degrees
of diminution. But the more frequently the fame air is
breathed, the more unfit does it become for refpiration ;
and to this change of compolition, more than to the time,
or the magnitude of the volume of air, is the increafed de-
ee of diminution to be afcribed.
This will perhaps appear more ftriking, if we attend to
what happens in refpiring nitrous oxyd, which is compofed
of the fame elements as atmofpheric air, but contains a
much larger proportion of oxygen. After exhautting his
lungs, Mr. Davy infpired 108 cubic inches of this gas,
which, wher expired, were reduced to gg, or had loit ;th
of their bulk. When he made two refpirations of the
fame quantity of the oxyd, the diminution was to 95, or
about 4th ; and when he refpired 102 cubic inches of nitrous
oxyd, mixed with ;1,th of common air, for half a minute,
the volume of air, after the feventh expiration, was reduced
to 62, or had fuffered a lofs equalto.2,. (Refearches,
Ppp: 394. 416.) Hence it appears, that in the natural re-
piration of atmofpheric air, only a fmall diminution of its
bulk takes place: that this diminution increafes as the air
becomes vitiated by repeated refpirations, or is breathed in
a preternatural manner; and that when a gas of the fame
elementary materials, but combined in very different pro-
portions, is fubftituted into the place of pure atmofpheric
air, the diminution increafes in a tenfold degree. Now,
the repeated breathing of the fame atmofpheric air,
has been fhewn to bring on the moft diftrefsful fymp-
toms, and at length an utter inability to continue refpira-
tion; and Mr. Davy tells us, that after a yoluntary ex-
hauftion of his lungs, he could refpire the nitrous oxyd
with accuracy, when ftooping, for about half a minute, but,
even then, ftrong fenfations. were produced, with fulnefs
about the head rather alarming: that if the refpiration ex-
tended to three-fourths of a minute, he could not rely on the
accuracy of any experiment ; and that the determination of
blood to the head became, in lefs than a minute, fo great
as often to deprive him of voluntary power over the muf-
eles of his mouth. (Refearches, p. 392.) But refpira~
tion is a function carried on by the exertion of mufcular
powers, in a great degree obedient to the will; and the
quantity of refidual air in the lungs in preternatural refpira-
tion will at all times be much influenced by the manner in
whieh the will exerts itfelf, and the degree in which the
mufcles are able to act. When, therefore, the power of
the will over the mufeles is in any degree diminifhed, or is
wholly loft, or the mufcles themfelves are much weakened,
a Uy ea derangement will take place in the refpira-
tory funGtion ;. and as, in the natural condition of the body,
expiration is fubfequent to infpiration, the ability to in-
{pire will laft longer than the ability to expire ; confequently
the ceffation of the procefs is brought about by a failure
in the expiratory powers, But if the expiratory powers
are unable to expel the air from the lungs, it muft remain
in thofe organs; and hence we fee in all the toregoing ex-
amples, that the diminution in the volume of expired air
was greater in proportion as the refpiratory orgaus fuffered
“diftrefs or oppreffion, and amounted even to more than ones
third of the air infpired, when all voluntary powers ceafed.
Inquiry, &c. § 86—g2.
From the above data it may be eftimated, that by each
ordinary expiration one-feventh part of the whole contents
of the ange is difcharged, and that by the moit violent
expiration fomewhat more than four-fevenths of the air con-
tained in them is evacuated. Suppoling that each refpira-
tion occupies about three feconds, a bulk of air nearly
equal to three times the whole contents of the lungs will
be expelled in a minute, or about 4114 times their bulk in
24 hours. The quantity of air reipired during the diurnal
period will be 1,152,000 cubic inches, or 6664 cubic feet.
Il. Changes produced in the Air.—Although the -ancients
were not unacquainted with the general fact, that refpira-
tion produces a change in the air received into the lungs,
the firft accurate notions refpeCting this change, were fur-
nifhed by the experiments of Boyle. He not only proved,
by means of the air-pump, the abfolute neceffity of air to
the {upport of animal life, but he farther difcovered, that
the action of the lungs is quickly fulpended, unlefs they
are furnifhed with a regular fupply of frefh air. (Works,
v. I. p. 9g, et feq.) Animals, whofe hearts have two
ventricles, and no foramen ovale,” fays Mr. Derham, “ as
birds, dogs, cats, and mice, die under the aétion of the
air-pump in lefs than half a minute, counting from the
very firtt exfuétion, particularly in a {mall receiver.”? (Phy-
fico-Theology, p. 8.) The fame pofition 1s corroborated
by an experiment, exhibited before the Royal Society by
Dr. Hooke. He cut away the ribs, diaphragm, and peri-
cardium of a dog, whereby the lungs and heart were
brought into view; and then dividing the windpipe, he in-
troduced into it the nozzle of a pair of double bellows, and
made, at the fame time, feveral {mall pun¢tures through the
outer coat of the lungs. By blowing in a ftream of frefh
air, which continued to efcape through the {mall apertures
made in the lungs, he was enabled to keep thofe organs
fully diftended, As long as he fupplied the lungs with
air, the actions of life continued, and the heart beat very
regularly ; but, on intermitting the fupply, the dog would
immediately fall into dying convulfive fits ; and revive again
as foon as the lungs were filled with a ftream of frefh air.
The circulation through the lungs continued both during
their diftended and collapfed@ ftate, and as well when they -
were kept at reft, as during their ftate of motion ; whence
he concluded, that neither the motion of the lungs, nor the
ceffation of their motion, nor the {topping of the cirs
culation of the blood through them, was the immediate
caufe of death; but the want of ‘a fufficient fupply
of frefh air, Lowthorp’s Abridg. Phil. Tranf. vy. 3.
. 66.
; From thefe facts it was naturally concluded, that the air
had undergone fome important change during its continuance
in the pulmonary veficles. and.a variety of hypothefes and
conjectures were formed to account for this alteration,
The knowledge which was then obtained refpecting the aiv
was, however, almoft entirely confined to its mechanical
roperties, fo that the theories of refpiration, formed dur-
ing this period, were, neceflarily crude and imperfed.
Boyle perceived that the air, in pafling through the luhgs,
became loaded with a quantity of aqueous vapour, and he
farther fuppofed, that it acquired, what he calls, recremen-
titious fleams (Works, v. 3. p. 371, et feq.); but ree
fpeing
RESPIRATION.
{peCting the nature of thefe fteams he forms no conjecture,
He obferved alfo, that the air in which an animal had re-
{pired for fome time, was confiderably dimmifhed in volume,
an effeét which he attributed to the lofs of part of its elafli-
city or fpring. The contemporaries of Boyle, for the
moft part, coincided with him in his ideas refpecting refpi-
ration; there were, however, fome philofophers, who fup-
pofed, that befides the addition of thefe vapours, the air,
during its continuance in the lungs, imparted fomething to
the blood. Among thefe, the firft in point of genius and
originality was Mayow of Oxford. He inveltigated the
properties of the air, and the effe€&ts produced upon it by
refpiration, with great acutenefs, and concluded, that a
peculiar volatile f{pirit, which was one of the conftituents
of the atmofphere, was abforbed by the blood during its
paflage through the lungs. Borelli, Lower, Willis, and
others, adopted opinions in many refpects fimilar to that of
Mayow ; they imagined, that either a portion of the whole
mafs of air, or fome particular conftituent of it, was ab-
forbed by the blood, and by this means converted this fluid
from the venous to the arterial ftate. But fo little real
knowledge was at this time poffeffed refpeéting the com-
pofition of the atmofphere, that they entirely failed in
their attempts to afcertain the nature of the matter ab-
forbed, and their hypothefes appeared fo extravagant, and
fo little founded upon truth, that their doétrines fell into
difcredit, became negleéted, and at length were totally for-
gotten. De Motu Anim. p. 2a. prop. 113. De Corde,
p- 159—165. Willis, Pharm. Rat. p. ii. p. 34+
Dr. Hales devoted much of his attention to this fubject,
and performed many experiments with a view to illuftrate
the manner in which the air is affefted by the lungs; he
concludes nearly as Boyle had done, that it acquires a noxi-
ous vapour, and that its elafticity is diminifhed. (Statical
Effays.) The learned Boerhaave confeffes his inability to
explain the changes which the air experiences by refpira-
tion. (Prele&. t. 5. p. 169, et feq.) The opinion of
Haller was not materially different from that of Boyle and
Hales ; he had colleGted all the different theories which
have been advanced upon this fubje¢t, and after reviewing
them with his accuftomed candour and perfpicuity, he ccn-
cludes, that the air, when it is emitted from the pulmonary
veficles, is combined with a quantity of water, and a pecu-
liar noxious vapour, and has its elafticity diminifhed. (Note
ad Boerhaay. Prele&t. t. 5. p. 170. Element. Phyfiol.)
Such was the imperfe&t ftate of our knowledge, when
Haller wrote his Elements of Phyfiology! This noble
monument of induftry and genius was {carcely publithed,
when Dr. Black commenced his experiments upon fixed
air, and among other interefting difcoveries, fatisfactorily
proved, that this peculiar gafeous fubftance is generated in
the lungs during refpiration. ei Dye
“So early as the year 1757,”’ fays this diftinguifhed
philofopher, «« I convinced myfelf, that the change pro-
duced in wholefome air by breathing it, confitts chiefly, if
not folely, in the converfion of part of it into fixed air ;
for I found, that by blowing through a pipe into lime-
water, or a folution of cauftic alkali, the lime was pre-
cipitafed, and the alkali rendered mild.”’ (Black’s Lec-
tures, by Robifon, v. 2. p. 87.) Ata later period, Mr.
Bewley deteGted the formation of carbonic acid in refpira-
tion by a method fomewhat fimilar: he found, that on
breathing through an infufion of litmus, the fame change
to a red colour was produced in it, as when it was expofed
to the a¢tion of fixed air; and when, by adding a few
drops of the water of potaffa, the blue colour was re{tored
to the infufion, it could again be made to difappear by fuper-
faturating it with the acid expired from the lungs.
on Air, v. 5. p. 383.
The particular fubttance which conftituted the wholefome
part of atmofpheric air, was not, however, known to Dr.
Black a the time his experiments were made: and long
before the compound nature of the atmofphere was afcer-
tained, it had been fuppofed by many philofophers, that,
to ufe the language of bifhop Berkeley) “ there was no
fuch thing as a pure fimple element of air. There is,”’ he
adds, ‘ {ome one quality or ingredient in the air on which
life more immediately and principally depends. What that
is, though men are not agreed, yet it is agreed it muft be
the fame thing that fupports the vital and the common
flame ; it being found that when air, by often breathing in
it, is become unfit for the one, it wil! no longer ferve for
the other. This. quality of the air is neceflary both to
vegetables and animals, whether terreftrial or aquatic ;
neither beafts, infeéts, birds, nor fithes, being able to fubfift
without air: and when air is deprived of this ingredient, it
becometh unfit to maintain either life or flame, even thongh
it fhould retain its elafticity.”” (Siris, § 143, et feq. 2d
edition.) Dr.. Hooke afferted, that this ingredient or fub-
ftance, inherent in, and mixed with the air, is like, if not
the very fame, with that which is fixed in faltpetre, by
which, during combuttion, inflammable bodies re diflolved.
(Micrographia, p. 103.) The fame opinion was afterwards
held by Willis, Lower, and Mayow, all of whom likewife
conlidered the nitrous quality of the air to aét an important
part in refpiration. The laft author, in particular, made >
experiments precifely fimilar to thofe which have lately been
brought forward to prove, that both by the burning of a
candle, and other combuftible bodies, and by the refpiration
of animals, the nitro-aérial particles of the air were ex-
hautted, whereby the volume of air was diminifhed, and
the refidual air was unable afterwards to fupport either
life or flame. (Tra€tat. Quinque, p. 98, et feq.) The
exhibition, however, of this peculiar, or nitro-aérial, part
of the air in a diftin@ and feparate form, we owe to the
genius of Scheele and Dr. Prieftley, who difcovcred, inde-
pendently of each other, in the year 1774, pure or dephlo-
gifticated air or oxygen gas. The atmofphere, which, until
this period, had been regarded as a homogeneous elementary
body, was difcovered by thefe celebrated experimenters, to
be compounded of two aériform fluids, poflefling diftin@
properties, and having totally different purpofes in the
economy of nature. Thefe fubftances, which have fince
obtained the names of oxygenous and azotic gafes, were
found to exift in the atmofphere, in the conftant proportion
of about 22 to 78. This preat difcovery, and the ufe which
he made of it, enabled Dr. Prieftley to propofe the firft con-
fiftent explanation of the phenomena of refpiration that had
ever been offered to the public; and, although the theo-
retical opinions on which that explanation was partly
founded, no longer exift, yet it fhould never be forgotten
that his experiments and difcoveries firft pointed out the
true path of inveftigation ; and have contributed, in a pre-
eminent degree, to advance our knowledge of this moft
important function. The caufe of the unfitnefs of air, beyond
a certain extent, to fupport life and flame, he proved to
arife from the deftruétion of its pure part, or what has fince
been called its oxygen gas; and he concluded, that, in re-
{piration, combuttion, and calcination, which, in confequence
of his peculiar theory, he ftiles phlogiftic procefles, it under-
went precifely the fame changes. Philof. Tranf. 1776.
Obf.-on Air, v. 3. p. 9.
About a year after the publication of Dr. Prieftley’s
experiments, the celebrated and unfortunate Lavoifier pre-
4 fented
Prieftley
RESPIRATION.
fented a’ memoir on refpiration to the French Academy of
Sciences. (Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1777.) After
paying a tribute of refpect to the genius of Dr. Prieftley,
he proceeds to an accurate. examination of his experiments,
and the conclufions which were deduced from them.
agrees with the doétor in fuppofing, that the proportion of
oxygen is diminifhed in air which has been refpired, but
upon a careful analyfis of the refidue, he finds it to differ
from the air left after the calcination of metals, which is
merely azotic gas, in containing a quantity of carbonic acid.
He alfo obferved, that the bulk of the air was fomewhat
diminifhed, and we learn in general from thefe experiments,
that the changes produced in air bf refpiration, confift in
the removal of part of the oxygen, in the addition of a
quantity of carbonic acid gas, and in the diminution of its
volume. .He fuppofes that the azote is not affeéted by the
procefs, and that it ferves merely to dilute the oxygenous
part of the atmofphere.
In this paper, M. Lavoifier does not mention the aqueous
vapour which is fo evidently difcharged from the lungs by
refpiration ; it is impoflible that it could have been over-
looked by fo accurate an obferver ; we may therefore con-
jeture, that he omitted to mention it, becaufe at this period
he confidered it as only diffufed through the air expired
from the lungs, by the. procefs of evaporation, and not
formed in confequence of the operation of any chemical
affinities.
The conclufions of this philofopher refpeéting the changes
produced by refpiration upon the air taken into the
lungs, are for the moft part acquiefced in by modern phy-
fiologiits, and the refearches which have been fince made
upon this fubjet are principally direéted, either to afcer-
tain with more precifion the proportion of the refpective
ingredients in the air of expiration, or to frame hypothefes
to account for the operation of the lungs in effecting thefe
changes.
Among the inveltigations, however, of a date fubfequent
to this memoir ef Lavoifier, thofe of Meflrs. Allen and
Pepys, publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, 1808
and 1809, deferve peculiar mention, on account of their
great accuracy, and the fatisfaétory manner in which they
have confequently enabled us to determine fome doubtful
points. oe i ;
Quantity of Oxygen confumed.—* A difficult and interefting
quettion,”’ fays Dr. Bottock, “ refpecting the confumption
of oxygen, is the abfolute quantity of this gas confumed
‘by refpiration ina given time. The firft calculations which
were made upon this fubjeét, in confequence of the imper-
feét nature of the apparatus employed, and of the want of a
fufficient dexterity in. the management of pneumatic expe-
riments, were unavoidably vague and inaccurate.
ficulty was much increafed by a circumftance firft noticed
by Dr. Crawford, and afterwards more fully inveitigated
by M. Jurine of Geneva, and M. Lavoifier, that the refpir-
ation of the fame animal in different itates of the fy{tem,
and under the operation of different external circumftances,
affeéts the air in very different degrees. This curious fact,
which affords an infight into fome of the moft important
operations of the animal economy, muft unavoidably produce
reat differences in the refults of the bett conducted expe-
riments, and will render it impoffible for us to arrive at
more than an approximation to the truth. The circum-
ftances which have been difcovered to influence the che-
mical effects of the refpiration are, the temperature of the
air refpired, the degree of mufcular exertion, the itate of
the digeftive organs, and the condition of the fy{tem as
affected by fever; it is highly probable that other circum-
He
The dif- \
ftances will be difcovered, by multiplying and varying our
experiments upon the living body.” \
An experiment performed by Lavoifier, upon a guinea
pig, feems to have been the firft in which a perfect appa-
ratus, and the neceflary degree of accuracy, were employed.
(Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1780, p. 40.1—8.) The
animal was confined over mercury, in a jar containing 248
cubic inches of gas, confifting principally of oxygen. In
an hour and a quarter, the animal breathed with much dif-
ficulty, and being removed from the apparatus, the ftate of
the air was examined. Its bulk was found to be diminifhed
by eight cubic inches, and of the remaining 240-inches, 40
were abforbed by cauftic potafh, and confequently contifted
of carbonic acid gas. Taking 100 parts of this air, thefe
numbers will be as follows ; the air was diminifhed to 96.5,
or by 3.5 cubic inches, and of the remainder, 16.5 were
converted into carbonic acid gas, and abforbed by potath,
which reduces the quantity of air to 80 cubic inches.
Towards the conclufion of the experiment, the air would
be neceffarily much lefs fit for performing the fun€tions of
the lungs than the air of the atmofphere, in confequence of
the carbonic acid gas which it contained; but as the air
employed was originally much purer than the atmofphere,
the author fuppofes, that the quantity of oxygen deftroyed,
was probably about the fame which would have been con-
fumed under the ordinary circumftances of refpiration.
The fame philofopher performed a fecond experiment
upon the fame {pecies of animal, with ftill more accuracy,
in which pure oxygen was employed. (Ann. de Chimie,
t. 5. p. 261, et feq.) This experiment continued during
an hour and a half, and the animal being then removed
from the jar, the air was analyfed as in the former cafe :
1728 cubic inches of air were- found to be reduced to
1673, z e. had fuffered a diminution of 55 inches, cauftic
potafh abforbed about 229.5 inches, leaving a ‘refidue of
pure oxygen. 'Thefe numbers, eftimated as in the former
cafe, will be nearly as follows; 100 inches were reduced
to 96.82, or by 3.18 inches, the potafh abforbed about
1g inches, reducing the whole quantity of air to 77.82
parts. The quantity of carbonic acid was here fomewhat
‘ greater than in the former experiment, which may be attri-
buted to the air employed being pure oxygen, and to the
procefs having been continued for a fomewhat longer {pace
of time than in the former inflance. Upon the whole, the
refults correfpond as nearly as can be expected, from the
very delicate nature of the experiments.
Dr. Menzies firft attempted to afcertain the quantity of
oxygen confumed by aman, in the courfe of a day. He
found by experiment, that one-twentieth part of air, which
had been once refpired, is converted into carbonic acid gas:
this he concludes muft have been oxygen, as that part of the
air alone is affeCted by refpiration. He conceives that 720
cubic inches of air are refpired in a minute, of which con-
fequently 36 will be confumed. From thefe data_he efti-
mates, that in the {pace of 24 hours, 51,840 cubic inches,
or 17625.6 grains of oxygen, are confumed and converted
inte carbonic acid gas. In this calculation feveral important
particulars appear to have been overlaoked, and accordingly
it will be found to differ from the refults of the more accu-
rate experiments, which have been fince performed by M.
Lavoifier, and Mr. Davy.
The experiments which were made by M. Lavoifier, in
conjunction with his friend M. Seguin, were conducted
with every poflible attention to accuracy, and with an ap-
paratus more complete than any which has ever been em-
ployed in phyfiological refearches. An account of them is
detailed in two papers in the memoirs of the Academy of
' Sciences
—<——
ra
RESPIRATION.
Sciences for the years 1789 and 1790; but notwithftanding
the peculiar advantages under which they were performed,
their refults will not be found in all inflances to coincide.
M. Seguin was himfelf the fubject of the experiments. The
authors begin by pointing out the different effects which are
. produced by refpiration, under the different circumftances
in which the body is placed; and they farther remark, that
individuals may probably differ in the abfolute quantity of
oxygen which they confume in the fame circumftances.
Making a due allowance for thefe variations, they conclude,
that the mean confumption of oxygen bya man, during 24
hours, is fomewhat more than 22 French cubic feet, or
46037.38 Englifh cubic inches; a quantity of gas which
will weigh 15661.66 grains troy.
Lavoifier was {till continuing to purfue his experiments
on this fubje&t, and had conftruéted a very expenfive appa-
ratus, for afcertaining with fill more precifion the amount
of the feveral changes produced by refpiration, when he fell
a facrifice to the fury of Robefpierre, and received fentence
of death. He had already performed a number of experi-
ments with his new apparatus, and earneitly requefted a
ref{pite of a few days, in order to prepare them for publica-
tion; but his requeft was not granted. M. de la Place,
who pronounced his eulogy, has fortunately given us the
moft important refults: they will be found to differ in fome
particulars from the former experiments, though, with re-
{pect to the quantity of oxygen confumed, they nearly coin-
cide. It is ftated that a man in 24 hours confumes 15592.5
grains.
There are fome experiments on this fubje&t by Mr. Davy,
which appear to have been executed with great accuracy.
From a number of trials made upon his own refpiration, he
found, that 100 cubic inches of atmofpheric air, after hav-
ing once pafled through the lungs, had loft between four
and five parts of oxygen: hence he calculates, that 31.6
cubic inches of oxygen are confumed in a minute; this will
give 45,504 inches in 24 hours, a quantity which will weigh
15471.36 grains. ‘This eftimate coincides nearly with that
of M. Lavoifier, though it was obtained by a different pro-
cefs, and by the ufe of a different apparatus. We may,
therefore, conclude, that between 45 and 46,000 cubic
inches, or about 15,500 grains = 2 lbs. $ oz. troy, is the
average quantity of oxygen confumed by a man in 24 hours.
Davy’s Refearches, p. 431—434. Eflay on Refpiration,
p- 78—84.
In the feries of experiments lately performed by Meffrs.
Allen and Pepys, an apparatus was employed, ia which the
volume of the air refpired could be meafured with great ac-
curacy, and in which a large quantity (3 or 4000 cubic
inches) cotild be refpired; fo that the fource of error, to
which experiments on a fmaller fale are liable, from the in-
fluence of the refidual air in the lungs, is much diminifhed.
They caufed a perfon to infpire, from a gafometer, 3460
cubic inches of atmofpheric air, which were afterwards ex-
pired into another gafometer ; and to both gafometers gra-
duated feales were affixed, by which the quantities of air
received and expelled could be accurately meafured. The
time occupied in the experiment was 11 minutes: about 58
refpirations were made; and the deficiency in the whole
volume of air, at the clofe of the experiment, amounted
only to 23 cubicinches. One hundred parts of the expired
air afforded, on analyfis, 8.5 carbonic acid, 12.5 oxygen,
and 79 nitrogen gas. (Phil. Tranf. 1808, p. 254.) In
an experiment on the refpiration of another fubjeét, the
changes produced in the air were the fame, but the quantity
confumed was very different. The thermometer (Fahr.)
being at 56°, and the barometer at 30°.3, 3300 cubic
Vou. XXX.
inches of atmofpheric air were infpired, and 3311 expired
in 52 minutes. One hundred parts of the expired air con-
fifted of 8.5 carbonic acid, 12.5 oxygen, and 79 azote.
Wien, therefore, twice the quantity of air was pafled
through the lungs in a given time, as great a proportion of
its oxygen was confumed, and as much carbonic acid
formed, as in a fubjeét in whom only half the quantity was
breathed. The experiment was repeated feveral times ; and
in one inftance, 9890 cubic inches of air were breathed for
24% minutes, with the lofs of only 18 cubic inches; and
100 parts of the expired air then afforded, on analyfis,
8 carbonic acid, 13 oxygen, and-79 nitrogen. (Ibid. 257.)
Now the air employed in thefe experiments contained, in
10o parts, 21 oxygen and 79 nitrogen; and in the nv-
merous analyfes, which were made of this air after its re
{piration, the portion of oxygen that difappeared was exactly
replaced by that of carbonic acid produced; fo that, in
every inftance, thefe two gafes formed together +%,',ths of
the refpired air, the remaining 79 parts being pure nitrogen
gas. It is, therefore, concluded, that the quantity of car-
bonic acid gas emitted is exaétly equal, buik for bulk, to
the oxygen confumed. Ibid. p. 279.
In fubfequent experiments on the refpiration of a guinea
pig, thefe chemifts found, that when 310 cubic inches of
atmofpheric air were breathed for 25 minutes by this animal,
its volume experienced no variation whatever ; and the por-
tion of its oxygen, which difappeared, was replaced by an
equal bulk of carbonic acid. (Phil. Tranf. 1809, p. 414.)
Three experiments were made on the refpiration of the
guinea pig, in two of which the time occupied was 25 mi-
nutes, and inthe third one hour. The animal was confined
in a certain volume of air, which was changed fucceflively,
fo that the fame air may have been breathed more than
once ; while in the experiments of thefe gentlemen on hu-
man refpiration, jult detailed, the air was only once
breathed. In all the three experiments with the guinea pig,
100 parts of the air breathed contained the fame contti-
tuent elements, viz. 5 carbonic acid, 16 oxygen, 79 azote.
(Phil. Tranf. 1809, p. 413, et feq.) Wherefore, they
juftly conclude, that when atmofpheric air alone is refpired,
even by an animal fubfifting wholly on vegetables, no other
change takes place in it than the fubftitution of a certain
portion of carbonic acid gas for an equal volume of oxygen.
Ibid. p. 427.
In refpiration as nearly natural as poflible, thefe gentle-
men eftimate the quantity of oxygen confumed on. an
average at 26.6 cubic inches, at the temperature of 50°,
and barometrical preflure of 30°.4.
The changes occurring in refpiration are influenced by
various caufes, which modify the a¢tions of the capillary
veffels. Crawford eftablifhed by experiment, that lefs oxy-
gen is confumed at a high than at a low temperature (Ex-
periments on Animal Hest, p- 307-); and this was con-
firmed in the experiments of Lavoifier and Seguin (Mem.
de I’ Acad. des Sciences, 1789, p. 575+) 3 a man confuming,
at the temperature of 54°, 1344 cubic inches of oxygen in
an hour, while, in an atmofphere at the temperature of 79°,
he confumed only 1210 cubic inches. Crawford obferved
alfo, that in an animal placed in a warm medium, the venous
blood approached to the arterial in colour. Hence it ap-
pears, that the hich temperature counteratts thofe chemical
changes which the blood undergoes in the extreme veflels ;
and that the diminution in the confumption of oxygen by
re{piration is owing to this caufe, and not, as has been fup-
pofed, to the rarity of the air at the hich temperature. If
the confumption of oxygen were diminithed from the Jatter
caufe, the blood ought to be even more completely venous
G than
RESPIRATION. :
than ufual. The fa& formerly known, that the confump-
tion of oxygen is influenced by the food and the ttate of di-
geftion, was confirmed and more accurately demonftrated
by Lavoifier and Seguin. They found, that during digef-
tion the confumption of oxygen was inereafed to 1800 or
1900 cubic inches inan hour. Exercife, too, increafed the
proportion confumed. It is ftated that Seguin, in con-
tinuing the exercife of railing a weight of 15 pounds to a
height of 613 feet during,a quarter of an hour, confumed
800 cubic inches, which is at the rate of 3200 in an hour ;
and the fame exercife, made during digeftion, occafioned a
confumption equal to 4600.
Notwithftanding, however, fays Mr. Ellis, the neceflity
of oxygen gas to the continuance of refpiration, and the
great quantity of it that is thus daily confumed, many
fats tend to prove, that, by the very conftitution of that
funtion, a neceflary limit is placed to its confumption: and
that this limit is determined, not by the purity of the air
employed, but by fome circumftances inherent in the animal
fyftem. It has been found, that the growth of vegetables
is retarded by a great fuperabundance of oxygen (Ellis’s
Inquiry, § 14 —40.); and that, althouch infeéts will live a
confiderable time in this gas, yet their breathing becomes
oppreffive, and they die (ibid. § 53.) long before the whole
of it isconfumed. ‘There can be little doubt but that the
other claffes of inferior animals would, under the fame cir-
cumftances, fuffer in the fame manner. In the experiment
alfo made by Lavoifier onthe guinea pig, already defcribed,
the animal is faid to have breathed with much difficulty,
although not more than one-fifth of the oxygen gas was
confumed : but fome experiments of the fame author, at a
Tater period, feem in oppofition to this fact. In comparing
together the phenomena of combuttion and refpiration, he
obferves, that much more combuttible matter is confumed in
a given time in vital air, than in that of the atmofphere,
but that the fame circumftance does not hold in refpiration :
for whether animals refpire oxygen gasin its pure ftate, or
mixed with a proportion, more or lefs confiderable, of nitro-
gen gas, the quantity of oxygen which they confume is
always the fame. If a guinea pig, he adds, be kept for
feveral days in oxygen gas, or in a mixture compofed of
fifteen parts nitrogen and one of oxygen, preferving con-
itantly thefe proportions, the animal in both cafes continues
in his natural ftate: his refpiration and circulation do not
fenfibly appear to be either accelerated or retarded: his tem-
perature remains the fame, and he has only, when the pro-
portion of nitrogen gas is too great, a flight difpofition to
drowfinefs. Mem. de Acad. 1789.
The refults of Mr. Davy’s experience, however, donot
correfpond with thefe conclufions of Lavoifier. - He intro-
duced a moufe into a jar containing an atmof{phere compofed
of 10.5 cubic inches of oxygen, and three inches of nitrogen
gas. In half an hour the animal appeared to fuffer much,
and, in about.an hour, lay down on his fide, as if dying:
inan hour and a quarter he was withdrawn from the jar
alive, but motionlefs. The refidual air, on being analyfed,
was found to have loft only 2.1 cubic inches of its oxygen
gas, and confequently 8.4 inches of that gas ftill remained.
Another moufe, which was put at the fame time into a jar
containing 15.5 cubic inches of atmofpheric air, was taken
out through the mercury alive, but unable to ftand, in 50
minutes: and on analyfing the refidual air, 2.7 cubic
inches of ité oxygen were confumed. Hence it appears,
that the moufe in atmofpheric air confumed nearly one-third
more of oxygen in 50 minutes, than the other moufe did
in an hour and a quarter, when placed in a jar containing
fo large a portion of oxygen. (Refearches, p. 443.)
The refults of thefe experiments. on mice are corrobe-
rated by thofe made by Mr. Davy. on his own refpiration 5
for he found, that he confumed much lefs oxygen gas when
he refpired it pure, than when, for the fame length of time,
he breathed atmofpheric air ; and the quantity of carbonic
acid formed in the firft cafe, was but little more than half
that obtained by the refpiration, for the fame time, of
atmofpheric air. (Ibid. 442.) Meffrs.- Allen and Pepys
ftate, on the contrary, that when pure oxygen gas is
breathed, more of it is confumed in a given time, and more
carbonic acid formed, than in breathing atmofpheric air.
The experiments of Davy differ greatly therefore from thofe
of Lavoifier as to the effeéts produced by the refpiration of
oxygen on the animal fyftem ; for, while the latter philo-
fopher informs us, that this gas may be refpired for many
days without inconvenience, Mr. Davy has fhewn that the
animal dies long before the whole of it is confumed. Trutt-
ing, therefore, to the accuracy of Mr. Davy’s experiments,
as in all refpects fupported by analogy, we infer, that an
excefs of oxygen gas in the air that is breathed, is not
fuited to the due maintenance of the refpiratory funétion :
and, on the other hand, the oppreflive fymptoms which the
re{pration of impure air occafions, as well as the refults of
Lavoifier’s experiments, in which nitrogen fuperabounded,
equally inftruét us, that a deficiency of this gas is alike un-
fuited toit. Confequently, we may conclude, that the atmo-
fphere, as it is naturally compofed, is beft adapted to the
economy of the animal fyitem ; but that this fyftem is, at the
fame time, fo conftituted, as to be able to bear great varia-
tions in the compofition of the air without immediate injury
to the powers of animal life.
When, however, this variation proceeds toa certain ex-
tent, the air 1s no longer capable of fupporting vital action ;
but different animals, when confined in given volumes of air,
poflefs the power of prolonging this action in very different
degrees. Thus infects, worms, fifhes, and the amphibia,
live until all the oxygen gas of the air is nearly or entirely
confumed (Ellis’s Inquiry,.§ 53, et feq.) 3 while birds die in
a given quantity of air before they have confumed two-
thirds of its oxygen (ibid. § 84.), and a moufe and guinea
pig expire when about three-fourths of this gas have difap-
peared. Dr. Prieitley obferved, thatif a moufe can ftand
the firft fhock of being put into impure air, or has been ha-
bituated to it by degrees, he will live a confiderable time in
air in which other mice will initantaneoufly die. (Experi-
ments on Air, p.257-) When, however, death does happen
to animals in a given volume of air, it mutt arife either from
the noxious operation of the nitrogen gas that 1s always pre-
fent, or from that of the carbonic acid, which is formed ;
or it muft proceed from the deficiency, or total abfence, of
oxygen gas. Now, although nitrogen gas do not of itfelf
fupport life, yet we have no evidence that it exerts any
injurious effects on the animal fyftem. In vegetation, and
in the refpiration of the inferior animals, it has been fhewn
to be wholly inaétive ; and when, in the experiment of La-
voifier, it conftituted +:ths of the air employed, a degree
of drowfinefs only feems to have been induced by it. That
it is entirely paflive, is ftill farther confirmed by an experi-
ment of Lavoifier, who found that hydrogen gas, mixed in
due proportion with oxygen, would ferve the purpofes of
re{piration as well as the air of the atmofphere. We have
no proof that nitrogen is able to enter the veffels fo as to
roduce any direct operation on the blood,—an effect which
is ftill farther forbidden by its incapacity of uniting with that
fluid. We may therefore conclude, that nitrogen gas, when
re{pired, neither fuffers any change itfelf, nor produces any
dire&t operation on the animal fy{tem.
The
RESPIRATION.
The only other gas to which the death of animals, in
thefe circumftances, can be afcribed, is carbonic acid, which,
however, when formed by refpiration, does not feem deftruc-
tive to animal life. Dr. Goodwyn obferves, that when
the fame air is breathed feveral times, fo as to increafe the
- quantity of carbonic acid, its noxious operation is to be
attributed not to the prefence of this acid, but to the defi-
ciency or abfence of oxygen gas (Connection of Life, &c.
p- 66.); and when Spallanzani, by medns of an alkaline
fubltance, abftraéted this acid as foon as formed by the re-
fpiration of birds and quadrupeds, he did not find thet they
lived longer in a given bulk of air than when it was fuffered
to _remam. (Memoirs on Refpiration, p. 318.) Dr.
Higgins obferves, that debility, convulfions, and death,
follow the fucceflive diminution of the oxygen gas of the
air in refpiration, long before the whole of that gas is con-
fumed, although the carbonic acid that is generated be, in
the mean time, carefully withdrawn. ( Minutes of a Society,
p. 160.) Indeed, we might in this, as in former examples,
be led to fuppofe, that neither the carbonic acid formed in
refpiration, nor the nitrogen gas employed in that procefs,
would exert any pofitively deftructive operation on the ani-
mal powers, fince both of them mutt, at all times, necefla-
rily be prefent in the fyftem; and feeing, moreover, that the
abitraGtion of oxygen gas alone is fuflicient to account for
the fatal effe€&ts which enfue, it mutt be deemed unneceflary
to refort to the fuppofed*agency of any fubordinate caufe.
Inquiry, &c. § 127—130. f
Quantity of Carbonic Acid produced.—Having afcertained
the proportion of oxygen which is confumed in refpiration,
it next remains for us to determine the quantity of carbonic
acid gas which is produced. It appears that Dr. Black
firft demonitrated its exiftence in air emitted from the lungs,
and that Lavoifier afterwards examined it with more accu-
racy, and found that the air, in which an animal had ex-
pired, contained about one-fixth of its bulk of carbonic acid
as. (Acad. des Sciences, 1777.) In the experiment which
this philofopher performed with a more perfect apparatus,
upon a guinea pig confined in oxygen, the carbonic acid
amounted to nearly one-fifth of the bulk of the whole air
employed, when the animal had been detained in the appa-
ratus until the air was reduced into a {tate no longer fit for
refpiration. (Annales de, Chimie, t. 5. p. 261, et feq.)
Thefe experiments, however, only prove what proportion
of carbonic acid gas wiil render air incapable of fupporting
life, without acquainting us with the quantity of this gas
produced under the ordinary circumftances of refpiration.
M. Jurine of Geneva, appears to have been the firft
who attempted to calculate the abfolute quantity of car-
bonic acid formed by the refpiration of man; he imagined
that it conftituted about one-tenth part of the air emitted
from the lungs. (Encycl. Method. Médécine, v. 1. p. 494.)
Dr. Menzies inftituted a fet of experiments to difcover the
abfolute quantity generated in a given time; he infers from
them, that .,';th part of .air which has been once refpired, is
carbonic acid, and eftimates, that a man, in 24 hours, fends
out from the lungs 51,840 cubic inches, or nearly qlbs.
troy ; but this eitimate is. probably over-rated, LEilay,
. ‘he circumftances which have been already pointed out,
as influencing the confumption of oxygen, have at leaft as
powerful an effect upon the production of carbonic acid gas,
Accordingly we fhall find the calculations of the moft accu-
rate experimenters upon this fubje¢t fo widely different from
each other, that it feems {carcely poffible to arrive at any
tolerable degree of certainty.
M, M. Layoifier and Seguin, in their firft memoir of
1789, eftimate the average quantity of carbonic acid gas,
formed by a man in 24 hours, at 17720.89 grains troy ; in
their fubfequent memoir, publifhed in the following year,
this quantity is diminifhed to 8450.24 grains; and in the
eulogy of Lavoifier by La Place, it is ftated, that Lavoi-
fier, in his laft experiments, reduced it {till lower, to 7550.40
sae Mr. Davy, on the contrary, whofe experiments
eem to have been performed with great exatinefs, though
with a lefs complicated apparatus than that employed by the
French chemitts, fuppofes the carbonic acid formed in 24
hours to amount to 17811.38 grains (Refearches, p. 434.)
a quantity which is not very different from that firit an-
nounced by Lavoifier.
Mr. Murray found that he expired 265 cubic inches of air
in 30 feconds, and he difcovered in this 16.57 cubic inches of
carbonic acid. Making a deduétion for the fmall quantity
of this acid contained in the infpired air, he affumes 16 cu-
bic inches as the quantity formed by refpiration in 30 fe-
conds. He calculated the quantity of oxygen confumed at
1g cubic inches: the ratio, therefore, between the calcu-
lated. quantity of oxygen confumed, and the aGtual quantity
of carbonic acid formed, was as 100 to $4.5. Syit. of Che-
miftry, v. 4. p. 494.
Mefirs. Allen and Pepys conclude from their experiments,
that the atmofpheric air expelled from the lungs ufually con-
tains from 8 to 8.5 per cent. of carbonic acid, and that the
proportion of acid in no cafe exceeds 10 per cent. They
eitimate the quantity of acid thrown off in 11 minutes at
302 cubic inches, which is about 27.45 per minute; and
{uppofiag the produGtion uniform for 24 hours, the total
quantity in that period would be 39,534 cubic inches, weigh-
ing 18,683 grains, or rather more than 11 oz. troy. Phil.
Tranf. 1808.
If alarger quantity of air be paffed through the lungs in
a given time, more carbonic acid is formed, but it {till pre-
ferves the fame ratio to the other component parts of the ex-
pired mafs. Thus, 3300 cubic inches of air were infpired
by one perfon in 54 minutes, and as each 100 parts contained
8.5 of carbonicacid, the whole acid formed in this time was
281.42 cubic inches. The firft and laft portions of a fingle
expiration differ confiderably in their proportions of car-
bonic acid, becaufe the former confifts principally of air
contained in the fauces, trachea, and its larger branches,
while the latter comes from the air-cells themfelves. In
fmall quantities of the firlt portions, given off by natural
and eafy expirations, the carbonic acid formed from three to
five per cent. When an expiration was made as complete as
poflible, the utmott efforts being employed to prefs the air
out of the lungs, 204 cubic inches were expelled, and the
proportion of carbonic acid was 9.5.. Now as the firit por-
tions’ contain only from three to five per cent., the lait muit
have contained» more than the average, or 9.5. When
300 inches of atmofpheric air were repeatedly breathed, un-
til the laborious ftate of refpiration compelled the operator
to defilt, 190 parts of the expired air contained 9.5 carbonic
acid, 5.5 oxygen, and 85 azote. When a fimilar trial was
repeated until the operator became infenfible, 100 parts of
the air contained 10 carbonic acid, 4 oxygen, and 86 azote.
(Phil. Tranf. 1808.) When 3260 cubic inches of gas,
confilting of 97.5 oxygen, and 2.5 azote in 100 parts, were
refpired for 9 minutes and 20 feconds, the expired air mea-
fured 3193 inches, and contained, in 100 parts, 11 carbonic
acid, 83 oxygen, 6 azote. Here, therefore, 37.64 cubic
inches of carbonic acid were emitted from the lungs in one
minute by the fame individual, who produced 27.45 fer mi-
nute, when he breathed common air, In another inftance,
3420 cubic inches of cars air were breathed for 7! 25":
2 the
RESPIRATION.
the expired air meafured 3362. The firft 250 cubic inches
confifted, in 100 parts, of g carbonicacid, 25 azote, 66 oxy-
gen; the lalt, of 12.5 carbonic acid, 5.5 azote, 82 oxygen:
100 parts of the whole expired air contfifted of 12 carbonic
acid, 6.5 azote, 81.5 oxygen. The whole quantity of car-
bonic acid gas emitted in this experiment was 396.78 cubic
inches. Ibid.
The refult, which fhews a greater evolution of carbonic
acid: when oxygen is refpired, is totally adverfe to thofe ob-
tained by Mr. Davy, and already mentioned. We do not
therefore feel authorifed in determining whether, in general,
an increafe in the quantity of oxygen employed augments the
carbonic acid evolved, or whether the proportion of the
latter depends on the condition of the refpiratory organs, or
variations in the exercife of their functions.
If it fhould be allowed, as the greateft number of invef-
tigations on the {ubje& tends to prove, that the carbonic acid
formed in refpiration be lefs in bulk than the oxygen gas,
which difappears, yet the weight of the compound is in-
ereafed by the addition of carbon, derived from the animal
fyitem. Lavoifier and Seguin eftimated the weight of oxygen
gas confumed by a man in 24 hours, at 15661.66 grains ;
and that of carbonic acid produced in the fame fpace of
time, at 17720.89 grains; the carbon conftituting =1,th of
the weight of the acid formed. In the experiments of Mr.
Davy, the volume of oxygen gas that difappeared every
minute was 31.6 cubic inches, and that of carbonic acid pro-
duced 26.6 inches. But one cubic inch of oxygen gas
weighs 0.3474 of a grain, and therefore 31.6 cubic inches
will weigh 10.97784 grains: again, one cubic inch of car-
bonic acid weighs 0.476 of a grain, and therefore 26.6 cubic
inches will weigh 12.4222 grains. From thefe faéts it would
feem, that the proportion of carbon in the carbonic acid of
refpiration is much lefs than that which forms the fame acid
in combuttion. For 100 parts of carbonic acid, formed by
burning the diamond, contain, according to the very accu-
rate refearches of Allen and Pepys (Phil. Tranf. 1807)
20.72 or 28.81 of carbon: and the proportion of carbon
in 100 parts of acid is 28.77, when it is formed from char-
coal and oxygen. (Murray’s Chemiftry, ed. 3. v. 2. p. 487.)
But there-are fome points of the fubje& requiring the elu-
cidation of further refearches. .
Alteration in the Bulk of the refpired Air.—Qn no point of
the refpiratory procefs are the recorded refults of different
inquiries more at variance with each other, than about the
- queition of the change in volume of the air, and the amount
of that change. At firft, it was generally believed, that
the refpired air undergoes fome lofs ; and this opinion main-
tained its ground until very lately, although experiments
were publifhed, in which no fuch lofs was obferved. The
moft accurate modern refearches are much in favour of the
opinion, that the bulk of the atmofphere is not affected by
breathing ; and this view of the fubje@ is the moft generally
entertained in the prefent day. Some think, that, although
the volume of the refpired air is not affeGted in ordinary
natural breathing, it may be altered ‘under particular cir-
cumitances. The determination of the queftion concerning
the volume of the air, is clofely conne&ted with another. re-
f{peting its abforption by the blood. We fhall detail the
faéts and arguments on both fides, and point out that which
has the moft numerous and {trong proofs in its favour.
The diminution of bulk was early noticed by Boyle, who
eftimated it at about 1th of the air employed. Mayow,
whofe genius enabled him to anticipate fo many important
difcoveries of modern chemiftry, confined an animal in‘a
glafs veflel inverted over water, and, by the aid of a fy-
phon, brought the water on-the infide of the veffel to alevel
with that on the outfide. Having then marked the height
of the water by pieces of paper affixed to the fide of the
veffel, he obferved its gradual rife as the animal continued to
breathe ; and then, comparing the fpace occupied by the
air at the commencement of the experiment, with that which:
it poflefled when the arsmal ceafed to breathe, he found that
it was reduced about 3th part of its bulk. (Traétat-
Quingue, p. 104.) In the experiments of Dr. Hales, the
desree of diminution varied from ;.th to ,),th of the air
employed. Statical Effays, v. 1. p. 230. v. 2. p. 320.
Lavoifier, im the frft memoir which he publifhed upon
refpiration, afcertained the degree of diminution with more
accuracy, and ftated, that air, when rendered unfit to fup-
port life, was reduced 3,th in bulk. (Mem. de l’Acad-
1777-) ‘The experiments of Dr. Goodwyn afforded the
fame refult. :
The volume of air, taken into the lungs at a fingle in-
fpiration, contained,
Phiogifticated air = 2 = > 80
Dephlogifticated air = = : 18
Fixed air : = e é 3 z
100
The volume of air, expelled from the lungs at the next
fucceeding expiration, contained,
Phlogiiticated air - SPeihi = ts 80
Dephlogifticated air - = = if
Fixed air = e “ e = 13
98
Conneétion of Life, &c. p. 51.
In the account which Lavoifier gives of the firft experi-
ment upon the guinea pig, he found the diminution to
amount to; of the buik of the air employed (Mem. de
PAcad. 1780, p. 4o1-); and in the fecond fet of experi-
ments, the diminution was found to be 5!,d part (Annales
de Chimie, tom. v. p. 261.) ; the greater abforption, in
thefe cafes, probably depending upon the greater purity of
the air employed. In the experiments performed by La-
voifier, in conjunétion with Seguin, upon the refpiration of
man, though in other refpedts fo remarkable for their ac-
curacy, there is no mention made of this circumftance, nor
is it noticed by La Place, in his account of the experiments
in whick Lavorfier was engaged, immediately previous to his
execution. In thefe inftances we cannot determine whether
Lavoitier conceived that no diminution a¢tually took place,
or whether he only neglected te notice it.
The general fa¢t of the diminution of bulk in refpired
air, has been finee confirmed by Mr. Davy, though the
exa€t degree of abforption varied fo much in his different ex-
periments, that it is difficult from them to fix upon a quan-
tity which may indicate the ordinary amount of this dimi-
nution. In the confideration of this queition, as in the
preceding one refpe@ting the confumption of oxygen, and
the produdtion of carbonic acid, there are two diltin@ ob-
jects of inquiry. We may examine the degree of diminution
produced in a given quantity of air, in which an animal has
been confined, until it is no longer fit for fupporting refpira-
tion; and in the fecond place, we have to afcertain the
amount of the diminution which takes place in air, that has
only once paffed through the lungs, as is the cafe in the
procefs of ordinary refpiration. The firft of thefe points
only was examined by. Lavoifier. Mr. Davy has made ex-
periments upon both. In air which had only once pafled
through the lungs, he found the diminution in eo
trials.
RESPIRATION.
trials to vary from ;',th to +3,th: when he received the
fame air repeatedly into the lungs, 1t was found to be di-
minifhed as much as +, th of its original bulk. (Refearches,
p: 431—435-) ‘The former experiments, however, alone
indicate the effeéts of natural refpiration, and taking an
- average of their refults, the amount of the diminution will
be about ;',th part of the whole air received into the
lungs.
Mr. Murray of Edinburgh made fome experiments on the
alterations produced in the air by natural refpiration, from
which he calculates (for the quantity of air infpired was not
meafured) that there is a lofs of 6 cubic inches in 265.
Syitem of Chemiltry, vol. iv. p. 493, 494.
Meflrs. Allen and Pepys, whofe experiments we fhall
prefently allude to, as affording the ftrongeft arguments
againft a change of volume in the refpired air, in natural
breathing, met with a different refult, when the circum-
{tances of the experiment were changed. In their four-
teenth experiment, 300 cubic inches of atmofpheric air
were, in the fpace of three minutes, pafled eight or ten
times through the lungs, until refpiration became extremely
laborious, and the operator was compelled to defift. On
analyfing the refpired air, it was found to contain, in 100
parts, only 5.5 oxygen, g.5 carbonic acid, and 85 parts of
nitrogen gas. In the fifteenth experiment, which occupied
alfo about three minutes, until the operator became quite
infenfible, the fame quantity of air was employed, and af-
forded, by analviis, nearly the fame refults; for it con-
tained, in 100 parts, 4 of oxygen, 10 of carbonic acid, and
86 of nitrogen, In the former experiment we obferve,
therefore, an increafe of 6 parts of nitrogen, and a lofs of
6 parts of oxygen; and in the latter, the oxygen had loft
7 from 21, and the nitrogen had gained 7 upon 29. (Phil.
Tranf. 1808, p. 260.) Hence it is inferred, that when, as
in thefe experiments, refpiration is attended with diftrefling
circumftances, there is reafon to conclude that a portion of
oxygen is abforbed. Ibid. p. 280.
In fome experiments on the refpiration of rabbits and of
guinea pigs, Mr. Berthollet found that the bulk of acid gas
produced did not quite equal that of the oxygen which dif-
appeared ; fo that the lofs of oxygen appeared to vary from
1.07 to 4.09 per cent.
We proceed to {tate the refult of thofe inquiries, in
which the yolume of the air has been found not to undergo
diminution in the aé of breathing. Among the earlieft ex-
periments of Dr. Prieftley on refpiration is one, in which
he confined a moufe in a jar containing a given quantity of
air, which was inverted over mercury. The animal was
fuffered to remain two or three days after he had died, in
which time there was no fenfible diminution of the airs but
en pafling lime-water into the jar, the air was diminifhed
zsth part of its bulk; and when, in a fubfequent experi-
ment, the refidual air was agitated in water, it was reduced
between one-fifth and one-fixth of the whole. Obf. on Air,
vol. v. p. 112, et feq.
Dr. Crawford found, alfo, that when the experiment
was made over mercury, the diminution was not fenfible ;
but that, if water of potafla was added to the refidual air,
it beeame mild, and the air was diminifhed in the fame de-
gree as if the experiment had been made over water, or
nearly one-fifth of its bulk. (On Animal Heat, p. 146.)
The variations in thefe refults, compared with thofe be-
fore enumerated, arife, no doubt, from the more or lefs
complete attraction of the carbonic acid by the fluids, over
which the experiments were made ; and,’ from the whole of
them, we may collect, that when mercury is employed,
which has no attraction for carbonic acid, the diminution is
hardly fenfible ; but that, when this acid is completely ab-
{tracted by an alkaline fluid, the lofs of bulk amounts
nearly to one-fifth of the whole air employed. This infer-
ence correfponds very exaétly with what occurs in vegeta-
tion, and in the refpiration of the inferior animals.
In the year 1806, Mr. Dalton’s attention was direGted to
this fubje€&t, and he fatisfied himfelf, by numerous experi-
ments, that the bulk of carbonic acid, formed in refpiration,
was exactly equal to that of the oxygen gas confumed. On
repeating thefe experiments, Dr. Thomfon obtained, in
fome cafes, nearly the fame refults; but, wpon the whole,
the bulk of oxygen that difappeared was fomewhat greater
than that of the carbonic acid formed. The difference,
however, varied confiderably, and kept pace with the dimi-
nution in the whole bulk of air; whence he confiders it to
arife from the ab{traétion of a part of the air by fome other
way than by refpiration: and if this be allowed for, he be-
lieves the bulk of acid produced to be precifely equal to
that of oxygen gas loft. Hence, fays he, this oxygen muft
be changed into carbonic acid in the lungs ; for oxygen gas,
when changed into carbonic acid, does not fenfibly alter its
bulk. Syftem of Chemiltry, 3d edition. vol. v. p. 736,
and 774.
Thelfe conclufions have been completely confirmed by the
very accurate experiments, already noticed, of Allen and
Pepys. There was a lofs of 23 cubic inches only in 3460
breathed once, at 58 refpirations, which occupied 11 mi-
nutes. In another experiment, g8go0 cubic inches, of which
the breathing occupied 244 minutes, loft only 18. In fub-
fequent ‘experiments on the refpiration of a guinea pig, thefe
chemilts found, that when 310 cubic inches of atmofpheric
air were breathed for 25 minutes by this animal, its volume
experienced no variation whatever; and the portion of its
oxygen, which difappeared, was replaced by an equal bulk
of carbonic acid. ‘Thefe refults were particularly fatisfac-
tory in their tendency to eftablifh the point, that the air un-
dergoes no diminution; becaufe the time which they oc-
cupied was more confiderable, and the chance of error,
therefore, diminifhed. The third trial with the guinea pig
occupied one hour: the bulk of the atmofpheric air, before
the experiment, was 1060 cubic inches; after the experi-
ment, 1061; the carbonic acid formed 53 cubic inches ;
the carbonic acid per minute, .88 of a cubic inch. (Phil.
Tranf. 1809, p. 414.) Wherefore they juttly conclude,
that when atmofpheric air alone is refpired, no other change
is produced in it than the fubftitution of a certain portion
of carbonic acid gas for an equal volume of oxygen.
The refults of all the trials made by thefe gentlemen were
not uniform, and the deficiency was fometimes greater than
what has been itated. The deficiency varied from 4.to 62
cubic inches in ten experiments ; in each of which, between
3 and 4000 cubic inches of air were breathed once, the time
employed being 10 or II minutes in each experiment.
They confider that the deficiency principally arifes from the
laft expiration being made into a gatometer, and confe-
quently meeting with more refiftance ; fo that the lungs are
lefs completely evacuated than in the expiration into the
open air, with which the experiment commenced.
The difficulty, which thefe gentlemen allude to, of bring-
ing the lungs to the fame ftate exactly at the end as they
were in at the beginning of the experiment, ,is evinced by
the refult of their thirteenth trial, which alfo affords a {trong
argument again{t the diminution of bulk, which has hitherto
been almoft generally affumed as a refult of the re{piratory
pracefs. In 5} minutes, 3300 cubic inches were infpired,
and 3311 expired; thus exirbitiny an increafe of 11.
Amid this confli€ of authortics, we have no difficulty
in
' RESPIRATION.
in declaring it, as our decided opinion, that the experiments
leaft liable to error, molt carefully performed, and therefore
deferving our greateft confidence, are thofe which contradic
the notion of an abforption of oxygen.
«Tn cafes,’’ fays Mr. Ellis, “* where fo many caufes concur
to render the apparent bulk of acid lefs than it ought to be,
and lefs than that of the oxygen loft, it is furely more rea-
fonable to give greater credit to thofe refults, which indicate
an equality of volume between thefe gafes, than to thofe
which declare a difference; fince the former not only go
with the latter to the fulleit extent ; but, purfuing the fame
track, have a€tually gone beyond them, and thereby reached
a point, which the others have been unable to gain. In fat,
to prefer thofe experiments, which indicate a difference, to
thofe which prove an equality of volume, would be not only
to halt in our progrefs, but to make a retrograde movement,
and thus to fuffer a negative inference to outweigh a pofi-
tive proof.”? Further Inquiry, p. 279.
By the experiments of Mefirs. Allen and Pepys, we have
feen it proved, that when a guinea pig breathes a given
quantity of air in a natural manner, no variation whatever
was obferved in the bulk of that air; and that in man, in
whom many caufes, not affecting the lower animals,’ contri-
bute to produce error, when the refpiration was nearly na-
tural, the general average of the deficiency, in the total
amount of common air infpired, was oaly about fix parts in
1000, and in one inftance confiderably lefs than two. The
fmallnefs of this deficiency, fay thefe. chemilts, furprifed us
very much; and it probably arifes from the difficulty, or,
as they elfewhere term it, the impoffibility of always bring-
ing the lumgs to the fame {late after forcible expiration.
Under other circumftances, as in the experiment recited
above, of refpiration continued until the operator became
infenfible, thefe gentlemen conceive that oxygen is abforbed.
To this inference, fays Mr. Ellis, as far as it regards what
is here called an abforption of oxygen, we muit beg leave
to objet. That the united volumes. of oxygen and carbonic
acid expired were lefs than the total volume of oxygen in-
{pired, we readily grant; but we deny that this fact affords
any adequate proof of an abforption of this latter gas. To
the chemift, indeed, the mere fact of the difappearance of
a portion of oxygen may fupply fufficient evidence of its
abforption, in the fenfe in which he may choofe to employ
that term; but the phyfiologiit farther requires to know,
by what organs or veffels it is removed, in what courfe it is
~ conveyed, and what ufes it is deftined to ferve. On none of
thefe points, however, does he gain any information; and
all the anatomical knowledge which he poffeffes of the ftruc-
ture of the lungs, and of the properties of the living ab-
forbent fyitem, is adverfe to fuch a-doétrine. Should he
apply to the chemift for a folution of his difficulties, he is
told that oxygen does net chemically combine with other
bodies; unlefs 1: be brought into actual contact-with them ;
and he knows, that, in the prefeat cafe, this contact is im-
poffible, becaufe the membranes, both of the air-cells and
blood-veffels, are interpofed between the air and the blood
in the lungs. Even if, contrary to all experience and ana-
logy, he were to concede to the chemift the exiftence of
pores or other paflages in the cells and blood-veffels, through
which this oxygen might be attra&ted and combine with the
blood, he is equally embarraffed to difcover the reafon or
mode in which it is again fo Speedily expelled, or what ufe-
ful purpofe it can ferve, fince no portion of it is permanently
retained, The f{cience of chemifiry furnifhes no example
of fimilar operations,—ai-fluids which attra@ gafes and
combine them, fo as to reduce their elafticity, and_ then, -
without any apparent change of condition or circum-
ences; almoft inftantly difcharge them in a new and elaftic
orm. .
If, farther, we compare the refults of the two feries of
experiments made by Mefirs. Allen and Pepys, the difficul-
ties, in a phyfiological point of view, greatly accumulate
upon us. For, if an abforption of oxygen really take place
in the lungs, bow does it happen, that, in the firit thirteen
experiments, made with feveral thoufand cubic inches of air,
and which occupied from ten to twenty-four minutes of
time, a very {mall lofs in the whole bulk of air, and not the
fmalleft in its proportioa of oxygen, occurred; while, in
two other experiments, made with only 300 inches of air,
and continued only for three minutes of time, a great de-
ficiency in the whole bulk of air, and a lois of one-third of
its oxygen, took place. In all thefe experiments, except
the twelfth, in which, inftead of lofs, there was actually an
increafe of eleven cubic inches upon the bulk of air refpired
(Phil. Tranf. 1808, p.256.), the fame perfon appears to
have breathed, and the air wes of fimilar compofition. Con-
fequently, the eaufe of variation in the refult is to be fought,
not in any difference in the animal organs, or in the original
compofition of the air, but, probably, in fome circum-
ftances of diflimilarity, which accompanied the progrefs’ of
the. experiment.
Now the bare ftatement of fa&ts points out a great diffi-
milarity, not only in the chemical refults, but in the circum-
ftances accompanying the experiments, and m the effets
which they produced in the fyitem. For in the firit thirteen
experiments, which occupied from ten to twenty-four mi-
nutes, and in which no lofs of oxygen occurred, the air
was only once pafled through the lungs, the breathing was
nearly natural, the operator fearcely fatigued, and his pulfe
not raiied-more than about one beat in 2 minute. (Ibid. 253.)
But in the two experiments in which oxygen is faid to be
abforbed, the fame air was palied eight or ten times through
the lungs; and, in lefs than a minute, the operator found
himfelf obliged to take deeper and deeper infpirations. At
lait, the efforts to take in air became very ftrong and fudden,
with a great fenfe of oppreflion and fuffocation in the cheft,
indiftinct vifion, buzz in the ears, lofs of recolleGtion, and,
at the end of three minutes, perfect infenfibility. (Ibid.
260—262.) This difference in the effe€is produced in the
fyitem, we do not hefitate to afcribe to a difference in the
compofition of the air, which, in the fir experiments, was
refpired in a natural ftate, but, in the two lait, by repeated
breathing, was rendered more and more unit to earry on
refpiration, until, at length, its power of fupporting that
funCtien altogether ceafed.
But becauie under circumiftances, in which the mental and
asimal powers were in complete abeyance, the refpiratory
organs were not able'to make fo complete an expulfion of
the infpired‘air as they effeG in their natural ftate of health
and vigour, are we, therefore, entitled at once to conclude,
that all the: air which was not expelled was really aé/orbed?
Setting afide the anatomical difficulties in the cafe, let us,
for a moment, look only to the chemical confequences, to
which fuch-2 conclufion would condu& us. If the mere
difappearance of any gas,-received into the lungs, be fuf-
ficient evidence of its abforption, then every gas, which is
not returned, muft be held to be abforbed. Are we then
prepared to admit that hydrogen and nitrogen gafes are ab-
forbed by the blood? for, when their refpiration is carried
to its full exteut, they, too, equally difappear. This fap.
pofed abforption, however, cannot proceed from the opera-
tion of chemical attraGion, for little or no affinity fubfifts
between thefe gafes and the blood. Neither can it arife
from the operation of the living fyftem; for it eceurs only
3 when
————— ee
RESPIRATION.
when the living powers are about to ceafe. To us there
appears but one way of efcaping from thefe manifold diffi-
culties, which is fimply to conclude, that the infpired air,
which is not returned, is retained in the cells of the lungs.
Such a fuppolition diflipates at once all anatomical and che-
. mical difficulties, and explains why no air difappears in na-
tural refpiration, when the expiratory powers are in full
vigour and able to expel it, and why its difappearance in-
creafes in proportion as the actions of thefe powers decline
and ceafe.
It is, however, worthy of remark, that, in thefe laft ex-
periments, not only was there a diminution in the whole
bulk of air, but its relative proportions likewife varied ;
for, in 100 parts, the oxygen and carbonic acid amounted
together only to about two-thirds of the ufual quantity of
oxygen, and the deficiency was fupplied by a fuperabund-
ance of nitrogen gas. We are not prepared to fay why, in
this very embarrafled {tate of the refpiratory function, the
relative proportions of the expired air fhould thus vary ;
but the fact proves only the retention of oxygen in the
lungs, but not its abforption by the blood. Should it even
be maintained that oxygen was abforbed, becaufe, in thefe
two experiments, a portion of it difappeared, then, by the
fame mode of reafoning, we mutt alfo contend, that, in the
thirteen preceding experiments, no abforption of oxygen
took place, becaufe no part of it was retained ; and as thefe
laft experiments alone come near to the natural exercife of
this function, they authorife us to conclude, that fuch fup-
pofed abforption of oxygen conftitutes no neceflary part of
healthy refpiration. In truth, in fome initances where a
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gafes was refpired, the
oxygen and carbonic acid in the expired air unitormly ex-
ceeded, by one fer cent. the total oxygen infpired.(Phil.
Tranf. 1809, p. 425.) ; from which it may be inferred, that
thefe variations in the proportions of the expired air. pro-
ceed entirely from accidental caufes, and are totally inde-
pendent of any abforbent function in the lungs. Further
Inquiry, v. 2. ch. 4. ;
If we are correct in reprefenting that the air undergoes
no diminution of volume in breathing, it will follow necef-
farily that no part of it can be abforbed in the lungs. This
notion of abforption is not only at variance with the refults
of the moft accurate direct experiments, but it is alfo re-
pugnant to our knowledge of the ftructure of the lungs.
‘The finenefs of the abforbing veflels, the mucus perpetually
imearing the furface of the cells, the elaltic nature of air
itfelf, fo that it neither penetrates moift paper, cloth, nor
fkin—all demonttrate that no air gets into the blood by this
route. If, indeed, air were taken up by the abforbents, it
muft pafs to the right fide of the heart, and change the
colour of the blood there, which does not happen.!
_ But if, either by the function of abforption, or by the
operation of chemical affinity, air did enter into the blood,
we may furely with reafon demand fome proof of its pre-
fence ; yet, fays Haller, «* Nulla unquam in vivo calido ani-
mali buila aéris in fanguine vifa eft.”” (Prime Lin. f. 306.)
This opinion is confirmed by the direét experiments of Dr.
Darwin ; for having inclofed a portion of the jugular vein
of a fheep between two ligatures, it was cut out, {tripped
of its adhering cellular membrane, and then thrown into a
glafs of water of temperature 100°, ftanding under the re-
ceiver of anair-pump. It at once funk to the bottom, and
did not rife when the air was exhauited; nor, when after-
wards taken out, wiped dry, and laid on the floor of the
receiver, did it exhibit any {welling under the exhauttion of
the veffel. The experiment was repeated with a fimilar re-
fult on a portion of the vena cava of a pig. Phil. Tranf,
v. Ixive p+ 345-
Neither do the effeéts refulting from tlie admixture of
aeriform fluids with the blood, favour the notion of the en-
trance of air into that fluid. ** Animal, cui aér in fangul-
nem inflatur,’”? fays Haller, « perit certo et velociter ; neque
quidquam fatis certi elt in fanguinis venarum pulmonalium
aucto rubore.” (Loc. cit.) This affertion is confirmed
likewife by direct experiment. When Dr. Girtanner in-
jected oxygen gas into the jugular vein of a dog, he cried
dreadfully, breathed quick, and died in three minutes;
when nitrogen gas was thrown in, death happened in 20
feconds. (Memoirs on Irritability, pp. 221. 223.) Air,
{ays Bichat, thrown into the vafcular fy{tem, quickly brings
on agitation, convulfions, and death. (Récherches fur la
Vie et la Mort, p.179.) By forcing air through the wind-
pipe into the lungs with a fyringe, and confining it there,
he has made it to enter into the blood-veflels, which imme-
diately brings on agitation and exertion in the animal; and
if an artery in the leg or foot be now opened, the blood will
{pring out frothy, and full of bubbles of air. If hydrogen
as has been ufed, the bubbles may be inflamed ; and when
this frothy blood has flowed 30 feconds, the aétions of life
ceafe, and cannot again be reftored, even although frefla air
be fupplied. Ibid. 303. Inquiry, § 102, 103.
If, then, no proof exift of the paflage uf air into the
blood by the ordinary courfe of the ablorbent vellels, the
only other mode of effecting this purpofe that has been
hitherto fuggeited, is the power of chemical affinity. What
then are the chemical affinities fubfifting between venal blood
and atmofpheric air? About the middle of the 17th cen-
tury, Dr. Lower obferved, that the upper furface of venal
blood, received into a veilel, acqfired a {carlet colour by
expoture to the air; that if this furface was removed, the
fubjacent one was foon changed to the fame colour; that if
the cake of blood, after being allowed to fettle in the vetlel,
was inverted, its exterior and upper furface {peedily alfo
aflumed a florid hue ; and, laftly, that if venal blood was
fhaken in a vellel, fo that the air thoroughly intermixed with
it, it became entirely florid. (De Corde, p- 178.) Thefe
opinions were afterwards held by Sig. Fracaflati and Dr.
Slare, the latter of whom obferves, that the blood thrown
up by a rupture of the capillary veffels of the lungs, is
frothy and of a f{earlet colour ; the tirlt of which effects he
attributes to the intermixture of air, and the latter to its
tinging power. (Lowthorpe’s Abridg. Phil. Tranf. v. iii.
p- 235-) Mr. Hewfon employed timilar arguments to
prove, that the florid colour, acquired by venal blood on
expofure, was produced by the. conta& of the air; and,
by injecting air into the jugular vein of a rabbit, he found
that it there alfo rendered the blood florid. .(Hewfon on
the Blood, p. 9.) M. Cigna not only confirmed the fore-
going facts, but proved allo that the change of colour in
this fluid did not.take place when the blood was covered
with oil or placed in vacuo; and Dr. Prieitley afcertained
that not only by common air, but more efpecially by oxygen
gas, this florid colour:;was produced on the black craiia-
mentum of blood. On Air, v. iii. p. 66.
In effe&ting thefe remarkable alterations in the colour of
the blood, the air itfelf, at the fame time, fuffers material
changes. Dr. Prieftley found, that in twenty-four hours
oxygen gas was fo far depraved by being in conta& with
venal blood, that one meafure of it and two of nitrous gas
occupied the {pace of a meafure anda half, whereas, at the
beginning of the experiment, they occupied the {pace of no
more than half a meafuree (Loc. cit. p. 75.) Dr. Good-
WyR
RESPIRATION.
wyn confined venal blood under a jar of oxygen gas iriverted
in mercury; and repeatedly obferved that the change of co-
lour was always very fudden, and, after feveral minutes, the
mercury afcended two or three lines ; from which he con-
cluded that a {mall portion of the air had difappeared.
(Effay, p. 61.) The precife change, however, which the
air underwent, feems firft to have been obferved by Dr.
Girtanner, who placed fix ounces of venal blood in a jar of
oxygen gas inverted in mercury 5 the blood prefently af-
fumed a florid colour ; the air was fomewhat diminifhed in
bulk, and contained a portion of carbonic acid, which was
attraéted by lime-water. ( Beddoes’ Obf. on Calculus, &c.
p- 219.) Dr. Boftock obferves alfo, that a diminution of
oxygen and produétion of carbonic acid take place when a
piece of craflamentum is placed in a jar filled with oxygen
gas. (On Refpiration, p. 227.) The fame production of
carbonic acid occurs when blood is placed in contaé with
atmofpheric air. A quantity of this fluid was received into
a cup, and coniined in a jar of air inverted in water, a glafs
of lime-water having been previoufly placed in the cup.
The internal furface of the jar was foon bedewed with
moifture, and a pellicle began to form on the lime-water,
which, ina few hours, was increafed to a thick cruft of car-
bonate of lime. ‘The craflamentum was then removed, and
afrefh glafs of lime-water was placed inthe ferum, which,
in thirty-fix hours, had acquired a cruft like the former,
and the water had rifen confiderably into the jar. In an-
other experiment, where the ferum was placed for twenty-
four hours in‘a jar of air inverted in mercury, the refidual
air rendered lime-water milky, and the remainder had lott a
part of its oxygen. A fimilar production of carbonic acid
feems to have oceurred, when, with a {mall diminution of
the gas, a flight change of colour was produced on venal
blood by placing it in contaét with nitrous oxyd, in. the
experiments of Mr. Davy ; for when a folution of ftrentian
was admitted to the oxyd, it became flightly clouded, and,
with the diminution of bulk that followed, minute portions of
carbonic acid and nitrogen gas were produced. (Refearches,
Pp- 377- 380. 387-) Hence then we learn, that when venal
blood is expofed to the conta of atmofpheric air, of
oxygen gas, or of nitrous oxyd, it prefently aflumes a
florid colour, and, at the fame time, the volume of air is
fomewhat diminifzed, and a portion of carbonic acid is
produced,
Does then the carbonic acid, which is here met with,
proceed ready formed from the blood, or is it in part formed
by the decompotition of the air? No one has yet proved
that any aériform fluid, much lefs that carbonic acid, exifts
naturally in the blood; and if this be true, no fuch aerial
acid can be expefted to iflue from it. The carbonic aeid
alfo, isnot formed by blood when it is confined in nitrogen
gas; neither does the colour of the blood, in that cafe, un-
dergo any fenfible change 5 but this acid is formed by blood,
either in oxygen gas, in nitrous oxyd, or in atmofpheric
air, all of which are deteriorated thereby; whence it
follows, that without the prefence of oxygen gas, the blood
is unable to form carbonic acid, and that this acid, there-
fore, is, in part, formed out of that gas. if the oxygen
gas that difappears do not contribute to form the carbonic
acid that is produced, in what other manner can its lofs be
accounted for ? or from what other fource than the oxygen
gas of the air, in conta with the blood, can that ingre-
dient of the acid be derived? whofe who fuppofe the car-
bonic acid to be furnifhed by the blood, independent of the
air employed, mutt hkewile fuppofe that the nitrogen gas
is furnifhed by it allo; for the experiments of Mr. Davy
teach us, that a portion of that gas, as well as of carbonic
acid, is always prefent when nitrous oxyd is decompofed,
which renders it probable that the fame thing likewife occurs
when air is changed by venal blood. But in what manner
the blood fhould be able to furnifh nitrogen gas, it is not
eafly to conceive, fince no affinity exifts between that gas
and venal blood. (Davy’s Refearches, p. 375.) We infer,
therefore, from thefe faéts, that atmofpheric air is decom-
pofed by being placed in contaé with venal blood, its oxy-
genous portion being in part conyerted into carbonic acid,
role a quantity of its nitrogen being, in confequence, left
ree. -
But, fuppofing the air to be thus decompofed by the
blood, it ftill remains a queftion, whether it has been firft
attraéted by that fluid, then decompofed, and afterwards
in part expelled; or, whether the decompofition has been
effe€ted without fuch previous attraétion and intermixture
of air. The only evidence of this fuppofed attraction feems
to be the {mall diminution of bulk, which the air in all
cafes fuffers; but this cannot be confidered as a proof of
the attra€tion of the air; for it is a neceflary confequence
of that converfion ef oxygen gas into carbonic acid, which
has been fhewn to take place, when thefe fubitances are
brought into contaét. Even granting to the blcod this
power of attracting air, or its oxygenous portion, it is not
eafy to conceive, why it fhould fo readily lofe it, and again
give out this air in the form of carbonic acid. No change
of quality in the blood, nor any variation of temperature,
can have taken place fufficient to alter fo rapidly its affinity
for thefe fubftances: and it cannot proceed from a want
of affinity between the blood and the carbonic acid that is
formed ; for that acid fuffers a greater diminution, either
than oxygen gas or atmofpheric air, by being placed in
conta&t with blood. We incline, therefore, to the opinion,
that neither the air nor its oxygen gas is attracted by, and
diffufed through the blood, as happens with feveral gafes
when placed im contaét with certain fluids: but that the
air is decompofed, and its oxygen gas changed into car-
bonic acid, without entering into the fubftance of that
fluid.
But, for the formation of this acid, the blood muft
fupply carbon, fince no other fubftance was prefent from
which it could be derived: and it is well known alfo, that
carbon enters largely into the compofition of that fiuid ;
and our experiments prove, that it exifts as well in the
ferous as in the more folid parts. By fome it may be ob-
jeGted, that becaufe carbonic acid is formed dire&tly by the
combuttion of charcoal, it cannot be produced at fo low
a temperature as exifts in thefe experiments. To this we
can reply only by an appeal to the general facts exhibited
through the whole courfe of our enquiry, by which it ap-
pears, that both by the living functions of vegetables and
animals, and by the decompofition of animal and vegetable
matter, this acid is in like manner formed at temperatures
equally low. Even thofe, who confider this acid to have
proceeded ready formed from the blood, cannot attribute
its production to the operation of heat ; for in the animal
body, the temperature of the blood feldom exceeds 100°—
a degree of heat incompetent to form carbonic acid by any
procefs analogous to combuttion. The combination of
many bodies is, indeed, greatly accelerated by being ex-
pofed to very high temperatures; but this furely does not
fet afide the fact of their fpontaneous union at temperatures
much more low. From this review of the effects, which
take place between the blood and air, we conclude, that
the chemical phenomena, which arife when the fubftances
9 are
ae eee
RESPIRATION.
are placed in conta&, do not prove an attraGtion and dif-
fufion of air through the blood; but fhew only that a re-
ciprocal a@tion takes place, by which a new produé is
formed: no inference, therefore, in favour of an attraétion
of air by the blood in the lungs, can be drawn from the
_ reciprocal aGtion which they exert on each other out of the
body. Inquiry, § 96—r100.
It is, farther, an objeGtion to this fuppofed operation of
oxygen, that in the lungs the blood and air do not come
into contact, and therefore although the combination of
oxygen with that fluid might be conceived to happen, when
they are placed together out of the body, yet the interven-
tion of organifed membranes may be fuppofed to prevent
fuch an union in the living fyftem. In the ordinary opera-
tions of chemiftry, fuch an interpofition of animal fub-
ftance would be confidered fufficient to vitiate the refult of
any fimilar experiment in which it was employed; but in
the application of this fcience to the living body, neither
membranes nor blood-veflels are conceived to oppofe any
obftacle to the exertion of chemical ation, or, in the
fmalleft degree, to affe@& its refult. In fupport of this
fuppofed operation of oxygen on the blood, fome experi-
ments of Dr. Prieftley have been appealed to, as affording
decifive evidence that this fubftance has the power of pene-
trating a compaét membranous body, and may, confe-
quently, penetrate the cells and blood-veffels of the lungs.
The importance, which has been attached to thefe experi-
ments, in all the late hypothefes which have been propofed
to explain the fun@tion of refpiration, renders it neceflary
for us to examine them with fome minutenefs, in order to
difcover the true relation which they bear to the prefent
quettion.
Dr. Prieftley, who, as we fhall hereafter fee, fuppofed
that venal blood became red by imparting its phlogiiton to
the air, knew well that the blood in the lungs was fearatea
from the air by a membranous fubftance, which, however,
according to Dr. Hales, dogs not in thicknefs exceed the
sesoth part of an inch. To afcertain the effe&t of this
circumftance, he put fome black blood into a bladder
moiftened with a little ferum, and then tying the bladder
very clofe, he hung it in a free expofure to the air. The
next day, all the lower furface of the blood, which had
been feparated from the air by the intervention of the
bladder, had acquired a coating of a florid red colour, as
thick, it appeared, as it would have acquired, if it had
been immediately expofed to the open air; fo that this
membrane had been no impediment to the action of the air
on the blood. This experiment was repeated, without
previoufly moiftening the bladder, and with the very fame
refult. Obf. on Air, vol. iii: p. 369. E
But although in thefe experiments the blood was ren-
dered red by the agency of the air, yet we are not entitled
to conclude, that this rednefs was produced by the combina-
tion of its oxygen, unlefs we can fhew, not-only that this
fubitance comes into conta& with the blood, but is likewife
capable of changing it to a red colour. Dr. Prieftley
himfelf, who believed the blood to become red by the lofs
of phlogiiton, could draw no fuch conclufion; and it is
not a little remarkable that this philofopher, who had be-
fore fo well obferved the reciprocal effeéts produced in the
air, when it thus changed the colour of the blood (loc.
cit. p. 336.), fhould in thefe experiments have entirely
overlooked them. It is ftill more remarkable, fince thefe
experiments have drawn fo much attention, and feem now
to be the chief or only remaining evidence urged in fup-
port of the hypothefis of oxygenation, that fome attempt
has not been made to inquire farther into the a€tual circum.
Vor. XXX.
ftances which attend them. It is this examination which
we now propofe to make, in the hope, that if it do not lead
us to a knowledge of the true caufe of this phenomenon,
it may at leaft ferve to fhew to what it is not to be
afcribed.
With this view, we procured a quantity of black blood,
and putting it into a fheep’s bladder, fufpended it from the
top of a jar containing about 100 cubic inches of atmo-
{pheric air. The jar was inverted in a faucer containing
mercury, and within it a {mall cup of folution of potafla
was likewife placed. The blood, in a fhort time, affumed
a florid hue, and a dimnefs extended over the infide of the
jar. By the next day, the mercury in the faucer had rifen
+sths of an inch into the jar, and it continued to rife feveral
days; fo that by the fifth day it had reached nearly to an
inch in height. The jar was then raifed, and diluted acid
being poured upon the alkaline folution, difengzaged from
it a large quantity of carbonic acid gas. By this experi-
ment, therefore, we are taught, that, when black blood
afflumes a red colour by being thus placed in a moiftened
bladder, and expofed to atmofpheric air, the air itfelf, at
the fame time, undergoes a change ; for its volume is dimi-
nifhed, and earbonic acid is produced.
To afcertain thefe fats with ater precifion, wi
another quantity of black blood a a fimall bladder, ia
fufpended it, as before, from the top of a fwiall jar inverted
in mercury, and which contained 18.3 cubic inches of
atmofpheric air. Under this jar alfo a {mall cup of
folution of potafla was placed. The blood, as before,
was foon reddened, and the jar became dim. In two
days, the mercury had rifen nearly half an inch into the
jar, and by the clofe of the fourth day, it ftoad feven-
eighths of an inch high, where it remained for fome time
quite ftationary. On analyfing the refidual air, it was
found to fuffer no change, either from agitation with lime-
water, or by being expofed to the contaét of phofphorus ;
fo that, though all the oxygen had difappeared, no carbonic
acid was prefent, but that gas was entirely attracted by the
water of potafla employed.
The capacity of the jar, in the above experiment, has
been ftated to be equal to 18.3 cubic inches; and the
bladder, with its contents, together with the cup and folu-
tion, we found to occupy a {pace equal to 5.2, which re-
duces the adtual bulk of air, employed in the experiment,
to 13.1 cubic inches. The mercury which in confequence
of the attra¢tion of the carbonic acid had rifen feven-eighths
of an inch into the jar, occupied a fpace equal to three
cubic inches ; fo that of the 13.1 inches of air originally
employed, three had difappeared, and +3, = ~~, ora por-
tion of the air, was thus converted into carbonic acid,
which comes very near to the proportion of oxygen gas
which the atmofphere is known to contain. Hence we
infer, that, in this experiment, all the oxygen gas that
difappeared was converted into carbonic acid; and con-
fequently we deny that any oxygen penetrated the bladder,
in order to combine with the blood.
As thus it is denied that the blood, in thefe experiments,
received any ponderable matter from the air, fo likewife it
will appear, from the faéts which follow, that the air re-
ceives no fuch matter from the blood. We filled bladders
with water, and fufpended them in jars of atmofpheric air,
in the manner defcribed above ; and fourd that the oxy
gas of this air was converted into carbonic acid, in the fame
manner as when the bladders were filled with blood: and if
the experiment was continued a fufficient length of time,
the whole of the oxygen gas was, in like manner, made to
difappear. The fame Toe from the introdu@ion
al
RESPIRATION.
of moiftened empty bladders; and, indeed, it is the ufual
effet produced in the air by every moiftened animal fub-
ftance. If, therefore, the moiftened bladder be thus ca-
pable, by itfelf, of acting on the air, we are entitled to
conelude that it exerts the fame ation when it is filled with
blood; and as, on this fuppofition, the oxygen gas will
unite with the carbon, furnifhed dire&tly by the bladder,
we have no ground whatever to fuppofe this carbon to come
from the blood. Hence, therefore, when black blood
is reddened by the air, through the coats of a moiftened
bladder, the air yields no oxygen to the blood, nor acquires
from it any carbon; but the carbon of the bladder, by its
combination with the oxygen of the air, pafles into a {tate
of carbonic acid gas. Further Inquiry, § 581—587.
That this change in the colour of blood is always ac-
companied by a correfponding change in the air, may be
tarther inferred from other experiments of Dr. Prieflley.
He found that, when the black craffamentum of blood was
covered by ferum or milk, it neverthelefs acquired a florid
hue, on being expofed to the air (Obf. on Air, vol. iii.
p- 370.); and Dr. Wells obferved, that a covering of al-
bumen, alfo, did not prevent the ation of the air on the
blood. (Phil. Tranf. 1797.) Now we know that ferum
and albumen convert the oxygen gas of the air into car-
bonic acid; and we found by experiment, that the fame
effe€t was produced by milk, as probably would be the cafe
with moft of the animal fluids. Hence it is evident, that
when the blood, in the experiments of Dr. Prieftley, be-
came florid, through feveral inches of ferum, the oxygen
gas mutt have been at once changed by it inte carbonic
acid, and could never, therefore, in the form of oxygen, be
conveyed through this fluid to a& on the blood.
On the other hand, Dr. Prieftley found a thin ftratum
of water to prevent entirely this aCtion of air on the blood.
(Obf. on Air, vol. iii, p. 370.) M. Cigna found the fame
thing to take place, when a pellicle of oil was inter-
poled (ibid.) ; and Dr. Wells afcribes a fimilar effe& to a
folution of gum arabic. Thefe fubftances, however, act
little, if at all, in changing the air; and no change of co-
lour, therefore, takes place in the blood. That black
blood fhould have the power of attracting the oxygen of the
air, through feveral inches of ferum, and yet lofe this power
when a thin ftratum of water is interpofed, feems fomewhat
furprifing, if the intervening fluid be, in each cafe, con-
fidered to be equally paffive ; but proceeding on the fact,
_ that the ferum exerts an action on the air, which the water
is incapable of effecting, a new circumitance comes into
view, and upon it the colouration of the blood may pro-
bably depend.
If, then, it appear, that the interpofition of fubftances
between the blood and the air neceflarily prevents that con-
taét, which is effential to the chemical union of oxygen with
that fluid; if it alfo appear, that the colour of the blood is
never, in fuch cafes, changed, unlefs fuch fubftances be in-
terpoled, as are themfelves capable of acting on the air;
and if, laftly, it be proved, that when the blood exhibits
this change of colour, the air fuffers a change, and that its
oxygen, inftead of combining with the blood, is really con-
tained in the carbonic acid that is formed, we muft con-
clude, that, whatever be the mode in which the air contri-
butes to change the colour of the blood, it cannot be by
imparting to it any portion of its ponderable matter. Con-
fequently, although thefe fa@s prove that oxygen gas pof-
fefles the power abeladsiae the colour of the blood, as well
through dead as through living animal membranes, yet they
afford no evidence of the combination of oxygen with that
fluid, but fhew only the converfion of that gas into carbonic
acid, precifely in the fame manner as this acid gas is formed,
when the blood is reddened in the ordinary procefs of re-
{piration.
Even when the air and blood are brought into contaét,
they only exert a reciprocal aétion on each other, by which
carbonic acid is formed, but no oxygen appears to combine
with the blood. We have already given various proofs,
that, when the blood is changed in colour by the agency of
the air, the oxygen gas of the air difappears, and carbonic
acid is produced. Thefe facts are confirmed by the experi-
ments of M. Berthollet, who confined recent blood in a
veflel of common air, and, at the end of twenty-four hours,
the ajr, on analyfis, afforded nearly +4,, of carbonic acid.
In two other experiments, fimilar refults were afforded ;
and in all thefe experiments, the acid gas preduced was
exactly equal to the volume of oxygen that difappeared.
(Mem. d’Arcueil, tom. ii. p. 462.) Unlefs, therefore, it
be maintained, that the fame oxygen can, at the fame time,
exift in two combinations, we muft fuppofe, that, in thefe
experiments, no oxygen combines with the blood; and
from whatever caufe, therefore, the red colour of the blood
may proceed, we may fafely conclude that it cannot arife
from the combination of oxygen. Further Inquiry,
§ 592—595- Rubies)
Mr. Ellis confiders that the diminution in bulk, which
the refpired air undergoes, according to the refults of mott
inveftigations, may be accounted for by the condenfation
which oxygen experiences in uniting with charcoal to form
carbonic acid. Crawford eftimated this diminution at 2th,
Lavoifier at th. But the experiments of Allen and
Pepys (Phil. Tranf. 1807), performed with a very perfect
apparatus, and therefore apparently deferving confidence,
do not fupport this notion of condenfation. When they
tranf{mitted repeatedly oxygen gas over ignited charcoal, fo
as to convert it into carbonic acid, the volume was the fame
at the end of the experiment as at the commencement.
The refearches of thefe chemifts on refpiration, publifhed
fince the appearance of the “‘ Inquiry,”? making it very pro-
bable that there is no lofs of bulk in the air refpired, coin-
cides with what they have proved concerning the conttitu-
tion of carbonic acid.
Whether the azote of the infpired air undergoes any change?—
Mr. Murray has brought together all that is known on this
point, and arranged it fo clearly, that we avail ourfelves of
his labours, without any further remark.
«Tt is laftly to be determined, what is the influence of
the nitrogen of the atmofphere in refpiration ; and with re-
gard to this, different conclufions have been formed. La-
voifier, in his early experiments, confidered the nitrogen of
the atmofpheric air as fuffering no change in refpiration.
Mem. de Acad. des Sciences, 1777. Mémoires de la
Société de Médécine, 1783.
Prieftley, in the experiments already referred to, in
which he breathed the fame air repeatedly, obferved an ap-
parent confumption of its nitrogen, as well as of its oxy-
gen; but he afterwards inclined to the fuppofition, that the
deficiency of nitrogen arofe from the greater proportion of
it in the lungs after the. procefs than before.
Mr. Davy inveftigated this, and concluded that nitro-
gen is confumed in refpiration; a quantity difappearing
equal to about two-tenths of a cubie inch at each natural
ref{piration, 13 cubic inches being the quantity of air taken
into the lungs. As the number of natural in{fpirations
amounted in a minute to 26 or 27, it followed that, in this
time, 5.2 cubic inches of nitrogen are confumed ; a refult
which was confirmed by continued re{piration, as well as by
the. refpiration of animals confined in a portion of air ;
though,
RESPIRATION.
though, in the latter cafe, the quantity confumed appeared
to be lefs. Chemical Refearches, p. 434. 2
This abforption of nitrogen in refpiration appeared to
be confirmed by other experiments. It was obferved by
Dr. Henderfon, in breathing 2 portion of air repeatedly
“from and into a gafometer. (Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. viii.
p- 40.) And it feemed likewife to be eftablifhed by
the experiments of Pfaff. Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. xu.
+ 249.
7 Thele experiments, however, are not free from fallacy,
particularly thofe where the fame quantity of air was re-
peatedly breathed ; for, as Mr. Ellis has juitly obferved,
(Inquiry on Vegetation, Refpiration, &c. p. 114.) the
ref{piration, as it proceeds, becomes more difficult and la-
borious, and is at length terminated by a feeble expiration,
in confequence of which the due proportion of air is not
thrown from the lungs. There appears, therefore, a dimi-
nution; and accordingly it is ftated by Pfaff, that the di-
minution and the lofs of nitrogen is always the greater, the
longer the air is refpired. There can be little doubt that
the apparent diminution arifes from this caufe ; and aceord-
ingly, in the experiments of Allen and Pepys, in which this
fource of error is avoided, there is no apparent confumption
of nitrogen. The fame refult is itated to have been ob-
tained in the laft experiments of Lavoifier and Seguin,
«there being neither any difengagement nor abforption of
nitrogen gas during the refpiration.”” (Mem. de l’Acad.
des Sciences, 1789, p- 374.) From the experiments of
Vauquelin, Spallanzani, and Ellis (Inquiry, &c. Pp. 87, 88.),
it alfo appears that there is no fenfible confumption of ni-
trogen, by the refpiration of the lower orders of animals,
while there is the ufual confumption of oxygen, and forma-
tien of carbonic acid. ;
Meliirs. Allen and Pepys, from fome experiments (Phil.
Tranf. 1809), inferred, that there is even an evolution of
nitrogen in refpiration. They obferved this, firft, in the
refpiration of oxygen gas; in one experiment, where 3000
cubic inches of oxygen had pafled through the lungs, 62
cubic inches of nitrogen being found in the firft 260. cubic
inches expired, though the gas originally contained only
fix cubic inches in this quantity ; and in the next 562 cubic
inches, 56 cubic inches were found, though this quantity,
before it was refpired, contained only 14; anda fimilar evo-
lution of nitrogen was obferved in the repeated refpiration
of the fame quantity of oxygen, an equivalent quantity of
oxygen difappearing. Much of this lofs of nitrogen may,
as they obferve, be afcribed to the intermixture of the
refidual air in the lungs ; but from comparing the capacity
of the lungs with the quantity of nitrogen evolved, they
found more of it to be evolved than could be derived from
this fource ; and were therefore led to the conclufion, that
where oxygen gas is refpired, a portion of nitrogen is given
off from the blood. This conclufion appeared to be con-
firmed by the refults of experiments on a guinea pig, con-
fined in a quantity of atmofpheric air. In one experiment,
at the end of an hour and twelve minutes, the increafe of
nitrogen in the air was more than equal to the cubic con-
tents of the body of the animal. In the refpiration of a
mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gafes, a fimilar evolution
ef nitrogen, and difappeararce of an equivalent portion of
oxygen, was obferved ; but not in the refpiration of atmo-
{pheric air.
Three thoufand four hundred and twenty cubic inches of
air, confilting of 2.5 azote, and 97.5 oxygen in 100 parts,
were breathed for 7! 25": the expired air meafured 3362,
therefore the deficiency was 58. The expired air was
received in 13 fucceflive portions; of which N° 1. con-
tained, in 100 parts, g carbonic acid, 25 azote, 66 oxygen.
N° 13. confifted of 12.5 carbonic acid, 5-5 azote, and
82 oxygen, in 100 parts. When all the thirteen were mixed,
the compofition was 12.0 carbonic acid, 6.5 azote, 81.5
oxygen. The whole quantity of carbonic acid formed
in this experiment was 396.78 cubic inches. The quantity
of azote taken into the lungs was 85.50; the quantity ex-
pired, 263.10: the increafe is, therefore, 177.60. (Phil.
Tranf. 1808.) In another experiment of a fimilar nature,
2668 of gas were breathed backwards and forwards for 13
minutes: it contained 4 per cent. of azote. There was a
deficiency of 124 cubic inches in the expired air, the largeft
ever obferved by thefe gentlemen. In this experiment there
was an increafe of 105.08 of azote. If the azote emitted
from the lungs in thefe experiments be fuppofed to have
been contained in thofe organs before the experiments
began, it will make their contents more confiderable than
we had before calculated. The following is a fummary of
four experiments on this fubjeé& :
Oxygen Gas Quantity re- ee Inferred cv-
Barom. Therm. s, &c. a Deficiency. Time. fpired in a i acity of
onR ne Fifpired expired. J Minors. evolved. REE:
Nos. 53° 3260 3193 67 g! 20! 348 IIo 141
2. 30-3 7° 3420 3362 58 7 25 461 177 225
3- 30.15 70 3130 3060 70 8 45 357 187 236
4. 29-4 51 2668 2544 124 13 40 205 105 133
The particulars of two analogous experiments on the guinea pig follow :
. Oxygen, &e. Gas after 3 Carb. acid Carb. acid per . Oxygen Azote
Baroni." Therm. infpired. the Exp, Deficiency. formed. Minute. aime. miffing. added.
N°r. 29.05 7S 1060 1056 4 106. 1.48 inom 54:07 50.12
26 56 816 814 2 78.91 I.11 1 a1s 36.20 34.20
Philof. Tranf. 1808 and 1809.
The conclufion that the nitrogen, found in thefe cafes,
is derived from the refidual air of the lungs, is fo probable,
that it would at once be admitted, were it not that the
quantity evolved is fo large, as apparently to preclude its
admiffion. Mr. Ellis, however, in fome very ingenious
ebfervations on this queftion, has pointed out a fource of
fallacy to which there is every probability that.the refult
is to be afcribed. It is, that the air in the lungs may be
in a condenfed ftate, or occupy lefs volume than it would
do when it isexpired ; and hence, inthe refpiration of oxygen,
a larger portion of nitrogen derived from the refidual air in
the lungs may be given out than could be inferred from their
known capacity. The ftru€ture of the lungs is cellular,
and the air is diffufed in cells of an immenfe number, and
at the fame time of diameters extremely f{mall. If thefe
cells have any degree of contraétile power, this may pro-
2 duce
RESPIRATION.
duce condenfation of the air they contain. But independent
of this, it is well known, as Mr. Ellis remarks, that a
ftrong attraction or adhefion is exerted between air and the
f{arfaces of all bodies; the more, therefore, the furface is
increafed, the greater mutt be the effe& from this attractive
force. Hence, under the extenfive furface of the cells of
the lungs, it muft operate with great effea, and reduce
confiderably the volume of the air. The abforption of
aérial fluids by charcoal, Mr. Ellis adduces as illuttrating
this operation of adhefion ; and in the lungs it is fufficiently
probable, that it may be aided by the affinity exerted by
the humid furface to the aérial matter. . 5 iets
All the phenomena accord much better with this view
than with the conclufion that nitrogen is evolved from the
blood: Thus the “ produétion of nitrogen 1s always
greateft in the firft expiration, and its quantity progreflively
diminifhes, until towards the clofe of the experiment, It 1s
reduced almoft to nothing, circumftances which feem plainly
to fhew that nitrogen is-no longer obtained when all the
refidual air in the lungs is removed. If this nitrogen were
furnifhed by the blood independent of the refidual air, no
reafon occurs why it fhould thus diminifh, and ceafe to
appear, as this air is abftracted ; for the function of refpira-
tion oes on, and the blood, as far as depends on itfelf, can-
not be confidered lefs fit to fupply nitrogen. The fact, alfo,
that no fuch excefs of nitrogen is furnifhed in natural refpir-
ation, militates againft the notion of its proceeding from
the blood. Noexcefs of nitrogen, too, Is ever afforded in
other cafes, unlefs its place be {upplied by an equal or fupe-
rior bulk of fome other gas. And this affords evidence,
* that in this fuppofed evolution of nitrogen from the blood,
nothing more than a mechanical fubititution of one gas for
another takes place.”’ (Farther Inquiries, &c. p. 306. )
Murray’s Syftem of Chemiitry, 3d edit. v. 4. p. 498, et
See as we do entirely, the views of Mrs Ellis on
the fubje@ of re{piration (to whofe clear, logical, and very
fatisfactory works we refer our readers for more ample in-
formation), we conclude our review of the changes, which
the atmofphere undergoes in refpiration, in the words. of his
« Further Inquiry,’? § 621.
«s From the foregoing feries of facts, concerning the re-
{piration of the higher clafles of animals, we feel ourfelves
entitled to repeat with increafed confidence, that < the
whole of the oxygen gas which difappears in re{piration fs
employed to form the carbonic acid produced in that pro-
cefs.? And that ‘the nitrogen gas of the air neither
fuffers any change itfelf, nor produces any dire operation
om the animal fyftem.’ Or, in the words of Mefirs. Allen
and Pepys, ‘ When atmofpheric air alone is. refpired, no
other change takes place in it, than the fubititution of a
certain portion of carbonic acid gas for an equal volume
of oxygen.’ (Phil. Tranf. 1809, p. 427+) Confequently
in man, as well as in the lower animals, the converfion of
oxygen gas into carbonic acid conititutes the only eifential
change, which the air of our atmofphere experiences in the
lungs during its refpiration.”’
ye Vapiur ra, in the expired Air.—That the
air expelled from the lungs contains a certain. quantity of
watery vapour, is rendered very obvious by its condenfa-
tion, when we breathe cold air. It is not very ealy to
afcertain its quantity. ; :
Dr. Hales performed many experiments for this purpofe :
he contrived to pafs the air which he expired through a
flafk filled with woodafhes, which, in confequence of the pot-
afh contained in them, have the property of ftrongly at-
traéting the moifture. By obferving the increafe of weight
which the acid had acquired in a given time, he eftimates
that the water emitted from the lungs in 24 hours, will
amount to 9792 grains, above 20 ounces. (Statical Effays,
vy. 2. p. 322—4.) The nature of his procefs, however,
did not admit of much accuracy. Dr. Menzies attempted
to folve this problem, by actually colle&ting in an allantoid
fitted to the mouth, the water emitted from the lungs ina
given time; his eftimate is much lefs than that of Hales;
he fuppofed that the quantity of water exhaled in 24 hours
would amount to no more than 6 ounces, or 2880 grains.
(Diflertation on Refpiration, p. 54.) Mr. Abernethy, by
breathing into a glafs veflel of a peculiar conftruétion, col-
lected in an hour 180 grains of. water, containing, as he
fuppofed, a quantity of mucous matter. According to his
eftimate, the quantity emitted*in 24 hours, would amount
-to exaCtly g ounces, or 4320 grains, but as the fubSance
which he obtained was not pure water, there muft be fome
deduétion made from it on this account. We are not in-
formed what proportion the water bore to the mucus dif-
folvedinit. Surgical Effays, pt. 1. 141.
The difficulty of aétually colleGing and weighing the
pulmonary exhalation, is probably the caufe which induced
Lavoifier in his experiments upon refpiration, to afcertain its
quantity by a calculation, founded upon the proportion
between its conitituent parts, compared with the compofi-
tion of the other fubftances which are received into and
difcharged from the lungs. He firft determined by dire&
experiment the quantity of oxygen confumed, and of car-
bonic acid produced; the compofition of carbonic acid is
known, and by comparing the oxygen which had difap-
peared with the quantity which would have been neceflary
to form the acid, he found that the oxygen confumed was
more than fufficient to compofe the carbonic acid which
was actually produced. He fuppofed that this fuper-
abundant quantity of oxygen was employed in the formation
of water, by uniting in the lungs with a portion of hydrogen:
he eftimates the amount of the water by knowing what
quantity of it a given weight of oxygen can produce.
In the firft memoir (1789), the quantity of water emitted
from the lungs of a man in 24 hours, is ftated to be no more
than 337.18 grains. In the 2d (1790), this quantity is
raifed to 11180.57 grains, or nearly 2lbs. troy : and in the
laft experiments recorded by La Place, the quantity is ftilt
more. confiderable, viz. 13704 grains. The prcportion
between the water and the carbonic acid is very various
in thefe different refearches: in the firft they are refpec-
tively 337.18 grains, and 17720.89 grains, or as 19 to
1000 nearly: inthe fecond, 11188.57 and 8450.24, or as
1323 to 1000; and in the third, 13704 and 7550.40, or
as 1815 to 1000. Such difcordant refults can have no
other effe&t than that of diminifhing our confidence in the
whole of them. c
Mr. Murray breathed into a bladder containing acetate
of potafh, a very deliquefcent falt, and calculated the quan-
tity of vapour expired *by the increafe of weight in the
bladder and its contents, after the expired air had cooled.
In this way-he inferred that three grains of watery vapour are
expelled from the lungs in a minute. Syft. of Chemittry,
Wei 4= D2 407+ ae ;
‘There are two ways of explaining the prodution of the
watery vapour expelled from the lungs: by evaporation of
the mucous fluid covering the inner furface of the air-tubes
and veficles by the conitant paflage of the air to and from
thefe parts, which are kept at a temperature of about 98° ;
or by exhalation from the pulmonary or bronchial blood-
veflels. The fecretion of the mucous membrane of the
lungs muit undergo evaporation, under the circumftances of
its
RESPIRATION.
its expofure to the atmofpheric current in refpiration, ac-
cording to the ordinary operation of phyfical laws: this,
therefore, feems the moft probable fource of the expired
water.
Lavoifier conceived that the water is generated in the
lungs; hydrogen being evolved from the venous blood,
and uniting with a part of the oxygen of the infpired air.
But this liberation of hydrogen is not fupported by a fingle
proof, or fhadow of proof; and we have every reafon to
believe that all the oxygen confumed in breathing is em-
ployed to form carbonic acid.
Ill. Changes produced in the Blood by Refpiration.—Soon
after the doétrine of the circulation had been generally re-
ceived, the diitin€@tion between arterial and venous blood was
pointed out, and it was underftood that this fluid is changed
from the latter into the former ftate in the lungs. Various
conjectures were reforted to, to explain the nature and
manner of thischange. Some confidered the alteration to be
principally mechanical; conceiving that the blood, while in
the pulmonary veflels, experiences a continual and violent
agitation, by means of which, its particles, before loofely
mixed, and confilting of feveral heterogeneous fubf{tances, are
communicated and perfeétly united together, fo that the
whole mafs acquires an uniform confiltence. Baglivi fup-
pofed, that the blood was rarefied, and Helvetius, that it
was condenfed in the lungs; Boerhaave thought that its
particles acquired that peculiar organization, which he
deemed effential to the exiftence of perfeét blood. Other
philofophers, as Harvey, Boyle, Hales, and Haller, were of
opinion, that the blood emitted fome noxious or fuperfluous
matter in its paflage through the lungs. Some again
fuppofed, that the change from venous to arterial was caufed
by fomething imparted from the air to the blood.
Thefe vague fpeculations were foon fuperfeded by the
more certain information deduced from experiment and ob-
fervation. We have already enumerated the proofs afforded
by the refearches of Lower, Cigna, Prieftley, Lavoifier,
Davy, and others, that the change of the blood from ve-
nous to arterial is effected by expofure to the oxygenous
gas of the atmofphere in refpiration ; and that a fimilar
change, in colour at leaft, is effected by fuch expofure
out of the body: the alteration being accompanied, in
both inftances, with a change in the compofition of the air.
The proofs, that refpiration is the fource of the change in
colour juft alluded to, that it is ftopped in living ani-
mals when breathing is interrupted, and goes on again
when the refpiratory procefs is refumed, will be found in the
article Lunes. .
But is there no other alteration in the properties of the
blood confequent on refpiration, befides its change of co-
jour ? Undoubtedly there mutt be fuch further alteration,
for life is quickly ended, if this converfion of venous into
arterial blood be {topped ; and we fhall prefently ftate our
opinicn, that carbon is exhaled from the pulmonary veflels ;
but chemiftry has not yet fhewn us any difference of com-
pofition beween the two kinds of blood.
“ When (fays Mr. Murray) we examine chemically the
properties of arterial and venous blood, we find no other
difference between them than that of colour. They con-
tain the fame principles, and are fubje& to the fame changes
from chemical agents. The difference of colour, however,
points out fome difference in compofition, though it may be
too flight to be difcovered by analyfis; and when we exa-
mine the phenomena of refpiration, which are intimately
connected with the change of venous to arterial blood, we
find, that fuch a difference muft exift.”? Sytem of Che-
miftry, vol, iv. p. 489.
Even the changes of colour of the blood are not well
underftood. We know that this fluid is converted from
the fearlet to the black ftate, in the courfe of its paflage
through the capillary veflels of the body. But it under-
goes the fame change, when extravafated from a large artery,
or when confined in an arterial tube between two ligatures.
It never feems, however, to fuffer the oppofite change, ex-
cept when in conta¢t with oxygen gas, or with fome fub-
{tance capable of furnifhing it.
That the paflage of the air through the lungs in refpira-
tion is inftrumental in converting the chyle and lymph,
poured from the thoracic duét into the venous fyftem, into
blood ; or, that it produces fibrine from the materials juft
mentioned, has been fuppofed and aflerted ; but without any
dire& proof. We cannot, indeed, fee the chyle in the
blood after it has gone through the lungs ; but we know of
nothing further than a mechanical admixture ; and are com-
pletely ignorant of the circumftances accompanying and de-
termining the generation of fibrine.
IV. Theories of Re/piration.—The principal explanations
of the phenomena detailed in the preceding divifions of this
article, as exhibited in the air and blood, confequently to
re{piration, are detailed by Mr. Murray, in his Syftem of
Chemiltry, vol. iv. ; where they are followed by his own views
of the fubject.
Dr. Prieftley, fays he, confidered thefe phenomena as
owing to the difengagement of phlogifton from the blood in
the lungs, and its combination with the air ( Philof. Tranfact.
1776) ; a theory modified and rendered more comprehenfive
by Crawford (Experiments and Obfervations on Animai
Heat). Regarding hydrogen as the phlogiftic principle,
and fuppofing it to exift in the blood in that {tate in which
it is difengaged from vegetable fub{tances by heat, the heavy
inflammable air of the older chemifts, the carburetted hy-
drogen of the modern nomenclature, he fuppofed that this
hydro-carbon, as it was named, is communicated to the
blood in the extreme veflels, by which the converfion from
the arterial to the venous {tate is occafioned ; in the lungs,
he concluded, it is given out, and in its nafcent ftate, or
its tranfition to the elaftic form, it combines, he fuppofed,
with the oxygen of the air, and forms the carbonic acid gas
and watery vapour expired, while the blood, deprived of its
hydro-carbon, returns to the arterial ftate. The fame ex-
planation nearly was given by Lavoifier; at leaft he ad-
vanced the epinion, that the carbonic acid gas and watery
vapour of the expired air are formed by the combination of
carbon and hydrogen from the blood with oxygen in the
lungs.
Pavoilies had alfo fuggefted, that the combination of
oxygen with carbon might take place in the courfe of the
circulation (Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1777, p- 191-),
that the oxygen which difappears in refpiration may be ab-
forbed by the blood, while carbonic acid may be given out
fully formed. This hypothefis was afterwards endea-
voured to be eftablifhed by Haflenfratz and Lagrange
(Annales de Chimie, tom. ix. p. 261.) They obferve, that
venous blood expofed to oxygen acquires a vivid red colour,
which foon changes to a purple hue ; and that arterial blood
placed in vacuo, or in contact with any gas which does not
contain oxygen, quickly aflumes the dark purple colour.
They conclude, therefore, that the florid red colour of the
blood is the refult of the abforption of oxygen, while the
dark venous colour arifes from the intimate combination of
that oxygen with a portion of the carbon and hydrogen
which the blood contains. According to this theory, oxy-
gen is abforbed by the blood in the lungs, remains in the
arterial blood for a time in a ftate of folution, or loofe com-
bination,
RESPIRATION.
bination, but it gradually paffes, in the extreme veflels, into
more: intimate combination with carbon, forming carbonic
acid, in confequence of which the blood pafles to the venous
{tate ; and from this venous blood the carbonic acid is dif-
engaged in the lungs, and a new portion of oxygen ab-
forbed. Ac a
Thefe two hypothefes have divided the opinions of phy-
fiologifts. They are both, however, defective : their prin-
ciples are not proved, and they involve fuppofitions incom-
patible with the laws which appear to regulate the chemical
aGtions that proceed in the animal fyftem. No proof is
given, in the fyftem of Crawford, of hydro-carbon being
communicated to the blood in the extreme veffels 3 nor is it
eafy to imagine any fource whence this principle in an infu-
lated ftate can be derived ; for, although it has been imagined
by Crawford, that it may have its origin in the folid parts of
the fyftem being abforbed, this is refuted by the confidera-
tions, that this abforption is performed not by the veins, but
by the lymphatics ; that it is not fufficiently uniform, nor
limited to carbon and hydrogen; that to whatever extent it
may be carried, the blood mutt, ina ftate of health, depofit
as much as is removed ; and that there is no evident caufe by
which the carbon and hydrogen can be feparated from the
other elements, and be brought into binary combination.
And, in the theory of Hailenfratz, though it were granted,
that a portion of oxygen is abforbed by arterial blood, there
is no proof that this is combined merely with carbon, and
that carbonic acid, the refult of this combination, is con-
tained in venous blood. We have even proof that the
latter fuppofition cannot be jutt ; for, when arterial blood
is expofed to carbonic acid gas until its colour is darkened,
it does not recover its florid hue from fubfequent expofure
to oxygen (Prieftley, Experiments on Air, vol. il. p. 363.
365.), and is therefore not venous blood.
Neither are the changes which thefe hypothefes fuppofe,
analogous to the ufual chemical operations of the animal
fyftem, or fufficiently connected with the purpofes which
the blood ferves in its circulation. They both fuppofe, that
the changes which the blood undergoes, depend not on
alterations in its compofition, ftri€tly fpeaking, but on the
ternate communication and abftraétion of a principle held
by it in a ftate of folution, and which appears to ferve no
purpofe in the animal economy, but is affumed merely to
account for the. phenomena of refpiration. But when the
general facility of combination in the principles of animal
matter, and the tendency which the actions of the veflels
have to form them into ternary or quaternary compounds,
are confidered, there is little probability in the fuppolition of
the one hypothefis,—that oxygen fhould be abforbed by the
blood in the lungs, without immediately altering its com-
pofition ; that, without being attraéted by any of the other
principles of the blood, or influenced by the other chemical
changes going on in the fyftem, it fhould be merely com-
bined with carbon, in the proportion neceflary to form car-
bonic acid; and that this carbonic acid, without affe€ting
the ultimate compofition of the blood, fhould be carried the
whole length of the venous circulation, and thrown out at
the lungs ; or in thofe of the other, that carbon and hydro-
gen fhould be brought into a ftate of binary combination in
the extreme veflels, and fhould be held merely diflolved by
the venous blood, until aéted on by the oxygen of the air in
refpiration. :
Still lefs are thefe changes connected with the known
changes which the blood fuffers ; for no relation is traced
between the procefles of affimilation or of fecretion, and the
fuppofed communication of hydro-carbon, or the combina-
tion of carbon and oxygen, in the extreme veflels. In the
theory of refpiration, the converfion of arterial into venous
blood ought to be confidered as conneéted with thefe pro-
cefles ; and this converfion, as well as that of venous into
arterial blood, muft be regarded as arifing from changes in
the ultimate compofition of the known proximate principles
of the blood, and not from the alternate communication
and abftra¢tion of a principle which it holds diffolyed in it,
or in what is termed a ftate of loofe combination. Accord-
ing to this view of the fubje&t, Mr. Murray gives the fol-
lowing explanation of thefe phenomena.
The blood is the fource whence the animal produéts are
formed. Its expenditure is fupplied by the chyle, a fluid
lefs completely animalized than the blood itfelf. The pecu-
liar character of animal matter, with regard to compofition,
is alarge proportion of nitrogen, and a diminifhed propor-
tion of carbon. It may therefore be inferred, that in the
extreme veflels, where the animal folids and fluids are formed,
the general procefs will be the feparation from the blood of
thofe elements of which animal matter is compofed; and
that, of courfe, carbon, which enters more fparingly into
its compefition, will exift in the remaining blood in an in-
creafed proportion.
of the converfion of arterial into venous blood. Nitrogen,
hydrogen, and other elements, are {pent in the formation of
new produéts, and the proximate principles of the blood,
probably the craffamentum chiefly, remain with an increafed
proportion of carbon. In this ftate it is expofed to the
atmofpheric air in the lungs, the oxygen of which abftracts
its excefs of carbon, and forms the carbonic acid expired,
and this conftitutes the converfion of venous into arterial
blood.
There is little reafon to fuppofe, that any combination of
the oxygen of the air with the hydregen of the blood takes
place. The fuppofition that it does, and that this is the
fource of the watery vapours expired, originated in the hy-
pothefis of Crawford, which fuppofed hydro-carbon to be
difengaged from venous blood. No faét has been ftated in
its fupport ; it is a combination which can apparently ferve
no purpofe in the animal economy ; for hydrogen exifts in
as large a proportion, (and even in a larger,) in animal as
in vegetable matter. And the degree of evaporation from a
moitt furface, fo extenfive as that of the internal furface of
the lungs, at the temperature of 96°, is adequate to account
for the whole of the watery vapour expired.
The converfion of arterial into venous blood, is thus con-
fidered in connection with the other chemical changes going
on in the fyftem, and is fubfervient to them. In the extreme
veffels, the conftituent principles of the blood are expended
in the nourifhment of the folid fibre ; in the formation of the
fecreted fluids; and in the fupport perhaps of the living
powers. Of thefe principles, carbon is that contained in the
imalleit proportion in the folids and fluids ; itis, therefore,
that of which there is the leaft expenditure, and confe-
quently it muft be prefent in a larger proportion in the
blood, after it has undergone thefe changes. To preferve
the due proportion, and prevent it from accumulating, it
mutt be difcharged by fome other procefs. Hence the ne-
ceflity of the application of oxygen to the blood in the lungs,
and the origin of the carbonic acid which is uniformily dif-
charged. We thus, too, trace the procefs of animalization
from the reception of the aliment to its completion. All
animals live dire€tly or indire&ily on vegetable matter. The
principal difference in the compofition of vegetable from
that of animal {ubftances, is in the former containing a larger
proportion of carbon. Refpiration is the funétion by which
this difference is eftablifhed. The aliment received into the
ftomach, is foon formed into a fluid capable of affimilating
21 with
This is accordingly the general nature _
RESPIRATION.
with the blood. It is conveyed to the lungs, and lofes part of
its carbon, or is partially animalized. It is then diltributed
through the fyftem, and, in the extreme veflels, along with
carbon, parts with fo much hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
and other elements, as to leave carbon predominant.
_ Itmight be fuppofed, that in any view, fuch as that which
has been now given, there muft be fome difficulty in conceiv-
ing that oxygen gas fhould combine with carbon with fo
much facility, at a temperature much lower than that which
is in general neceflary for their union, and this, too, with
the intervention of the coats of the veflels through which
the blood circulates. Onattending, however, to the objec-
tion, it will be found to have no real force. Although
carbon, in its folid and infulated form, requires to be raifed to
a high temperature to caufe it to combine with oxygen, yet
when it makes part of aternary or quaternary combination,
in which ftate its cohefion no longer oppofes the combination,
it is abftra&ted, and combined with oxygen at any natural
temperature. It is thus that many vegetable and animal
fubftances, when humid, are altered by expofure to the air,
and carbonic acid formed. Blood itfelf is aéted upon in this
manner. It fuffers a change precifely fimilar to that which
it undergoes in the lungs, and this more or lefs rapidly, and
to a greater or lefs extent, according to the quantity of
oxygen prefent, and the degree of agitation ufed. Arte-
rial blood was expofed by Fontana to atmofpheric air for
three minutes, when no perceptible alteration was occafioned
in the purity of the air: they were then agitated together
for three minutes: the volume of air was diminifhed and its
purity impaired. When oxygen gas was fubitituted for ae-
mofpheric air, the alteration was {till more confiderable, its
purity being diminifhed when agitation was avoided ; and
when it was agitated, the diminution in purity and volume
was {till greater. In all thefe experiments, carbonic acid was
alfo produced. (Opufcules Phyfiques, pp. 334, 335-) They
therefore prove, that oxygen can attraét carbon from arterial
blood. With venous blood, the formation of carbonic acid
is, according to Luzariaga, {till greater. (Duflertatio Inau-
uralis, p. 53, 54.) If, therefore, oxygen can abitraét carbon
fears the principles of the blood, under fuch circumittances,
it is evident it muft do fo ftill more rapidly during refpira-
tion, where the circumftances are fo much more favourable,
where there is comparatively a high and uniform tempera-
ture kept up, where the blood is expofed on an extenfive
furface, and in a ftate of extreme divifion, and where that
furface, as well as the air itfelf, are rapidly renewed.
Nor can it be fuppofed, that the thin membrane which
forms the coats of the veflels through which the blood circu-
lates can oppofe an obftacle to this reciprocal aétion.
Every humid fubftance is permeable through its whole fub-
itance to elaitic fluids, and is penetrated by them. Animal
membrane, in a much denfer {tate than that which forms the
coats of the extreme blood-veflels, is, when humid, pervious
to gafeous fluids ; and what is in point inthe prefent cafe,
through fuch membranes, when humid, exygen can aét on
blood, and communicate to it the florid colour, the fame
as when blood is freely expoted to it. Thus, Prieftley found
by experiment, that if a quantity of black blood were in-
clofed in a moiitened bladder, which was tied very clofe, on
hanging it ina free expofure to the air, it acquired “a
coating of a florid colour, as thick as it would have acquired
if it had been expofed to the open air; fo that this mem-
brane had been no impediment to the ation of the air on
the blood.’’ Mr. Hunter mentions a-fimilar experiment :
“ I covered,” fays he, “ the mouths of veffels filled with
venous blood with gold-beaters’ {kin, touching the furface of
the blood, and the blood conftantly became of a florid red on
the furface, and even for fome depth.”? { Treatife on the Blood,
p- 62.) Nor is there any reafon to believe, as has been con-
tended, that in the living folids this property is fufpended,
for it is one connected merely with mechanical ftruéture, and
the influence of humidity. The blood, therefore, may be
confidered, when circulating in veffels fo fine, as expofed to
the aétion of oxygen nearly as if no membrane were inter-
pofed: a part of that oxygen approximated to it will com-
bine with a portion of its carbon, and the carbonic acid, when
formed, will, from its elalticity, recede and be difcharged.
The whole aétion is purely chemical, and precifely the fame
as that which is exerted between air and blood out of the
body, favoured only by the circumitances of expofure, tem-
perature, and agitation, under which it takes place.” P. 502.
—s5I0.
After adverting to the arguments, by which it is fhewn
that no gas can pafs through the membranes of the bronchial
cells and pulmonary veilels from without, nor any fubftance
pafs from within through thefe parts, to unite in the lungs by
ordinary chemical affinity, confequently that the carbonic
acid is not tormed by the union of carbon and oxygen in the
blood; and to the facts, in which carbonic acid is formed in
the lower animals and even in man, by the fkin, where we
have no proof of any abforption of oxygen, or paflage of it
through the animal textures, Mr. Ellis declares his opinion,
in which we entirely coincide, that the carbon fupplied in hu-
man refpiration is truly an animal excretion, performed by the
exhalent veffels, which exift in fuch wonderful numbers in
the lungs; confequently, that it depends primarily, like
other excretions, on the due circulation and diftribution of
the blood, and is more or lefs affected by all its variations.
The changes in its quantity have been found very confider-
able, according as the individual was at reft or in motion,
fafting or with a full itomach, &c. in the experiments al-
ready noticed of Lavoifier and Seguin. We conceive, then,
that the carbon, thus exhaled or excreted in the lungs, com-
bines in the air-cells with the oxygen of the atmofphere to
form the carbonic acid expired.
As the emiflion of carbonic acid in refpiration is carried
on through the whole period of living aétion, and is effential
to the continuance of it, fome ulterior fource muit be pro-
vided, from whence its fupply may be duly maintained.
‘< To the organs of digettion, affimilation, and fecretion
alone, we are enabled to trace it; but the mode in which it
is reduced to that {tate in which itis afterwards expelled by
the furfaces of the lungs and {kin, involves a knowledge of
the nature and qualities of our food, of the various and fuc-
ceflive changes which it is made to undergo in the fyitem,
and of its diftribution by the blood to the different organs
of fecretion, according to the feveral ufes which it is after-
wards deftined to anfwer : concerning all of which fubjects,
we have of late fucceeded in getting rid of much error and
abfurdity, but have not in any in{tance attained to complete
knowledge.’”’ Ellis’s Inquiry, ch. 5.
V. On the Refpiration of the different Gafes.—No aériform
fluid, fays Dr. Boftock, except the compound of oxygen
and azote which exifts in the atmofphere, is adapted to the
permanent fupport of life. Of the other gafes, there are fome
which, on account of their irritating nature, it is abfolutely
impoffible to receive into the trachea; thefe properly con-
ftitute the nonrefpirable gafes. There are, however, others
which it is poffible to infpire, though their employment is
followed fooner or later by the extinétion of life. We
fhall detail fome of the principal experiments that have been
performed on this fubjeét, asthe nature of the change pro-
duced
RESPIRATION.
duced upon the blood by common refpiration may be in fome
meafure illuftrated, by obferving the effects which follow the
ufe of the other gafeous bodies.
Soon after the difcovery of the power which the oxy-
genous part of the atmofphere poflefles, of fupporting
animal life, feveral trials were made of the effeéts which
would refult from breathing it in an unmixed ftate. The
accounts given by thofe who were the fubjeéts of thefe trials
were various; Dr. Prieftley, who firft made the experiment,
conceived that he felt an’ agreeable lightnefs in the cheft
(Obf. on Air, v. ii. p. 162.) ; fome perfons fuppofed that
it produced exhilarating effeéts upon the fyftem, while others
imagined that the employment of this gas was followed by
uneafinefs and pain about the region of the thorax. Thefe
different fenfations mutt be attributed, in a great degree, to
the effets of imagination ; in part, however, they may be
afcribed to the gas which was employed in the earlier period
of the pneumatic experiments having been often in an im-
pure ftate, mixed with acid, acrid, or metallic particles. A
difference in the effets produced by the refpiration of the
gas, ought perhaps, in fome degree alfo, to be imputed to
the manner in which it was received into the lungs, whether
only in fmall quantities, or by deep and laborious infpira-
tions, and whether it was employed in a condenfed or a
rarefied ftate.
As Dr. Prieftley was the firft perfon who, himfelf, refpired
oxygenous gas, fo he was likewife the firft who obferved
the effeéts which it produced upon animals altogether im-
merfed in it. His experiments were performed upon mice ;
they decidedly proved the power which this gas poflefles of
fupporting animal life, but no other certain conclufions can
be deduced from them. M. Lavoifier afterwards turned his
attention to this fubje€t, and in the experiments upon guinea
pigs, to which we have already referred, he noticed with
more accuracy the effects refulting from the refpiration of
oxygen. He examined the late of the internal organs of
animals which had been for fome time confined in this gas,
and he conceived that a degree of rednefs and turgefcence
of the veflels was produced, and other effeéts which indi-
cated that the fanguiferous fyftem had been in a ftate of in-
creafed a€tion. (Soc. Roy. de Médécine, 1782, 1783,
p- 576.) There is, however, reafon to infer, that in this
cafe, either the gas employed was in an impure ftate, or
that there were fome circumftances attending the fituation
of the animals, or the manner in which the experiment was
_ conduéted, which affected the refults, for the fame philo-
fopher, in the fubfequent memoir of 1789, where there ap-
pears to have been the greateft attention to accuracy, and
where the moft perfect apparatus was employed, forms en-
tirely oppofite conclufions. . In this paper, we are in-
formed, that he confined guinea pigs in pure oxygen, and
in mixtures of oxygen and azote, in different proportions,
until the former conitituted only one-fifteenth part of the
compound. In all thefe cafes, he found that the fame
quantity of oxygen was confumed, a circumitance, he ob-
ferves, in which refpiration differs remarkably from com-
buftion, though, in many refpeéts, thefe operations are
fimilar to each other. The effeéts produced upon the
animals were precifely the fame, whether they were confined
in pure oxygen, or in any of the mixtures of it, except
that when the proportion of azote was very large, they ex-
hibited marks of drowfinefs. .The author exprefsly informs
us, that neither the temperature nor the circulation were in
any ref{pects affected by the infpiration of pure oxygen for
the {pace of feveral days. (Acad. des Sciences, 1789,
p. 573-) Thefe experiments mutt be cenfidered as very
valuable ; there is no reafon to doubt their accuracy, and
they may be relied on with more confidence, as the author
feems to have had no peculiar theory in view when he per-
formed them ; indeed the refults are different from what we
might previoufly have expected, and are unfavourable to the
analogy which Lavoifier had always endeavoured to eftablifh
between refpiration and combuttion.
We have an account by Dr. Higgins of the refpiration
of pure oxygen by the human fubject ; in one experiment,
thirty-eight pints of this gas were refpired without inter-
ruption. No inconvenience was experienced, a fenfe of
warmth was, however, produced in the cheft, and the pulfe
was confiderably quickened, (Minutes of a Society, &c.
p- 144-6.) Dr. Higgins, in a fecond experiment, breathed
a quantity of oxygen under an additional preflure, and by
very fullinfpirations. He conceived that by thefe means its
confumption was much promoted (ibid. 152.) ; but more
numerous and accurate experiments will be required before
this inference can be fairly eftablifhed. Effay on Refpi-
ration, p. 139—I44.
In the year 1794, Dr. Beddoes publifhed his experiments
upon this fubjeét. (On Fadtitious Air, pt. i. p. 13.)
They were performed upon rabbits, and the attention was
principally direéted to an examination of the ftate of the in-
ternal organs of the animal, after it had been fubjeéted for
fome time to the influence of pure oxygen. In detailing
the refults, we fee fuch obvious marks of the influence of
the author’s pre-conceived notions, that our confidence in
them is much diminifhed ; and this unfavourable impreffion
is ftrengthened by finding that they do not coincide with the
reports of other very accurate obfervers. See Boftock on
Refpiration, p. 144, et feq.
»Mr. Davy has alfo recorded fome trials, which he made
with oxygen gas; the refults of which, fo far as they re-
gard the chemical changes of the air itfelf, we have noticed
in a previous part of this article. Refearches, p. 444.
Mefirs. Allen and Pepys made fome experiments on the
refpiration of oxygen. The pulfe was raifed about 15 beats
in a minute, a gentle glow and perfpiration were produced
over the whole body, and nothing elfe remarkable occurred.
The refpiration of the gas was continued about ten minutes
in thefe trials ; and the effects foon fubfided. We have de-
tailed the refults of their obfervations concerning the changes
of the air, in that divifion of this article in which the
quantity of carbonic acid, produced by breathing, is men-
tioned.
It thus appears that we have no dire€t proof that the
refpiration of oxygen, for a fhort period, is injurious to the
animal economy. Whether a much longer ufe of the gas
would be hurtful, and what peculiar morbid ation or con-
dition of parts would be induced, we have no means of de-
termining.
Among the remaining refpirable gafes, that which appears
to be the leaft injurious to the living body is the oxyd of
azote. This aériform ‘fluid was firlt difcovered by Dr.
Prieftley, and was by him fuppofed to be “in the higheft
degree noxious to animals.”? (Obf. on Air, v. 1. p. 55.)
The foeiety of Dutch chemifts, who afterwards examined
its properties with more accuracy, coincided with Dr.
Prieitley, as to its effects upon animal life. (Journal de
Phyfique, t. xliii. p. 329.) The experiment was, how-
ever, repeated by Mr. Davy, and he difcovered not only
that this gas may be refpired for a fhort time without incon-
venience, (four or five minutes,) but that the employment
of it is fucceeded by a fingular. excitement of the nervous
fyftem, which differs from that produced by alcohol and
8 opium,
RESPIRATION.
opium, in not producing a fubfequent ftate of exhauftion.
The defeription of its effeéts in the “ Refearches’’ is very
interefting. Mr. Davy infers from his experiments, that
this gas is abforbed in large quantities by the venous blood.
This blood, when expofed to the gas out of the body, be-
comes of a brighter purple, and carbonie acid is formed.
We have no doubt, therefore, that carbonic acid is formed
when this gas is refpired ; the gas being decompofed, fo that
the carbon of the venous blood can unite with its oxygen.
We have already fpoken at length againft the notion of any
air being abforbed by the blood in brsathing ; and we may
refer to Mr. Ellis’s Inquiry, chap. iv., for fatisfaGtory argu-
ments againft the fuppofed abforption of this gas in parti-
cular.
Hydrogenous gas has been frequently refpired, and it
is now pretty generally agreed, that it is altogether paffive
when received into the lungs, and that death fucceeds the
employment of it in confequence of the exclufion of oxygen,
in the fame manner as by fuffocation, or drowning. M. La-
voifier diftinétly afcertained this fa&t, in his experiments re-
lated in the memoir of 1789, and it has been fince con-
firmed by Mr. Davy. (Refearches, p. 466.) It mutt be
remarked, however, that a contrary opinion refpeéting the
effe€ts produced by the refpiration of hydrogen has been
maintained by fome emiuent chemifts, even by Dr. Prieftley
himfelf (Obf. on Air, v.1. p. 229.) ; but his experiments
were made in the earlier period of the pneumatic chemiftry,
when the gafes were frequently employed in an impure ftate,
and the experiments of Mr. Davy clearly demonitrate that
pdr ait as produces different effets upon the fyflem,
according to the fubftances from which it is procured.
The experiments that have been made upon the fubje& of
azotic gas are few and imperfe@ ; it has been generally fup-
pofed, that it exercifes no noxious effe€ts upon the blood,
but, like hydrogen, deftroys life fimply by preventing the
accefs of oxygen. Dr. Higgins indeed remarks, that an
animal dies fooner when immerfed in this gas, than from the
fimple interruption to refpiration (Minutes of a Society,
P- 133.) ; but we are not informed upon what data this opi-
nion is founded. Mr. Davy likewife experienced the fenfe
of fuffocation more fpeedily from the ufe of azote, than
from that of hydrogen, but it appears that the gas employed
in the experiment contained a quantity of carbonic acid, to
which we may, with great probability, afcribe its noxious
effects ; and the fame philofopher, when {peaking in general
terms of the action of azote in refpiration, feems to confider
it as merely excluding oxygen, This opinion is adopted by
Dr. Thomfon, and was uniformly maintained by M. La-
voifier. It would certainly appear reafonable to conclude 4
priori, that a fubftance which enters fo largely into the com-
pofition of the atmofphere, and which confequently com-
pofes fo great a proportion of the contents of the lungs,
could not exercife any noxious effe@s upon the animal fyftem.
The only remaining gafes which can be received into
the lungs are the carbonated hydrogen or hydro-carbon,
fulphurated hydrogen, and carbonic oxyd. They occafion
death imtnediately, but produce fome change in the blood.
If hydro-carbon be infpired in an undiluted ftate, it is fol-
lowed by inftant death ; and when employed in {mall quan-
tity only, mixed with atmofpheric air or with oxygen, if it
be ufed for any length of time, it induces vertigo, dimnefs
of fight, convulfions, lofs of fenfation, and, in fhort, every
fymptom of approaching diffolution. It evidently a&s
more rapidly and powerfully than thofe gafes which merely
exclude oxygen from the blood, and muft confequently be
confidered as exercifing a pofitively noxious influence upon
the animal economy. For an account of the refpiration of
VoL. XXX.
fulphuretted hydrogen, fee the Journal de Phyfique, vol. 1vi,
Ai the remainimg gafes are found to be ftriétly non-
refpirable, i. ¢. incapable of being admitted into the trachea.
It is obvious that this muft be the cafe with the irritating
acid or alkaline gafes, and with the nitrous gas, which, during
its paflage into the lungs, muft unavoidably be brought into
contaét with oxygen, and thus produce nitrous acid vapour.
The only fubftance, refpeéting the refpirability of which
there could be any doubt, is the carbonic acid gas, which,
though poffeffed of the decided charaéteriftics of an acid,
exhibits them in a much flighter degree than that in which
they generally exift. The impoffibility of taking it into
the lungs, even by the moft powerful voluntary efforts,
when it compofes a large proportion of the air, was, how-
ever, proved by the experiments of M. Pilatre de Rozier,
executed with that intrepidity which formed fo remarkable
a trait in the charaéter of this philofopher. Boftock’s
Effay, p. 149—153.-
He went into a brewer’s tub, while full of carbonic acid
gas, evolved by fermentation. A gentle heat manifefted it-
felf in all parts of his body, and occafioned a fenfible per-
fpiration. A flight itching fenfation conftrained him fre-
quently to fhut his eyes. When he attempted to breathe,
a violent feeling of fuffocation prevented him. He fought
for the fteps to get out ; but not finding them readily, the
neceflity of breathing increafed, he became giddy, and felt
a tingling fenfation in his ears. As foon as his mouth
reached the air, he breathed freely, but for fome time he
could not diftinguifh objeéts: his face was purple, his limbs
weak, and he underftood with difficulty what was faid to
him. But thefe fymptoms foon left him. He repeated the
experiment often, and always found, that as long as he con-
tinued without breathing, he conld fpeak and move about
without inconvenience; but whenever he attempted to
breathe, the feeling of fuffocation came on. Journal de
Phyfique, vol. xxviii.
Blumenbach made an experiment on three dogs of nearly
the fame fize, to fhew in a comparative view how long three
different aérial fluids could fupport life. He prepared a
bladder with a pipe attached to it, and holding about 20
cubic inches. This, filled with oxygen, was tied in the
trachea, and the animal died in 14 minutes. The fecond
animal perifhed in fix minutes, when the fame bladder, filled
with atmofpheric air, was placed in the fame way in the
trachea. The bladder containing the air, at the end of the
laft experiment, was put into the trachea of the third animal,
which died in four minutes. Inftit. Phyfiolog. 1798,
p- 114, note g; or more at length in his Medicinifche
Bibliothek, vol. i. p. 174, et feq.
VI. Efeds parce on the Air by the Refpiration Ma Ani-
mals. 'The refults of obfervation warrant us in aflerting
that no living being can fubfift long without a fupply of
frefh air. That infeéts die, when their ftigmata are covered
with oil or honey, has been long known. ‘¢ Oleo illito in-
feta omnia exanimantur,”’ fays Pliny. Mr. Derham found
that wafps, bees, hornets, and grafshoppers, feemed dead
in two minutes, when placed under the exhaufted receiver 5
but revived in two or three hours, on being reftored to the
air, even although they had remained in vacuo 24 hours.
(Phyfico-Theology, p. 8, 7thedit.) Snails furvived feveral
hours in the exhaufted receiver, newts two or three days,
and leeches five or fix. (Hutton’s Math. Di. art. dir-
pump.) Zoophytes, according to Davy, require air in the
water which they inhabit, and att on it like fifhes. (Bed-
does’s Contributions, p. 138.) When fome pepper-water
had remained in vacuo 24 hours, fome of its animalcules
were
RESPIRATION.
were dead, and fome alive. (Phyfico-Theol. p. 8.) Spal-
lanzani never found any animalcules produced in vegetable
infufions in vacuo. ‘When infufions, containing animal-
cules, were placed under the exhaufted receiver, they lived
many days, but perifhed fooner than others of the fame kind
im the open air. -(Tratts, p. 1, 2.) Hooke found that
the eels of vinegar died in a very fhort time, when the fluid
was put into a phial, and {topped clofe. (Microgr. p. 217.)
Scheele inclofed leeches in a phial, with a little air: they
lived only two days, although they would have lived as
many years, if the water had communicated with the air.
Mr. Ray remarked, that fifhes cannot live in water without
air: they will live in a veflel of water with a narrow mouth
for months or years; but if the veffel be ftopped, fo as
wholly to exclude the air, or interrupt its communication
with the water, they will be fuddenly fuffocated. (Wif-
dom of God in the Creation, p. 81.) Dr. Prieitley confined
feveral {mall fifhes in a veffel, containing three pints of rain
water, that had been previoufly well boiled tu deprive it of
its air; and they lived only between three and four hours,
{Obf. on Aix, vol. v. p. 139.) Mr. Davy introduced a
large thornback into a jar, containing three cubic inches of
water, which had been deprived of its air by diftillation
through mercury: he was very quiet for four minutes and
a half, but then began to move about, and, in feven mi-
nutes, had fallen: on his back, but {till continued to move
his gills. In eleven minutes, he was motionlefs, and when
taken out,- after thirteen minutes, he did not recover.
(Refearches, p. 367.) Amphibious animals, likewife, can-
not live without air, but its deprivation is not immediately
fatal to them. Frogs and toads bear the pump for two or
three hours, and a frog recovered on expofure to the air,
after remaining in vacuo feemingly dead for eleven hours.
Hence we fee, that to all thefe animals, whether inhabiting
the air or the water, a-con{ftant renewal of frefh air is re-
quired, while the aGions of life continue. What then are
the changes produced on atmofpheric air, by thefe feveral
clafles of animal beings, whereby it is rendered fo eflential
to the maintenance of vital ation?
For the firit and moft accurate knowledge we poflefs
concerning the changes which the air fuffers by the refpira-
tion of infe&ts, we are indebted to the labours of Scheele,
who placed bees and flies in phials with air, and found the
oxygen removed, and carbonic acid gas fub/ftituted in its
place. (On Air and Fire, p, 148—155.) M. Vauquelin
examined the fubjeét more accurately. . The experimerts of
this excellent chemift were made on the grafshopper (gryllus
viridiflimus), which is defcribed as having 24 ftigmata, or
breathing pores, ranged parallel with, but exterior to, two
white lines, extending longitudinally on the middle of the
belly. In this infeG& they are of an oval form, but they
vary in fhape in different infefts; and it is chiefly by their
mediation, that the changes on the air are effeGted. A fe-
male grafshopper was placed in eight cubic inches of atmo-
fpheric air: it breathed from 50 to 55 times in a minute,
and lived 36 hours. The air had not fenfibly diminifhed in
volume, but, when examined by the teft of lime-water, car-
bonic acid was deteéted; and after this was removed, the
remaining air itill extinguifhed a taper. When many grafs-
heppers were put at the fame time into a given bulk of air,
and left till they died, the oxygen. gas was nearly, but not
entirely, confumed; and phofphorus melted in the refidual
air, when heat was applied, but burned very little. A
male, grafshopper lived 18 hours in fix cubic inches of oxy-
genigas : its refpiration was oppreflive, and it breathed from
60 to 65 times in.a minute. The volume of air was not
fenfibly, diminifhed, but it loft +3,ths,of its bulk by being
wafhed in an alkaline folution. (Ann. de Chimie, tom. xii.)
From thefe faéts we learn, that infeCts, by their refpiration,
confume the oxygenous portion of the air; that carbonic
acid is, at the fame time, produced; and that, when all
the oxygen gas has difappeared, the animal no longer fur-
vives. ,
M. Huber found, that bees very fpeedily die, when put
into nitrogen gas; but that they furvive in.a clofe veflel of
atmoipheric air, until almoft the lait atom of its oxygen gas
is confumed. (Mem. fur la Germination, &c.) We
likewife confined, fays Mr. Ellis, a number of flies in a
flaflk, containing nine cubic inches of air, and then inverted
it into a tall glafs of mercury. By the third day, the flies
were all dead, and the mercury had rifen contiderably into
the neck of the flafk. The refidual air loft about -+3,ths
by agitation with lime-water, and the remainder did not
fufler the {malleft diminution by being placed in-contaét
for two days with phofphorus. Thele refults, therefore,
agree with thofe obtained by Vauquelin, and prove farther,
that, by the refpiration of flies, the whole of the oxygen
gas of the air difappears, and that a bulk of carbonic acid.
nearly equal thereto is formed. The fmall diminution of
bulk, alfo, which the air fuffered, is to be regarded as a
neceflary confequence attending the converfion of oxygen
gas into carbonic acid, and which, as it accounts for the
whole lofs the air experienced, feems to authorize the con-
clufion, that while the oxygen gas had, in this cafe, com-
pletely difappeared, the nitrogenous portion of the air con-
tinued undiminifhed, and probably unaltered.
The refearches of Spallanzani and Reaumur further
fhewed, that the ova of infe&ts cannot be evolyed without
air; that the larvie cannot exit without it, nor undergo
their change to the pupa ftate; and that it is equally ef-
fential to the transformation of the latter into the perfeét in-
fe&t. Rapports de Air avec les étres Organifés, tom. i.
Memoires pour fervir a l’Hiit. des Infeftes, tom. ii.
M. Vauquelin proceeded nest to inveftigate the changes
produced on the air by the refpiration of the vermes clafs
of animals. _He confined a red flug in twelve cubic inches
of atmofpheric air, and it lived 48 hours. The air was not
fenfibly diminifhed in volume, but it extinguifhed candles,
and copioufly precipitated lime from water. Phofphorus
was melted inthis air, but did not fuffer any combutftion or
change of colour. A. {nail (helix pomatia) was next put
into twelve cubic inches of atmofpheric air, and lived four
days. The oxygen gas entirely difappeared; for the refi-
dual nitrogen gas contained not an atom of vital air, and,
eonfequently, phofphorus did not burn in it at all: it con-
tained, however, carbonic acid. Slugs and fnails, there-
fore, require frefh air while in an active ftate, the oxygen
gas of which, by the fun¢tion of their refpiratory organs,
is made completely to difappear, and a quantity of carbonic
acid is produced, while the nitrogenous portion of the air
remains unaltered: and when thefe changes are effected,
living action fpeedily comes to an end. So exatily do thefe
animals feparate the oxygenous from the nitrogenous portion
of the atmofphere, that M. Vauquelin fuggeits the employ-
ment of them for eudiometrical purpofes. Ann. de Chimie,
loc. cit.
The numerous experiments of Spallanzani on worms,
{nails, flugs, &c. confirm the ftatements of Vauquelin in all
eflential points. (Memoirs on Refpiration. Rapports de
P Air.) He alfo made experiments on mufcles, and feveral ma-
rine teftacea: they confumed the air of water in which
they were confined, and the water then attraéted more, fo
as to confume all the oxygen when a {mall quantity of air
was. confined in contaét with it.
We
RESPIRATION.
We are indebted to Meffrs, Humboldt and Provencal tor
fome experiments on the refpiration of fifhes, which poffefs
great accuracy. Their attention was firft dire¢ted to afcer-
tain the quantity and compofition of the air that exifts natu-
rally in river-water. For this purpofe, they filled glafs
_ balloons with given quantities of water, taken from the river
Seine, and expelled the air from it by fubmitting it to ebul-
lition. The air that came over was received in veflels filled
with mercury, or with diftilled water recently boiled, that
no foreign air might mix with that obtained from the water
in the balloon. From the refults of ten experiments, con-
duéted in this manner, they found, that the water of the
Seine contained rather lefs than ,!,th of its volume of air.
This air they farther found to be compofed of about yiths
oxygen, with from 6 to 11 per cent. carbonic acid, and the
remainder was nitrogen gas. Mem. d’Arcueil, tom. ii.
Having thus determined the quantity and kind of air con-
tained in a given volume of river-water, thefe chemifts pro-
ceeded to qeurant the changes which it experienced by the
refpiration of fifhes. With this view, they confined young
fifhes in bell-glaffes of river-water, inverted over mercury ;
and fuffered them to remain till their re{piration became la-
borious. The animals were then withdrawn, and the water,
in which they had refpired, was transferred into the balloon,
and its air expelled, by fubmitting it to ebullition, in the
manner before ftated. Seven tenches were, in this manner,
confined in 4000 cubic centimeters, equal to 250.5 cubic
inches of river-water, where they remained eight hours and
ahalf. A portion of this water, equal to 2582 cubic cen-
timeters, or 161.5 cubic inches, was then transferred from
the glafs-bell into the balloon, and its air expelled by heat.
The air, thus obtained, neafured 453 parts, at temperature
50° Fahrenheit. Thefe 453 parts were then wafhed in lime-
water, by which they were reduced to 300, fo that 153 parts
of carbonic acid were thus removed. The refidue was after-
wards analyfed by combuftion with hydrogen, and by mix-
ture with nitrous gas ; and the means of three analyfes af-
forded 0.035 of oxygen; wherefore it is concluded, that the
453 parts of air, obtained from water which had been in con-
taét with the refpiratory organs of fifhes, confifted of
10.5 oxygen, 289.5 nitrogen, and 153.0 carbonic acid gas.
But» by former experiments, it was found, that an equal
volume of pure river-water afforded 524 parts of air, con-
fifting of 155.9 oxygen, 347.1 nitrogen, and 21.0 carbonic
acid ; confequently, fay thefe chemiits, thefe feven tenches
have abforbed, in eight hours, 145.4 of oxygen: and 57.6
of nitrogen gas; and they have produced in the fame time 132
parts of carbonic acid. (Mem. d’Arcueil, t. ii. p. 376.)
Mr. Ellis has pointed out fome fources of fallacy, from
which thefe apparent refults may have arifen, and it
is probable from analyfis, that in fifhes, as in other ani-
mals, the change produced by refpiration is the converfiou
of oxygen into an equivalent portion of carbonic acid.
The changes which the air undergoes from the refpiration
of Reptizrs are detailed in that article. Its alterations
in the breathing of mammalia and birds are the fame as in
man.
«The preceding fa&ts,” fays Mr. Ellis, « fufficiently
fhew, that various animals, in all the foregoing claffes, and
in every ftage and form of their exiftence, require the pre-
fence of oxygen gas to maintain the functions of life ; that
this gas, by the exercife of thefe funétions, is converted into
carbonic acid : and that the degree in which this converfion
proceeds, depends much on the healthy condition of the
animal, and the vigour of its circulating fyftem. Since,
alfo, in every inftance where the experiments have been
made with the requifite accuracy, the bulk, of carbonic acid
produced, nearly or exaétly equalled that of the oxygen
which difappeared, we may conclude, from analogy, that
fuch is univerfally the extent to which this change in the air
takes place in animal refpiration; and fince, farther, the
nitrogen gas of the air appears to fuffer no neceflary change
in the exercife of this funétion, we may alfo conclude, that,
as far as regards the air, the fubftitution of an equal bulk of
carbonic acid for the oxygen gas that is loit, comprifes the
only effential change which the atmofphere experiences during
the performance of this animal procefs. We have before
maintained that the oxygen of the air does not enter the ani-
mal fyftem, either by the living funétion of abforption, or
by the operation of chemical affinity ; and have confequently
concluded, that the union of this fubftance with the animal
carbon takes place exterior to the veflels of the
animal.”?_ Further Inquiry, p. 271.
Animal Heat.—Taking the {pecific caloric of water at
1.0000, Dr. Crawford found that of arterial blood to be
1.0300, and that of venous blood 0.8928 ; that of oxygen
gas compared to water, as 4.7490 to 1.0000; of nitrogen,
0.7936; atmofpheric air, 1.7900; and of carbonic acid
gas, 1.6454. The power of oxygen gas to fupply heat,
fays Mr. Berthollet, is well known, and there is no fub-
ftance which fuffers fo much of it to efcape in the changes of
its conftitution,
In the refpiration of animals, as well asin the germination
of feeds, and the vegetation of plants, the oxygen gas of
the atmofphere is converted into carbonic acid. Since the {pe-
cific caloric of the latter is little more than one-third of that
which the oxygen gas itfelf previoufly contained, it necef-
farily follows, that a large quantity of caloric is liberated,
whenever this converfion of gafes takes place. Now, inthe
living proceffes juit alluded to, the prefence of caloric is
very obvious : we refer for proofs on thefe fubje&ts, to the
articles Heat, Animal, MAMMALIA, Birps, Fisues, In-
secTS, Reprites, and Vermes, in which the fa@s cone
nected with their vital temperature are detailed; alfo to the
two Inquiries”? of Mr. Ellis, ;
Since, then, all animals. poflefs a temperature exceeding
that of the medium which they inhabit, and fince this, in
man and the fuperior animals, varies but little under every vi-
ciffitude of heat and cold, confiftent with the due per-
formance of the animal fun@tions, there muft exiftin all cafes
appropriate means of fuftaining this fun@ion, But no living
powers of the animal fyftem are fufficient for this purpofe,
independent of the concurring aid of external agents. No
{uppofed attrition between the contiguous foft parts of the
animal ; no fri€tion between the vellels and globules of the
blood ; no action of the folid parts upon one another ; no
circumitances arifing out of digeftion or fermentation in the
living body ; no imagined combuttion of phofphorus in the
blood ; no liberation of the phlogiftic or any other princi.
ple, through the fyftem, can be received as {ufficient to ac-
count for the uniform height and fteadinefs of this tempera-
ture. As, therefore, the animal fyftem, by virtue of its
own powers, is unable, within itfelf, to produce this high
degree of heat, to what external agent fhall we have recourfe,
and to what organs fhall we refer the produétion of that
more or lefs elevated temperature which is abfervable in all
animals.
Infeéts, worms, and fifhes, which have no refpiratory
ftructure fimilar to that of the lungs ; and reptiles, the fur-
face of whofe lungs, in proportion to that of the body, is
comparatively {mall, and whofe blood, at each circulation, is
but partially expofed to the influence of the air, pollefs a
l2 degree
living
RESPIRATION.
degree of heat but little above that of the medium in which
they live ; while the mammalia have a temperature confider-
ably higher ; and birds, whofe lwngs bear the largeft propor-
fion to their bodies, are the warmeft of all animals. ‘The
Obfervation of thefe faéts led naturally to the opinion, that
the temperature of animals was immediately connected with
the funétions of the refpiratory organs ; and an abundance
of fa&ts, colleéted and arranged by Mr. Ellis, prove that
the {mall excefs of temperature, which not only the inferior
animals, but which vegetables alfo poflefs, is actually de-
rived from the decompofition of the air by thefe feveral
claffes of beings, fo long as living a¢tion continues. * No
explanation, however,”’ fays Mr. Ellis, « of the mode in
which the air contributes to fuitain animal heat, was at-
tempted, till after the great difcovery of latent heat by Dr.
Black. That excellent philofopher having already proved
that the change effe¢ted in the air by refpiration, confilted
in the formation of carbonic acid, fimilar to what happens in
mary examples of combuttion, afcribed the production of
animal heat to the decompofition of the air in the lungs,
by which its latent heat was rendered fenfible, in the
fame manner as it is given out in combuftion. The
blood, in its paffage through the lungs, had, he con-
ceived, its temperature by this means raifed ; and thus was
rendered capable of communicating heat to all parts of
the body, in the courfe of its circulation through the fyf-
tem. ‘T'o this it was objeted by Dr. Cullen, that, if true,
the temperature of the body ought to be greateft in the
lungs, and to diminifh gradually, as the diftance from the
lungs increafes, which is not according to fact. This diffi-
culty was removed by the ingenuity of Dr. Crawford, who,
by a happy extenfion of Dr. Black’s doétrine, maintained,
that the heat, liberated by the decompofition of the air in
the lungs, pafled into the blood, and exifted in that fluid in
the form of latent, or, what is now termed, {pecific heat, in
confequence of which its temperature was not raifed; and
that this heat, by other chemical changes, was given out by
the blood in a fenfible form during its circulation.
« In what manner, then, does the air, breathed by the fupe-
tior animals, give out its heat, to fupport that high degree
of temperature above the furrounding medium, which they
all poflefs? We have feen reafon to conclude, that the in-
{pired' air is decompofed in the bronchial cells of the lungs,
and that ali its oxygenous portion which difappears, is con-
verted into carhonic acid, by carbon emitted from the ex-
alent furface of thofe organs. During this gradual con-
verfion of the oxygen gas, a quantity of fpecific caloric,
much greater than what is neceflary to maintain the elafti-
city of the carbonic acid that is formed, is neceflarily fet
free’; and to this excefs of heat, thus conftantly liberated
in the lungs, by the decompofition of the air, do we look
as the fource of that fuperiority of temperature, above the
furrounding medium, which man and’ other animals, under
every viciffitude of climate, are enabled to exhibit and main-
tain.
« But if a quantity of caloric be thus conftantly difengaged
in the lungs, it may be expefted that the blood, in its
tranfmiffion through thofe organs, fhould acquire a certain
portion of it. To afcertain this point, Dr. Crawford,
purfuing the difcoveries of Drs. Black and Irvine, mixed
together certain quantities of water, at the temperature of
§3°, with feparate portions of arterial and venal blood; and
then meafuring the heat of the mixture, at different fuc-
ceffive periods, till coagulation took place, he found that
the water containing arterial’ blood preferved a fuperiority
of temperature over that mixed with venal blood; and, from
the refults of feveral trials, he concluded, that the {pecific
heat of the arterial blood of a dog, was to that of the
venal, as 114 to 100, and that of a fheep as 115 to 100,
or as 115 to 10. (On Animal Heat, p. 279.) Thefe re-
fults derive confirmation from the experiments of Mr. Cole-
man, who, in order to difcover the relative f{pecific heat
of arterial and venal blood, while yet retained in the fy{-
tem, ftrangled a cat, and immediately opened its cheft,
while the blood in the left ventricle was {till florid. He
then introduced a thermometer, through an opening inthe
pericardium on each fide of the heart, and it ftood at 98°:
in the left ventricle the temperature was only 97°, and in
the right ventricle it was nearly gg. In fifteen minutes,
however, inftead of the right ventricle poflefling two de-
grees of heat more than the left, it was found to have
four degrees lefs. Mr. Aitley Cooper ae this ex.
periment in different ways, and found invariably, that al-
though the venal blood was fuperior in temperature at
firit, yet before coagulation was complete, the arterial be-
came from three to fix degrees warmer. (On Sufpended
Refpiration, p. 42, et feq.) Thefe facts afford clear and
decifive proof, that the fpecific heat of the arterial blood
exceeds that of the.venal, and demonttrate, likewife, that
this excefs is obtained during the paflage of that fluid
through the lungs.
«¢ Admitting the lungs, then, to be the organs in which,
by a decompofition of the air, the blood, as it pafles
through them, obtains its heat, it is next required to fhew
the fufficiency of this decompofition, to fupply heat enough
for the maintenance of that fuperiority. of temperature,
which the warmer blooded animals poffefs.”’ (Inquiry,
Pp: 234—236-) For an account of the mode in which this
was explained by Dr. Crawford, fee Hrar, Animal.
Although this explanation of the produétion of animal
heat appears fimple and fatisfa¢tory, and has been held
adequate to account for the phenomena by fuch philofo-
phers as Black, Crawford, Lavoifier, and La Place, the
evidence oa which it refts is not fo clear as to have com-
manded univerfal affent, or entirely fet afide objeétions.
It has, indeed, been generally allowed, that refpiration, and
the changes it produces in the air and animal fluids, are effen-
tial conditions of the evolution of the caloric in animals ;
but it has been thought, that there are other circumftances,
hitherto perhaps not well underftood, which influence the
phenomena.
In external appearance the blood is the fame in all the
veffels of the foetus; is this any proof that its temperature
is owing to the converfion of oxygen gas into carbonic acid?
Is the uniformity of temperature in the higher animals,
under varying ftates of ref{piration and circulation, and the
confumption of various quantities of oxygen, whether in
the fame or different individuals, confiftent with the theory ?
and can local variations of temperature be explained from it?
Some recent inveftigations, of Mr. Brodie are particu-
larly: calculated to increafe our doubts on the fubjed.
Having pithed or decapitated animals, he kept up artificial
refpiration, and thus maintained their circulation. The
blood continued to be changed in the lungs from venous to
arterial, and from arterial to venous, in the general circu-
lation.
The refpective colours of the two kinds of blood could
not be diftinguifhed from, thofe which they exhibit in living
and! healthy animals. Yet the temperature of an animal
thus heated, funk fafter than that of another fimply killed
and_left to itfelf The following table exhibits the refults
of fuch,a comparative experiment.
Rabbit with artificial Refpiration.
Thermometer in
the Re&tum.
——
Before the experiment
30 minutes
AS eae Bs
60
75
go
100
The animal, in whom artificial breathing was kept up,
inftead of having its heat maintained by the converfion of
arterial into venous blood, and vice verfa, was thus actually
cooled by the air conveyed into its chett.
Having thus afcertained, that the ordinary changes are
effected in the blood by its circulation and artificial refpira-
tion in a decapitated animal, Mr. Brodie proceeded to fhew,
that the oxygen. of the air undergoes its ufual converfion
into carbonic acid. He found, that a living rabbit formed
50—56 cubic inches of carbonic acid in an hour; a de-
capitated animal, in whom artificial refpiration was kept up,
emitted 40—48 cubic inches in the fame time. The
thermometer’ in the rectum of the latter had fallen from
97 to go, while in another rabbit left to itfelf, but fimilarly
treated in all other refpe€ts, it had fallen only to 91. In
a rabbit peifoned with woorara, or the effential oil of
bitter almonds, not decapitated, and in which artificial
breathing was kept up, 51 cubic inches of carbonic acid
were emitted in an hour. The thermometer in the rectum
had funk to 91 in 30 minutes; while it ftood in another
animal treated exaétly the fame, excepting the artificial
breathing, at 92.
Thefe experiments feem fully to warrant Mr. Brodie’s
conclufion, “* that in an animal in which the brain has
ceafed to exercife its fun¢tions, although refpiration con-
tinues to be performed, and the circulation of the blood is
kept up to the natural ftandard, although the ufual changes
in the fenfible qualities of the blood take place in the two
capillary fyftems, and the fame quantity of carbonic acid
is formed as under ordinary circumftances ; no heat is gene-
rated, and (in confequence of the cold air thrown into the
lungs) the animal cools more rapidly, than one which is
actually dead.”
See the Croonian Lecture onfome phyfiological refearches,
refpeGting the influence of the brain on the aétion of the
heart, and on the generation of animal heat; Phil. Tranf.
1813, p. 36.
And further experiments and obfervations on the in-
fluence of the brain in the generation of animal. heat,
Phil. Tranf. 1812, p. 378.
On the fubje& of this article, the moft valuable works,
both for the colleGtion of fa&ts from various fources, for
original yiews and refearches, acutenefs of inveftigation,
and clofe reafoning, are thofe of Mr. Ellis ; entitled, «* An
Inquiry into the Changes induced on atmofpheric Air by
the Germination of Seeds, the Vegetation of Plants, and
the Refpiration of Animals,” 1807. And, ‘« Further In-
quiries, &c.”? 1811. Dr. Boftock’s « Eflay on Refpira-
tion,”’ 1804, is a very valuable colleétion of the faéts
known on this fubje&t up to that time. The preceding
article is derived in greateft part from thefe works. We
may refer alfo te Thomfon’s Sy{tem of Chemiitry, book 5.
ch. 3. § 2; and Murray’s Syitem of Chemiftry, book 9.
RES
Dead Rabbit.
Thermometer in
the Pericardium.
Thermometer in
the Reétum.
Thermometer in
the Pericardiuin.
1004
99
98
965
95
94
93
ch. 2. § 1. To the valuable memoirs of Meffrs. Allen and
Pepys, ‘¢ On the Changes produced in atmofpheric Air
and Oxygen Gas by Refpiration,” Phil. Tranf. 1808 ;
and « On Refpiration,” ibid. 1809. To thofe of Lavoifier in”
the Memoires de Academie des Sciences, 1777 and 1780;
and in the Société Royale de Médécine, 1782—3, Of
Lavoifier and Seguin in the Mem, de l’Acad. 1789, 1790.
See alfo Crawford, on Animal Heat ; Goodwyn, on the
Connection of Life with Refpiration ; Menzies, on Refpir-
ation; Coleman, on Sufpended Refpiration ; Davy’s Re-
fearches ; Spallanzani’s Memoirs on Refpiration, and his
Rapports de l’Air avec les étres Organifés, t. 3. 8vo.
Geneva. Prieftley on Air. Seguin in Annales de Chimie,
t. 5. and 21.
RESPITE, Respecrus, in Law, &c. a delay, for-
bearance, or prolongation of time, granted any one for the
payment of a debt or the like.
Menage derives the word re/pite from the Latin re/pectus ;
as defpite from de/pedus. Du-Cange will rather have it come
from refpirare, to breathe; re{pite being, in effe@, a breath-
ing-while, granted a debtor, &c.
In the cuflomary of Normandy, refpite is a judicial delay
or demur, given to procedures.
Respite, Letters of, or Crepit. See Lerrers.
Respire of Homage, is a forbearance of the homage due
from the vaffal, or tenant, holding by homage, or by knight-
fervice, to his lord,
Anciently, thofe who held by thefe tenures paid a {mall
fum every fifth year into the exchequer, to be refpited doing
their homage or fervice.
By ftat. 12 Car. Il. this refpite of homage is taken away,
as a charge arifing from knight-fervice; which is thereby
likewife annulled.
Respite of Execution. See REPRIEVE.
Respite of Jury. See Jury. :
RESPITED on the Mufter-Roll, To be, in Military Lan-
guage, is to be fufpended from pay, &c.; during which
period all-advantages of promotion, pay, &c. are itopped.
The money which is refpited upon the mutter-roll is. ac-
counted for by the muiter-mafter general, and placed to the
credit of the public by the paymaiter general.
RESPOND, in Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, was a fhort anthem
fung after reading three or four verfes of a chapter: after
which they proceeded with the chapter. Gibfon 263.
RESPONDEAS Ousrer, in Law, is to aniwer over
in an action to the merits of the cafe: or put in a more
{ubftantial plea.
RESPONDEAT Supsriog, a law phrafe. Where the
fheriffs are removable, as in London, for infufficiency ; re-
Jpondeat fuperior, that is, the mayor and commonalty are to
anfwer for them.
If a coroner of a county is infufficient, the county as his
fuperior fhall anfwer for him. (Wood’s Inft. 83.) If a
10 gaoler
RES
gaoler conftitutes another under him, and he permits an
efcape, if he be not fufficient, re/pondeat fuperior ; and fu-
perior officers mutt anfwer for their deputies in civil actions,
~ af they are infufficient to anfwer damages.
For the infufficiency of a bailiff of a franchife re/pondcat
fuperior, that is, the lord of the franchife is to an{wer.
RESPONDENT, Resronpens, in the fchools, a per-
fon who maintains a thefis in any art or f{cience.
He is thus called, as being to anfwer all objections pro-
pofed by the opponent, or impugner, &c.
The refpondent’s bufinefs is to fee whether the oppofition
made by the contrary party be juit and legitimate ; or whe-
ther fome of the laws and conditions of oppofition be not
broken ; which is called, ignoratio elenchi. He is alfo to exa-
mine the moods and figures of the fyllogifms, to fee whe-
ther the premifes be juft, &c. and through the whole to
anf{wer rather by diftinguo’s, than by direct negation.
ReEsponDENT, formed from the Latin xe/pondere, to an-
fwer, q. d. pro alio fpondere, to promife for another, in Law,
a perfon who undertakes to anfwer for another: or binds
himfelf as fecurity for the good behaviour of another.
The refpondent is to anfwer for the damages done by the
erfon for whom he refponds. There are four ordonnances
of the kings of France, by which the citizens are exprefsly
forbid to take fervants without re{pondents, bound in writing.
RESPONDENTIA, in Commerce, a term applied to
money which is borrowed, not upon the veflel, as in bot-
tomry, but upon the goods and merchandize contained in
it, which muft neceflarily be fold or exchanged, in the
courfe of a voyage; in which cafe the borrower, perfonally,
is bound to an{wer the contract; and he is faid to ta'e up
money at refpondentia.
It is enaéted, by ftat. 19 Geo. IT. cap. 37, that all mo-
nies lent on bottomry, or refpondentia, on veflels bound to
or from the Eaft Indies, fall be exprefsly lent only upon
the fhip, or upon the merchandize; that the lender {hall
have the benefit of falvage ; and that, if the borrower has
not on board effeéts to the value of the fum borrowed, he
fhall be refponfible to the lender for fo much of the princi-
pal as hath not been laid out, with legal intereft and all
other charges, though the fhip and merchandize be totally
loft.
Although refpondentia and bottomry are of themfelves
a fpecies of infurance, yet the lender has an infurable
intereft in his fecurities, and therefore may proteét himfelf
from the fea-rifk by infuring them. The lender can infure
only the amount of the fym lent, and the borrower has an
infurable intereft in the fhip or goods to the amount of the
furplus value above the fum lent. If either were to infure
more, it would be a gaming infurance, and void by the fta-
tute 19 Geo. II. c. 37, for all above the real intereft. But
the ufage of trade may take a cafe out of this rule. Upon
an infurance on goods, fpecie and effects in the India trade,
the infured may recover for money laid out for the ufe of
the fhip, and for which he charged re{pondentia intereft, it
being the ufage of trade to infure in this form. A policy
on bottomry or refpondentia cannot be fubfcribed by the
borrower of the money, becaufe it is only in confideration of
the fea-rifk, from which he is exempt, that he agrees to
pay the marine intereft. If he were to become an infurer,
this would be no longer a loan upon bottomry, but a cloak
for ufury. Refpondentia and bottomry fecurities, though
they are the fubjeét of infurance, mutt be particularly and
{pecifically defcribed in the policy; for under the general
denomination of goods, thefe fecurities cannot be infured.
By 19Geo. II. c. 32. if an under-writer become bankrupt
before a-lofs happen, the infured may claim; and after a
6
R-E-S
lofs, prove his debt under the commiffion, and receive his
dividend, as if the lofs had happened before the bankruptcy.
See Borromry.
RESPONSA Prupentum. See Civit and Response.
RESPONSALIS, in Law, he who appears for another
in court at a day afligned.
Fleta makes this difference between re/pon/alis atturnatus,
and éfoniator, that the effoniator came only to allege the caufe
of the party’s abfence, be he demandant or tenant ; whereas
refponfalis came for the tenant not only to excufe his abfence,
but to fignify what trial he means to undergo, the combat,
or the country.
RESPONSARY Sone, an anthem in which the chorif-
ters fing by turns.
RESPONSE, Resvonsat, Re/ponfatio, an anfwer, reply,
or repartee. : :
The word is chiefly ufed im fpeaking of the anfwers made
to the prieft, by the people, in the litany, the pfalms, and
other parts of the office.
It has its ufe, too, in {peaking of the opinions or anfwers
of the ancient jurifconfulti, when confulted on points of law.
The fifty books of the Digeft are compofed of re/pon/a
rudentum, the refponfes of Papinian, Ulpian, Scevola, &c.
colleGted by Juftinian ; who afterwards gave them the force
of laws. See Civin Law.
The refponfes of the emperors were more properly called
refcripts ; which fee.
RESPONSIONS, Responsionss, a term ufed in the
Military Orders, for certain penfions or charges, which
the knights, or the commandries they held, paid to the
order.
Such a knight templar paid a refponfion of ‘fifty pounds
per annum to his order, on account of fuch a commandry,
~ In Rot. Parl. g Ric. I. the word is written re/poncies.
RESPONSORIA, refponfes fung in chorus by the
choir, in anfwer to the prieft in the cathedral fervice.
RESSAVA, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in Servia; 46 miles S.E. of Belgrade.
RESSAULT, in ArchiteGure, the efle& of a body
which either projets, or falls back, zc. ftands either more
out or in than another; fo as to be out of the line, or
range, with it.
The term re/fault is French, and but little ufed in Englifh;
though the want of a word of equal import pleads for its
naturalization.
RESSEL, or Roessgx, in Geography, a town of Pruffia,
in the province of Ermeland, with a caftle; 50 miles S. of
Konigtberg.
RESSELA, a term ufed by Paracelfus to fignify, as
himfelf explains it, any thing that expels heat, in oppofition
to affa, which with him fignifies any thing that promotes it.
RESSONS, in Geogruphy, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Compiégne ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Noyons. The
place contains 103g, and the canton 9637 inhabitants, on a
territory of 170 kilometres, in 23 communes.
RESSORT, or Resorv, a term purely French, yet fre-
quently ufed, by our late writers, to fignify the jurifdiction
or authority of a court.
The word, in its popular meaning, fignifies /pring, or the
force of elafticity. Hence it is alfo ufed for a jurifdiétion,
and the extent or diltri& thereof; as when we fay, fuch a
thing belongs to his reflort; a judge out of his reflort has
no authority. But its chief ufe among us is in {peaking of
a court or tribunal, where appeals are judged ; or of a court
or perfon who judges finally and ultimately, and whence
there is no appeal.
The
. RES
The houfe of lords judge in the lait reffort, en dernict ref
fort. Prefidials judge in the laft reffort of all criminals
profectted by the provofts of the marfhals. See Dernier
reffort.
Ressort, or Refort, is alfo ufed in a writ of ayel, or
coufenage, in the fame fenfe as de/cent, in a writ of right.
> RESSOURCE, or Resource, a term purely French,
yet ufed by Englifh writers to denote a means or foundation
of a man’s recovering himfelf from his fall or ruin; or an
after-game for the repairing of his damages.
Skinner derives the word from the French refoudre, to re-
folve. A refource ftriétly and literally expreffes a means
which prefents itfelf afrefh.
This merchant has credit and friends ftill left; he has
reat refources. 7
REST, Qutes, in Phyfics, the continuance of a body in
the fame place; or its continual application or contiguity to
the fame parts of the ambient and contiguous bodies. See
SPACE.
Rett is either ab/olute or relative, as place is. See Puace.
Some define reit the ftate of a thing without motion ; and
hence again reft becomes either abfolute or relative, as mo-
tion is. See Morion.
_ Sir Ifaac Newton defines true or ab/olute reft to be the
continuance of a body in the fame part of abfolute and im-
moveable {pace ; and relative reft to be the continuance of a
body in the fame part of relative {pace.
Thus, in a hip under fail, relative reft is the continuance
of a body in the fame region of the fhip, or the fame part
of its cavity. True or abfolute reft is its continuance in
the fame part of univerfal {pace, in which the fhip, with its
cavity and contents, are all contained.
Hence, if the earth be really and abfolutely at reft, the
body relatively at reft in the fhip will really and abfolutely
move, and that with the velocity with which the veflel moves.
But if the earth do likewife move, there will then arife a real
and abfolute motion of the body at reft; partly from the
real motion of the earth in abfolute fpace, and partly from
the relative motion of the fhip on the fea. Laitly, if the
body be hkewife relatively moved in the fhip, its real motion
will arife partly from the real motion of the earth in im-
moveable fpace, and partly from the relative motion of the
fhip on the fea, and of the body in the fhip.
Thus, if that part of the earth, where the fhip is, move
ealtward with a velocity of 10,010 parts, and the veflel be
carried by the wind we{tward ten parts, and, at the fame
time, a feaman aboard walk with the velocity of one part,
the feaman will be moved really and abfolutely in immove-
able {pace eaftward, with 10,001 parts of velocity ; and re-
latively on the earth, with nine parts of velocity weftwards.
It is an axiom in philofophy, that matter is indifferent-as
to reit or motion.-. Hence fir Ifaac Newton lays it down as
a law of Nature, that every body perfeveres in its ftate,
either of re{t or uniform motion, except fo far as it is dif-
turbed by external caufes.
The Cartefians will have firmnefs, hardnefs, or folidity of
bodies to confift in this, that their parts are at reft with
regard to each other ; and this refit they eftablifh as the great
nexus, or principle of cohefion, by which the parts are con-
nected together.
Fluidity, they add, confifts in a perpetual motion of the
parts, &c. But the Newtonian philofophy furnifhes us with
much better folutions. See Sotrpiry, Fiurpity, and Co-
HESION. :
Monfieur de Maupertuis affertsy that when bodies are’ in
equilibrio, they muit be fo fituated, that, if any {mall mo-
tion be imprefled on them, the quantity of action refulting
RES
will be the lea{t poffible. This he calls the law of reft, and
from this law he deduces the fundamental propofition of
ftatics. See Mem. de l’Acad. de Berlin, tom. ii. p. 294.
Monfieur de Maupertuis deduces the laws of percuflion
from the fame principle. See Quantity of AcTION.
Rest, Repofe, or Pau/e, in Poetry, is ufed for the cefura,
which, in Alexandrine verfes, falls on the fixth fyllable ;
and, in yerfes of ten or eleven fyllables, on the fourth.
The rett fhould never fall on a monofyllable, on which the
voice may not dwell: it is called reft, becaufe the ear and
the pronunciation have both a repofe, or refpite.
Rest, in Military Language, a kind of fork to fupport
mufkets, when prefented in order to fire. Sometimes thefe
refts were armed with a contrivance called a {wine’s feather,
which was a fort of fword-blade, or tuck, that iflued from
the ftaff of the reft, at the head: this, being placed before
the mufqueteers when loading, ferved, like the ftakes
placed before the archers, to keep off the cavalry. See
Musket.
Reits were of different lengths, according to the heights
of the men who were toufe them ; they were fhod with fharp
iron ferrils, for fticking them into the ground, and were, on
the march, when the mufket was fhouldered, carried in
the right hand, or hung upon it, by means of a ftring or
loop tied under the head.
Rest Arms, To, is to bring the firelock to the fame pofi-
tion as in prefent arms.
To Rest upon reverfed Arms. At military funerals the
arms are reverfed: on which occafions, the foldiers belong-
ing to the firing party, reft upon the butt ends of their fire-
locks, while the funeral fervice is performed, leaning with
their cheeks fo as to turn from the corpfe ; and the word of
command is * Reft upon your arms reverfed.””
Rest, in Tilting Armour. See TirtinG Armour.
Rest, in Mufic, is a paufe, or interval of time, during
which there is an intermiffion of the voice, or found.
Refts are fometimes ufed in melody, that is, in mufic of
afingle part, to exprefs fome fimple paffion, or even for va-
riety fake ; but more frequently in harmony, or compofi-
tions of feveral parts, for the fake of the pleafure of hearin
one part move on while another refts, and this inter-
changeably.
Refts are either for a whole bar, or more than a bar, or
but for a part of a bar. When the reft is fora part, it is
exprefled by certain figns, correfponding to the quantity of
certain notes of time ; as minim, crotchet, &c.; and is ac-
cordingly called minim-reft, crotchet-reft, &c.
The charaters or figures of which, fee under CHARACTERS
of Mufic, where the notes and correfponding refts are found
together. ,
When any one of thofe characters occurs, either on a line
or {fpace, that part is always filent for the time of a minim,
or crotchet, &c. Sometimes a reft is for a crotchet and
quaver together, or for other quantities of time for which
there is no particular note; in which cafe the figns of filence
are not refts, but fuch filence is exprefled by placing toge-
ther as* many refts, of different time, as make up the de-
figned reft, When the reft is for a whole bar, the femi+
breve reft isalwaysufed. If the reft be for two meafures, it
is marked by a line drawn acrofs a whole fpace. For three
meatures it is drawn acrofs a fpace and a half, and, for four
meafures, acrofs two fpaces. But, to prevent ambiguity,
the number of bars is ufually written over the fign.
Some of the more ancient writers in mufic make thefe
refts of different value in different {pecies of time, e. gr. the
charaéter of a minim-reft, in common time, fay they, ex-
prefles the reft of three crotchets in triple time ; in that of
the
RES
the triples 8, §, ‘2, 42, it always marks a half-meafure,
how different foever thefe may be among themfelves.
They add, that the reft of a crotchet in common time is
a reft of three quavers in the triple 2, and that the quaver-
reft of common time is equal to three femiquavers in the triple
',. But this variety in the ufe of the fame character is now
laid afide. Malcolm’s Treat. of Mufic, p. 409, &c.
Franco, the inventor of mufical characters for time, com-
monly afcribed to John de Mauris, in the fourth chapter of
his tract in the Bodleian library, entitled «« Ars Cantus Men-
furabilis,”’ fays, ‘* as the founds in each mood are exprefled
by different notes or figures, and as difcant itfelf is as much
regulated by /ilence ‘as by found, it will be neceffary to treat
not only of the figns or reprefentatives of founds, but of
their equivalent refts or paufes.’’
But though Magifter Franco may have invented the firft
time-table, confilting of full or black notes; John de Muris
feems to have arranged the fecond time-table, confilting of
void or open notes, from the maxima to the minim. And
in Morley’s time, the notes were multiplied and accelerated
tothe femiquaver, with their equivalent refts. See the third
TIME-TABLE.
Rest-Harrow, in Botany. See Ononts.
RESTAUR, Resror, in Ancient Cuftoms, the remedy or
recourfe which aflurers have againit each other, according
to the date of their affurances ; or againft the mafters, if the
average arife through their default ; as through ill loading,
want of caulking, or want of having the veflel tight.
The word is alfo ufed for the remedy, or recourfe, a per-
fon has againft his guarantee, or other perfon, who is to
indemnify him from any damage fuftained. Hence reffau-
rant and reftauration. Inthe lower Latin they alfo ufe the
words reflor and refaur.
RESTAURATION, Restavurario, Refloration, the
act of re-eftablifhing, or fetting a thing in its former good
eltate.
Thus we fay, the reftauration of a minor to the pofleffion
of his effects, alienated in the time of his minority. In the
French laws it is an ancient formula, ufed for the reftoring a
perfon to his good name, after he has been wrongfully ac-
cufed and condemned.
In England we fay the Reftauration or Reftoration, by way
of eminence, for the return of king Charles IJ. in 1660,
after the civil wars. i
~The 29th of May is an anniverfary fettival, appointed
to be held in commemoration of the reftoration of regal and
epifcopal government, by itat. 12 Car. II. c. 14.
We fhall here obferve, that the form of prayer for the
29th of May, as well as for the 30th of January, were of a
different complexion in the reign of king Charles II. from
the prefent, of which the reafon is faid to be this: the par-
Hament and other leading men, who were attive in his reftor-
ation, and who had been concerned in oppofing his father’s
meafures, would not be called traitors ; and required that
a diftinétion fhould be made between the commencement of
the war and the conclufion of it; they would not faffer the
firft oppofition made to the meafures of that unhappy
prince to be ftyled rebellion, though they difapproved of
the abolition of regal government which enfued.
And accordingly the offices for thefe two folemnities
were drawn up, without any refleGtion on the firft authors
or promoters of the oppofition, and, in general, breathe
more afpirit of piety than of party, of humiliation than of
revenge ; and, throughout, are modeft, grave, decent, fen-
fible, and devout. King James IT. altered thefe forms, and
king William did not venture to reduce them to their primi-
RES
tive ftate ; and fo they have continued, with very little varia.
tion, to this day.
There is no order in either of thefe offices for a fermon or
homily on this day ; and in the office of Charles IT., there is
no diretion for a fermon or homily on the oth of January :
but by the office of James IT. it is required that on the faid goth
day of January fhall be read the firft and fecond parts of the
homily againft difobedience and wilful rebellion, or elfe the
minifter fhall preach a fermon of his own compofing upon
the fame argument. The 29th of May is not a holiday in
any of the law-offices, and confequently no officer can take
an extraordinary fee for bufinefs done on that day. 7 Term
Rep. 163.
By 12 Car. II. c. 14. it is enacted, to the end that all
perfons may be reminded of their duty on the 29th of May,
and be the better prepared to difcharge the fame with that
piety and devotion which become them, that every minifter
fhall give notice to his parifhioners publicly in the church
at morning prayer, the Lord’s day next before fuch 29th day
of May, for the due obfervation of the faid day, and fhall
then likewife publicly and diftin@ly read this prefent a& to
the people.
REsTAURATION, in Architedure, the a&t of repairing all
the parts of a building gone to decay, either through the
courfe of time, or other injuries ; infuch manner, as that it
is not only re-eftablifhed in its firft form, but confiderably
augmented.
It is evident, from the plinths of the Corinthian columns
of the Pantheon (which are almoft wholly under ground),
that the pavement of this temple is only a reftauration made
in the time of Septimius Severus. Daviler.
The temple of Concord, behind the Capitol at Rome,
having been burnt long after it was built, and having angular
bafes different from the reft, feems to have been reftored
from the ruins of feveral ancient buildings.
REsTAURATION, in Sculpture, is the repairing of a mu-
tilated ftatue, &c. See REPAIRING.
Mott of the antique {tatues have undergone a reftauration ;
asthe Farnefe Hercules, the Faunus in the Villa Borghefe
at Rome, the Wreftlers in the gallery of the great duke of
Florence, the Venus of Arles, in the gallery at Verfailles.
But thefe reftaurations have all been made by the ableft
{culptors. Daviler.
RESTIACEA, in Botany, a natural order of plants,
firft feparated from the Junci of Juffieu by Mr. Brown,
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v..1. 243, and named from one of its
chief genera; fee Restio. The charaéters are thefe.
Perianth unconneéted, deeply divided into from two to
fix fegments, or rather of fo many leaves; rarely wanting.
Corollanone. Stamens definite, from one to fix ; when they
are two or three, in a four or fix-cleft perianth, they are op-
pofite to its inner leaves. Germen of one or feveral cells,
each cell containing one pendulous feed, except in Xyris,
whofe feeds are numerous. Pericarp either capfular, or
amentaceous. Seeds inverted. Albumen fhaped like the feed.
Embryo lenticular, fituated in-the lower end of the feed,
oppofite to its {car, at the outfide of the albumen.
Plants herbaceous or fomewhat fhrubby, almoft all exotic
with refpe& fo Britain, and even Europe. Leaves fimple,
narrow, in fome cafes wanting. Stems naked, but often fur-
nifhed with fheathing fcales, cloven at one fide, imbricated,
or equitant, at the other. Flowers for the moft part age
gregate, {fpiked or capitate, feparated by bradeas, the /famens
and /fyles generally in feparate individuals.
This order is diitinguifhed from the Junci, by having the
embryo external, and contrary to the fear; from the Gom-
melinee of Brown, by the figure of that part, and its not
being
RES
being enelofed in the albumen. 'Thofe genera which have
the habit of the Cyperazeous order, are well diftinguifhed
from it by the fheaths of the ftem being fplit, not undi-
vided. Xyris, though referred to the Refliacees and {carcely
more akin to any other tribe, {till differs widely from the
reft of this order ; efpecially ‘in the petal-like inner feg-
ments, or leaves, of its perianth; the claws bearing the
ftamens at their fummits; and the numerous feeds. See
®bfervations on the generic character of Restio. ;
The New Holland genera of the prefent order are Reflio,
Lepyrodia,. Lyginia, Anarthria, Loxocarya, Leptocarpus,
Chatanthus, Hypolena, Aphelia, Devauxia, Alepyrum, Erio-
caulonand Xyris. ‘ ce
RESTIARIA, a name given by Rumphius, in his
Herbarium Amboinenfe, v. 3. 187, to two or three different
fhrubs, on account of their fitnefs for ropes, or cordage ;
refliarius being a fort of bafe Latin word for a rope-maker.
The firft of thefe, R. alba, t. 119, is a very well-marked
genus, for which-the name might have been retained; but
Linnzus, in his Supplementum, has called that genus Com-
merfonia, after the example of Forlter, in his Nova Genera
t. 22. (See Commersonra.) Of the fecond, termed
R. nigra, Rumphius gives no plate. We fhall {peak of it
prefently. The third he has called Perticaria, from pertica,
a itaff or pole; which name is alfo a fyronym of the other
two. Nothing is known refpeéting the flowers, or generic
charaGter, of this lait. Loureiro has adopted the name
Refliaria, for a plant which he fuppofes the fame with the
aigra of Rumphius, but of which he knew the female
flowers only. The following is his account of it. Loureir.
Cochinch. 639. Clafs, Disecia; Order unknown, as well
as the Nat. Ord.
Gen. Ch. Male flowers unknown. ;
Female ona feparate plant. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, ob-
long, capfular ; limb in five deep, lanceolate, {preading feg-
ments. Cor. none. Pi/?. Germen inferior, oblong; ftyle
none; ftigma concave. Peric. Capfule calycine, gvate-ob-
long, fomewhat tapering at each end, five-ribbed, hairy,
with two cells and two valves. Seeds numerous, comprefled,
roundifh, with a long, thin, membranous, linear wing at
each fide.
Bf ChapMale...¢s |. 7.
Female, Calyx five-cleft, capfular, fuperior. Corolla
none. Stigma concave. Capfule with five ribs, two cells,
two valves, and numerous winged feeds. ;
Obf. We do not profefs to underitand Loureiro’s ex-
preflions of perianthium capfulare, and capfula calycina, but
give them as we find them, having no knowledge of the
plant itfelf. De Theis fuggetts its affinity to Gouania.
1. R. cordata. Lour. (R. nigra; Rumph. Amb. v. 3.
188 ?)—Native of the woods of Cochinchina. A large
Jbrub, witha reclining flem, and climbing branches, deftitute
of tendrils or thorns. Leaves oppofite, heart-fhaped, rugofe,
hairy, entire, large. F/owers in lax, axillary panicles, with
long general as well as partial ftalks. The ark istough and
porous, {plitting into long ftrips, of which torches are made,
and which ferve alfo for caulking of veilels. The generic
name was adopted by Loureiro, becaufe of the fitnefs of
the ftems and branches for cordage.
RESTINCLIERS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Herault; nine miles N.E. of Mont-
lier.
RESTINCTION, Resrinctio, in Chemiftry, the
quenching of a metal or mineral in fome liquor, in order
either to corre&t or to exalt it; by giving it fome new
quality, power, &c.
RESTING Grouvnp, in Gardening, the means of re-
VoL. XXX.
RES
frefhing it, and of reftoring its fertility by the omiffion of
culinary crops, and the cultivation of fuch as have this ten-
dency, or by any other methods which may have the fame
effe&t. It is a fort of management which is principally ac-
complifhed in two different ways; the former of which is
that of fowing a certain portion of it, annually, with corn
and fome fort of grafs feeds, fuffering it to continue under
the latter of them for three or more years, as in arable field
lands, in order that it may then be broken up again. This
is a very beneficial method, but not much praétifed, except
by market-gardeners, who employ thefe two crops in feeding
and foddering their cattle. When made ufe of in other
ways, as in other gardens, great care fhould be taken that
the grafs never runs up to feed, as is fometimes the cafe in
market-gardens, but in all other particulars the praétice may
be entirely the fame. In this way of proceeding, by fow-
ing and laying down a certain quantity of ground every
year, the fame extent may be broken up, which will, of
courfe, afford fo much frefh foil annually, upon which fuch
garden crops as anfwer beft on newly broken up land, may
be put in and raifed, as thofe of onions, carrots, turnips,
and a great many other kinds.
The latter of the above modes of managing the bufinefs,
is, however, better adapted to gardens in general, as being
more fuited to the nature of their culture. It was, pro-
bably, firft fuggefted by the author of the « Scotch Forcing
Gardener ;” and is extremely well fuited to produce the
fame effects and advantages as that which has been already
noticed ; and it may, indeed, in fome cafes, be combined
with it, or ufed conjointly, with great benefit ; as by fuch
means much frefh furface foil will be yearly at the command
of the gardener. The manner of performing it is this;
after taking three culinary crops off from the firft furface,
the ground 1s to be trenched over three {pits deep, by which
the bottom and top parts are reverfed, and the middle part
itill remains in that fituation; then three fimilar crops are
to be taken off from this furface, and the ground afterwards
trenched two {pits deep, by which means the top becomes
the middle, and the middle the top ; three of the fame kind
of crops being here alfo taken off from this furface, and.
then the ground trenched three {pits again, that part which
was laft the middle, and now the top, becomes the bottom ;
and that which is now the bottom, and was the furface at
firft, now becomes the furface again, after having had fix
years’ reft. By this alternate manner of proceeding, one
time trenching three {pits deep, and the other two, the fur-
face will conftantly be changed, and will reft fix years, while
it is three years produ€tive. On which account there will
_ be continually new ground and foil in the garden for the
growth of healthy culinary vegetables ; and befides, much
lefs manure will be wanted than where the foil is fhallow,
and the fame furface conftantly under culinary crops.
Proper and careful modes of cropping, as well as other
kinds of management, may likewife, in many cafes, contri-
bute greatly to the fame intention.
RestinG Land, in Agriculture, the means of keeping it
without any fort of crop, or only under particular kinds, in
the view of reftoring its fertility. This is done in the prac-
tice of naked fallowing, as well as that of cultivating green
crops by way of a fallow, and by laying land down to the
{tate of grafs, in order to its being afterwards broken up for
grain crops. See FaLLow and Fatuowine, alfo Greex
Crops, and Layinc down’ to graf.
RESTIO, in Botany, from reflis, a cord, becaufe many
of the genus ferve, at the Cape of Good Hope, where they
abound, to make ropes, ba{kets, &c. Reflio is properly ’a
perfon who fells cord, or repes. Exxcta; {ee that article,
K is
s
RES
is nearly related in habit, as well as characters, to the prefent
enus, and was finally united to it by Linnzus, contrary to
Chunberg’s opinion.—Linn. Syit. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 735.
Schreb. 676. Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v.5. 368. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl, v. 1. 244. Thunb.
Dill, May 17.1788. Rottb.Gram.1. Jufl. 44. Labill.
Noy. Holl. v. 2. 77. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 804. (Chon-
dropetalum ; Rottb. Gram. ro. Calorophus ; Labill. Nov.
Holl. v. 2. 78.)—Clafs and order, Dioecia Triandria. Nat.
Ord. Calamaria, Linn. Junci, Jul. Reftiacee, Brown.
Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Catkin ovate or oblong, many-
flowered; its fcales coriaceous, imbricated, keeled. Pe-
rianth comprefled, of four or fix, nearly equal leaves ; two
of the outer ones boat-like, the third flat ; the three inner-
moft lanceolate, thinner, one of them broader than the reft.
‘Cor. none, except the three inner leaves of the calyx be fo
confidered. Stam. Filaments three, fometimes but two ;
anthers oblong, fimple, peltate.
Female, on a feparate plant, Ca/. and Cor. as in the male.
Pift. Germen fuperior, triangular ; {tyle one, deeply divided
into two or three parts; ftigmas feathery. Peric. Capfule
with two or three lobes, and as many cells, buriting at the
prominent angles. Seeds folitary, fomewhat oval.
Obf. Chondropetalum cf Rottboll differs from the reft of
the {pecies, in having the inner fegments of the calyx longer,
and of a cartilaginous texture. This difference, and the
ftill more remarkable one in Xyris, between the outer and
inner fegments of the calyx, might furely authorize us to
call the three latter a corolla, in both thefe inftances.
Eff. Ch. Male, Catkinimbricated. Perianth of four or
fix leaves, fhorter than the feales of the catkin, deftitute of
internal {cales. Corolla none. Anthers peltate.
Female, Catkin and Perianth like the male. Stigmas two
or threes Capfule of two or three lobes, and as many cells,
burfting at-the angles. Seeds folitary.
The plants of ae genus have a hard, rigid, {mooth, rufhy
habit. The root is fcaly, creeping, and perennial. Stems
rufhy, fimple or branched, leaflefs, fheathed with {cales
{plit at one fide. Carkins either folitary, {piked or panicled.
Mr. Brown obferves, that the {car of the /eed is naked in
the New Holland fpecies, but in thofe from the Cape of
Good Hopeit is bordered. Several things which Thunberg
and Rottboll have referred to Reffio, are by Mr. Brown
removed to other genera ; fee Leprocarrus and THamno-
cHortus. This autior defines 24 New Holland {pecies, in
his Prodromus. How many are found at the Cape, we
have no means of determining, becaufe of the uncertainties
refpecting their generic charatters, which we have not
materials toremove. The following may ferve as examples.
Seftion 1. Stem fimple.
R. teGorum. Thatch Rope-grafs. Linn. Suppl. 425.
Ait. n.a. (Chondropetalum deuftum ; Rottb. Gram. 10.
t.3. £.2.)—Stem fimple. Leaves none. Catkins race-
mole, moftly leaning one way, drooping, bracteated,
roundifh, triangular. Gathered by Thunberg at the Cape,
from whence Mr. Matflon fent living plants to Kew, in 1793.
They ‘are kept in the greenhoufe, bloffoming in May and
June. The root is perennial, fmall and tapering, throwing
out ‘horizontal fealy fhoots. Stems feveral, a foot and half
high, ereét, very itraight,- round, flender, fmooth, un-
branched, with fhort taper-pointed fheaths at the joints.
‘Cluferterminal, compound, about two inches long, variegated
with black, or dark purple, and brown. The items are ufed
for thatching, for which their hard rigid nature is well cal-
culated ; nor is this thatch difturbed by the very high winds
that prevail in fouthern Africa. Thunberg.
‘R.-cernuus. Pendulous-headed Rope-grafs. Linn. Suppl.
vf
RES
425. Thunb. Reit. n. 4. t. 1. f.2.—Stemfimple. Leaves
none. atkins turbinate, pendulous, on capillary ftalks.
Native of the Cape, on hills about the Table mountain.
The flem is flender, jointed and fmooth, two feet high, or
more, with fcales at the joints, but no leaves. Catkins
three, four, or five, at the top of each ftem, about the fize
of a pea, brown, obtufe, tapering at the bafe, pendulous,
each fupported by a capillary flalk. Scales obtufe, with a
fmall point.
R. dichotomus. Fork-leaved Rope-grafs. Linn. Syft.
Nat\eds12.¢v. 2.07415.) )Notth. "Gram.uz. ibiret. iT.
(Scheenus capenfis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 64?)—Stems fimple.
Leaves repeatedly compound, with awl-fhaped leaflets.
Panicle drooping. Catkins oblong. Scales taper-pointed.
Common at the Cape. Svems feveral, a foot or more in
height, bearing a few fheaths. Leaves, or, as fome call
them, barren items, much fhorter than the flowering ftems,
flender, twifted, branched, with a fheath at each joint ;
their ultimate fubdivifions awl-fhaped, channelled. Panicles
at the top of each ftem, of 10 or 12 drooping oblong cat-
kins, whofe {cales are of a fhining brown, and very finely
pointed.
Section 2. Stem branched.
R. verticillaris. Horfe-tail Rope-grafs. Linn. Suppl.
425. Thunb. Rett. n. 22. t. 1. f. 7-—Branches whorled,
jointed; with oyate {cales. Panicle compound, clofe.—
Found about the banks of rivers at the Cape. Stem five or
fix feet high, refembling an Egui/etum in its copious, flender,
whorled branches, from every joint ; bearing numerous
ovate, taper-pointed, {mall fcales. We confefs ourfelves
unable to draw a line between thefe branches, and what we
have termed leaves in the laft-defcribed {pecies, except that
the latter are moftly, if not entirely, radical, and thefe
grow from every joint of the ftem. The catkins are ex-
tremely {mall and numerous, in branched, repeatedly com-
pound, denfe clutters.
R. tetraphyllus. Four-leaved Rope-grafs. Labill. Novy.
Holl. v. 2.77. t. 226, 227. Brown n. 24.—Stems femi-
cylindrical, with blunt fheaths. Leaflets fetaceous. Panicle
terminal, compound. Catkins nearly globofe. Scales
pointed. Male flowers fix-cleft ; female four-cleft.— Native
of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s ifland. Stems
numerous, ftout, three feet high, with a few leafy branches
in the upper part, whofe ultimate divifions are briftle-fhaped.
Catkins talked, ovate in the female plant, nearly globofe in
the male. The perianth of the female flowers has but four
leaves, that of the male fix.
RESTITUTION, Resrirurio, in Phyfics, the re-
turning of ela{tic bodies forcibly bent to their natural ftate,
by fome called the motion of reffitution. See ELasriciry.
Contraétion being the proper and natural aétion of muf-
cular fibres, fome authors afcribe dilatation to a motion of
reftitution ; but the expreffion, as well as the idea, is very
faulty.
ResTITuTION, in the moral and legal fenfe, is the act of
reftoring a perfon to his right, or of returning fomething
unjuitly taken or detained from him.
Reftitution is reducible to commutative juftice ; and till
it be made, the cafuilts determine the party all the while
guilty of theft.
The illegal incumbents of benefices are condemned to a
reftitution of the fruits of the benefices. In the Romifh
church, ufurers, &c. are obliged to a reftitution of their
ill-gotten goods; otherwife the prieft has no authority to
give them abfolution. ;
Restitution in Blood. See Corruption of Blood,
ATTAINDER, and Parpon:
RestTI-
4
RES
Restitution of Conjugal Rights.
Rights. ;
Restitution of Stolen Goods, in Law, is allowed to the
profecutor, on a conviétion of larciny, by itat. 21 Hen. VII.
e. 11. For, by the common law, there was no reftitution
of goods upon an indiQment, becaufe it is at the {uit of the
king only ; and therefore the party was forced to bring an
appeal of robbery, in order to have his goods again. But
it being confidered that the party, profecuting the offender
by indictment, deferves as much encouragement as he who
profecutes by appeal, this ftatute was made, which enacts,
that if any perfon be conviéted of larciny by the evidence
of the party robbed, he fhall bave full reftitution of his
money, goods, and chattels, or the value of them out of
the offender’s goods, if he has any: by a writ to be granted
by the juftices. And this writ 0 reftitution shal! teach thé
goods {o ftolen, notwithftanding the property of them is en-
deavoured to be altered by fale in market overt; or elfe,
without fuch writ of reftitution, the party may peaceably
retake his goods, wherever he happens to find them, unlefs
a new property be fairly acquired therein ; or, laftly, if the
felon be conviéted and pardoned, or be allowed his clergy,
the party robbed may bring his aétion of trover again{t him
for his goods, and recover a fatisfaGtion in damages; but
fuch aétion lies not before profecution, for fo felonies would
be made up and healed. See Recaption.
Restitution of Temporallties of Bi/bops.
RALITIES, and RrsTiTuTIONE Temporalium.
Restitution in Jntegrum, is ufed for what is otherwife
called refciffion.
Religious obtain reftitution againft their vows, i. ¢. they
are freed from their obligation, when they proteft againit
them within five years of their profeffion.
In the hiftory of Germany for the feventeenth century,
the firft day of January, 1624, is called the term of reftitu-
tion; becaufe by the peace of Munfter, then concluded,
the Lutheran and Calvinilt princes were obliged to reititute,
or reftore what they had taken from the Roman Catholic
churches in their territories till that day.
By the peace of Weltphaha in 1648, the reftitution-edi&
was abrogated, and both the contending parties confirmed
in the perpetual and uninterrupted pofleflion of whatever
they had occupied in the beginning of the year 1624. And
all the articles agreed upon by this peace were confirmed and
ratified, in the year 1650, at Nuremberg.
Restitution of Medals, or Reflituted Medals, is a phrafe
ufed by antiquaries, for fuch medals as were ftruck by the
emperors, to renew or retrieve the memory of their prede-
ceffors. :
Hence it is, that in feveral medals we find the letters
REST. Claudius was the firft who began this pra¢tice, by
ftriking afrefh feveral medals of Auguitus. Nero did the
fame ; and Titus, after the example of his father, ftruck
reftitutions of moft of his predeceflors. Some, however,
have maintained that the reftituted medals of Claudius and
Nero are modern and fpurious, and that the pra¢tice began
under Titus.
Gallienus itruck a general reftitution of moft of the pre-
ceding emperors in two medals, the one bearing an altar,
the other an eagle, without the ref. ¥. Joubert choofes
rather to call them conver/ations than reftitutions, as being
done quite anew. Thefe were defigned to preferve the re-
membrance of the confecration of thofe emperors in honour
of whom they were ftruck ; and they have all the fame le-
gend on the reverfe, viz. CONSECRATIO.
RESTITUTIONE extraati ab ecclefia, in Law, a writ
See ConsuGAL
See Trmpo-
RES
anciently granted for the reftoring a man to the church, or
fanétuary, from which he had been forced way.
RestitutTionr Temporalium, a writ which lies where a
man is eleéted and confirmed bifhop of a diocefe, for the re-
covery of the temporalities, or barony, of the faid bifhopric,
It is direGted from the king to the efcheator, or rather
fheriff of the county.
RESTIVE, or Resry, aterm applied to a horfe, &c.
that ftops, or runs back, inftead of advancing forwards,
In the manege, a reftive horfe is a rebellious, refractory,
ill-broken horfe, which only goes where it will, and when
it will. The word is formed from the Latin reffivus, which
fignifies the fame thing. (See Ramincuz.) A horfe of
this fort, who has been too much conitrained and tyrannized
over, fhould be treated with the fame lenity as a young colt-
The f{purs are improper to be ufed to either ; inftead of
which a {witch fhould be ufed, in order to drive him for-
ward, as he will be thus lefs alarmed ; becaufe the fpurs
furprife a horfe, abate his courage, and are more likely to
make him reftive than oblige him to go forward, if he re-
fufes to do fo. There is likewife another method to punifh
a reftive horfe, which is to make him go backward the mo-
ment he begins to refift. Thefe correétions generally fuc-
ceed; but the general rule is to pufh and carry your horfe
forward, whenever he refufes to advance, and continues in
the fame place, and defends himfelf either by turning or
flinging his croupe on one fide or the other ; and, for this
purpole, nothing is fo efficacious as to pufh him forward
vigoroufly. Berenger’s Horfemanfhip, vol. ii. p. 29, &c.
See Ripe.
RESTOR. See Restavur.
RESTORATION. See ResTAuRATION.
ResToRATION, in Theology, a term applied by thofe who
maintain the doGtrine of the final happinefs of all mankind,
to the recovery of tranfgreffors from a ftate of guilt and
mifery to pardon and felicity, in confequence of the penal
difcipline which they are doomed to endure in a future
world. See this doGrine difcuffed tnder the article Herr.
RestTorATIon. Cove, in Gargrapiys a bay on the weft
coaft of North America, in Burke’s canal, fo called by
Vancouver, from the 29th of May, the day of its difcovery.
Among the fkins brought to fale at this bay were thofe of
the animal which produces the wool, of which the garments
worn by fome of the Indians are made. Their length, ex-
clufively of the head and tail, was 50 inches; and their
breadth, exclufively of the legs, was 36 inches. All the
fins that were brought to captain Vancouver were white,
or rather ofacream colour. ‘The pelt was thick, and of a
fine texture; but from their ftate of mutilation, the fpecies
of animals to which they belonged could not be afcertained.
The women, who appeared to be of the greateft import-
ance, were adorned by an horizontal incifion about three-
tenths of an inch below the upper part of the under lip, ex-
tending from one corner of the mouth to the other; and in
this flit was fixed a piece of wood, confined clofely to the
gums of the lower jaw, and projecting by its external fur-
face horizontally. Thefe wooden ornaments were of an
oval form, and refembled a {mall oval platter or difh, con-
cave on both fides: the fmalleft of them was about 24 inches,
and the largeft 3,4, inches long, and 1} inch broad; the
others decreafed in breadth in proportion to their oe
The clothing of the natives here confifted either of the ikins
of the fea-otter, or of garments made of the pine-bark, inte
which was neatly wrought fome of the fur of the fea-otter,
and their fides and bottoms were decorated with various co-
lours. Inthis they ufe only woollen yarn, very fine, well
fpun, and dyed for that purpofe, particularly with a very
Kz lively
RES
lively and beautiful yellow. N. lat. 52° 1’. E. long.
232° 20.
Restoration //land, a {mall ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, near the eait coaft of New Holland, difcovered by
captain Bligh in 1789. S. lat. 12° 39!.
ResToRATION Point, a cape on the welt coaft of Vafhon’s
Mand. N. lat. 47° 30'. E. long. 237° 46'.
RESTORATIVE, in Medicine, fuch fubitances both
in the way of food, drink, and medicines, which are cal-
culated to reftore the vigour of the conttitution, after the
ceflation of acute difeafes, after violent hemorrhages, fa-
tigue, watching, or want of food. Thefe of courfe com-
prehend the moft nutritious parts of animal fubitances,
jellies, broths, &c. ; and the vegetable ftarches, arrow-root,
Iago, &c. with milk, rice, and other light nourifhment.
The reftorative medicines will be fele&ted from the bitter
and aromatic vegetables, and fome of the metallic falts,
efpecially thofe of iron; their principal ufe being to give
tone and vigour to the digeftive organs, and thus enable
them to extract and digeft the nutriment, which the food
affords.
RESTOUN, in Geography, a town of Syria, anciently
called « Arethufa ;?? 12 miles S.E. of Hamah.
RESTOW, atown of Auttrian Poland, in Galicia; 72
miles W. of Lemberg.
RESTRAINING Srarure. See REMEDIAL.
ReEsTRAINING Statute of Leafes. See Leases by Statute.
RESTRAINT is when an action is hindered,’ or
ftopped, contrary to volition, or the preference of the
mind.
RESTRICTION, the a& of modifying, limiting, or
reftraining a thing to narrower bounds.
General laws always bear fome reftriction. In contracts
it is ufual to have re/friGive claufes, which bind the covenants
down to certain bounds. '
Restriction, Mental. See RESERVATION.
Restriction, among Logicians, is underftood of the
limiting a term, fo as to make it fignify lefs than it ufually
does.
In which fenfe the name philofopher is reftrained to Arif-
totle; Great, to Alexander ; City, to Rome, &c.
RESTRICTIVE Proposition. See Proposition.
RestTRICTIVE Suture. See SUTURE.
RESTRINGENT, in Medicine. See AsTRINGENT.
RESTY. See Restive and Rive.
RESULT, what is gathered from a conference, an in-
quiry, meditation, difcourfe, or the like; or the concluiion
and effeG thereof.
The ufual refult of difputes, Mr. Bayle obferves, is,
that each perfon remains more attached to his own opinion.
RESULTING Uss, in Law. See Use.
RESUMMONS, ResumMonitTi0, a fecond fummons
or calling a man to anfwer an action, where the firft fum-
mons is defeated, or fufpended, by an accident ; as the death
ofa party, &c.
RESUMPTION, Resumprio, in a law-fenfe, fignifies
the taking again into the king’s hands fuch lands or tene-
ments as before, upon falfe fuggeitions, or other error, he
had delivered to the heir, or granted, by letters patent, to
any man.
REsUMPTION, in the Schools, a fummary repetition, or
running over, of an argument, or of the fubftance of it, in
order to refute it.
Resumption is alfo ufed by Logicians for the reduétion
of fome figurative or quaint propofition, to a more intel-
ligible and fignificant one,
RESUMPTIVE, in Pharmacy, an epithet given to a
RES
kind of unguent, ufed to recruit and reftore arid languifhing
conttitutions, and to difpofe the dry bodies to receive now
rifhment. It is called in Latin unguentum refumptivum.
RESUPINATUM Forium, in Botany, a reverfed leaf,
has its proper under fide turned uppermoft, as in Pharus
latifolius, and Alftroemeria pelegrina. See Lear,
RESUPINATUS Fos, a reverfed flower, is fo cir- —
cumftanced, that what, according to analogy, ought to be
its upper fide, is really the under. Of this Lavandula,
Lavender, is an example, the longer lip of its corolla being
uppermoft, while the other, with the {tamens and ityle,
are downwards.
RESURRECTION, Resurrectio, Re/u/citation, the
at if returning to a new or fecond life, after having been
ead.
The great argument for the truth of Chriftianity, and
that urged with the moft force and conviction for the fame,
is drawn from the refurre¢tion of our Saviour. The cir-
cumttances of it are fuch as almoft admit of a demonitration :
which has accordingly been attempted on the ftri& prin-
ciples of geometricians. See Ditton on the Refurreion.
The records of the fa of our Lord’s refurre&tion are
contained in the four gofpels of St. Matthew, St. Mark,
St. Luke, and St. John; and though the accounts given
by thefe hiitorians have been charged with fome difere-
pancies and contradiétions, the difficulties occafioned by
them admit of a fatisfa€tory folution. Among thofe who
have made attempts for this purpofe, Mr. Gilbert Welt (ubi
infra) is entitled to our particular notice. With this view,
he ftates the feveral incidents of this wonderful event, ac-
cording to the order in which they feem to have arifen. He
_premifes with obferving, that our Saviour Chriit was cru-
cified on a Friday (the preparation, or the day before the
Jewifh Sabbath) : gave up the ghoit about three o’clock in
the afternoon of the fame day; and was buried that even-
ing, before the commencement of the Sabbath, which,
among the Jews, was always reckoned to begin from the
firft appearance of the ftars on Friday evening, and to end
at the appearance of them again on the day we call Satur-
day. He adds, that, fome time, and moft probably to-
wards the clofe of the Sabbath, after the religious duties of
the day had terminated, the chief priefts obtained of Pilate,
the Roman governor, a guard to watch the fepulchre, till
the third day was pait; pretending to apprehend that his
difciples might come by night, and fteal away the body,
and then give out that he was rifen, as he had prediéted
while he was yet alive. Accordingly a guard was fet, the
fepulchre made fure, and, to prevent the foldiers themfelves
from conniving with the difciples, a feal was put upon the
ftone which clofed up the entrance of the fepulchre.
Some have obje¢ted to the evangelical itatement of the
time that elapfed between our Lord’s death and refurrec-
tion; and they fay, that the refurrection happened a day
fooner than the predi¢tion imported. But in the “ Trial of
the Witnelles,’’ it is alleged, that the obje€tion is founded
upon a miftake of a mode of fpeaking, common to the Jews
and other people; who, when they name any number of
days and years, include the firft and the laft of the days or
years to make up the fum. Chrift, alluding to his own re-
furrection, fays, ‘ In three days I will raife it up.”? The
angels report his prediétion thus: *¢ The Son of man fhall
be crucified, and the third day rife again.”? Elfewhere it is
faid, <<‘ after three days ;”? and again, that he was to be in
the bowels of the earth “three days and three nights.’
Thefe expreffions are equivalent to each other; for we al-
ways reckon the night into the day, when we reckon by fo
many days. If you agree to doa thing ten days hence, you
ftipulate
RESURRECTION.
ftipulate for forbearance for the nights as well as days;
and, therefore, in reckoning, two days, and two days and
two nights, are the fame thing. That the expreflion,
*‘ after three days,’’ means inclufive days, is proved by
Grotius in Matth. xxvii. 63, and others. The prediction,
therefore, was that he would rife on the third day. Now,
he was crucified, as we have already itated, on Friday, and
buried ; he lay:in the grave the whole of Saturday, and rofe
early on Sunday morning. But as the objectors fay, he
ought not to have rifen till Monday : let us try what the
ufe of common language requires to be underftood, in a like
cafe. Suppofe you were told that your friend fickened on
Friday, was let blood on Saturday, and the third day he
died: what day would you think he died on? _ If you have
any doubt about it, put the queftion to the firft plain man
‘you meet, and he will refolve it. The Jews could have no
doubt in this cafe; for fo they praétifed in one of the
higheft points of their law. Every male child was to be
circumcifed on the eighth day. How did they reckon the
days? The day of the birth was one, and the day of the
circumcifion another ; and though a child was born towards
the very end of the firft day, he was capable of circumcifion
on any time of the eighth day. And, therefore, it is not
new nor ftrange, that the third day, in our cafe, fhould be
reckoned into the number, though *Chrift rofe at the very
beginning of it. It is more ftrange to reckon whole years
in this manner; and yet this is the conftant method ob-
ferved in Ptolemy’s canon, the moit valuable piece of an-
ecient chronology, next to the Bible, now extant. If a
king lived over the firlt day of a year, and died the week
after, the whole year is reckoned to his reign.
The order of the incidents our author conceives to have
been as follows. Very early on the ff? day of the week (the
day immediately followtug the fabbath, and the third from the
death of Chritt), Mary Magdalene and the other Mary, in
purfuance of the defign of embalming the Lord’s body,
which they had concerted with the other women who at-
tended him from Galilee to Jerufalem, fet out, in order to
take a view of the fepulchre, juit as the day began to break ;
and about the time of their jetting out ‘ there was a great
earthquake,’? &c. (Matth. xxvii. 2—4.) During the
amazement and terror that occurred, Chrift came out of the
fepulchre ; and the keepers recovered from their trance and
fled, when an angel, who till this time fat upon the itone,
quitted his ftation on the ous/ide, and entered into the fepul-
chre ; and probably difpofed the linen clothes and napkin in
that order in which they were afterwards found, and ob-
ferved by John and Peter. Mary Magdalene, in the mean
‘while, and the other Mary, were {till on their way to the
fepulchre, where, together with Salome (whom they had
either called upon, or met as they were going), they arrived
at the rifing of the fun. And as they drew near, “ they faid
among themfelves, Who fhall roll us away the ftone from
the door of the fepulchre? for it was very great :’? and
they themfelves (the two Maries at leait) had feen it placed
there two days before, and feen with what difficulty it was
done. But whilft they were deliberating (for it does not
appear that they knew any thing of the guard), “lifting up
their eyes,’’ being yet at {ome diitance, they perceived it was
already rolled away. Alarmed at fo extraordinary and fo
unexpeGed a circumftance, Mary Magdalene, concluding
that, as the ftone could not have been moved without a great
number of hands, it mu{t have been rolled away with fome
defign ; and that this defign could have been no other but to
remove the Lord’s body ; and being convinced by appear-
ances that this was the cafe, ran immediately to inform Peter
and John of what fhe had feen, and what the fufpected ;
leaving Mary and Salome there, fo that, if Joanna and the
other women fhould come in the mean time, they might ace
quaint them with their furprife at finding the ftone removed,
and the body gone, and of Mary Magdalene’s running to in-
form the two above-mentioned apoftles of it. While the
was going on this errand, Mary and Salome went on and
entered into the fepulchre ; and there faw an angel < fit-
ting on the right fide,’ &c. (Mark, xvi. 5—8.) After
the departure of Mary and Salome came John and Peter,
who, having been informed by Mary Magdalene, that
the body of the Lord was taken away out. of the fe-
pulchre, and that fhe knew not where they had laid him,
“ran both together to the fepulchre,’’ &c. (John, xx.
4—17.) After the appearance of Chrift to Mary Meee
lene, to whom, as St. Mark fays exprefsly, he appeared firft
the other Mary, and Salome, who had fled from the fepul-
chre with fuch terror and amazement, that ‘ they faid not
any thing to any man,’’ (Mark, xvi. 8.), that 1s, as the
expreffion may be underftood, had not told the meflage of
the angel to fome (probably John and Peter, who were
running with Mary Magdalene to'the fepulchre, about the
time that thefe women were flying from it, and whom in their
fright they might not immediately recolleét), whom they
met, and to whom they were directed to deliver it, were
met on their way by Jefus Chrift himfelf, who faid to them,
« Allhail!”? &c. (Matth. xxviil. 9, 10.) Thefe feveral
women, and the two apoitles, being now gone from the
fepulchre, ‘* Joanna, with the other Galilean women, and
others with them,’’ &c. (Luke, xxiv. 1—g, 11.), Peter, _
who, upon the report of Mary Magdalene, had been af the
fepulchre, had entered into it, and, with a curiofity that be-
{poke an expectation of fomething. extraordinary, and a de-
fire of being fatisfied, had obferved that the /inen clothes in
which Chrift was buried, and the napkin that was about his
head, were not only /eft in the fepulchre, but carefully wrap-
ped up, and laid in feveral places, and who, from thefe circum-
ftances, might begin to fufpe&, what his companion St. John
from the fame circumftances feems to have believed :—Peter
we fay, hearing from Joanna, that fhe had feen a vifion of
angels at the fepulchre, who had ailured her that Chrift was
rifen, ftarting up, ran thither immediately ; and knowing
that the angels, if they were qwithix the fepulchre, might be
difcovered without his going in, he did not, as before, enter in,
but /fooping down, looked io far in as to /ée the /inen clothes ;
and ‘departed, wondering in himfelf at that which was
come to pafs.’? (Luke, xxiv. 12.) And either with Peter,
or about that time, went fome other difciples, who were pre-
fent when Joanna, and the other women, made their report ;
*¢ and found it even fo as the women had faid.??—«* The
fame day, two”’ of the difciples ‘ went to a village called
Emmaus,”’ &c. (Luke, xxiv. 13—35.) Such, according
to Mr. Welt, isthe order in which the feveral incidents above
related appear to have arifen: and he concludes, that by this
order, in which all the different events naturally and eafily
follow, and, as it were, rife out of one another, the narration
of the evangeliits is cleared from all confufion and incon-
fillencies ; and, moreover, the proof of the refurreétion is
better eftablifhed by thus /eparating the women into two or
more divifions, than upon the contrary fuppolition, which
brings them a// together to the fepulchre; for, in the latt
cafe, inftead of three different appearances of angels to the
women, and fawo of Jefus Chrift, we fhould have but one of
each ; whereas, in the former, there is a train of witnefles, a
fucceffion of miraculous events, mutually {trengthening and
illuftrating each other, and equally and jointly concurring
to prove one and the fame faét :—a fa@, which, as it was in
its own nature more aftonifhing, and in its confequences of
the
2
RESURRECTION.
the utmoft importance to mankind, required the fulleft and
moft unexceptionable evidence. Never, fays our author,
was a fact more fully proved; and in ftating this proof,
with a brevity corre{ponding to our limits, and yet, we trult,
with a clearnefs anfwerable to the importance of the fubjeét,
we fhall avail ourfelves of the luminous arrangement which
our author has made of the principal arguments that eftablifh
the interefting fact of our Lord’s refurreétion, and that ren-
dered it credible to the apoftles and firft difciples; and by
means of their teftimony to perfons of countries and ages
yemote from thofe in which it occurred. In its reference
to the conviction of the apoftles and firft difciples, the jir/?
objeét of confideration comprehends the charaéters and
difpofitions of the perfons who were themfelves to be con-
vinced, and who were to be witnefles of the refurreCtion to
the world in general ; the /eeond includes the manner, i.e. the
method and order in which the feveral proofs were laid before
them; and the ¢hird is the matter of the evidence. The
knowledge of the character and difpofition of the apoftles
and difciples, for whofe conviction the proofs of the refur-
rection were primarily defigned, is neceflary to evince their
aptitude and their fufficiency for this purpofe, and will ferve
to fhew us, that the manner in which they were adduced,
and the matter, or faéts, of which they confifted, were fe-
le&ted with coufummate wifdom. The apoftles and firit
difciples were, for the moft part, perfons of low birth and
mean occupations, unaccuftomed to abftract reafoning and
deep inquiry, and ftrongly poffefled with the national pre-
judices of the Jewifh religion, as it was then taught by the
Scribes and Pharifees. Although it appears from many
paflages in the gofpel hiftory, that they were convinced by
the numerous miracles which Jefus of Nazareth performed,
and by the accomplifhment of many prophecies in the hif-
tory of his life, of his being the promifed and expeéted
Meffiah ; yet they were deluded by the notion prevalent
among their brethren, the Jews, that the Mefliah would be a
temporal prince, a redeemer and ruler of Ifrael, who fhould
never die. Our Saviour, in many of his difcourfes, laboured
to undeceive them ; but their prepofleflions and errors were
fo deeply rooted, that all his efforts for this purpofe proved
ineffe€tual. He had, indeed, moft circumttantially foretold
his own fufferings, death, and refurreétion : but it {ufficiently
appears, that they did not underftand thefe prediétions, until
fome time after their accomplifhment. As, in their opinion,
immortality and temporal dominion were the characteriftics
of the Meffiah, the fufferings and death of Jefus muft have
convinced them, before his refurre&tion, that he was not the
Meffiah, or that perfon in whom they had truited as the Re-
deemer and king of Ifrael. When he a€tually died according
to his predition, and his enemies feemed to have obtained a
complete triumph over him, their minds muft have been agi-
tated by prejudice, doubt, perplexity, defpair, and terror.
The evidence, therefore, that was adapted to recover them
from this ftate, muft, in the manner of its being prefented to
them, as well as in its own nature, be of a peculiar kind: other-
wife it could not have ferved the purpofe of converting them
from being incredulous and ready to defert their Matter, into
believers, teachers, and martyrs of the gofpel. The firft
alarm they received was from Mary Magdalene, who, early
in the morning, on the third day from the burial of our
Saviour, came running to inform Peter and John, that the
ftone was rolled from the mouth of the fepulchre, and that the
body of the Lord was removed. Thefe two apoftles haf-
tened to the fepulchre, and having entered it, found the fa&
that had been announced to them aétually verified. Thus
were their minds prepared for the extraordinary events
that afterwards occurred. The life of Jefus, they knew,
had been a life of miracles ; and his death had been attended
with prodigies and wonders ; and yet none of them, John
excepted, believed that he was rifen from the dead ; for as
yet (as that apoftle aflures us) they knew not the feriptures,
that he muft rife again from the dead; that is, they did not under-
ftand from the prophets, that the Meffiah was to rife again
from the dead ; being, on the contrary, perfuaded, that thefe
very prophets had foretold the Meffiah fhould zoz die, but
abide for ever. The next report they received was from
Joanna, and her companions, who acquainted them that
angels had appeared to them, and had told them that Jefus
was rifen, reminding them, at the fame time, that Chrift him-
felf had, not only from the fpirit of prophecy with which it
was known that he was endowed, but from the prophets
alfo, predicted his own fufferings and death, and rifing again
from the dead on the third day. But then they did not under-
ftand what was meant by his “ rifing from the dead.”? In
order to explain to them the meaning of the refurreétion,
they were probably acquainted, in the next place, by Mary
Magdalene, that fhe had feen, not angels only, but Chriit
himfelf. Neverthelefs fome doubts and difficulties ftill re-
mained. He had been feen only by Mary Magdalene. To
relieve them in this ftate of hefitation and perplexity, nothing
could be better calculated than the account given by the
other Mary and Salome, who had alfo been at the fepul-
chre, and had there feen an angel, who not only aflured
them that «* Chrift was rifen,’? but had ordered ‘them to
tell his difciples, «¢ that they fhould meet him in Galilee,’?
agreeably to what he himfelf had faid to them in his life-
time. The only fcruple that now remained in the minds of
the apoitles, arofe from their not having feen him themfelves ;
and till they did, they feemed refolved to fufpend their belief
of his being rifen from the dead, and treated all thofe vifions
of the women as fo many idle tales. They were left for fome
time to ruminate over the wonderful events that had rapidly
occurred, to examine the fcriptures, and to recolle& the
preditions and difcourfes of their Maifter, to which they
were referred both by the angels and himfelf. In order to
affift them in their inquiries, and lead them to the true fenfe
of the {criptures, the only rational means of conquering their
prejudice, Chrift himfelf appeared to two of his diiciples,
on their way to Emmaus, whom he found difcourfing and
reafoning as they went upon thofe very topics. The defign
of Chrift in his converfation with thefe difciples, and parti-
cularly in his expofition of the prophets, was to fhew, that,
by the proper exercife of their underftandings, they might,
from thofe very {criptures, whofe authority they allowed,
have been convinced that the Meffiah ** ought to have fuf-
fered,’ as they had feen him fuffer, “* and to rife from the
dead on the third day.’? That is, Chrift chofe rather to
convince them by reafon, than by /enfe; or, at leaft, to pre-
pare their minds, that their affent afterwards to the tefti-
mony of their fenfes, fhould be with the concurrence of their
reafon. Having duly prepared them for receiving the tefti-
mony of their fenfes, he difcovered himfelf to them by an
act of devotion, “ in breaking of bread ;’? a form of devo-
tion which he had inftituted in remembrance of his death.
Accordingly they were convinced, and ‘ returned that fame
hour to Jerufalem,’’ where they found the apoftles aflembled
together, and debating apparently upon the feveral reports
they had heard that day, and particularly upon what Peter
had told them, to whom, fome time on that day, Chrift had
appeared. The apoftles having now had every kind of evi-
dence laid before them that was requifite to convince them
of the reality of the refurrection of Chrift, and being alfo
enabled by the gift of that Spirit, which infpired the pro-
phets, to underitand the true meaning of thofe facred oracles
to
RESURRECTION.
to which their Matter conftantly referred them for the
marks and charaéters of the Meffiah, which 4e affirmed to
be found in himfelf ; they were left again to themfelves, that
they might confider and examine at leifure the feveral proofs
of the refurreétion, which they had heard and feen, and par-
ticularly thofe arifing from the accomplifhment of the pre-
ditions contained in the holy feriptures. Accordingly he
forebore vifiting them for eight days, after which he con-
defcended to fubmit himfelf to a farther examination, in
order to remove the unreafonable fcruples of St. Thomas,
one of the apoftles. After this there feems to have been
no {cruple left in the minds of any of the apoftles, to whom,
however, Chrift was {till pleafed to continue his vilits ;
« being feen of them,” as St. Luke teftifies (Aés, 1. 3.)
“‘ forty days after his paflion, and {peaking of the things
pertaining to the kingdom of God.”
It is obfervable, that all the appearances of Chrift al-
ready mentioned, feem to have been intended only for the
convidlion of his apoftles ; and thofe that follow, which were
probably much more numerous than the evangelical hiftory
records, rather for their confirmation and inflrudion in the
faith and doctrines of the gofpel. The facred writers have
been very particular in their accounts of the former, whilft
they have mentioned but very few of the latter; and the
reafon of their different proceeding is very obvious. The
apoitles are to be confidered both as cwifneffes of the miracles,
and the fufferings, the death, and the refurreétion of Jefus
Chrift, and as feachers and preachers of his doGtrine. In the
character of witre/es, a circumttantial account of the means
and opportunities they had of knowing certainly the feveral
fadts attefted by them, muft neceflarily give great force and
credit to their evidence : whereas in that of preachers, it is
fufficient if their auditors were fatisfied, in general, that
the doétrines taught by them were derived from the inftruc-
tions, and authorifed by the commiffion given them by their
Matter, “to teach all nations ;’? and of this, the various
gifts of the Holy Spirit, poured out, not upon the apoftles
only, but by them upon all believers, were full and unquef-
tionable proofs.
From a review of the method and order in which the fe-
veral proofs of the refurreCtion were laid before the apoities,
it is manifeit that Chrift required of them a reafonable and
well-grounded faith, and that he alfo purfued the moft proper
and effetual means for the attainment of that end. With
this view, inftead of bearing down their reafon, and dazzling
their underftanding by a full manifeftation of himfelf at
once, we fee him letting in the light upon them by little and
little, and preparing their minds by the gradual dawning of
truth, that they might be able to bear the full luitre of the
Sun of righteoufnefs rifing from the grave ; to confider and
examine, and know that it was he himfelf, and to affure the
world it was impoffible they could be deceived. By referring
them to the {criptures, and fubmitting himfelf to the fcru-
tiny and judgment of their fenfes, he not only waved all
authority, but required them in a {trong and particular
manner to exercife their reafon in examining the evidence
brought before them ; for which purpofe he alfo improved
their faculties by the infufion of his holy fpirit. Never,
fays Mr. Welt, was evidence more fairly offered to con-
fideration : never was inquiry put into amore rational me-
thod, as indeed there never were any fats that could better
abide the teft.
Thefe faéts, of which the matter of the evidence of the
refurre€tion confifted, may be comprifed under three heads,
viz. the appearances of the angels, the appearances of Chrift
to the women, and the appearances of Chrift to the difciples
and apoitles. Our limits will only allow us briefly to recite
them. Thofe of the fir? clafs, at the fepulchre on the
morning of the refurrection, are fuch as were obferved
by the Roman foldiers, who kept the fepulchre, by the other
Mary and Salome, by Mary Magdalene and by Joanna, and
her companions. Mr. Welt has fatisfa€torily proved, by a
train of reafoning which we have not room to purfue, that
thefe appearances of the angels were neither the effeéts of
illufion, the phantoms of a diftempered vifionary mind, nor
the operations of artifice and impofture. The /econd clafs
comprehends the appearances of Chrift, which were two ;
the firlt to Mary Magdalene; the fecond, to the other
Mary and Salome. Some perfons have very abfurdly inferred
from our Lord’s prohibition to Mary, expreffed in thefe
words, ‘* Touch me not, for I am not yet afcended to my
Father,’ that our Saviour was not clothed with a real or
material body : whereas the evident meaning of the words
is “detain me not, for I am not yet afcending to m
Father,’ and therefore they imply, that fhe fhould have
another opportunity, before his departure from the world, of
exprefling her regard and maintaining intercourfe with him.
The third clafs of appearances includes thofe of Chrift te
his difciples, for the 40 days after his paflion, which undoubt-
edly were numerous, though only few are recorded. An
objection has been founded on one of thefe appearances, in
recording which St. John fays, “* that Jefns came (the doors
being fhut) and ftood in the midit,” againit the reality of
the body of Chrift ; but it is needlefs to reply to fo ground.
lefs a fuggeftion, as that the body of Chrift paffed through
the folid door; when it is peflible that he might enter, unper-
ceived by them, through an open door.
The third time of our Saviour’s appearance to any number
of his difciples together after his refurrection was at the
fea of Tiberias, called alfo the fea of Galilee (John, xxi. 14.) 5
and {ubfequent to this was his appearance on a mountain in
Galilee, mentioned by St. Matthew. One reafon that has
been affigned for his fhewing himfelf in Galilee, after his refur-
rection, feems to have been, that, where he was perfonally
known to fo many people, having refided there above 30
years, he might have the greater number of competent wit-
neffes to his refurrection. It is probable that the greateft
number of his appearances for the 40 days after his paflion
were in Galilee, where he would have a favourable opportu-
nity of difcourfing to his difciples of “ things pertaining to
the kingdom of God,” (Aéts, i. 3.) ; and of preparing his
apottles efpecially for teitifying to the reality of his refur-
rection, and for executing the commiffion with which they
were entrufted. Here they would be more fecure, as well as
more retired, than at Jerufalem.
It might be further urged that the refurre@tion of Chrift
was a neceflary fulfilment of ancient prophecies pertaining te
the Meffiah, and alfo of our Lord’s own predictions : and
that it was a no lefs neceflary appendage to his office asa
teacher and faviour than his death. Without the refurreGtion,
the great fcheme of divine mercy for the benefit of mankind
would have been incomplete ; by that, it was perfected, and
the triumph over death added to that over fin; the Meffiah
thus accomplifhing all that the {criptures foretold of his
glory and power. This event authenticates and confirms
the promife of future exiftence, and is indeed the pledge
and earneft of immortality.
But it has been objeGed, that all the proofs of our Lord’s
refurrection which have been above adduced were not exhi-
bited to all the Jews. (Ads, x. 41.) That Chrift made choice
of a felect number of difciples, and particularly of twelve,
(who were called apoftles,) to be witnefles of the great a€tions
of his life, and efpecially of his refurreftion, and preachers
of his gofpel to all the world, is a well-known and indifput-
able
RESURRECTION.
able fa&. Henot only, on many occafions, both before and
after his crucifixion, difcourfed to them in particular of
things “pertaining to the kingdom of God,” and poured upon
them all the various gifts of the Holy Spirit, but gave them
every kind of evidence of his «being rifen”’ from the dead,
which the moft {crupulous and fceptical could imagine or re-
quire ; “fhewing himfelf alive to them by many infallible
proofs,’? {uch as eating and drinking with them, “ for
40 days after his paflion.”? And, indeed, it is highly ex-
pedient that thofe, upon whofe teftimony and credit the
truth of any faét is to be eftablifhed. fhould have the fulleft
and moft unexceptionable evidence of it, that can be had ;
becaufe their having had all poffible means of information
muft neceflarily add great weight and authority to their de-
pofitions. That their* perfect knowledge of the things
which they were to teftify was neceflary for thofe who were
ordained to be apoltles, is further evident from the words of
St. Peter, Adts, i. r5—26. It was the peculiar and diftin-
guifhing character of the apoftles to be witnefles of the
refurrection, and it was their office to teftify to the reality
of this fa&: but all the infallible proofs of our Lord’s re-
furreGtion were not vouchfafed by him to his difciples, merely
from a particular favour and regard to them, that. they
might believe and be faved; but with a further view, that
others alfo, by their tettimony, founded on the moft com-
plete and exa& information, might likewife believe and
be faved. If Chrift had intended nothing more than to
induce his difciples to believe his refurrection, he might have
left them to the #e/fimony of the Roman foldiers ; to that of
the women; to the writings of Mofes and the prophets 3 to
his own predidiions ; to the flate of the fepulchre, and that
wonderful circumftance of his body’s being xo where to be
found; and they would have been without excufe, if they
had {till continued unbelieving. But though the apoftles
had, upon #his evidence, believed their mailer to be rifen
from the dead; yet, without thofe other infallible proofs
mentioned by St. Luke, they would certainly have not been
fo well qualified for being witnefles of the refurreétion to all
the world: the heathens would not have admitted the se/fi-
mony of Mofes and the prophets, of whofe writings they
knew nothing, and of whofe divine authority they had no
proof. And as to the depofitions of the women ; belides
their being ftrangers to their characters, they might, from
Chrift’s appearing to them, with fome colour have demanded,
why he did not appear likewife to thofe whom he commif-
fioned to preach his gofpel, and to be witneffes of his refur-
reGtion. But when, on the contrary, the apoftles could tell
them, that they them/elves had /een Chrift, had handled him,
eat and drank with him, and conver/ed with him for forty days
after that he qwas rifen from the dead, they could not but
allow them to have had the fulle/? evidence of the refurrection,
fuppofing what they told them to be true; and of this the
purity of their doétrines, the holinefs of their lives, their
courage and coniftancy in defying and undergoing all kinds
of hardfhips, dangers, pain, and death, in advancing a
caufe, which every worldly intereft obliged them to defert,
joined to the atteftation of the Holy Spirit, * working with
them, and confirming the word with figns following,’? were
fuch affurances as no other man could give of his veracity.
It has been faid, however, that our Lord did not fhew him-
felf, after he was rifen, to the Jews, to the chief priefts and
elders, to the Scribes and Pharifees, and miftakenly inter-
preting a paflage in Matt. xii. 39, 40, Chrilt has been charged
with a violation of his promife to this purpofe. Of his
rifing again from the grave on the third day, the Jews had
the teftimony of the prophets, of the prediétions of Chrift
himfelf, the evidence of the Roman foldiers, of his body’s
being no where to be found, of the women and difciples,
and apoftles, to whom he had appeared; and who, before
the Sanhedrim, bore witnefs to his refurreétion, and having
juft before wrought a miracle upon a lame man (A@s, iv.
to.) declared, that they had done it in the name of « Jefus
of Nazareth, whom,” fay they, “ye crucified, whom
God raifed from the dead.”? This furely was evidence fuf-
ficient to convince any reafonable and unprejudiced perfon,
and, confequently, to acquit our Lord of his promife o£
giving that “evil generation’’ fatisfattory proofs of his
being rifen from the dead. To the evidence vouchfafed by
Chrift, neither out of favour to thofe “« who had forfaken all
and followed him ;’? nor to thofe whom he had chofen to be
‘« witnefles of him to all the world,’ they certainly could
have no juft pretenfions ; who, inftead of being his difciples,
had rejected his doétrine, and put him to death as an impoftor
and blafphemer ; and inftead of fhewing any dif{pofition to
embrace and propagate his gofpel, oppofed it with all their
power, and, by threats and punifhments, forbade his apottles
to preach any morein hisname. It deferves confideration in
this place, that the apoftles were not chofen merely to be wit-
nefles of the fact of our Lord’s refurrection, but they were ap-
pointed to their office, and commiffioned to publifh it to the
world, becaufe, having often feen Chrift after his refurreétion,
they were duly qualified for the fervice affigned them, and
were able to teitify the truth of it from their own knowledge.
Although our Saviour did not think proper to appear
to the people at large; that is, to the multitude of the
Jews, who were the declared enemies of his perfon and re=
ligion, and particularly to the chief priefts and magiftrates,
who had been the inftruments of his crucifixion ; he /hewed™
himfelf openly, without referve and difguife, to thofe who
had been accuftomed to affociate with him; and to na
fewer than to five hundred fuch perfons at one time; and
of the number of thefe were the twelve apoitles, who were
{pecially appointed to preach his doétrine, and to declare
the faét of his refurreGtion, as a diftinguifhing evidence
of its truth and importance. Their office commenced dur-
ing the period of his public miniftry ; and one neceflary
qualification for the future exercife of it was their being
able to attelt his refurre€tion. Others might have borne
a fimilar teftimony. They were prepared and difpofed to
do it. But the apoftles were particularly felected and
ordained for this purpofe.
It is a very natural inquiry, why the Jews in general, and
the priefts and rulers in particular, fhould not have had aa
opportunity of feeing Chrift after his refurre€tion, and con-
verfing with him, and afcertaining the reality of the fact ?
Ass this was the evidence of his divine miffion and character,
to which he had often appealed ; fhould not thofe who per-
fitted in their incredulity, notwithftanding the proofs of
fupernatural powers, which he had exhibited in the courfe
of his life and miniftry, have enjoyed the benefit of it ?
And if it had been fufficient to overcome their obitinate
prejudices, would not their teftimony have contributed,
more effeétually than any other concurring circumftance,
to the conviction of mankind in general, and to the credit
and influence of Chriftianity? This kind of reafoning, we
allow, feems, on a flight and fuperficial confideration of it,
to be very plaufible ; and it has been ftrongly urged and
very pertinacioufly maintained by {ceptics and infidels.
Let us examine the principles upon which it is founded ;
and we fhall perceive that it 1s more plaufible than juit, and
that it will not warrant the conclufion that has been drawn
from it. It fuppofes, that the Jewifh priefts and magif-
trates had a right to expeét perfonal evidence of our Sa.
viour’s refurrection ;. that fome ufeful and important end
would
RESURRECTION.
would have been anfwered by its being afforded them ; and
that no injury to the charaéter and religion of Chrift could
have refulted from their being thus indulged and gratified.
If neither of thefe fuppofitions can be reafonably admitted ;
if, upon farther inveftigation, they fhould appear to be fal-
lacious and unfounded; it cannot be alleged againft the
-evidence of our Saviour’s refurreétion, that it was defective
and partial, becaufe it was not communicated to the Jewith
priefts and rulers.
The plea of right cannot be urged in their favour by any,
who duly confider, what their difpofition and condué had
been during our Saviour’s life and miniltry. Men who
had difcovered no inclination to examine the nature of his
doGtrine and the defign of his miffion; who had flighted
and refifted the means of information and conviction, which
his preaching and miracles had afforded them; and who
had purfued him with malignity and violence to the crofs
and grave ;—{uch men could furely have no juit claims on
his farther attention: they could have no reafon to expect,
that he would condefcend to ufe any new efforts for re-
moving their prejudices, when every paft endeavour had not
only proved fruitlefs, but had ferved to exafperate their
refentment, and to provoke a perfecution which terminated
in his death. Their oppofition to him had been fuch both
in its nature and degree, as to render them altogether un-
worthy of any forbearance and indulgence. Much lefs dif-
cernment than he pofleffed would have been fufficient for
perceiving, that no evidence was likely to avail with perfons
of their temper and charaéter. They had juitly forfeited
every token of his regard. "They had merited the moft
fignal punifhment. It would have been not only a vain,
but an impious and daring prefumption in them to expeét
any other evidence of his reftoration to life befides that,
which they might derive from the teftimony of perfons
lefs guilty and more deferving than themfelves. Befides,
our Saviour’s particular commiffion to the Jews expired
with his death; and he had previoufly informed them that
they fhould not fee him till they were better difpofed to
receive him. Every perfonal claim muft, in this cafe, be
fet afide.
The plea of right being difmifled as unfounded, the next
queltion that occurs is, whether any important and valuable
purpofe to themfelves or others, would have been anfwered
by our Saviour’s appearance to them, after his refurrection ?
Have we any reafon to imagine, that they would have been
convinced of the truth of his miffion and doétrine by fuch
an appearance? The fame prejudices and interefts that
prevented the effeé&t of the miracles which he had performed,
and of which they had been witnefles, would have refiited
the conviétion, which his refurre¢tion tended to produce.
The fame antipathy to the doétrine he taught and the re-
ligion he meant to eftablifh, would have prevailed againit
the evidence of this fat; and it is probable, that they
would have only aggravated their guilt and condemnation
by obftinately perfifting in their unbelief.
But though they were convinced of the reality of
our Saviour’s refurreétion, would they avow their con-
vidtion? Would they publicly teftify the truth ef that
fa&? By an undifguifed and open declaration of it,
would they lead others to believe and acknowledge it ?
This, indeed, would have been a very fignal triumph of
truth over prejudice and malice. But it would have been
atriumph over'their own prejudice and malice, of fo ex-
traordinary a kind, that it was very unlikely to happen.
Pride and interelt would have been very reluétant in ac-
knowledging that they had perfecuted and murdered a
divine Meffenger; in renouncing the worldly rank and
Vou, XXX.
influence which they poffeffed; and in fubmitting to
be taught and governed by the authority of Jefus of
Nazareth, whom they had defpifed, calumniated, and cru-
cified. If they were conftrained to affent to the truth of
our Saviour’s refurrection, it was not very probable that
they would confefs to the world, that he, whom they had
perfecuted during his life, and doomed to a premature and
ignominious death, was the promifed Meffiah and Saviour.
It was not very probable, that in fo doing they would
publifh their own difgrace, and that they would proclaim
to the world, that they were perfecutors and murderers.
It would have required a degree of virtuous fortitude, of
which we difcover no traces in the Jewifh Sanhedrim,
to bear public teftimony to the refurrection of a perfon
whom they had fo lately condemned and crucified as a
malefaGtor. Without fuch a teftimony, of what avail
would have been the conviction of their own minds to the
general credit of the Chriftian caufe? Afraid or afhamed
of avowing it, and thus of forfeiting the reputation and in-
fluence annexed to their charater and office, and of incur-
ring popular cenfure and reproach; no benefit could have
accrued from it either to their contemporaries or to future
generations. They were, therefore, very unfit to be wit-
nefles of a faét, which it was their intereft to conceal, and
which they were not likely to acknowledge, if they had
believed it to be true.
Befides, their teftimony, if truth had extorted it from
them, and if they had poffeffed honefty and refolution fuf-
ficient to avow it, would have been liable to fufpicion. It
was the teftimony of men whofe minds mutt have been op-
preffed and terrified by a confcioufnefs of their guilt ; and
it might have been faid, that they were haunted by ghofts
and {pectres, and that their imagination converted a phantom
into the real perfon of him whom they had expofed to pub-
lic derifion, and fentenced to an ignominious death. Their
teftimony would have gained little credit with men of their
own rank and ftation, and of principles and characters
fimilar to their own. It would have died with themfelves ;
and produced no effect beyond the circle of their own ac-
quaintance and the age in which they lived.
It ought to be confidered farther, that the charafter and
religion of Chriit might have been very materially injured
by his appearance to the Jewith priefts and rulers, after his
refurreGtion. They had no right to expect this kind of
evidence. No good purpofe could be anfwered by it. We
now obferve, that it might have been very detrimental in
its effets. Ifthey had remained unconvinced, which might
moft probably have been the cafe, the fact would have
been queftioned. The multitude would have become ob-
ftinate and irreclaimable in their incredulity; and they
would have pleaded the authority of their fuperiors in
ftation and oti: as an apology for neglecting inquiry and
rejecting the means of conviétion. If they had been con-
vinced, without honefty and refolution to declare the truth,
the fa& would ftill have been confidered as doubtful, or at
leaft of no great importance. But if with their conviétion
they connected the public avowal of its truth, our Saviour
would have incurred the charge of an impottor, and his
religion of fraud. Loud would have been the clamour of
a combination between him and the rulers of the flate.
Sufpicion would have attached itfelf to the evidence of men,
who had the care of his fepulchre, who appointed the guard,
and fealed the ftone that fecured it, and who could eafily
have propagated a report, which would have gained credit
with the fervile multitude. Chriftianity would have been
reprefented, by perfons who are prone to afcribe-all religion
to ftate policy, as a contrivance of the priefts and magif-
trates
RESURRECTION.
rates of Judea, to anfwer fome purpofe of worldly emolu-
ment or ambition. Its progrefs and prevalence would have
been attributed to the fecular influence of its advocates ;
and it would have been deprived of that moft diftinguifh-
ing and fatisfaétory evidence which it now poffeffes, that it
derived its origin from God, and owed its fuccefs to the
fignal interpofition of divine power.
Allowing that the apoltles and firft difciples had furfi-
cient evidence of our Lord’s refurreétion, we are next to
inquire, in the difcuffion of this interefting fubject, how the
faét may be afcertained to the fatisfaction of thofe who live
in ages and nations far remote from thofe in which it oc-
curred. Such perfons muft recur for conviction, firft and
principally to the teftimony of the original witnefles, chofen
to announce the faét to the world, tranfmitted from one
country and» one age to another in writings, either penned
by themfelves, or authorized by their infpeCtion and appro-
bation. Thefe writings. are contained in the Gofpels, the
Ads, the Epijiles, and the Revelation ; and for proots of their
authenticity and credibility, we refer to thefe titles, and alfo
to Bistr, Canon, and Trstament ; and for an account
of their authors; to Matruew, Marx, Luke, Joun,
Paut, Peter, &c. How far we may fafely, and without
danger of miftake, rely on the teftimony of the witnefles of
our Saviour’s refurrection, thus tranfmitted to us, will ap-
pear, if we confider, that they were men, not only capable
of knowing the truth, and duly informed concerning it,
but, on account of their general charaéter, unlikely to re-
port and propagate a falfehood. They had been raifed
from private and obfcure {tations to the office they fultained.
They were deftitute of thofe natural talents and external
advantages which fuggeft and favour a plan of impofture
and deceit. Arrtlefs and undefigning, and unconnected with
perfons of extended views and worldly influence, they were
unfit inftruments for concerting and executing a deliberate
and complicated {cheme of delufion.
had embraced, and the profeflion they had aflumed, fince
their converfion to Chriftianity, were altogether incompa-
tible with a combination to promote the prevalence of a
known falfehood. Integrity and a regard to truth, under
the awe of the God of truth and juftice, and in the profpeét
of righteous judgment and retribution, were the avowed
principles of their conduét ;. and they muft have been im-
pottors, chargeable with the moft atrocious guilt and the
moft confummate folly, if they had propofed, by the
wickednefs of deceit, to promote the caufe of truth and
virtue. But the falfehood of aflerting, that Chrift was
rifen, was fuch as would never have engaged their concur-
rence and fupport. It was an event of which they had no
expeGtation. Their prejudices and falfe hopes had led
them to furrender their caufe, as altogether defeated, when
their Matter fubmitted to death. They had either forgotten
or mifunderftood his predi€tions; and when fome of them
firft received the report of his refurreétion, they were de-
parting from Jerufalem with dejected and defpairing fpirits ;
and they needed very peculiar evidence of the fact, before
they were difpofed to admit the reality of it. 1f Chrift
had not actually rifen from the dead, thefe men would have
returned to their former attachments and occupations. All
their prepoffeflions in favour of the perpetuity of the law
of Mofes would -have revived. Difappointed in their erro-
neous expectations, they weuld have been ‘the lefs anclined
to propagate an impotlure.
More efpecially when we confider, that all their interetts,
as well as their prejudices, militated againft their public
declaration of a faG, which had never exifted. Can we
fuppofe, that they would have incurred the refentment of
i
The principles they-
the whole body of the Jews; and that they would have
hazarded their lives in the fupport of a caufe, the founder
of which had deceived and betrayed them? On the con-
trary, we difcern in the temper and conduét of the witnefles
of our Lord’s refurre€tion undeniable evidence of their con-
viction of its truth, and of their fincerity in avowing and
publifhing it. Nothing lefs than the evidence of truth can
account for the change which they manifefted both in their
fentiments and conduét. Men, who alittle while before
were timid and defpairing, become bold and fearlefs; de-
clare the fact on the feene, where they report it to have
happened, and in the prefence of thofe, who, after having
fucceeded in procuring the crucifixion of Chrift, employed
all the means in their power for preventing any delufion
with regard to his refurreCtion ; and who expofe themfelves
to perfecution and death in aflerting and proclaiming it.
With new views, with refpe€t to the nature and ‘extent of
the Chriftian difpenfation; with a knowledge and zeal,
with a flteadinefs and conftancy, which indicate a confciouf-
nefs of truth and an extraordinary illumination; they
publith the faé&t, and propagate the doétrines and duties
which it was defigned to eftablifh and enforce.
Befides, “the apoftles wrought miracles in confirmation
of the truth of their teltimony.”” The God of truth con-
curred with them, and attefted their credibility ; and thus
obviated every doubt and difficulty, which’ prejudice and
malignity might have fuggefted. Every miracle they per-
formed was a new atteftation to the faét which they re-
ported, and the extraordinary powers they poflefled, and
which they derived from the Sovereign of nature, qualified
them for being proper witnefles of it to the world. He,
who appointed them to this office, aided them in the execu-
tion of it. Their fuccefs, infufficient as they were of them-
{elves to combat the prejudices and powers of the world,
afforded an increafing and permanent evidence of the faét,
on which their commiffion was founded. To us their tef-
timony has defcended with every fanétion and with every
circumftance of credibility, that can juftify our affent, and
our attachment to the doétrine they taught, and to the
practice of the duties they inculcated.
In the prevalence and duration of Chriftianity, and in the
profpe& of its continued fubfiltence and increafing fpread
and triumph, we difcern traces of its divine original.: we
fee exifting proof of the refurreGtion of its founder; and
we perceive reafons and motives for holding faft the pro-
feffion of our faith in it without wavering. Our religion is
founded on evidence, that cannot be reafonably queftioned :
the objeCtions to which it is liable, furnifh, on due exami-
nation, arguments in its favour. . It needs only an impartial
{crutiny and trial, in order to approve itfelf the wifdom and
the power of God.
From the exiftence of the Chriftian religion, which we
may confider as a diftin& argument in proof of our Saviour’s
refurrection, may be deduced the fame kind of evidence of
this faét, as is exhibited to us of the deluge by the many
petrifaétions of fhells and bones of fithes, and other animals of
diftant regions, &c. found often in the bottoms of the deepeft
mines, and the bowels cf the higheft mountains ; for, as it is
impoffible-to account for thofe various petrifactions being
lodged in fo many parts of the earth, fome many leagues
diftant from the fea, others very much above the level of it,
without admitting fuch a fubverfion and confufion of this
globe, as could not have been eccafioned by a lefs violent
caufe than the “ breaking up of the fountains of the great
deep, and the waters flowing above the tops of the higheft
hills ;?? fo will it be extremely difficult to account for the
propagation and prefent exiftence of Chriftianity in fo many
regions
RES
regions of the world, without fuppofing that “ Chrift rofe
from the dead,’? afcended into heaven, and enabled his dif-
ciples, by the miraculous gifts of his holy f{pirit, to furmount
fuch obitacles, as no mere human abilities could poffibly
overcome. See Curistian Religion. ‘ Obfervations on
the Hiltory and Evidences of the Refurrection of Jefus
’ Chrift,” by Gilbert Weft, efg. <<‘ Obfervations on the
Converfion of St. Paul,’’ by the right hon. George lord
Lyttelton. ‘¢ The Trial’ of the Witnefles of the Refur-
reétion of Jefus.”? Rees’s Sermons, vol. i. Serm. 4.
The refurretion of Chrift is a moft important faé, not
only as it certifies his divine miffion, the chara¢ter he aflumed,
and the truth of the doétrine he taught, but as it affures us
of the reality of a future ftate of righteous retribution. This
event exhibits a triumph over death, which proves not
merely the poflibility, but the certainty, of a general refur-
rection of mankind.
reltoration-to life, which Jefus Chrift, as’a divine teacher,
both predicted and promifed. Many curious queftions have
been propofed on the mode of the future exiftence of man-
kind; as well as on the place of abode of the good and
wicked (fee Heaven and Heir); and alfo on the time
when this interefting event fhall happen. (See Steep of the
Soul.) With regard to the mode of our future fae it is
generally allowed, both by thofe who believe and thofe who
deny the effential diftinGtion between matter and fpirit, that
we fhall exift hereafter in a corporeal form; but the differ-
ence between our prefent bodies and thofe in which we fhall
exift after the general refurrection is a fubje@, which, how-
ever it may have engaged the attention and employed the
pens of metaphyficians and polemical theologians, is more
curious than ufeful ; and provided that we fhall exift here-
after, we need not be anxious about the decifion of this
queition. It is important merely as it relates to the dotrine
of a future exiftence in general, the truth of which, what-
ever may be the conjectures of the learned, it does not in-
validate.
Many Chriftians believe the refurreétion of the fame
identical body, the very fame flefh and bones, at the day of
judgment. The two principal philofophical objeétions
againft it are thefe :
1. That the fame piece of matter, or fub{tance, may hap-
pen to bea part of two or more bodies. Thus a fifh feeding
on aman, and another man afterwards feeding on the fifh,
part of the body of the firft man becomes firft incorporated
with the fifh, and afterwards in the fifh, with the lait man.
Again, inftances have been known of one man’s feeding im-
‘mediately on another ; and, among the cannibals of the Weft
Indies, the praétice has been frequent.
Now, where the fubitance of one is thus converted into
the fubitance of another, each cannot rife with his~whole
body ; and to which fhall the common part be allotted ?
To this objeCtion fome anfwer, that, as all matter is not
fit or difpofed to be aflimilated to the body, and incorpo-
rated with it, human flefh may very probably be of this
kind; and, therefore, what is thus eatén, may be again ex-
creted, and carried off. But Mr. Leibnitz’s anfwer feems
the more folid. All that is effential to the body, he urges,
is the original ftamen which exifted in the femen of the fa-
ther; nay, and.on the footing of the modern theory of ge-
neration, which exifted in the femen of the firlt man. This
we may conceive as the mo!t minute {peck or point imagin-
able ; and therefore, not to be feparated, or torn afunder,
and any part of it united with the ftamen of any other man.
All this bulk we fee in the body, is only an accretion to
this original ftamen ; an addition of foreign matter, of new
It is the pledge and earneft of that -
RET
juices, to the primary, folid ftamen: there is, therefore, no
reciprocation of the proper matter of the human beady.
The fecond obje€tion is this: the human body, we know,
by the late difcoveries in the animal economy, is continually
changing ; a man has not entirely the fame body to-day as
he had yelterday ; and it is even computed, that in lefs than
feven years’ time, his whole body undergoes a change, and
not a particle of the fame body remains. Which of thofe
many bodies, then, which the fame perfon has in the courfe
of his life, is it that fhall rife? or does all the matter that
has ever belonged to him rife again? or does only fome par-
ticular fyftem thereof? The body, «. gr. he had at twenty,
at thirty, or at fixty years old? If only this or that body
arife, how fhall it be rewarded or punifhed for what was
done in the other? with what juftice does one perfon fuffer,
‘&c. for another? ’
To this it may be anfwered on Mr. Locke’s principles,
that perfonal identity, or the famenefs of a rational being,
confiits in felf-confcioufnefs; in the power of confidering
itfelf the fame thing in different times and places. By this
every one is to himfelf what he calls //f; without confider-
ing whether that felf be continued in the fame or divers fub-
ftances. So far reaches the identity of that perfon. It is
the fame felf now it was then; and it was by the fame felf
which now refleéts on an aétion, that a€tion was per-
formed.
Now, it is this perfonal identity that is the objeé of re-
wards and punifhments, which we have obferved may exift
in different fucceflions of matter; fo that to render the re-
wards and punifhments juit and permanent, nothing needs
but that we rife again with fuch a body as that we retain
the confcioufnefs of our pat aGions.
RESUSCITATION. See Resurrection, and Re-
VIVIFICATION.
Resuscitation of Plants, in Chemifiry, the art of repro-
ducing a plant from its afhes. See PALINGENESIA.
Many have pretended to this art, and have fhewn refufci-
tated plants in vials; but all thefe feem only particular in-
{tances of artificial chemical vegetations, of which many
others may be given. The external appearances of thefe
refemble plants, and the ignorant may eafily take them for
fuch ; but when clofely confidered, there is a great differ-
ence to be found. See rtificial VEGETATION.
RETAIL, in Commerce, &c. the buying of goods in
the great, or by wholefale, and felling them out again in
{mall parcels. —‘ Qui rem integram ementes, per minutiores
eam partes diftrahebant.”’
RETAIN, 7», {poken of mares, fignifies to hold, i.e. to
conceive after covering.
RETAINER, in Law, a fervant not menial or do-
mettic, that is, not continually dwelling in the houfe of his
lord and mafter, but only wearing his livery, and attending
on fpecial occafions.
This livery was anciently given by a great man, and fre-
quently for the maintenance of quarrels; whence it was
jultly prohibited by feveral fatutes; as under Richard II.
on pain of imprifonment, and grievous forfeiture to the
kine.
ie was further prohibited by other ftatutes of the fuc-
ceeding kings, by which the delinquents were. fubje& to
make ranfom at the king’s pleafure; and knights and
efquires hereof duly attainted were to lofe their faid liveries,
and forfeit their fees for ever.
Edward IV. added a f{pecial penalty of five pounds per
month on every man that gave fuch livery, and as much
on every perfon fo retained, either by writing, word, or
L 2 oath.
RET
oath. But moft of thefe {tatutes are repealed by a ftatute
3 Car. I. 4
Retainer of Debts, a remedy which the law gives to an
executor or adminiftrator for the debt, by allowing him to
retain fo much as will pay himfelf, before any other creditors
whofe debts are of equal degree. (See Dent.) The debts
of co-executors fhall be difcharged in proportion. An exe-
euter of his own wrong fhall not, in any cafe, be permitted
to retain.
RETAINING-Fex, is the firft fee given in any caufe to
a ferjeant or counfellor at law, by which to make him fure,
that he fhali not be on the contrary fide.
RETALIATION, Reraziario, the a& of returning
Vike for like. See Taxronis Lex.
When a nation cannot obtain juftice, either for a lofs or
an injury, it has a right to do itfelf juftice. But before it
declares war, there are various methods practifed among na-
tions for obtaining fatisfaion. Among thefe is that called
the law of retaliation, according to which we make another
fuffer exa€tly fo much evil as he has done. Many have ex-
tolled this law, as being derived from the moft ftrict juttice ;
and can we be furprifed at their having propofed it to
princes, when they have even dared to give it for a rule to
the Deity himfelf! The ancients called it the law of Rha-
damanthus. Although a nation may punifh another which
has done it an injury, if it refufes to give juft fatisfaction ;
yet it has not a right to extend the penalty beyond what is
required by its own fafety. Retaliations, unjuft between
private perfons, would be much more fo between nations,
becaufe here the punifhment would, with difficulty, fall on
thofe who have done the injury. What right would you
have to cut off the nofe and ears of the ambaflador of a bar-
barian, who had treated yours in the fame manner? As to
thofe reprifals in time of war, which partake of the nature
of retaliation, they are juftified on other principles. (See
Reprisats.) Allthat is true in this idea of retaliation is,
that every thing be equal; the pain ought to bear fome pro-
portion to the evil required to be punifhed; the end and
even the foundation of punifhment requiring thus much,
RETARDATION, Rerarpatio, in Phyfics, the a&
of retarding ; that is, of delaying the motion or progrefs of
a body, or of diminifhing its velocity.
The retardation of moving bodies arifes from two great
caufes, the refiflance of the medium, and the force of gravity.
The Retarvation from the Refifiance is frequently con-
founded with the refiftance itfelf; becaufe, with refpe& to
the fame moving body, they are in the fame proportion. See
RESISTANCE.
With refpe& to different bodies, however, the fame re-
fiftance often generates different retardations. For if bodies
of equal bulk, but different denfities, be moved through the
fame fluid with equal velocity, the fluid will a& equally on
each; fo that they will have equal refiftances, but different
retardations ; and the retardations will be to each other as
the velocities which might be generated by the fame forces
in the bodies propofed; that is, they are inverfely as the
quantities of matter in the bodies, or inverfely as the den-
fities.
Suppofe, then, bedies of equal denfity, but of unequal
bulk, to move equally faft through the fame fluid, their re-
fiftance increafes according to their fuperficies; that is, as
the {quares of their diameters. But the quantities of mat-
ter are increafed in proportion to the cubes ef the diameters :
the refiftances are the quautities of motion ; the retardations
are the celerities arifing from them ; and dividing the quan-
tities of motion by the quantities of matter, you will have
12
RE TF
the celerities ; therefore the retardations are direétly as the
{quares of the diameters, and inverfely as the cubes of the
diameters ; that is, inverfely as the diameters themfelves.
If the bodies be equal, move equally {wift, and are of the
fame denfity, but move through different fluids, their re-
tardatious are as the denfities of thofe fluids.
And when bodies equally denfe, and of equal bulk, are
carried through the fame fluid with different velocities, the
retardations are as the fquares of the velocities.
The RETARDATION from Gravity is peculiar to bodies
projected upwards. A body thrown upwards is retarded
after the fame manner as a falling body is accelerated ; only,
in the one cafe, the force of gravity confpires with the mo-
tion acquired ; and in the other, it a¢ts contrary to it.
As the force ef gravity is uniform, the retardation from
that caufe will be equal in equal times.
Hence, as it is the fame force which generates motion in
the falling, and diminifhes it in the rifing body, a body rifes
till it has loft all its motion ; which it does in the fame time
in which a body falling would have acquired a velocity equal
to that with which the body was thrown up.
Thus, alfo, a body thrown up will rife to the fame height,
from which falling, it would acquire the velocity with which
itis thrown up; therefore the heights, which bodies thrown
up with different velocities can rife to, are to each other as
the {quares of the velocities.
Hence, the retardations of motions may be compared to-
gether; for they are, firit, as the {quares of the velocities ;
fecondly, as the denfities of the fluids through which the
bodies are moved; thirdly, inverfely, as the diameters of
thofe bodies ; laftly, inverfely, as the denfities of the bodies
themfelves.
The numbers in the ratio compounded of thofe ratios,
exprefs the proportion of the retardations ; multiplying the
{quare of the velocity by the denfity of the fluid, and di-
viding the produét by the product of the diameter of the
body multiplied into its denfity ; and working thus for fe-
veral motions, the quotients of the divifions will have the
fame compound ratio to one another.
RETARDATION of Motion, Laws of. 1. If the motion
of a body be uniformly retarded, that is, if its celerity be
diminifhed equally in equal times, the {pace it pafles over is
one half of that it would pafs over in the fame time by an
uniferm motion.
2. The {paces defcribed in equal times by an uniformly
retarded motion, decreafe according to the uneven num-
bers 9, 75 55 3, &c. See AccELERATION and Motion.
RETCH, or Rercues, a name given by our farmers
to an iron, or a pair of irons, which inthe common plough
ferve to faften the fheet to the beam. ‘he retches are faf-
tened to the fheet with nails, and to the beam with pins.
RETCHANL, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Pileov; 16 miles S. of Tropetz.
RETCHING, or Reacutne, the effort or endeavour
to vomit. See Nausea.
RETCHNA, in Geography, a circar or province of
Hindoottan, fituated between the rivers Rauvee and Chu-
naub ; in which ave the cities of Lahore, Ameenadab, Seal-
cot, and feveral other towns.
RETE Matpienu, in dnatomy, the network com-
pofing the cellular ftru€ure of the lungs.
Rete Mirabile, the plexus of veffels formed by the in-
ternal carotid arteries of animals, before they branch out to
the brain. See ManMALIA.
Rere Mucofum, the foft delicate layer of the integu-
ments interpofed between the cuticle and the true fkin, in
which
RET
which the colour of the fkin refides. This part is much
thicker in the dark coloured than in the light races of man,
and is black in the Negro. See INrEGUMENTsS.
Rere Teflis, a part of the excretory apparatus of the
tefticle. See the defcription of that gland in the article
GENERATION.
Rete Peny, in Ancient Records, a cuftomary due of one
penny for every perfon te the parifh priett.
RETEH, or Arrarama, in Geography, a diftri& of
Africa, in the country of Sugulmeffa,
RETEINER, or Retainer. See RETAINER.
RETENEGI, in the Materia Medica, a name ufed by
Avicenna, and others, to exprefs the common refin of the
pine, or fir-tree, and fometimes common black pitch. The
lexicographers have given us forax as the explanation of re-
tenegi, but this is not warranted by any paflage in the
authors who ufe the word. It is certain, indeed, that the
generality of authors have confounded the feveral forts of
refin and pitch-making trees together, and among them
the pine, fir, cedar, and turpentine trees, are called by the
fame name, but the ftorax-tree is never included among the
number. Thefe were only confounded together, becaufe
of the fimilitude of the things they produced ; but the ftorax
was too different from all thefe, and too precious a gum not
to be diftinguifhed.
RETENTA, a word ufed by the medical writers to ex-
prefs things retained in the body, or which are not to be re-
tained in a ftate of good health.
RETENTIO, Rerinenria, in our law-books, is fome-
times ufed to fignify retinue.
RETENTION, Rervenrio, a faculty of the human
mind, by which, in order te a farther progrefs in know-
ledge, it keeps or retains thofe fimple ideas, which it before
received by fenfation or refle&tion.
This is done two ways. Firft, by keeping the idea which
is brought into the mind for fome time actually in view.
This is called contemplation.
Secondly, by reviving thofe ideas in our minds, which
have difappeared, and have been, as it were, laid out of
fight. This is memory, which is, as it were, the repofitory
of our ideas.
Retention is alfo ufed, in Medicine, &c. for the ftate
of contraétion in the folids, or vafcular parts of the body,
which makes them hold faft their proper contents.
In this fenfe, retention flands eppofed to evacuation and
excretion.
Retention and excretion make two of the non-naturals.
Rerention is alfo frequently confidered as a diforder,
and defined the act of retaining the excrements, humours,
&c. fo as they cannot be voided out of the body. See
INFANT. ;
It is the retention of peocant ‘humours which caufes fuch
a difeafe,
RETENTION of Urine. See Unine, Retention of:
RETFORD, East, m Geography, a market and bo-
rough-town in North Clay divifion of the wapentake of
Bafletlaw, county of Nottingham, England, is fituated on
the eaftern bank of the river Idle, at the diftance of 29 miles
N.N.E. from Nottingham, and 145 miles N. by W. from
London. Retford confifts of two difltin& parts, or dif-
tricts, refpectively named, from their pofition to the river,
Eait and Welt Retford; the former of which is {trictly the
market-town, and the latter a feparate parifh, or fuburb.
Edward II. granted to the burgetles the right of choofing
bailiffs for the government of the town; and Henry III.
granted them a ae By a charter from Henry VI., the
bailiff was empowered to hold a court of record, and to
RET
execute the office of efcheator and clerk of the market,
Thefe immunities have fince been confirmed, and others
added by James I. ; under whofe charter, Retford is now
governed by two bailiffs, a fteward, twelve aldermen, two
chamberlains, a town-clerk, and two ferjeants at mace.
The bailiffs and fteward for the time being are juftices of
the peace, and of the quorum, within the borough. Ret-
ford fends two members to the national fenate, and thefe
are chofen by about 150 voters, compofed of the bailiffs,
aldermen, and freemen. Like moft other fmall boroughs,
it has occafionally been the fcene of warm election contetts.
This place firft exercifed the right of reprefentation in the
early part of the reign of Edward II. ; but it feems to have
allowed this privilege to remain dormant from the ninth year
of that king till the thirteenth year of queen Elizabeth,
when the fame was refumed, and has continued to be regu-
larly exercifed ever fince. Formerly the county affizes were
held here ; but of late years all criminal trials have taken
place at Nottingham, the county town.
Retford market-day is Saturday, weekly ; and there are,
befides, two annual fairs for horfes and black cattle, held
on the 23d of March and the 2d of OGober. At the
commencement of the laft century, a confiderable malting
bufinefs was carried on here; but Workfop has occafioned
its decline. At prefent, Retford is fupported principally by
its hat and fail-cloth manufa@ories. Major Cartwright
fome years ago eftablifhed a worfted mill in the immediate
vicinity ; but the projet, having proved unfuccefsful, has
been abandoned. An agricultural fociety was eftablifhed
here in 1799, under the aufpices of the duke of Portland,
vifcount Newark, colonel Eyre, and others.
The public buildings in Retford are the town-hall, Slof-
wick hofpital, a free-{chool endowed by Edward VI., an
alms-houfe for twelve poor women, and the parifh church.
The laft, called the corporation church, is a fmall, but
neat, edifice, inthe Englifh fyle of architeéture, though
much modernized, particularly in the interior. The living
‘ a vicarage, in the patronage of the duke of Devon-
ire.
On the weftern bank of the Idle, and conneéted with the
borough by a handfome modern bridge, is the village of
Welt Retford, which, however, is altogether diftin@ from
Eaft Retford, both as to civil and ecclefiaftical jurifdi€tion.
Here is an hofpital, which was founded in 1666 by John
Dorrel, M.D., for fixteen poor perfons, who are allowed
annually 1o/. each, befides clothing, coals, &c. Much in-
Jury was done to this village by a heavy flood, which oc-
curred in 1795; but it is neverthelefs a very thriving place,
as well as Eaft Retford, and derives confiderable advantage
from its proximity to the Chelterfield canal. Weft Retford
Hall, a feat of the Emerfon family, is the moft conf{picuous
ornamental obje& in the immediate neighbourhood. St.
John’s well, a mineral {pring about a mile from Retford,
has been long famed for its medicinal qualities. South-eaft
of Retford is Grove-Hall, the feat of Anthony Hardolph
Eyre, efq., M.P. for the county. The houfe is feated on
an eminence in a finely wooded park. “Thorotou’s Hiftory
of Nottinghamfhire, folio, 1663. republifhed with large
additions by John Throfby, 3 vols. gto. vol. iii. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. xii. by Mr. Laird.
RETHEL, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftriét, in the department of the Ardennes; before the re-
volution, the capital of a fmall country, called the “ Rete-
lois.”” The place contains 4862, and the canton 12,473
inhabitants, on a territory comprehending 200 kiliometres,
in 23 communes. N. lat. 49° go!. E. long. 4°27.
RETHEM, atewn of Weftphalia, in the principality
of
RET
of Luneburg Zell, on’ the Aller; 32 miles W. of Zelle.
N. lat. 52° 51! E. long. 9° 18.
RETHONDES, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife; 5 miles N.E. of Compeigne.
RETHWISCHE, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
25 miles N.E. of Hamburg.
RETI, in Hindoo Mythology, a perfonification of A ffec-
tion, and the fabled confort of Kama, the god oflove. She
is reprefented in pictures 2s a beautiful woman, on horfe-
back fometimes, and in the a& of throwing a lance. Allu-
fions to this goddefs, proverbial for beauty, occur very fre-
quently in Hindoo writings. Under the article RADHA,
that lovely goddefs defcribes the glances of her eye as
< keener than the arrows darted by the hufband of Reti.”
She fometimes is ftyled <‘ mother of Kama.”
lation occurs in the article Ruwexa of this work. Kama
is often called «he who loveft the goddefs Reti.”? On the
occafion of the combuftion of the god of love, as noticed
under Kama, the lamentations of the afflifted Reti are very
touchingly related by the celebrated Kalidafa, author of
Sakuntala. A whole book of his poem, entitled « Kumara-
fambhava, or the Birth of Kumera,”? is occupied with her
tender forrows. This book fir W. Jones’s teacher, a learned
Vaidya (fee Vaya), was reftrained from reading ; con-
fidering the ceremonies of a marriage, that of Kama and
Reti, at which Brahma himfelf officiated as father of the
bridegroom, as too holy to be known by any but Brahmans.
An inftance fomewhat fimilar, of a book being too holy to
be read by individuals of an inferior clafs, is given under
Ramayana. Farther particulars connected with the in-
terefting goddefs, the fubject of this article, will be found
under Kama, KrisHna, and PRapyAMNA.
RETIARII, in Antiquity, a kind of gladiators, thus
denominated from a net which they made ufe of againft their
antagonilts, who were called /ecutores, and fometimes myr-
millones. See GLADIATOR.
The word is formed from the Latin, refe, met; or per-
haps from retejaculum ; for they call their net jaculum, and
fometimes in one word refejaculum.
This net they carried under their buckler, and, when op-
portunity ferved, caft it over the head of their antagonilt,
and, in this condition, killed him with a trident, or three-
grained {pear, which they bore in the other hand.
Lipfius and others obferve, that they fought in tunics,
and were furnifhed with fponges to wipe off the fweat,
blood, &c. and to ftop their wounds.
RETICENCY, Rerrcentia, a figure in Rhetoric, by
which we make oblique mention of a thing, in pretending to
pafs it over unmentioned.
Thus : te fay nothing of the nobility of his anceftors: [ for-
Jear to [peak of his courage, and pa/s over the Jeverity of his
morals. See AposiopEsis and PRETERITION.
RETICULA, Rericute, in A/ronomy, a contrivance for
the exact meafuring of the quantity of eclipfes, introduced
feveral years ago by the Royal Academy of Paris. See
Ec ipse.
The reticule is a little frame, confifting of thirteen fine
filken threads, equidiftant from each other, and parallel ;
placed in the focus of obje@-glaffes of telefcopes ; that is,
in the place where the image of the luminary is painted in
its full extent. Of confequence, therefore, the diameter
of the fun and moon is by this feen divided into twelve equal
parts or digits; fo that, to find the quantity of the eclipfe,
there is nothing to do but to number the luminous and the
dark parts.
As a f{quare reticule is only proper for the diameter, not
for the circumference of the luminary, it is fometimes
That appel->
RETF
made circular, by drawing fix concentric equidiftant cir-
cles. This reprefents the phafes of the eclipfe perfectly.
But it is evident, that the reticule, whether {quare or
circular, ought to be perfeétly equal to the diameter or
circumference of the fun or ftar, fuch as it appears in the _
focus of the glafs, otherwife the divifion cannot be juit.
Now this is no eafy matter to effet, becaufe the appa-
rent diameter of the fun and moon differ in each eclipfe ;
nay, that of the moon differs from itfelf in the progrefs
of the fame eclipfe.
Another imperfeCtion in the reticule is, that its bignefs
is determined by that of the image in the focus; and of
confequence it will only ft one certain magnitude.
But M. de la Hire has found a remedy for all thefe in-
conveniencies, and contrived that the fame reticule fhall
ferve for all telefcopes, and all magnitudes of the luminary
in the fame eclipfe. The principle on which his invention
ftands is, that two objeét-glafles applied againft each other,
having a common focus, and there forming an image of a
certain magnitude, this image will increafe in proportion as
the diftance between the two glaffes:is increafed as far as a
certain. limit.
If, then, areticule be taken of fuch a magnitude, as juft
to comprehend the greateft diameter the fun or moon can
ever have in the common focus of two object-glafles applied
to each other, there needs nothing but to remove them
from each other, as the {tar comes to have a lefs diameter,
to have the image {till exa&tly comprehended in the fame
reticule.
Another improvement is, that whereas the filken threads
are fubjeét to {werve from the parallelifm, &c. by the dif-
ferent temperature of the air; a reticule may be made of
a thin looking-glafs, by drawing lines or circles on it with
the fine point of a diamond; which fhall be fafe from any
alteration of the air. See MicRoMETER. ;
RETICULAR Bopy, corpus reticulare, in Anatomy, a
body of veflels lying immediately under the cuticle or {earf-
fkin. See INTEGUMENTS. ; ;
Rericutar Plexus, plexus reticularis, fometimes denotes
the choroides, which is thus called, becaufe its fibres are
interwoveo like a net.
RETICULARIA, in Botany, a genus of Fungi, named
by Bulliard, from the reticulated appearance of its ftruc-
ture when ripe. It is the Lycocaxa of Micheli, Perfoon,
and others; fee that article.
RETICULARIS Memsrana, in Aaatomy, a name
fometimes given to the cellular fubitance. Dr. Hunter
fpeaks of the cellular fubftance, which contains no fat,
under this name, giving the-appellation of adipous cellular
fub{tance to the other.
RETICULUM, in Comparative Anatomy, one of the
divifions of the ftomach, in ruminating animals, fo called
from the reticulated arrangement of the folds of its internal
membrane. See MAMMALIA.
RETIERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de«
partment of the Ille and Vilaine, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri@ of Vitré; fix miles W.S.W. of La
Guerche. The place contains 2384, and the canton
14,638 inhabitants, on a territory of 2373 kiliometres, in
10 communes. :
RETIMO, a town -of the ifland of Candia, built on
the ruins of the ancient Rithymna. The environs of
this town afford profpeéts that are very picture{que :—
gardens planted with orange-trees, among which rife fome
date-trees; fields covered with olive-trees and kitchen-garden
plants; rifing grounds, on which the vine, the fig-tree,
the mulberry-tree, and the almond-tree grow together ; and
farther
R ET
farther on, wooded mountains :—to the weit, the citadel,
the harbour, and the fea. In a word, every thing concurs
to render Retimo the moft agreeable town in the ifland.
It would alfo have become, perhaps, the richelt, and the moft
populous, if the harbour, {mall as it is, had been kept in
order. At prefent it is only praéticable for the barks of
the country; fhips remain in the road, but rarely anchor
here ; and thus Retimo, which, from its pofition, the abun-
dance of oil which is colleéted in its vicinity, and the other
produ@tions of its territory, might be an important place of
trade, has, as well as Candia, feen a part of its population
pafs to Canea. Its prefent population, fays Olivier, con-
fifts.of from 5 to 6000 inhabitants, half Greeks, half Turks:
the Jews here are not fo numerous as at Candia.
This town, weakly defended, was plundered and ravaged
by the Turks, as far back as the year 1572, while Selim II.
was caufing the fiege of Famaguita, in Cyprus, to be
puthed on with vigour; but it was not till the reign of
Ibrahint, in 1645, that the Venetians were driven from it
for ever; 40 miles W. of Candia. N. lat. 35° 20!. E.
long. 24° 21!. |
The province of Retimo is one of the beft cultivated
and molt productive of the ifland; it furnifhes a great deal
of oil, a little barley and wheat, and a tolerably large
quantity of wine. The rifing grounds and hills which
fkirt the fhores of Armiro are almott all covered with vines.
Qn the neare{t mountains which lie to the fouth, is a foreft
of common and native oaks, maples, and carcb-trees, into
which the inhabitants of Retimo come to cut the wood, of
which they ftand in need. T'o the fouth of Retimo are the
two provinces of Aion-Vaflali and Amuri, the only ones that
are comprifed in this pachalic ; they furnifh wheat, barley,
oil, and fome fruits. The former, fituated to the N.W. of
the other, furnifhes, befides, excellent cheefe, which is con-
founded in trade with that of Sphachia. The Greeks are
more numerous than the Turks in the provinces of Aion-
Vaifali and Amuri. Olivier and Sonnini.
RETINA, in Anatomy, a membrane of the eye, formed
by the expanfion of the optic nerve, and conitituting the
immediate organ of vifion. See Eve.
Retina, in Optics. The retina is ufually fuppofed to
be the great organ of vifion, which is effe¢ted by means of
the rays of light refieéted from each point of the objeés
refracted ii their paflage through the aqueous, vitreous,
and cryitalline humours, and thus thrown on the retina,
where they paint the image of the objeét; and where they
make an impreffion, which is continued thence, by the fine
capillaries of the optic nerves, to the fenfory. See Eyr
and Vision.
Indeed, whether the retina, or the choroides, be the
principal organy of vilion, and that on which the images
of objeéts are reprefented, has been much controverted be-
tween feveral members of the Royal Academy ; particularly
Mefirs. Mariotte, Pecquet, Perrault, Mery, and de la Hire.
Mariotte firft referred vifion to the choroides, and was
feconded by Mery; the reft aflerted the caufe of the
retina.
The retina was always judged to have all the characters
of the principal organ. It is fituated in the focus of the res
fra€tion of the humours of the eye; and of confequence
receives the vertices of the cones of rays, proceeding from
the feveral points of objects. It is very thin, ‘and con-
fequently very fenfible. It has its origin from the optic
herve, and is itfelf wholly nervous; and it is the common
opinion, that the nerves are the vehicles of all fenfations.
Laftly, it communicates with the fubftance of the brain,
where all fenfations terminate.
RET
As to the choroides, its ufe was fuppofed to be to ftop
the rays, which the extreme tenuity of the retina fhould
let pafs ; and to do the {fame office with refpe& to the re-
tina, which the quickfilver does to a looking-glafs; efpe-
cially in thofe animals in which it is black.
But from an experiment of a cat plunged into water,
M. Mery conceived a different opinion. (See Purit.)
He obferved the retina to. difappear abfolutely on that oc-
cafion, as well as all the other humours of the eye; while
the choroides {till appeared diftin@ly, and even with all the
lively colours which it has in that animal. Hence, he con-
cluded, that the retina was as tranfparent as the humours,
but the choroides opaque; confequently the retina was
not a proper inftrument to terminate and ftop the cones of
rays, or to receive the images of objeéts; but that the
light muft pafs through it, and could only be ftopped on
the choroides ; which therefore would become the principal
organ of vifion.- The black colour of the choroides in
man is extremely favourable to this opinion; the principal
organ fhould feem to require, that the a¢tion of the light
fhould terminate on it as it arrives; which it is certain it
here does in the black, that abforbs all the rays, and re-
fle&ts none; and it fhould alfo feem neceflary, that the
action of the light fhould be ftronger on the organ of fight
than any where elfe: now it is certain that the light, be-
ing received and abforbed in a black body, mutt excite a
greater vibration there than any where elfe ; and hence it is
that black bodies are kindled by a burning-glafs much
fooner than white ones.
The fituation of the choroides behind the retina is an-
other circumftance on its fide; M. Mery having obferved
the fame pofition of the principal organ behind a mediate |
organ in the other fenfes, which makes an happy analogy.
Thus the cuticle extended over the fkin is the mean organ
of feeling ; but the cutis underneath is the principal organ.
The like is obferved in the ear, nofe, &c.
The retina, therefore, fhould feem a kind of mediate or
fecondary organ, ferving to break the too {trong impref-
fion of the light on the choroides, or to preferve it ; which
is the ufe afcribed to the cuticle. Add to all this, that the
retina is infenfible, as having its origin from the medullary
fubftance of the brain, which is fo too ; and the choroides,
on the contrary, is very fenfible, as arifing from the pia
mater, which is certainly fenfible in a great degree.
This laft argument being doubted of, M. Mery was en-
gaged to prove it; which he did before the Royal Academy,
where he fhewed that the optic nerve is not compofed,
like the. other nerves, of fibres; that it is only a train of
the medulla inclofed in a canal, out of which it is eafily
feparable.
This {tru€ture, of the optic nerve, hitherto unknown,
fhews that the retina can be no membrane; it is only a
dilatation of the medulla, inclofed under two membranes ;
and a pith or medulla feems no proper fubitance to be the
feat of fenfation. It can fearcely ferve for any thing but to
filtrate the {pirits neceflary for the aCtion of vifion. The
vibration, ‘by which the fenfation itfelf is effeted, muift be
made on a part more folid, more firm, and more fufceptible
of a brifk impreffion.
For other arguments in favour of the choroides being
the feat of vifion, fee CHororpEs.
Retina, Paralytic, and Difeafed. See GutTA SERENA.
RETINACULUM, the name of a chirurgical inftru-
ment ufed in caitration, and in the operation for a hernia, to
prevent the inteltines from falling into the fcrotum.
RETINARIA, in Botany, was fo called by Gertner;
from refe, a net, or rather more immediately perhaps from
the
RE
the anatomical word re/ina, applied to the nervous network
of theeye. This genus was founded, by the above author,
on a fruit given him by profeffor Hermann, and faid to be-
long to a climbing fhrub of the Mauritius. So nearly do
Gertner’s plate and defcription approach to the fruit of
Gouania domingenfis, that we have ng doubt of their be-
longing to fome fpecies of the fame genus; probably to one
that we have defcribed in our article Gouania, though,
poflefling none but the domingenfis in fruit, we cannot exactly
appropriate Gertner’s fynonym. He fcems nut to have
been acquainted with the fruit of a Gouania.
RETINASPHALTUM, in JMineralegy, a name given
to an inflammable kind of refinous fubftance, accompanying
Bovey coal. It has a pale brown ochre-yellow colour, is
very brittle, and breaks with a vitreous fra€ture. Its fpe-
cific gravity is 1.135. When held in the hand for fome time,
it emits a flightly refinous fmell, but when burned it has a
fragrant odour ; at laft the fmell is bituminous. On the firft
application of heat it melts and {mokes, and then burns
with a bright flame. When the melted mafs is cooled, it is
black and brittle, and breaks with a glafly fracture. It 1s
not acted on by water, but is partly diflolved by alcohol,
potafh, and nitric acid; the diffolved portions having the
properties of a refin; the undiffolved of afphaltum. It was
analyfed by Mr. Hatchett, and is compofed of
55 Refin,
41 Afphaltum,
3 Earths.
A. fimilar fubftance occurs in the wood coal at Cologne,
and was alfo recently difcovered in making the excavation for
the Tunnel at Highgate. It may be doubted, however,
whether thefe fubftances are more entitled to be ranked
among minerals than the other vegetable matters found in
alluvial ground.
RETINUE, Revrinznzta, the attendants or followers
of a prince, or perfon of quality, chiefly in a journey.
In Law, thofe perfons are properly faid to be of a noble-
man’s retinue, who belong to him in quality either of fer-
vants or retainers.
RETIRADE, in Fortification, a kind of retrenchment
made in the body of a baftion, or other work, which is to
be difputed inch by inch, after the firft defences are dif-
mantled. It ufually confifts of two faces, which make a
re-entering angle. When a breach is made in a baftion, the
enemy may alfo make a retirade, or a new fortification be-
hind it.
RETIRED Frank. See Frank.
Retirep Lif, a lift on the marine eftablifhment, on
which fuperannuated officers are placed.
In the Eat India fervice, the company have refolved that
a military officer, after 20 years’ actual fervice in India,
who comes to Europe upon leave, may be allowed to retire
onthe pay of his rank, provided he fignifies his intention of
fo doing, within 20 menths after his arrival. Officers on
leave who are defirous of retiring, and who declare their in-
tention to that effeét, within 12 months from their arrival,
will be permitted to retire on the pay of the rank to which
they may be intitled at that period. An officer having com-
pleted 22 years” refidence in India will be allowed to retire
on the full pay of his rank, dire@tly on his leaving India.
RETMANDORF, or Rapovetza, in Geography, a
town of the duchy of Carniola, on the Save; 52 miles W.
of Cilley, .N. lat. 46° 22!. E.long. 14° 5.
RETVONVILLER, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme; four miles N.E. of Roye.
_ RETORBIO, a town of Italy, inthe Pavefe; 14 miles
S, of Pavia.
| feed Orie ly
RETORNO Falfo Brevium, in Law. See Fatso.
Retrorno Habendo, &c. See Rerurno-babendo, and Re-
PLEVIN.
RETORT, Rerorra, in Chemifiry, a kind of crooked
matra{s, or a round bellied veffel, made of earth, glafs, or
metal, with a flender crooked beak or neck, to which the
recipient is to be faftened.
From this form this veffel has been probably called a res
tort. ‘The moft capacious part is called the belly ; its upper
part the arch or roof of the retort; and the bent part,
which makes with the belly an angle of about fixty degrees,
is the neck; and the paflage from the belly to the neck
fhould be free and widé, and gradually diminifhing to the
extremity of the neck or mouth of the retort. Retorts
differ in form and materials ; their bellies are generally round;
fome of them are oblong, and shaped like a cucurbit, and
thefe are called Engli/h retorts. They are preferable for the
diftillation of matters which are fubject to. {well, and to pafs
into the receiver before they be decompofed.
A retort, which has a little hole pierced in its roof, is
called a tubslated retort. This hole mult .be capable of
being exaétly clofed with a ftopper of proper materials.
Retorts of this kind are employed in diftillations, where
fome matter muft be introduced into the retort after the
receiver is joined to it, as in the diftillation of {moking
marine acid, and in the operations for procuring the feveral
kinds of clyffus.
When the retort is of glafs, it is ufually covered with a
lute of loam, &c. an inch thick, to enable it to bear the
fire the better ; and it is ufed for all operations which re-
quire a lefs heat than is fufficient for its fufion. Earthen
retorts are neceflary when great heat is requifite, as in the
preparation of phofphorus.
The retort feems to draw fpirits and oil from woods,
eae minerals, earths, and other matters which require a
rong fire.
The retort is a kind of compendium or improvement on
the cucurbit and bolt-head ; anfwering all the purpofes of
both, without the affiftance of a capital or head, which
the other require.
The quantity of air arifing from fome fubftances is apt
to burft glaffes in diftilling ; Dr. Browne Langrifh has,
therefore, given us a new contrivance of applying receivers
to retorts, by which fuch accidents may be prevented. To
his firft receiver he adapts a fecond, inferted into an opening
at the top of the firft, in order to give more room to the
rarefied and new generated air. T’o an opening at the
hottom of each of thefe receivers, he fixes a bottle, tied on
clofe by means of a bladder, fo that they may be removed
at any time, and another inftantly placed in their room; by
which means very little of the fteam will efcape. He alfo
ties on a bladder to an opening, or upper neck of the fecond
recipient ; and this bladder beg much thinner and weaker
than any of the glafles, will always give way firft, and pre-
vent their burfting. And even when there is the greateft
danger of this accident, the {malleft pin-hole made through
the top of the bladder, as foon as the fumes begin to rife,
will be fufficient to let out the air as fait as it is generated.
See Philof. Tranfatt: N° 475. fect. 3. where we have a
figure of the whcle apparatus. For a farther account of
the retort, and the ufes to which it is applied; fee Disrin
LATION and LaBporaTORY.
RETORTION, in Polhical Economy, When a fovereign,
is not fatisfied with the mannerin which his fubjeéts are
treated by the laws and cuftoms of another nation, he is af,
liberty to declare, that he will treat the fubjeéts of that
nation in the fame manner as his are treated. This is what
1S
RET
is called the “law of retortion;’”? in which there is no-
thing that is not conformable to juft and found politics ; for
no one can complain of being treated as he treats others.
This law of retortion may alfo take place with regard to
certain regulations, of which we have no right to complain,
and which we are even obliged to approve, though it is
- proper to guard againft their effects, by imitating them.
Such are the orders relating to the exportation of certain
commodities or merchandize. It is alfo frequently not
convenient to make ufe of retortion; in this refpect we
ought to follow the dictates of prudence.
ETOW, in Geography, atown of Samogitia ; 12 miles
W. of Medniki.
RETRACTATION, Rerracratio, the aé&t of un-
faying what a perfon had faid or written. :
Galileo made a public retra¢tation of his doétrine of the
world, De Mundo, after its being cenfured and condemned
by the pope. See Copernicus and Gatixro.
Among St. Auguftine’s works is a book of “ retraéta-
tions ;’? where, however, the word is to be underltood in a
new fenfe; not as if he recanted or unfaid any thing he
taught, but only treated of the fame matter, or handled the
fame fubject, a fecond time. This fenfe the word will very
well bear; being a compound of re, again, and trafo, [
handle, treat of.
RETRACTION, Rerracrio, formed from retrahere,
ta draw back, in Anatomy, the contraction or fhortening of
apart. A retra¢tion of the nerves takes away the ufe of the
limbs.
~ “RETRACTS, among Horfemen, pricks in a horfe’s
feet, arifing from the fault of the farrier in driving nails
that are weak, or in driving them ill-pointed, or amifs.
Thefe, unlefs. timely prevented, fefter, and prove very
dangerous. When the farrier, in fhoeing, perceives the
hore to fhrink at every blow on the nail, it is a fign of a
retract, and the nailis to be pulled out again ; which is done
without any harm.
When the horfe halts immediately after he is fhod, it is
concluded fome of the nails prefs the veins, or touch him in
the quick.
To find where the grievance lies, they knock the nails
round with a hammer, till the horfe’s fhrinking upon hitting
a particular nail difcovers the place,
Some farriers give this as a rule, that throwing water on
the hoof, the place where he is hurt will be dry fooner than
any of the reit. The places where the horfes are moft
ufually pricked, are, the heel in the fore-foot, and the toe in
the hind-foot.
RETRAHENS, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the external
ear. See Ear.
RETRAXIT, in Law, is where the plaintiff comés into
court in perfon, alone, or with the defendant ; and declares
he will proceed no farther in his action.
A retraxit is peremptory, and a perpetual bar, and may
be pleaded as fuch to the plaintiff in the fame aétion for ever.
See Nonsuit.
RETREAT, in Ornamental Gardening, any fort of
erection, place, or convenience, formed in gardens or plea-
fure grounds for the purpofe of recreation and amufement.
Thefe are of very different kinds, according to the nature
of the particular grounds or gardens, their circumttances,
and fituations; as covered, open, or in other forms, as the
tafte of the proprietor or defigner may direct. They may
be made either in the different quarters, centre parts, angles,
or other places of thefe fituations, or formed in the range of
hot-houfes, as is the cafe in fome inftances. The particular
forms, defigns, and means of conftruétion of them, are fo
Vor. XXX.
RET
various, but, for the moft part, fo well known, that it is
unneceflary to give any defcription of them in this place.
Thofe of the more ornamental kind fhould, however, in
general, be contrived fomewhat in conformity to the ftyle
of the ground, garden, place, and proprietor ; being fur-
nifhed from defigns of great diverfity and number, as well
as of various degrees of elegance, from that of the fimple
bower of honeyfuckle, hop, or vine, twined upon bent
poles, to the Grecian porch or temple of the fineft fort of
mafonry. Great caution is, however, required in the intro-
duétion of thefe forts of ornamental ereétions inte gardens
of the culinary kind. And in them, as with every thing
elfe which relates to them, ufe, Mr. Loudon fuppofes,
fhould be the prevailing idea; and that, as ufe and beauty go
hand in hand, the moft vulgar objets may be dignified by
the judicious introduétion of elegance. A garden of the
kitchen kind, though unmixed with produétions purely
ornamental, is ftill, it is thought, a pleafing fcene, becaufe
full of utility and animation, and conftantly varying from the
practice of cultivation, as well as from the feafons. It is
confequently very generally reforted to at moft times of the
year, but efpecially in the early {pring months. Of courfe,
in a climate fo very variable as this, wherever the walks are
frequently made ufe of at fuch a feafon, there fhould, it is
faid, be covered retreats or places for retiring to, which
fhould correfpond with the whole of which they are con-
{picuous parts or portions. In this way they may conftantly
be made to harmonize with the different objeéts around
them.
Retreat, in War, the retiring or moving back again of
an army, or part of it.
We fay, to found a retreat, tofecure aretreat, &c.
What they call a retreat in the armies, is really a flight ;
only a flight made by defign, and with condué.
The fkill and ability of the general is known by his re-
treats more than his engagements. The retreat of the ten
thoufand Greeks under the command of Xenophon, has
been admired in all antiquity.
The three moft celebrated retreats of modern times have
been general Moreau’s retreat in 1796, that of Prague, and
that of general Macdonald in Italy.
Retreat, Chequered, Rétraite en échiquier, Fr. is fo
called from the feveral component parts of a line or bat-
talion, which alternately retreat and face in the prefence of
an enemy, exhibiting the figures of the chequered {quares
upon a chefs-board. In the ‘General Rules and Regu-
lations,” (part 4.) it is judicioufly obferved, that all ma-
neeuvres of a corps retiring, are infinitely more difficult to
be performed with order, than thofe in advancing. They
mult be more or lefs accomplifhed by chequered move-
ments ; one body by its numbers or pofition, facing and
protecting the retreat of another; and if the enemy prefles
hard, the whole muft probably front in time and await him ;
as the ground narrows or favours, different parts of the
corps muft double ; mouths of defiles and advantageous pofts
muit be poflefled; by degrees the different bodies muft
diminifh their fronts, and throw themfelves into column of
march when it can be done with fafety.
The chequered retreat by the alternate battalions or half
battalions of a line going to the rear, while the others remain
halted, cover them, and in their turn retire in the fame
manner, isthe quickelt mode of refufing a part of a corps
to the enemy, and at the fame time protecting its move-
ment, as long as it continues to be made nearly parallel to
the firft pofition.
In the chequered retreat the following rules muft be ob-
ferved: The battalions of the disifion neareft to the enemy,
M will
RET
will form flanks as foon as there is nothing in their front to
cover them; but the other divifions will not have any flanks
except to the outward battalion of each. The battalions
always pafs by their proper intervals, and it is a rule in re-
tiring, that the left of each fhall always pafs the right of the
neighbouring one. Whatever advantages the ground offers,
thofe advantages muft be feized, without too critical an ob-
fervance of intervals, or minute adherence to the determined
diftance of each retreat. The divifion next the enemy muft
pafs in front, through the intervals of the divifion imme-
diately behind, and any battalion, that finds it neceflary,
mutt incline for that purpofe. The retiring divifion mutt
ftep out, and take up no more time than what is abfolutely
required to avoid confufion. The divifion neareft the enemy
fires by platoons {tanding ; the flanks of its battalions only
fire when the enemy attempts to pufh through the intervals.
When that divifion retires, it fires on, fkirmifhes by men de-
tached from its light company, if prefent, or from platoons
formed of rear rank men of one or two of the companies,
and placed behind the flanks of the battalions. But fhould
any of its battalions be obliged to halt and to fire, a fhorter
itep muft then be taken by the line ; and fhould the enemy
threaten to enter at any of its intervals, befides the fire of its
flanks, fuch platoons of the line behind it, as can with
fafety, muft give it fupport.
Retreat is a beat of the drum in the evening, at the
firing of a piece called the evening-gun, at which the drum-
major, with all the drums of the battalion, except fuch as
are upon duty, beat round the regiment; the drums of the
quarter-guards, of the general-guards, and all other {mall-
guards, do likewife beat; the trumpets at the fame time
founding at the head of their refpective troops. This is to
warn the foldiers to forbear firing, and the fentinels to chal-
lenge, till break of day, that the reveille is beat.
The retreat is likewife called /etting the watch.
In fortified places, this is a fignal for the inhabitants to
come in before the gates are fhut. See Drum.
Retreat, or Relay, in Ma/onry, denotes a little recefs
or diminution of the thicknefs of a wall, rampart, &c. in
proportion as it is raifed.
The retreat is properly the diminution of a wall, without-
fide, or the contraGtion of its upper courfes more than the
foundation. Where the foundation is very large, they
ufually make two or three retreats. Parapets are always
built with retreats.
RETRENCHMENT, in a general fenfe, literally fig-
nifies the cutting off or taking from a thing: in which fenfe
it coincides with fubtra€tion, diminution, &c.
The word is French, retrenchment, formed of re, and
trencher, to cut.
RETRENCHMENT, In Architecure, Carpentry, &c. is ufed
not only for what is cut off from a piece when too large, in
order to a better proportioning it, or fome other conyeni-
ence, but alfo for the projeCtures taken out of itreets, public
ways, &c. to render them more even, and in a line.
ReETRENCHMENT, in War, denotes any kind of work cat
up to ftrengthen or defend a poft againft the enemy.
Such are ditches with parapets, gabions, fafcines, &c.
for a covering, &c.
The enemy came with defign to oblige them to raife the
fiege ; but could not force the retrenchments.
Retrenchments are either general or particular.
General retrenchments are a kind of new defence made in
‘a place befieged, to cover the defendants, when the enemy
becomes maiter of a lodgement on the fortification, that
they may be in a condition of difputing the ground inch by
inch, and of putting a ftop to the enemy’s progrefs, in ex-
R-E T
peCiation of rehef; as, if the befiegers attack a tenaille of
the place, which they judge the weakeit, either by its being
ill flanked, or commanded by fome neighbouring ground ;
then the befieged make a great retrenchment, inclofing alt
that part which they judge in moft danger. Thefe fhould
be fortified with baitions and demi-battions, furrounded by
a good ditch countermined, and higher than the works of
the place, that they may command the old works, and put
the befiegers to infinite trouble in covering themfelves.
Particular retrenchments, or retrenchments within a baf-
tion, (retranchemens dans un baffion, Fr.) muft reach from.
one flank to another, or from one cafemate to another. It
is only in full baftions that retrenchments can be thrown up
to advantage. In empty battions you can only have recourle
to retirades, or temporary barricadoes above the ramparts.
The affailants may eafily carry them by means of hand gre-
nades, for thefe retrenchments never flank each other. It is
neceffary to raife a parapet, about five or fix feet thick, be-
fore every retrenchment. It muft be five feet high, and the
ditches as broad and as deep as they can be made. There
mutt alfo be {mall mines run out in various directions, for
the purpofe of blowing up the affailants, fhould they at-
tempt to force the retrenchments.
RETRENCHMENT is more particularly ufed for a fimple
retirade made on a horn-work or baftion, when it is intended
to difpute the ground inch by inch. See Reviravr.
It is ufually a re-entering angle, whofe faces flank each
other ; and is fortified with ditches, parapets, gabions, &c.
RETRIBUTION, Rerrisurtio, a handfome prefent,
gratuity, or acknowledgment, given in lieu of a formal
falary or hire, to perfons employed in affairs that do not fe
immediately fall under eftimation, nor within the ordinary
commerce in money.
Thofe who minittered at the altar anciently lived on retri-
butions, which they received for the fervices they did the
church. But thefe retributions were afterwards judged
proper to be fixed to precife fums.
RETRIEVE, Rerrovuver, to recover, get again, or
repair a thing loft or damaged.
To retrieve, in Falconry, fignifies to bring or find par-
tridges again, which have been once {prung before.
RETROACTIVE, compounded of retro, backwards,
and ago, J a@, in Law, that which has an influence or effect
on time patt.
New laws and ftatutes, we fay, have no retroactive effet ;
that is, they have no force or effeét as to what is already
patled ; nor can be alleged as rules for any thing done before
their promulgation. Their authority is wholly as to what
is to come.
Indeed we have fome inftances of laws that have a retro-
fpe&t to retroaétion, i.e. are made with exprefs defign to
extend to things already paft. Thefe we ufually call laws
ex poft facto.
RETROCESSION, Rerrocessio, the aét of going
backwards, more ufually exprefled by retrogre/fion, or retro-
gradation.
Retrrocession.of the Equinox. See PRECESSION.
Retrocesston of Curves, &c. See RETROGRADA=
TION.
RETROGRADATION, or Rerrocression, the ac
or effect of a thing moving backwards.
RETROGRADATION, in Affronomy, is an apparent motion
of the planets, in which they feem to go backwards in the
ecliptic, and to move contrary to the order or fucceffion of
the figns,
When a planet moves in confequentia, i. e. towards the fol-
lowing figns, or according to the order of the figns, as from
3 Aries
RET
Aries to Taurus, from Taurus to Gemini, &c. that isy from
welt to eaft, it is faid to be direét.
When it appears for fome days in the fame point of the
heavens, it is laid to be /fationary.
And when it goes in antecedentia, t. e. towards the ante-
cedent figns, or contrary to the order of the figns, viz. from
~ ealt to weft; it is faid to be retrograde.
The fun and moon always appear dire. Herfchel, Sa-
turn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury, fometimes
direct, fometimes itationary, fometimes retrograde.
The fuperior planets are retrograde about their oppofition
with the fun; the inferior ones about their conjunétion.
The intervals of time between two retrogradations of the
feveral planets are unequal.
Thefe changes of the courfes and motions of the planets
are not real, but only apparent: when viewed from the
centre of the fyftem, 7 ¢. from the fun, they appear always
uniform and regular. The inequalities arife trom the motion
and pofition of the earth from which they are viewed, and
are thus accounted for :
Suppofe P N O (Plate XIX. Aflronomy, fig. 12.) a por-
tion of the zodiac, ABCD the earth’s orbit, and
EMGHZ the orbit of a fuperior planet, e. gr. Saturn ;
and fuppofe the earth in A, and Saturn in E, in which cafe
he will appear in the zodiac at the point O. If now Saturn
remained without any motion, when the earth arrives at B,
he will be feen in the point of the zodiac L, and would ap-
pear to have defcribed the arc O L, and to have moved ac-
cording to the order of the figns from welt to eaft. But
becaufe, while the earth is pafling from A to B, Saturn
likewrfe moves from E to M, where he is feen in conjunc-
tion with the fun, he will appear to have defcribed the arc
OQ greater than that OL. In this ftate the planet is
dire&t, and its motion is from weft to eaft, or according to
the order of the figns. And its motion, now that it is in
conjunétion with the fun, and moft remote from us, is
quicker than at any other time.
The earth arriving in C, while Saturn defcribes the arc
MG, he will be obferved in the zodiac at R. But the
earth being advanced to K, and Saturn to H, fo that the
line K H, joining the earth and Saturn, be for fome time
parallel to itfelf, or nearly fo, Saturn will be feen all that
time in the fame point of the zodiac at P, and with the fame
fixed ftars; and is therefore at this time ftationary.
But the earth being come to D, and Saturn arrived in
oppofition to the fun in Z, he will appear in the zodiac in
V, and will feem to have been retrograde, or to have gone
backwards through the are PV. Thus the {fuperior
planets, on optical confiderations, are always retrograde,
when in oppofition to the fun.
The are which the planet defcribes while thus retrograde,
is called the arc of retrogradation.
The arcs of retrogradation of the feveral planets are not
equal. That of Saturn is greater than that of Jupiter; that
of Jupiter than that of Mars, &c.
RerroGraparion of the Nodes, is a motion of the line
of the nodes, by which it continually fhifts its fituation from
ealt to weft, contrary to the order of the figns ; completing
its retrograde circulation in the compafs oF about nineteen
years: after which time, either of the nodes, having re-
ceded from any point of the ecliptic, returns to the fame
again. See Nopes.
RerroGRADATION of the Sun. When the fun is in the
torrid zone, and has his declination AM (Plate XIX.
Afironomy, fig. 13.) greater than the latitude of the place
AZ, but either northern or fouthern as that is, the fun will
appear to go backwards, or to be retrograde both before
RE T
and after noon. This can never happen, without the tro.
pics, in a natural way.
For, draw the vertical circle Z GN to be a tangent to
the {un’s diurnal circle in G, and another ZON through
the fun’s rifling, in O, it is evident all the intermediate ver-
tical circles cut the {un’s diurnal circle twice; firft, in the
arc GO, and the fecond time in the are GI. Wherefore,
as the fun afcends through the are GO, it continually ar-
rives at farther and farther verticals. But as it continues its
afcent through the are GI, it returns to its former ver-
ticals; and, therefore, is feen retrograde for fome time
before noon. The fame it may be fhewn, after the fame
manner, it does for fome time after noon. Hence, as the
fhadow always tends the oppofite way to that of the fun,
the fhadow will be retrograde twice every day in all places
of the torrid zone, where the fun’s declination exceeds the
latitude.
RETROGRADATION, or Refrogreffion, in the Higher Geo-
metry, is the fame with what we otherwife call contrary flexion.
See Frexure and INFLEXION.
The general rule given by the marquis de l’H6pital, for
finding the point of refleétion in curves whofe ordinates are
parallel, is the fame as that for finding the point of contrary
flexure, and confifts in taking the fecond fluxion of the or-
dinate of the curve, and fuppofing it nothing or infinite;
but this rule admits of many exceptions. See Maclaurin’s
Flux. b. i. c.g. and b. ii. c. 5.
RETROGRADE, Rerrocranvs, formed from retro,
backwards, and gradior, I go, fomething that goes back-
wards, or in a direction contrary to the natural one.
If the eye and the objet both move the fame way, but
the eye much fafter than the objet, the objeé& will appear
to be retrograde, i.e. to go back, or to advance the con-
trary way from what it really does.
Hence it is that the planets, in fome parts of their orbits,
appear to be retrograde.
ReETROGRADE order, in matters of numeration, is when,
in lieu of accounting 1, 2, 3, 4, we count 4, 3525/1
RerroGRADE Verfes are fuch as give the fame words,
whether read backwards or forwards: called alfo reciprocal
verfes, and recurrents. Such is
“< Signa te figna; temere me tangis et angis.””
RETROGRADO, Ital. in Wufic, a retrograde motion
of a melody, or fubje& of canon. This motion is fome-
times termed by the Italians, imitatione cancherizante ; imita-
tion of the movement of acrab-fifh. See Canon.
RETROGRESSION, or Rerrocession, the fame with
retrogradation.
RETROMINGENTS, compounded of retro, backwards,
and mingo, I make water, in Natural Hiflory, a clafs or di-
vifion of animals, whofe characterittic is, that they ftale back-
wards, both males and females. Such are lions, cats, &c.
RETROPANNAGIUM, RerropannacGe, in our dn-
cient Law Books, after-pannage ; or what is left when the
beaits have done, or eaten the beft. See Pannacr.
«Et debent habere retropannagium a felto Sanéti Martini
ufque ad feftum Pur. Beate Marie.’’ Petit. in Parl. temp.
Edw. III.
RETROSPECT, a look or view backwards. See Re-
TROACTIVE.
RETROVERSIO Uren, in Surgery. The womb is
fubject to two particular changes in the pofition of its fun-
dus, which may be difplaced either forwards or backwards.
The firft cafe, fometimes termed antever/ion, is the leaft fre.
quent ; the fecond, or retroverfiony is more often met with,
In the inftance of anteverfion, when the furgeon makes an
M2 examinas
RETROVERSIO UTERI.
examination with his finger, he finds the fundus of the uterus
inclining forwards towards the os pubis over the fundus of
the bladder ; while the os tincz is carried backwards towards
the facrum, upon the middle of the reétum, fometimes fo
high up that it can hardly be reached with the finger. The
patient has generally a conftant inclination to make water ;
preffure juft above the pubes always gives her confiderable
pain; whenever fhe gets up to walk, fhe is confcious of a
hard fubftance falling upon the bladder, and obliging her to
empty it; and, when fhe lies down upon her back, fhe feels
the fame hard body flip back again. In one example, a pa-
tient had fuch pain in the abdomen and foft parts, that fhe
could {carcely move. :
In general, the anteverfion of the womb may eafily be
remedied. The patient being laid upon her back, which is
to be fomewhat raifed up, the furgeon is to apply his hand
above the pubes, and make preffure there, by which means
the fundus uteri will be forced backwards, and the os tince
inclined forwards into its natural fituation. A recurrence
of the difplacement is to be prevented by the application of
a peflary, which will fupport the os tince. The patient is
to be kept for a certain time upon her back in bed, and a
tight bandage fhould always be put round the body jutt
over the os pubis. The uterus by degrees commonly be-
comes fixed again in its right pofition, fo that the ufe of the
peflary can be difcontinued. The inftrument muft not be
left off too foon, however, left a relapfe fhould be the
confequence.
In the retroverfion, the pofition of the womb is altered
in a manner precifely the reverfe of what occurs in the fore-
going cafe. The os tince lies towards the pubes; while
the fundus uteri is-carried towards the facrum, and is gene-
rally funk fo far down betwixt the vagina and the rectum,
as to occafion, at the pofterior part of the former canal, a
protuberance, which clofes it, and which at the fame time
comprefles the rectum in fuch a manner, that the patient
cannot void her feces, nor can clyiters be adminiftered. As
in this preternatural pofition of the uterus, the bladder and
meatus urinarius are unavoidably difplaced, the cafe is al-
ways complicated with a retention of urine, which is the
more afflicting, as it is ufually very difficult, and even im-
practicable, to introduce a catheter. The opening of the
meatus urinarius is fometimes drawn fo high up, that it is
actually higher than the pubes. Hence, the anterior pa-
rietes of the vagina are conftantly very much ftretched.
When the retention of urine has laited a certain time, the
os tince above the pubes cannot be reached nor touched
with the end of the finger. In this circumftance the blad-
der forms, beneath the os tince, a large fwelling, which
hinders the finger from feeling the latter opening. The
patient always fuffers exceflive pain, which not unfrequently
refembles that of labour, and arifes partly from the impedi-
ment to the evacuation of the urine, and partly from the
difplaced condition of the parts. The diforder, therefore,
has often been mifunderficod, the patient’s fufferings being
regarded as labour-pains, and delivery expeted. Indeed,
when the complaint is not {peedily removed, a mifcarriage
is the confequence. The cafe is frequently attended with
fever and inflammation.
The retroverfion of the uterus has never been obferved,
except in pregnancy, and always in the fecoud, third, or
fourth month of that ftate. It is moft apt to occur in fuch
women as have a wide pelvis. Fat fubje@s are more liable
to the diforder than thm. It is obferved to be brought on
by bodily exercifes and exertions, as, for inftance, by violent
vomiting, falls, the lifting of heavy burdens, &c. But,
Richter thinks it unlikely, thas the cafe fhould arife and be
9
fuddenly produced by thefe caufes alone. How, he afke,
could the gravid, round, diftended uterus be thus fuddenly
difplaced, and become deprefled betwixt the re€tum and the
vagina? He conceives it probable, that a predifpofition to
diforder, or rather an incipient ftage of it, muft have exiited.
He thinks it likely, that the occurrence of the complaint
may be promoted by repeatedly negle€ting to make water,
and by the confequent diftention of the bladder, whereby
not only the fundus uteri is prefled towards the facrum, but
alfo the cervix becomes drawn upwards. Richter believes,
that a {mall degree of retroverfion, that has exitted a good
while, may only be increafed by the caufes already hinted at,
fo as to excite notice ; and that the fundus of the uterus
may now foon be forced by the efforts, refembling thofe of
labour, fo far down between the vagina and the re€tum, that
all thefe parts become as it were adherent together. The
foregoing ftatement Richter thinks the more likely to be
correct, inafmuch as cafes have aétually been obferved,
where patients have experienced various flight complaints a
confiderable time before the retroverfion was known to
exift ; but which complaints might be afcribed to the in-
cipient ftage of that fort of difplacement of the uterus.
How it happens, that retroverfion of this organ is only met
with in the early months of pregnancy, is eafy of compre-
henfion. The retroverfion is promoted by the weight of the
gravid uterus. During the latter half of the period of
geftation, however, the uterus is too large to be capable of
defcending betwixt the vagina and rectum; and the occur-
rence of retroverfion, except in pregnancy, is what can
hardly be conceived.
The furgeon fhould always endeavour to put the retro-
verted uterus, as foon as poffible, into its natural pofition ~
again. The longer the retroverfion has latted, the more
difficult it is of removal, and the more preffing are the
dangers, of which there is caufe for apprehenfion. The
moit urgent peril arifes from the retention of the urine, and
the ftoppage of evacuations from the bowels. The longer
thefe fun¢tions are obftruGted, and the more the urine and
feces accumulate, the more violent do the painful labour-like
efforts become, whereby the fundus uteri is continually
prefled more and more deeply downwards. Befides, the difl-
tention of the rectum and bladder operates itfelf as an im-
mediate impediment to the redu€tion of the uterus. Pa-
tients have been known to lofe their lives in confequence of
the bladder giving way. Sometimes abortion happens ; and
very often the confequences of fuch an event are tavourable;
the urine foon afterwards being f{pontaneoufly voided, and
all the complaints fubfiding. (Saxtorph, Colleétanea Hav-
nienfia, vol. ii.) The diforder, however, has been known
to continue eleven days, and yet admit of being removed in
the moft favourable manner.
In difficult cafes, the redu€tion of a retroverted uterus
may be facilitated by previoufly emptying the re€tum and
bladder ; an object which is frequently praCticable. The
diftended bladder not only renders the reduction difficult,
but is attended with fome danger of that organ buriting in
the operation, which often requires the exertion of confi-
derable force, efpecially when the bladder is very much di-
lated. Hence, before attempting the reduction, the fur-
geon is called upon always to endeavour to draw off the
urine. When the bladder has been emptied, the retroverted
uterus fometimes {pontaneoufly returns into its natural pofi-
tion, as feveral cafes on record have proved. (Hunter and
Cheiton in Medical Communications, vol. ii. ; Croft in Lon-
don Medical Journal, vol. xi.) Such faéts muft fully cen-
vince us, how much the reduction may be facilitated by
drawing off the urine in the firit inftance. A catheter may
frequently
RET
frequently be introduced; but it fhould be of the flexible
fort. A curved inflexible one will alfo fometimes pafs, if
care be taken to keep its concavity turned towards the va-
gina. Rotating the catheter on its axis is here a particu-
larly ufeful plan. When the catheter cannot be pafled,
other means will fometimes anfwer for bringing about an
evacuation of the urine. In fome cafes, the water will begin
to flow out, when two fingers are introduced betwixt the
pubes and os tince, and the latter part is prefled towards
the facrum. Sometimes prefling the os tince downwards
with the finger ; on other occafions, raifing the fundus uteri
backwards and upwards, by theans of two fingers in the
vagina will have the defired effec.
_ When the bladder cannot be emptied in this manner, nor
‘by the catheter, and fhould it be very much diftended, and
the redu@tion of the uterus attended with great difficulty,
there can be no doubt about the neceflity of punéturing the
bladder ; for the immediate and meft urgent danger arifes
from the retention of urine, and, probably, the diftended
bladder is itfelf the chief impediment to the reduétion of
the womb into its natural pofition. To thefe confiderations
we may add, that the paracentefis of the bladder has been
performed in thefe cafes with complete fuccefs. (Cnefton
in Medical Communications, vol. ii.) The practitioner mutt
alfo endeavour to empty the reétum by means of clyiters,
though, it muft be confefled, their application is always at-
tended with a degree of difficulty.
The reduétion of the retroverted uterus is executed by
prefling with two fingers applied to the fundus of this
vifcus. A principal obftacle to the fuccefs of the attempt
is caufed by the projection of the os facrum. Hence, it is
an indication of the greateft confequence to remove the
fundus of a retroverted uterus as far as poffible from that
bone, in order that the preceding fort of hindrance to the
redution may be avoided. With this view the preflure of
the fingers fhould be fo direéted as not to incline towards
the prominence of the facrum. During the operation, the
patient fhould reft upon her elbows and knees, as, in this
poiition, the uterus will be at a greater diftance from the
facrum. Richter difapproves of the plan, which fome
writers have recommended, and which confifts in introduc-
ing two fingers into the vagina, for the purpofe of reaching
and drawing downwards the os tince. He afferts, that
fuch part can feldom be reached, and, that if it could be
fo in a few inftances, it would not admit of being drawn
downwards, while the fundus is incapable of following in
the fame direGion. Richter alfo obferves, that the fundus
uteri is at this period the lefs likely to be reduced, becaufe
the fingers in the vagina have the effe@ of prefling it to-
wards the proje€tion of the facrum. )
The preffure of the finger, whereby the fundus uteri is
to be pufhed up, fhould be direéted forwards and upwards
towards the navel. When the preilure is made dire¢tly up-
wards, the body of the uterus is forced againit the projec-
tion of the facrum, and the attempt cannot poflibly fucceed.
Indeed, when much force is exerted, as is fometimes requi-
fite, preflure thus direCted may do injury to the foetus and
the mother, and bring on abortion. It is advantageous to
introduce two fingers into the rectum, with their backs to-
wards the facrum, and their infides towards the vagina ; for
they may then be ufed for keeping the uterus towards the
navel. Perhaps it may likewife be advileable to lay two
fingers on the abdomen above the pubes, in order to prevent
the os tince from inclining upwards. Perhaps, alfo, two
fingers, paffed into the vagina, might be ufefully employed
in prefling the fundus uteri upwards. In difficult cafes, this
double kind of preffure might be abfolutely neceffary. If
RET
the retroverted uterus fhould not yield to the foregoing
practice, an endeavour may be made, at all events, to pufh
the difplaced vifeus upwards on one fide of the projeétion of
the facrum.
In certain examples, it may be proper not to pafs the
fingers into the rectum, but merely into the vagina; ft, be-
caufe we can thus more certainly and effectually make the
preffure act upon the uterus; and 2dly, becaufe, when the
poiterior parietes of the vagina are pufhed with the end of
the fingers towards the facrum, and the upper part of this
tube, fituated betwixt the fingers and the os tincz, is
ttretched, the vagina a&ts upon the uterus in a manner par-
ticularly well calculated to promote the reduétion. Not
more than two fingers, however, ought to be introduced,
as more have the effect of dilating the vagina laterally, and
preventing it from becoming tenfe in the ic gratin direc-
tion. Theden’s Bemerkungen, 3 Sheil.
When this method is adopted, the uterus in general be-
gins to yield at firft flowly, and afterwards it fuddenly re-
turns into its natural fituation. Sometimes the tendency
to retroverfion is fo great, that the diforder recurs almoft
immediately after the reduétion has been accomplifhed. In
this circumitance, the patient muft wear a peflary, until all
hazard of another retroverfion is removed by the increafe of
pregnancy. (Hunter in Medical Obfervations and En-
quiries, vol. iv.) Sometimes, when the bladder has been
very much diitended with urine during the continuance of a
retroverfion of the womb, a retention of urine from weak-
nefs of the bladder. will remain after the redu@ion of the
uterus, and demand the ufe of the catheter. Richter’s
Anfangfgrunde der Wundarzneykunit ; Hunter in Medical
Obfervations and Enquiries, vol. iv.; Chefton, in Medical
Communications, &c.
RETSCHITZ Karpascu, in Geography, a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin; 15 miles S.W. of
Tabor.
Rertscuirz Rot, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin ; five miles N. of Pilgram.
RETTEN, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 12 miles
W. of Friedburg.
RETTERHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg,
infulated in Wertheim; 16 miles W. of Wurzburg.
RETTERSBACH, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; five miles S. of Gemunden.
RETTERSWALD, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia ;
feven miles S.E. of Marienburg.
RETTINGBERS, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
38 miles E. of Chitteldroog. N. lat. 14° 5!. E. long.
° 4!
RETTLSTEIN, a town of Stiria, on the Muehr ;
fix miles S.E. of Pruck.—Alfo, a mountain of Stiria ;
eight miles E. of Pruck,
RETTO, Ital. in Mujfic, ftraight forward, dire&t, one
of the three movements of mufical notes or founds in me-
lody ; which are, moto retto, moto contrario, and moto obliquo.
Moto retto is, therefore, a regular afcent of the feale,
or a part of it: as moving from the key-note to the 5th
through all the intermediate founds, in regular order ; as
edefg, &c. Another fpecies of movement feems want-
ing to exprefs wide intervals, fuch as fkips or leaps beyond
the regular progreffion, which in Latin is exprefled by the
words per faltum, and in Italian either is, or might be, called
moto de falto.
RETUERTO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old
Caitile; 18 miles S. of Burgos.
RETURN, Rerurna, or Retorna, in Law, hath divers
acceptations. As,
RETURN
RE
Ruturn of Writs by fheriffs and bailiffs, is a certificate
made. to the court by the fheriff, bailiff, &c. of what is
done with regard to the execution of the writ directed to
them.
Whence the day, on which the defendant is ordered to
appear in court, and on which the fheriff is to bring in the
writ, and report how far he has obeyed it, is called the re-
turn of the writ; it being then returned by him to the
king’s juftices at Weftminiter. And it is always made re-
turnable at the diftance of at leaft fifteen days from the date
or tele, that the defendant may have time to come up to
Weitminfter, even from the molt remote parts of the
kingdom ; and upon fome day in one of the four terms, in
which the court fits for the difpatch of bufinefs. See Rz-
TURNS, infra.
Such alfo is the return of a commiffion, which is a certifi-
cate, or an{wer of what is done by the commiffioners to
whom: fuch commiffions, precepts, mandates, or the like,
are directed,
Rerurn is alfo ufed in cafe of areplevin. If a man
diftrain cattle for rent, &c. and afterwards juitify or avow
his act, fo as it is found lawful, the cattle before deli-
vered unto him that was dittrained, upon fecurity given
to profecute the action, fhall now be returned to him
that diltrained them. See Rerurno Habendo, and Re-
PLEVY.
Rerurn of Members of Parliament.
MENT.
Return toa Mandamus. See Manvamus.
Rerurns, Return-days, or days in bank, dies in banco,
that is, days of appearance in the court of common pleas,
ufually called bancum, or commune bancum, to diltinguifh it
from bancum regis, or the court of king’s bench, are certain
days in each term peculiarly fet apart for the feveral kinds
of proceedings in any caufe to be determined. Thefe days
are generally at the diltance of about a week from each
other, and regulated by fome fettival of the church. On fome
one of thefe days in bank all original writs mutt be made
returnable, and therefore they are commonly called the
returns of that term ; of which every term has more or lefs,
faid by the Mirror (cap. 5. § 108.) to have been originally
fixed by king, Alfred, but certainly fettled as early as the
ftatute of 51 Hen. III. ftat. 2. But though many of the
return-days are fixed upon Sundays, yet the court never fits
to receive thefe returns till the Monday after ; and, there-
fore, no proceedings can be had, or judgment can be given,
or fuppofed to be given on a Sunday. See Day.
Hilary term has four fuch returns; wiz. odabis Hilarii,
eight days after Hilary day ; guindena Hilarii, fifteen days ;
craftina Purificatione, the day after the Purification; and
ofabis Purificationis, eight days after, inclufive.
Falter term has five returns 5 viz. guindena Pafche, fifteen
days after Eatter; tres Pafche, three weeks after; menfe
Pafche, the day month after Eafler ; guingue Pa/che, the
day five weeks from Eatter 5 and craflino Afcenfionis Domini,
the day after Afcenfion-day.
Trimty term has four returns 3 viz. craflino Trinitatis, the
day atter Trinity; odadis Trinitatis, eight days after, inclufive ;
guindena Trinitalis, fifteen days after ; and tres Trinitatis,
Lhree weeks after.
Michaelmas term has four returns, by flat. 24 Geo. II.
cap. 48. viz. erafing Animarum, morrow of All-Souls ;
crafiino Martini, the morrow of St. Martin ; oéfabis Martini,
eight days after, inclufiye; and quindena Martini, fifteen
days after.
The tirft return in every termis, properly f{peaking, the
Arft day in that term; e. vr, the o€tave of St. Hilary, which
See PARLIA-
RE
falling on the thirteenth of January, the otave, or firft day
of Hilary term, is the twentieth of January ; and this is
called the effoign day of term. But by reafon of the quarto
die pofty the court does not fit, at the beginning of each term,
for difpatch of bufinefs, till the fourth day, as in Hilary
term on the twenty-third of January ; and in Trinity term,
by ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 21. not till the fixth day ;-
which is, therefore, ufually called and fet down in the
almanacs as the firft day of Term ; which fee.
Return, in the Miltary Language, denotes the lift of
the fick, given in once a week by the furgeon to the com-
manding officer of a regiment.
Commiffioned officers are not put in the returns, which,
on that account, are but an imperfect lift of the fick.
Twelve fick, in a battalion of 780 private men, is the
lowett return that can be expected, even in the moft healthy
feafon and climate, as well as beft quarters. © Returns
are often much higher, but feldom exceed feventy in a
battalion.
It is to be obferved, that returns include all accidents un-
fitting a foldier for duty ; together with a general ftate of
the army, regiment, or company. See Pringle’s Obferv.
onthe Difeafes of the Army, p. 12—36.
In fection V. of the articles of war, it is exprefled, that
every officer who fhall knowingly make a falfe return to
the king, to the commander-in-chief of the forces, or to
any his fuperior officer authorifed to call for fuch returns,
fhall, upon being convicted thereof before a general court-
martial, be cafhiered.
Whoever fhall be’ conviéted of having defignedly, or
through negleét, omitted fending fuch returns, fhall be pu-
nifhed according to the nature of the offence by the judg-
ment of a general court-martial.
Returns are to be made in the fame manner of the forces
in Ireland to the chief governor or governors thereof ;
likewife of the forces in North Britain to the officer there
commanding in chief: which returns are from time to time
to be tranfmitted to England as it fhall appear beift for the
fervice.
Exaé returns frem Gibraltar, &c. and regiments fta-
tioned abroad, are by their refpeétive governor or com-
manders there refiding, by all convenient opportunities to be
tranfmitted to the fecretary at war, in order that the fame
may be laid before the king.
The life and foot-guards do not make any returns to the
commander-in-chief or fecretary at war, but to the king
direét through their feveral field officers. This privilege is
attached to them upon the principle of being houfehold
troops. Upon the fame principle they have always, when
brigaded, a general of their own attached to each brigade ;
on which account hkewife, no other military honours than
thofe done to their own brigade general are to be paid by
them, except toa branch of the royal family, or to a com-
mander-in-chief.
Return, To, in a military fenfe, to infert the names of
fuch officers, &c. as are prefent or abfent on the itated pe-
riods for the identification of their being with their regiments,
on detachment, or abfent with or without leave.
Every officer commanding a regiment or detachment, will,
on his arrival from abroad, tran{mit to the adjutant-general’s
office, and to the war-office, a difembarkation retnrn, a dupli-
cate of which he will alfo deliver to the general, or other
officer commanding at the port at which he difembarks.
Commanding officers of regiments in South Britain, are
regularly to tranf{mit to the adjutant-general’s office the fole
lowing returns.
A monthly, on the rt of each month.
A return
RE T
Av return of officers, on the 14th of each month.
A weekly ftate, to arrive on Mondays.
‘To the war-office.
A monthly return, on the 1ft of each month.
A return of abfent officers, on the r4thof each month.
Every officer commanding a regiment, or detachment,
_on embarking for a foreign flation, will tranfmit an em-
barkation return to the adjutant-general’s office, and to
the war-office, a duplicate of which he will deliver to the
general or officer commanding at the port from which he
embarks. ‘
On a regiment embarking, the commanding officer is to
tran{mit to the adjutant-general’s office, a return of the re-
eruiting parties he purpofes to leave in Great Britain, or
Ireland, {pecifying their ftrength, their ftations, and the
officers by whom they are commanded ; a duplicate of this
return is to be tranfmitted to the infpector-general of the
recruiting fervice in the Ifle of Wight.
All officers belonging to regiments on foreign ftations,
not actually employed on the recruiting fervice, are to re-
port their arrival from abroad, and the caufe of their
abfence, at the adjutant-general’s office, and are to leave their
addreffes with their refpective agents, and in cafe of their
changing their places of refidence, are immediately to notice
the fame to their agent: any officer whofe addrefs is not
with his agent, will be confidered as abfent without leave,
and guilty of difobedience of orders.
Officers upon half pay are, in like manner, to leave their
addreffes at the war-office ; particularly fo if they fhould leave
the united kingdoms ; and officers belonging to the militia
are to leave their names, &c. with the Pa adjutants of
regiments.
Commanding officers of regiments are to tranfmit to the
quarter-matter-general an half-yearly return of quarters, on
the 1{t of December, and the rit of May, agreeable to the
printed form ; likewife a report of any march performed by
the corps under their orders.
All returns, reports, and papers, purely of a military
and public nature, which are to be fent to the adjutant-
general, are to be addrefled, “ To the Adjutant-general
of the Forces, Horfe-guards, London,” without adjoining
his name.
All official letters from general or other officers in com-
mand, which are defigned to be laid before his royal highnefs
' the commander-in-chief, are to be figned by the general or
commanding officers themfelves.
All official letters, intended for the deputy adjutant-gene-
ral, or other officers belonging to the department, are to be
tran{mitted, under covers, addreffed as above, to the adjutant-
general.
To prevent an improper expence of poftage, all official
letters and returns fent to the quarter-mafter-general, or
officers in his department, are to be fent, under covers,
addrefled ‘¢'To the right honourable the Secretary at War,
London ;”’ and on the outfide of the covers is to be written,
in legible characters, ‘¢ Quarter-mafter General’s Depart-
ment.’?
Return, in Building, denotes a fide, or part, that falls
away from the forefide of any ftraight work.
Returns of a Trench, in Fortification, are the turnings
and windings which form the lines of a trench.
Rerurns of a Mine, in the Military Art, are the turn-
ings and windings of the gallery.
RETURNED next for Purchafe. When vacancies occur
in regiments upon foreign or domettic {tations, the names of
fuch officers as intend to purchafe mult be inferted in the
mutter rolls; they are then faid to be returned next for
RE T
purchafe. This ferves as 2 government to the feveral agents,
and prevents the introduétion of perfons into a corps they
have not done duty with, to the difparagement of thofe
who have always followed the colours. The prefent com-
mander-in-chief is particularly {crupuleus on this head. Every
officer that is returned next for purchafe, mutt take care to
apprize his agent that the money will be lodged for that
purpofe.
RETURNING Srrokg, in LleGricity, isan expreflion
ufed by lord Mahon, (now earl Stanhope,) to denote the
effect produced by the return of the eleétric fire into a
body from which, in certain circumftances, it has been
expelled.
In order to underftand the meaning of thefe terms, it is
neceflary to premife that, according to the noble author’s
experiments, an infulated {mooth body, immerged within
the electrical atmofphere, but beyond the itriking diftance,
of another body charged pofitively, is at the fame time ina
itate of threefold electricity. The end next to the charged
body acquires negative ele¢tricity ; the farther end becomes
politively electrified ; while a certain part of the body, fome-
where between its two extremities, is in a natural, unelec-
trified, or neutral {tate ; fo that the two contrary eletricities
balance each other. Moreover, it may be added, that if
the body be not infulated, or haye a communication with
the earth, the whole of it will be in a negative ftate ; a cer-
tain portion of its natural quantity of electricity being driven
into the common mafs, by the preflure, repulfion, or other
action of the eleétric matter belonging to the charged prime
conductor. Let us then fuppofe a brafs ball, which we
may call A, to be conftantly placed at the ftriking diltance
of a prime conductor ; fo that the conduétor, the inftant
when it becomes fully charged, explodes into it. Let
another large conduétor, which we may call the fecond con-
duétor, be fufpended, in a perfectly infulated ftate, farther
from the prime corduétor than the ftriking diltance, but
within its eleétrical atmofphere : let a perfon ftanding on an
infulated {tool touch this fecond conduétor very lightly with
a finger of his right hand; while, with a finger of his left
hand, he communicates with the earth, by touching very
lightly a fecond brafs ball fixed at the top of a metallic
ftand, on the floor, which we may call B; while the prime
conductor is receiving its eleCtricity, {parks pafs (at leaft if
the diftance between the two conduétors is not too great)
from the fecond conductor to the infulated perfon’s right
hand ; while fimilar and fimultaneous {parks pafs out from
the finger of his left hand into the fecond metallic ball B,
communicating with the eatth. Thefe fparks are part of
the natural quantity of dette matter belonging to the
fecond conductor, and to the infulated perfon, driven from
them into the earth, through the ball B, and its ftand, by
the elaftic preflure or action of the atmofphere of the prime
conduétor ; the fecond conduétor, and the infulated perfon,
are hereby reduced to a negative ftate. At length, how-
ever, the prime conduétor having acquired its full charge,
fuddenly {trikes into the ball B, of the firft metallic {tand,
placed for that purpofe at the ftriking diftance. The ex-
plofion being made, and the prime conduétor fuddenly
robbed of its elaftic atmofphere, its preflure or ation on
the fecond conduétor, and on the infulated perfon, «s fud-
denly ceafes ; and the latter inftantly feels a {mart return-
ing ftroke, though he has no direét or vifible commu-
nication (except by the floor) either with the ftriking or
{truck body, and is placed at the diftance of five or fix feet
from both of them, This returning ftroke is evidently oc-
cafioned by the fudden re-entrance of the ele&ric fire na-
turally belonging to his body and to the fecond conductor,
which
Ree D
which had before been expelled from them, by the aétion of
the charged prime conduétor upon them, and which returns
to its former place in the inftant when that action or elattic
preflure ceafes. When the fecond conductor and the infu-
lated perfon are placed in the denfeft part of the eleétrical
atmofphere of the prime conduétor, or juft beyond the
{triking diftance, the effects are ftill more confiderable ; the
returning ftroke being extremely fevere and pungent, and
appearing confiderably fharper than even the main itroke it-
felf, received dire&tly from the prime conduétor. Lord
Mahon, in the application of this experiment, and of the
do@trine deduced from it, obferves, that perfons and animals
may be deftroyed, and particular parts of buildings may be
confiderably damaged, by an eleétrical returning ftroke,
occafioned even by {ome very diltant explofion from a thunder
cloud ; poffibly at the diftance of a mile or more. It is
certainly eafy to conceive (fays a very ingenious anonymous
writer, in his refleGtions on this fubje¢t) that a charged ex-
tenfive thunder cloud muft be produétive of effeéts fimilar
to thofe produced by the prime conduétor. Like the con-
ductor, while it continues charged, it will, by the fuper-
induced elattic ele¢trical preflure of its atmofphere, drive
into the earth a part of the eleGtrical fluid naturally aoe
ing to the bodies which are within the reach of its widely
extended atmofphere, and which will, therefore, become
negatively electrical. This portion, too, of their electric fire
will, on the explofion of the cloud at a diftance, and the
ceflation of its a€tion upon them, fuddenly return to them,
fo as to produce an equilibrium, and reftore them to their
natural ftate. But the effets are not fo great, nor the
danger fo terrible, as the noble author feems to apprehend.
If the quantity of eleCtric fluid naturally contained, e. gr. in
the body of aman, were immentfe or indefinite, his lord{hip’s
eftimate between the effe€ts producible by a cloud, and
thofe caufed by a prime conduétor, might be admitted ;
but furely an eleCtrified cloud, how great foever may be its
extent and the height of its charge, when compared with
the extent and charge of a prime condudtor, cannot expel
from a man’s body (or any other body) more than the
natural quantity of electricity which it contains. On the
fudden removal, therefore, of the preffure by which this
natural quantity had been expelled in confequence of the
explofion of the cloud into the earth, no more (at the
utmoft) than his whole natural ftock of ele€tricity can re-
enter his body, provided he be fo fituated, that the return-
ing fire of other bodies muft neceflarily pafs through his
body. But we have no reafon to,fuppofe that this quantity
is fo great, as that its fud ‘re-entrance into his body
fhould deftroy or even injure him.
In the experiment above defcribed, the infulated perfon
receives into his body, at the inftant of the returning ftroke,
not only all that portion of his own natural ele¢tric fire which
had been expelled from it, but likewife tranfmits through
it, at the fame inftant, in confequence of his peculiar fitua-
tion, all the electric fire of which the largeft fecond con-
ductor had been robbed, and which muft neceflarily repafs
through his body, to arrive at that condu@tor. To render
the cafe fomewhat parallel in natural eleétricity, the man’s
body muft be fo peculiarly circumftanced, fuppofing him
to be ina houfe, that the eleGric matter which has been ex-
pelled from the houfe into the earth, by the preflure of an
extenfive thunder cloud, could not return back into the
building, on the explofion of the cloud at a diftance, with-
out pafling through his body: a cafe not likely to happen,
unlefs the houfe were infulated (like the fecond conductor
in the preceding experiment), and his body became the chan-
nel through which alone the houfe could have its eleétric
RET
matter reftoredtoit. It appears much more probable, that
the electric matter returns to the houfe through the fame
channels by which it before infenfibly paffed out, and with
equal filence, though more fuddenly. In the cafe of aman
who is abroad, and in an open field, during the time of an
explofion ; as he is unconneéted with other mafles of matter
above him, no more than the precife quantity of electric
fire, which had been before expelled from his body, will
fuddenly return into it at the inftant of a diftant explofion ;
and that this quantity is not very large, may be inferred from
many confiderations. Allowing, therefore, the exiftence of
the returning ftroke, as fufficiently afcertained, and well il-
luftrated, in a variety of circumttances, by the author’s ex-
periments, the magnitude and danger of it are not fo alarm-
ing as he apprehends. Lord Mahon’s Frinciples of Elec-
tricity, &c. 4to. 1779, p. 76—113—131. Monthly Re-
view, vol. lxii, p. 436—442. 7
RETURNO Hasenpo, or Returnum averiorum, in Laws
a writ which lies for him who has avowed a diftrefs made of
cattle, and proved his diftrefs to be lawfully taken ; for the
return of the cattle diitrained unto him, which before were
replevied by the party diftrained, upon furety given to pur-
fue the action.
The fame writ is granted when the plaint or aétion is re
moved by recordare or accedas ad curiam, into the court of
common pleas ; and he whofe cattle were diftrained makes
default, and does not profecute his ation. See REPLEVY.
RETURNUM Avenrrorum, a judicial writ, the fame
with retorno habendo.
ReturnuM Jrreplegiabile, a judicial writ, fent out of the
common pleas to the fheriff, for the final reftitution or re-
turn of cattle-to the owner, unjuftly diftrained damage
feafant, and fo found by the jury before juttices of affize in
the county, or otherwife through default of profecution.
RETUSAVI, in Geography, aname formerly given to a
{mall ifland of Ruffia, in the gulf of Finland, on which the
town of Cronftadt ftands, and now called the ifle of Cron-
ftadt ; 20 miles W. of Peterfburg. This is only remark-
able for an excellent haven, ftrongly fortified, the chief fla-
tion of the Ruffian fleet.
RETUSUM Fo tum, in Botany, a retufe, or abrupt,
leaf, terminates bluntly, with a broad fhallow notch, as in
Rumex digynus, or Mountain Sorrel. See Lear.
RETWEYER, in Geography, a lake of Bavaria, in the
bifhopric of Bamberg; 6 miles N.E. of Vilfeek. ;
RETZ, Joun-Francis-PauL DE Gonpi, Cardinal de,
in Biography, a celebrated political charattér, was born at
Montmirel in 1614. His father, who was general of the
gallies, obliged him, againft his inclination, to embrace the
ecclefiaftical profeffion. He paffed through his courfe of
{tudy with diltin@ion, and was made a doétor of the Sor-
bonne in 1643, in which year he was nominated coadjutor
to the archbifhop of Paris. In his condué and character
he fet at defiance public opinion, and engaged in almoft
every {pecies of debauchery: he fought feveral duels, and
delighted in political intrigue. According to Voltaire, he
was, at the age of twenty-three, eager in carrying on a con-
{piracy againit the life ot cardinal Richelieu. The miniftry
of Mazarin, however, was the period in which he moft en-
gaged as a partifan, and he engaged deeply in all the cabals
which produced the petty civil war of the Fronde. He im-
pofed upon the people by a feigned devotional ferioufnefs in
performing his prelatical funétions, and affeGted the greateit
zeal for the privileges of the clergy and the good of the
public. He was among the mof violent oppolers of the
court, and once took his feat in the parliament with a poniard
in his pocket, the handle of which being feen, it was neatly
obferved
RET
obferved, ‘¢ there is our archbifhop’s breviary.’? He boafted
that he bad a principal fhare in urging the. Parifians to take
up arms on the day of barricades. At length, however, he
found that the interefts of his ambition would be better
ferved by making a fecret accommodation with the court,
and he was brought over by a cardinalate, to which he was
“nominated by the king in 1651. Like other deferters, he
loft his popularity, and was able only to aé a fecondary
part on the political ftage. Continuing his cabals, Mazarin,
who hated and dreaded him, procured his arreft at the
Louvre, and caufed him to be thrown into prifon. . From the
dungeon he efcaped, and went to Rome, where he was re-
ceived with diftinGtion as the enemy of Mazarin. He was
prefent at the election of Alexander VII., but finding
that pontiff cool to his intereits, he left Italy, and pafled
fome years in wardering through Holland, Flanders, and
England. Wearied with a life of exile, he returned to
France-in 1661, after Mazarin’s death, and made peace
with his court by the renunciation of his archbifhopric, to
which he had fucceeded at the death of his uncle, obtaining
the abbacy of St. Denis by way of recompence. He had
hitherto lived in great ityle, and had plunged himfelf deeply
in debt, but he now refolved to live on a very limited in-
come, till he had fatisfied his creditors. This he com-
pletely effected, and lived to be in circumttances that allowed
him the gratification of being liberal to his neceffitous friends.
In 1675 he fent back his cardinal’s hat, intending to quit
the world, but the pope refufed to accept his refignation.
His conduct in the latter part of his life obtained for Sees the
eiteem of men of worth: he died at Paris in 1679, at the
age of 66. The character of cardinal de Retz. has been
drawn by almoft all the French hiftorians who have written
fince his time. By one he is defcribed ‘¢ as a perfon who, with
the habit of a prielt, difplayed a difpofition better fuited to
camps or courts; and licentious in manners and profligate
in his morals, he acquired an afcendancy over the minds of
the people, without condefcending to throw a veil over his
vices, or employing the popular pretext of religion.””. An-
other writer fays, he was ‘“ daring, turbulent, falfe, in-
triguing, with defigns rather romantic than great, and con-
ducted rather with dexterity than ability : he feems to have
been exaétly fitted for the part which he fuftained, of 2 po-
litical meteor in troublefome times, among a frivolous and
licentious people.’’? Voltaire, {peaking of the memoirs of
the cardinal, drawn up by himfelf, fays, ‘* they are written
with an air of greatnefs, an impetuoiity of genius, and an
inequality, which are the image of his condu@. He com-
pofed them in his retreat, with the impartiality of a philo-
fopher, but of one who had not always been.a philofepher.
e neither {pares himfelf nor others.’”? Other writings of
cardinal de Retz have been published_relative to the times
and party.
Retz, in Geography, atown of Bavaria; 26 miles N.N.E.
of Ratifbon.
RETZBACH, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
4 miles S.S.E. of Carlitadt.
RETZIA, in Botany, an elegant Cape fhrub, fo named
by profeffor Thunberg, in the Tranfa@tions-of the Academy
of Lund, in honour of his friend Andrew John Retzius,
member of the Stockholm Academy, and of various other
learned focieties, Profeffor of Natural Hiftory at Lund.
This diftinguifhed botanift and worthy man is beft known,
out of his own country, by his folio volume of Obfervationes
Botanica ; andhis Flore Scandinavia Prodromus, a fy {tematic
eGavo work, in the Linnzan manner. He has, befides,
ublifhed many eflays and differtations, relating to various
a of natural knowledge, both in Latin and Swedith,
Vor. XXX.
_Hlluftr. t. 103.—Clafs and order,
REU
and is ftill living.—Thunb. A&. Lund. v. 1. 55. Nov.
Gen. 4. Linn. Suppl. 18. Schreb. 115. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1. 843. Mart. Mill. Di@t. v. 4. Juif. 133. Lamarck
Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Convolouli, Juff.
_ Gen. Ch, Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
in five rather deep, lanceolate, acute, unequal fegments.
Cor. of one petal, tubular, cylindrical, villous both with.
in and without, terminating in five ovate, obtufe, con-
cave, ere&t fegments, very hairy at the fummit. Stam. Fila-
ments five, awl-fhaped, inferted into the corolla, fhorter than
its limb ; anthers arrow-fhaped, compreffed. Pifi. Germen
fuperior, oblong ; ityle, thread-fhaped, longer than the co-
rolla ; itigma in two fmall, linear, obtufe fegments. Peric.
Capiule oblong, acute, with two lateral furrows, two cells
and two valves. Seeds feveral, minute.
Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, cylindrical, externally
hairy. Stigma cloven. Capiule of two cells, with many
{mall feeds.
1. R. /picata.. “Thunb. A@. Lund. v. 1. Sytets fa?
Linn. Suppl. 138. Willd. n. 1. (R. capenfis; Thunb.
Nov. Gen. 5.)—Native of high, dry, hilly fituations, at
the Cape of Good Hope. Gathered by Mr. Niven in
Hottentot’s Holland. The fem is thrubby, ere&, from
four to feven feet high, with round, knotty, hairy, leafy
branches. Leaves denfely imbricated, fomewhat whorled,
feffile, linear-lanceolate, rigid, acute, thick-edged, entire,
two inches or more in length ; hairy about the lower part.
Flowers axillary, feffile, folitary, plentiful towards the ends
of the branches, about as long as the leaves; villous and
hoary externally ; dark purple within.
The remark of Linnzus the younger, in the Supplement,
refpecting this genus, is very extraordinary. He fays it
is no natural genus, but agrees fo much with Convolvulus, in
habit and charaéter, as to differ in nothing except the tubu-
lar corolla, which is externally very hairy.’? Now in fa@,
its rigid fhrubby habit is altogether that of a Protea, nor
can any thing be lefs likea Convolvulus, even of the fhrubby
kind. The chara&er of the corolla is alfo moft diftin,
being cylindrical, and wanting the five plaits, fo effential to
Convoloulus. Tt is true that the Retzia requires to be ob-
ferved by fome botanift converfant with natural orders, that
we might have clearer ideas of its chara¢ters and affinities.
The plant is a ftranger in our gardens. —We have not had an
opportunity of confulting the Lund TranfaGtions, to de-
termine whether the fpecific name is there i as Thun-
berg, or /picata as — cites it. Both are highly ex-
ceptionable. 2
RETZSTADT, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 5 miles S.S.E. of Carlitadt.
RETZTAT, Opssr, or Upper, a river of Franconia,
which rifes near Weiflemburg, paffes by Oettingen, and
joins the Unter Retztat, to form the Rednitz.
Rerztat, Unter, a river of Franconia, which rifes near
Burg Bernheim, in the principality of Culmbach, and joins
the Upper Retztat, three miles N.E. of-Spalt, to form the
Rednitz.
REVA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; ro miles
E. of Conftantinople.
REUCHLIN, Jouy, in Biography, a celebrated Ger-
man philofopher, and affiduous contributor to the revival of
learning in the rsth and 16th centuries, defcended from a re-
{pe€table family in Swabia, was born in the year 1454. He
made a moft rapid progrefs in {chool-learning, and when
that was completed, he went to Paris with the youn
marquis of Baden, who had been his clafs-fellow at fchool.
Here he purfued his ftudies under the moft celebrated maf-
N ters
REU
ters in Europe, and foon became well fkilled in the Arifto-
telian philofophy. In this city, and in the diligent purfuit
of learning, he remained till he was twenty years of age,
when he went to Bafil, where he was admitted a matter in
philofophy, and taught the Greek language to numerous
pupils, with great reputation. Here he alfo profecuted his
ftudy of the Hebrew, the elements of which he learnt while
very young. At the fame time, judging that the bett man-
ner of learning is by teaching, he drew up and publifhed a
grammar, a lexicon, and vocabulary, which at that period
were highly efteemed, and thought to be of great ule in in-
ftruGing young people. Having {pent four years at Bafil,
he went to Orleans for the purpole of ftudying jurifprudence,
and he alfo taught the Greek language in that city. From
this place he removed to Poidtiers, where he was admitted to
the degree of door. He next accompanied the. count
of Wittemberg in a tour through Italy, and was intro-
duced at the court of Lorenzo de Medici, at Florence, and
contra¢ted an intimacy with Ficinus,. Politian, Picus, and
other illuftrious Platonic philofophers, and was induced to
embrace their opinions. In thefe opinions he was confirmed
at Rome by the learned Hermolaus Barbarus, who, difliking
the harfhnefs of the German name Reuchlin, prevailed upon
him to change it for one more mufical, namely, Capnto,
fignifying, like Reuchlin, /moke, and_by this he was after-
wards known among foreigners. He conducted himfelf
with fo much ability and addrefs in his tour, that he was,
after his return to Germany, deputed as ambaflador from
the count of Wittemberg, to the emperor Frederic III. at
Vienna. During his refidence at this court, he made fur-
ther progrefs in the Hebrew language, under the inftructions
of one of the emperor’s phyficians, who was a Jew; and it
was contrived by the Jew, that among the prefents which,
according to cuftom, he was to receive as ambaflador, fhould
be included a beautiful and ancient manufcript Hebrew bible,
as a {pecial compliment paid to him by the emperor, on ac-
count of his eminent literary attainments. Frederic dying
in 1493, Reuchlin returned to the court of Wirtemberg,
and was appointed to be the count’s deputy to the diet of
Worms, in which his prince was elevated to the ducal dig-
nity. Scarcely had he enjoyed that honour three months,
when he died, leaving his dominions to his nephew Ulric.
The power of this prince was conteited by another nephew,
who aflumed the title of Eberhard II., and who carried the
point. One of the firft a€ts of this prince was to banifh
Reuchlin for his attachment to the interefts of prince Ulric.
He now retired to Worms, and wrote ** An Epitome of the
Hiltory of the four Empires,.’ for the ufe of the prince Pa-
latine. He alfo wrote at this time two Latin comedies,
abounding with wit and fatire, which were afterwards pub-
lithed. In 1498, the elector Palatine, having been involved
in a difpute with pope Alexander VI., fixed upon Reuchlin
as the perfon beft qualified to defend his caufe, and fent him
for that purpofe to Rome in the capacity of his ambaflador.
On this occafion he pronounced an able and eloquent oration
before the pope and cardinals, concerning the rights of princes,
and the privileges of the churches in Germany, which was
printed by Aldus. Before he returned to Germany, arevo-
lution had taken place at Wirtemberg, the ufurper having
been expelled, and Ulric reinftated in his rights. Upon this
change, Reuchlin was recalled to the ducal court by the
guardians whom the emperor had appointed for Ulric, and
very foon after he was nominated to the dignity of one of
the triumvirs of the league of Swabia for the emperor and
the electors. He was next fent ambaflador to the emperor
Maximilian ; and upon his return, finding the plague raging
in Swabia, he retired to Stutgard, where he was hofpitably
REV
received into a monaftery of the Dominicans, and at their re-
queft, he drew up a work on the art of preaching. To-
wards the clofe of his life he encountered much trouble and
danger from the refentment of the monks and other bigots of
Cologne, occafioned by his oppofition to their enthufiaftic
rage for the deftruction of all Jewifh books excepting the
bible. It is not neceflary to enter at large into the nature
of this controverfy, it will be fufficient to obferve, that Reuch-
lin found himfelf compelled to carry his caufe to Rome, for
the definitive fentence of the papal fee. Here he had many
friends, and his agent carried with him ftrong recommendations
from princes, prelates, and men of the greateft eminence in
the learned world. Thefe recommendations had great weight
in the court of Leo X., and Reuchlin was honourably ac-
quitted of the herefy with which he was charged, to the
great mortification of his bigotted and malignant enemies.
Amid{t the troubles which he met with he profecuted his
ftudies with unabated ardour, and publifhed fome very
learned and profound works. Although, as we have feen,
he triumphed over his enemies at the court of Rome, they
did not ceafe to trouble him, by the invention of groundlefs
calumnies, and the moft bitter inveCtives; fo that, notwith-
ftanding his great talents, he was fearcely able, by teaching
the Greek and Hebrew - languages, to keep himfelf from
want. He died in the year 1521, at the age of fixty-eight.
His principal works, independently of thofe already noticed,
are, “ The Life.of Conftantine the Great,” written by Eu-
febius: atreatife “ De Verbo Muirifico,’? in the form of a
dialogue between a philofopher, a Jew, and a Chriftian ; and _
another treatife «* De Arte Cabbaliftica.’? For his great
and fuccefsful attempts towards the revival of learning, his
name is deferving of being remembered with gratitude by
polterity. His colleétion of « Letters from illuftrious Men,”’
of which an edition was publifhed at Zurich in 1558, is
faid to be full of valuable information concerning the literary
hiftory of his time. Dupin {peaks of him as ‘one of the
moit learned men of that age; and he adds, that notwith-
{tanding his attachment to his peculiar ftudies, he had a
wonderful genius for the belles lettres ; was intimately con-
verfant with the Grecian philofophers and orators ; was a
perfect matter of the Greek language, and fpoke Latin with
an inimitable purity and elegance ; and that he was the only
perfon of whom Germany at that time could boaft, who de-
ferved to be regarded as a competitor for fame with all the
learned men in Italy, who was their equal in the delicacy of
his ityle, while he greatly excelled them in erudition. Mo-
reri. Dupin. Enfield’s Hitt. Phil. vol. ti.
REUDEN, in Geography, a town of Saxony; 5 miles
N.W. of Bitterfeld. ;
REUDZEL, ariver of European Turkey, which runs
into the Reut, 18 miles W. of Florefzti, in Moldavia.
REVE, or Greve, in Aacient Cufloms, the bailiff of a
franchife, or manor, thus called; efpecially in the weftern
parts.
Hence, fhire-reve, fheriff, port-greve, church-reve, &c.
See SnerirF, PorT-GREVE, &c.
Reve, Reva, is alfo ufed for a duty or impofition on
merchandizes imported.
M. Du-Cange derives the word from the Latin roga, of
rogare, to a/k ; the word formerly fignifying a tribute anciently
granted princes at their requeft, as a free gift.
REVEALED Retieion. See Ruricion and Revera-
TION.
REVEALED Theology. See THEOLOGY.
REVEILLE, formed of the verb reveiller, to awake, a
beat of drum in the morning, intended to give notice that it
is
REV
is day-break ; and that the foldiers are to arife, and the fen-
tinels forbear challenging. :
REVEL, in Geography, atown of France, and principal
place of a diftri@, in the department of the Upper Ga-
ronne; 21 miles N.W. ‘of Carcaffone. N. lat. 43° 28).
E. long. 2° 5’.—AHo, a town of France, inthe department
_of the Ifere; 15 miles S.E. of Vienne.—Alfo, a fea-port
town of Ruffia, on the Baltic, and eapital of a province ;
the fee of a Lutheran bifhop, fuffragan to the archbifhop
of Riga. Although this place be not large, it is opulent
and well fortified ; and has confiderable trade. The town
and caftle were founded, in 1218, by Waldemar II., king of
Denmark, on the {cite of the convent of St. Michael, founded
by his anceftors, and in 1320 included within its walls.
Revel, and alfo the whole duchy of Efthonia, received moit
of its privileges from the Danifh kings; and the arms of
Denmark, with infcriptions in the Danifh language, are {till
feen in the churches and other public offices. The houfes
are generally built of brick, and the ftreets are fomewhat
regular. The only congregations here, befides thofe
of the ae church, are Lutheran. The tolls, be-
longing partly to the magiftracy, and partly to the
pct confiderable. This ra has its ia." arfenal,
and maintains a number of matroffes, and a company
of foldiers. Revel formerly held a diftinguifhed rank
among the Hanfe towns, and it is ftill a ftaple-town, with
a flourifhing trade. Its harbour is fpacious and convenient,
and ufually accommodates a part of the Ruffian fleet. It
is furrounded with high walls, ftrengthened with baitions,
and a deep ditch; and it is alfo fortified with a caf-
tle, feated on a rock, and ornamented with feveral towers.
Without the walls the citizens have pleafant gardens. This
city was erected into a bifhopric by Waldemar II. It was
totally deftroyed by fire in 1433. In 1710 it was furrendered
to Peter the Great, who confirmed its ancient privileges, and
reltored others of which it had been deprived by the crown
of Sweden ; 144 miles N. of Riga. N. lat, 59° 20'. E. long.
24° 34!.
Rever’s J/land, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Virginia.
N. lat. 37°35’. E. long. 75° 43'.
REVE-LAND, the land which in Domefday is faid to
have been thane-land, and afterwards converted into reve-
land, feems to be fuch land as, being reverted to the king
after the death of the thane, who had it for life, was not
fince granted out to any by the king, but reftcd in charge
upon the account of the reve, or bailiff of the manor. Spelm,
Feuds, cap. 24.
REVELATION, Reverario, formed from revelo, of
re, and velum, g. d. to unveil, the act of revealing, or making
a thing public, which before was a fecret, or unknown.
The revelation of a confeffion, made by the confeffor, is
adjudged, in the Romifh church, to deferve the moft exem-
plary punifhment. ;
REVELATION is ufed, by way of eminence, for the dif-
coveries made by God to his prophets, &c. and by them to
the world.
Revecarion is more particularly ufed for the difcovery
which God has made to the world, by the mouths of his
prophets, of certain points of faith and duty, which they
could not learn from natural reafon, .
Religion is diyided into natural religion and revelation, or
revealed religion. See RELiGion.” cs
By revealed religion, as diftinguifhed from that which is
ufually called natural, we are to underitand that knowledge
of religion which was originally communicated in an extra-
ordinary and fupernatural way. A revelation of this kind
muft either be by an immediate infallible infpiration, or
REV
illumination of every particular perfon, for informing and
direGting him with regard to the knowledge and practice of
religion ; or by God’s making an extraordinary difcovery of
himfelf and of his will to fome perfon or perfons, who fhould
be commiffioned to communicate it to others in his name.
In the former cafe it could not be properly called extraor-
dinary revelation ; for if it were an univerfal infallible light,
imparted to every fingle perfon in every nation and every
age, from the beginning of the world, it would be as com-
mon and familiar to every one as the common light of reafon,
and by being univerfal would ceafe to be extraordinary.
Whereas, if there be fuch a thing as revealed religion, or if
it hath pleafed God to make difcoveries of his will to man-
kind with refpe& to religious truth and duty, in a way of
extraordinary revelation, the moft natural mode of doing it,
and that which is beft accommodated to the prefent ftate of
mankind, feems to be, that the revelation fhould be commu-
nicated to fome perfon or perfons, to be by them communi-
cated toothers in his name ; at the fame time furnifhing them
with fufficient proofs and credentials, to thew that they were
indeed fent and infpired by him, and that the do@rines and
laws which are the matter of fuch revelation, and which they
are authorifed to publifh to the world in his name, were
really and originally communicated by revelation from him.
This method admits of fufficient proof being given to fatisfy
well-difpofed minds, and of provifion being made for in-
ftruéiing men, unlefs it be their own fault, in the knowledge
of religion, and engaging them to the practice of the du-
ties which it requires ; and, at the fame time, there is room
for the exercife of reafon in examining the nature of the
evidence, and the trial of men’s fincerity and diligence,
of their impartial love of truth, and their opennefs to re-
ceive it.
Several queftions prefent themfelves to our confideration,
with regard to that kind of revelation that has been now
tated. The fir/? relates to the poffibility of it ; the /econd, to
its ufefulnefs and expediency, and even the neceflity of it in
the prefent flate of mankind ; the #hird relates to the proofs
and evidences, by which it may be fhewn, that fuch a revela-
tion hath been actually given.
As to the fir? queition, the affirmative cannot reafonably
be doubted by any one, much lefs denied, who believes a
God and a Providence. Can it be fuppofed, that the Au-
thor of our being, and of our faculties, hath it not in his
power to communicate ideas to our minds, for inftruéting
and informing us in what it nearly concerns us to know?
It is acknowledged, even by lord Bolingbroke, a writer of
diftinguifhed rank among the oppofers of revelation (Works,
vol. ii. p. 468, ed. 4to.), ‘* that an extraordinary action of
God upon the human mind, which the word ‘* infpiration’
is now ufed to denote, is not more inconceivable than the or-
dinary ation of mind upon body, or body on mind ;” and
« that it is impertinent to deny the exiftence of any pheno-
menon, merely becaufe we cannot account for it.’’ More-
over, as God can, if he thinks proper, communicate his will
to mankind, he can alfo do it in fuch a manner, as to give
to thofe to whom it is originally and immediately made, a
full and certain affurance of its being a true divine reyela-
tion. Befides, God can commiffion thofe to whom he has
made an extraordinary revelation of his will, to communi-
cate to others what they have received from him; and can
furnifh them with fuch credentials of their divine miffion -as
are fufficient to proye that he fent them, and that the doc-
trines and laws which they deliver in his name were indeed
received from God. The omnipotent Author of nature, and
Lord of the univerfe, can undoubtedly, if he thinks fit, en-
able fuch perfons to perform the moft wenderful works in
N 2 his
REVELATION.
his name, as a proof that he fent them; works of fuch a
nature, and fo circumi{tanced, as manifeftly to tranfcend all
human power, and bear the evident marks ofa divine inter-
pofition, (See Miraciz.) He can alfo endue them with
fupernatural gifts, and enable them to deliver exprefs pre-
dictions of future contingent events, which no human faga-
city could forefee, and which yet fhall be accomplifhed in
the proper feafon. (See Propuecy.) It fhould alfo be
further obferved upon this fubje@t, that not only they who
live in the age when the revelation was firlt publifhed to the
world may have fuch proofs of it as may be fuflicient to con-
vince them of its divine authority and original, but that it
may be tranfmitted with fuch evidence to thofe who: live in
fucceeding ages, as may lay them under an obligation to re-
ceive and fubmit to it asa revelation from God. Although
oral tradition is not a very fure conveyance, yet it is unde-
niable, that writings may be tranfmitted with fuch a degree
of evidence as to leave no room for reafonable doubt. "This
is the moft fimple and natural way of propagating the know-
ledge of revelation to fucceeding ages. Such is the fact
with regard to the revelation contained in the holy feriptures :
nor is it difficult to prove, that we have greater evidence of
the fafe tranfmiffion of thefe facred writings, without any
general and material corruption and alteration, than we have
concerning other books, the genuinenefs of which is univer-
fally acknowledged. To this_kind of argument it can only
be objected, that moral evidence is uncertain, and hiftorical
human teftimony fallible ; but to the objection the reply is
obvious, that this kind of evidence may be, and frequently is,
fo circumftanced, that the man would fearcely be thought
in his fenfes who fhould ferioufly deny or doubt of it. It is
by moral evidence, and the teftimony of fallible men, capable
of deceiving and of being deceived, that a man who has never
been at Paris or Rome knows that there are fuch cities, and
yet he can no more reafonably doubt of it, than if he had
feen them with his owneyes. It is by moral evidence, that
we have all our laws and records, and the affurance of any
pat fats. And yet is there any man of fenfe, who does
not as certainly believe many facts which were done in former
ages, as he believes any event that has happened of late
years, and within his own memory? It is by this kind of
evidence of teftimony that we are neceffarily guided and de-
termined in many cafes of great importance : and why fhould
it be thought abfurd to fuppofe, that it fhould be fo ordered
by the Author of our frame and the great Ruler of the
world, that our knowledge of fome important matters re-
lating to religion fhould be obtained by this mode of con-
veyance? He that reeeives divine revelation upon this kind
of evidence aéts a wife and good part, becoming a reafonable
being and a moral agent.
Having fhewn that a revelation from God is poflible, the
fecond fubje& of confideration is the great ufefulnefs and
advantage of divine revelation, and the neceffity of it in the
prefent {tate of mankind, for fupporting and promoting the
interefts of religion and virtue in the world, Such a reve-
lation may be of great ufe even with regard to thofe truths
and principles which lie at the foundation of all religion ;
fuch are the truths which relate to the excellent and unparal-
lelled nature, the perfections and attributes of the one fu-
preme God. (See Gop.) A divine revelation may alfo be
very ufeful in eftablifhing the belief of the providence of God ;
and further, in communicating inftruétion even to thofe, who
allow that fome kind of religious worfhip and homage fhould
be rendered to God by his reafonable creatures. What
kind. of worfhip will be moft acceptable to the Supreme
Being, and what rites are moft proper to be ufed in his fervice,
are queitions which unaflifted reafon cannot pofitively and
with certainty determine. The doétrine of the immortality
of the foul, and of a future ftate of retribution, is unqueftion-
ably of very great importance to mankind ; and the natural
and moral arguments to prove it have certainly great weight 5
but they are affailed by difficulties and objections which
weaken the evidence, and may occafion {ufpicion and doubt,
if natural reafon be our only guide and umpire. Accord-
ingly fome of the mott eminent ancient philofophers either
denied this doétrine, or expreffed themfelves doubtfully and
waveringly concerning it. If then God himfelf fhould, by
a well-attefted revelation, affure us, that death fhall not
put an utter end to our being ; that the prefent life 1s only
the firft ftage of our exiftence ; that we fhall be raifed again
from the dead ; and that God will call all men to an account,
and reward or punifh them in a future ftate according to
their behaviour in this; and fhouid alfo fignify to us the
nature of thofe rewards and punifhments, and the qualifica-
tions of the perfons on whom they fhall be conferred or
infli&ted; this muft needs be of high advantage, and tend to
give us fatisfaétion in a point of confiderable importance, for
encouraging men in the pra¢tice of virtue, and delivering
them from vice and wickednefs. Moreover, we are led by
the light of nature and reafon to entertain fome hope, that
God will fhew mercy to finners upon their repentance and
amendment ; but how far this mercy fhall extend, whether
he will pardon fins of every kind, even the moft heinous,
frequently repeated, and long perfifted in, merely upon re-
pentance and amendment ; and whether his pardon mm this
cafe will be only a mitigation or remiffion of the threatened
penalty, without a full reftitution to grace and favour, and
how far he will reward an obedience attended with failures
and defects :—thefe things might create anxious doubts and
perplexities to ferious and thoughtful minds. Efpecially
when it is further confidered, that reafon leads us to regard
: ‘ : : &
God as juft as well as merciful, a wife and righteous govern-
or, who will therefore exercife his pardoning mercy in fuch
a way as feemcth moft fit to his re€toral wifdom, and will
beft anfwer the ends of moral government ; and of this fuch
fhort-fighted creatures as we are cannot pretend to be come
petent judges. A revelation from God fatisfying mankind,
and efpecially anxious penitents, with regard to thefe inte-
refting quettions, and afluring them by exprefs promife, as
well as by its reprefentations of the placability of God, and of
the provifion which he has made for the pardon of repenting
tranigreflors in perfeét confiitence with all the attributes of
his nature and laws of his government, muft be avery great |
benefit to the world. The affiftance promifed and certified
by revelation, to thofe who ufe their own earneft endea-
yours in the performance of their duty, mutt further
evince its importance and utility. Befides, the benefits of a
divine revelation further extend to thofe laws and duties
which we owe to God, our neighbours, and ourfelves, and
which are comprehended under the clafs of moral obliga-
tions. But though revelation is thus eminently afeful, and
even neceffary, it is not defigned to fuperfede the ufe of our
own reafon, or to render the exercife of it needlefs, but to
guide, improve, and perfeé it. Revelation, fo far from
difcarding or weakening any argument that can be juftly
brought from reafon, in proof of any truths relating to re-
ligion or morality, adds to them the atteftation of a divine
authority or teftimony, which is of great weight. - Thie
both gives us a farther degree of certainty with regard to
thofe things which are in fome degree difcoyerable by the
light of reafon, and alfo furnifhes us with a fufficient ground
of affent, with refpe& to thofe things which mere unaffifted
reafon, if left to itfelf, would not have difcovered, and which
yet it may be of ufe for us to know, ;
6 By
REV
By the common confent of mankind, a competent autho-
rity is, in many cafes, a good and proper medium to affure
us of the truth of things; and to believe upon the credit of
fuch an authority and teftimony, is fo far from being a re-
nunciation of our reafon, as fome have pretended, that, on
the contrary, it is what reafon and good fenfe require ; and
. to decline it would be to a& an abfurd and unreafonable
part. Admitting that a fuppofed revelation from God is
eftablifhed upon fifficient evidence, we are bound to receive
what is revealed upon the authority of the revealer ; info-
much that it would be a contradiétion to believe it to be a
revelation from God, and yet refufe our aflent to it: fince
it is a moft unqueftionable principle, that, as God is in-
capable of deceiving or of being deceived, whatfoever he
hath revealed muft be true.
This leads us to the third fubje& of inquiry propofed in
reference to divine revelation, viz. what are the proofs and
evidences by which it may be known that fuch a revelation
has been actually communicated to mankind, and that the
revelation which we have in our poffeffion is entitled to this
chara€ter. We may obferve in general, that it has been the
fenfe of mankind in all ages and nations, that God hath made
a revelation of his will to man ; and this prevalent opinion has
been probably derived from a tradition of fome extraordinary
revelation, or revelations, communicated in the earlieft times
to the firft anceftors of the human race, from whom it has
been tranfmitted to their defcendants; though, in procefs
of time, it has been in a great meafure corrupted and loft.
Or at leaft we may hence conclude, that men have gene-
rally thought that a revelation from God to man was both
poffible and probable; and that this was agreeable to the
ideas they had formed of the wifdom and goodnefs of God,
and of his concern for mankind. It would lead us far be-
yond the limits of this article, particularly to ftate the
roofs that have been alleged for the divine authority of the
Jewifh and Chriftian revelation ; both of which refer to and
confirm the original revelation made to mankind from the
beginning. But this is the lefs neceffary, as the fubje& is
difeutied in various parts of the Cyclopedia. See Brate,
Canon, CuristraAn Religion, Reticion, ResurRECTION
of Chrif, ScrretuRE, TESTAMENT, &c.
The Chriftian revelation is that made by Chrift, and his
apoftles, in the New Teftament. The Jewifh revelation is
that made by Mofes and the prophets, in the Old Teftament.
See Curistian Religion, and Jupaism.
A late author obferves, fomewhat invidioufly, that it is
the common method of all new revelations, to be built on
precedent ones. Thus, the miffion of Mofes to the [fraelites
fuppofes a former revelation to Abraham, &c. The miffion
of Chrift fuppofes that of Mofes ; and the pretended miffion
of Mahomet fuppofes the miffion of Chritt. The miflion
of Zoroafter to the Perfians fuppofes the religion of the
Magi, &c. ‘
The general foundation of all revelation is this, that God
is pleafed man fhould know fomething relating to himfelf,
his own nature, difpenfation, &c. which the natural fa-
culties with which he was pleafed to create him could net
attain to; and that he requires fome duty or fervice at our
hands, more than what neceflarily follows from the relation
we are under to him as our creator, preferver, &c.
This is alfo urged by deifts, to the difcredit of all parti-
cular revelations, as derogating from the perfeétions of God ;
fuch fupplementary informations and initructions arguing,
according to them, a prior deficiency in the eftablifhed eco-
nomy of nature, of which he is the author. But many able
anfwers have been given to fuch cavils.
Particular or occafional revelations have their particular
REV
Ps charaéteriftics, and defigns. That made by
ofes and the prophets chiefly related to the nation of the
Jews, confidered as the defcendants of Abraham : its defign
feems to have been to refcue that people from their flavery ;
to fettle them in a new plantation; to give them a fet of
laws; to new-form their manners; to fupport them under
difficulties and dangers of their enemies,” from an opinion of
their being under the immediate dire€tion and appointment
of God; to keep them from intermixing again with their
neighbours, from an opinion of their being a chofen people,
and of a Meffiah to be born among them ; and thus to pre-
ferve and tranfmit the knowledge of the unity of God, in
oppofition to idolatry and polytheifm, and the hope of the
Meffiah, till the period of his appearance arrived. T'o fome
or other of thefe ends do all the Old Teftament prophecies
feem to tend.
The Chriftian revelation is founded on a part of the Jewith.
The Meffiah promifed in the one is revealed in the other.
All the reft of the Jewith revelation, which related pe-
culiarly to the Jewith people, is here fet afide; and only
that part of it in which the world in general was interefted,
and that relating to the advent, offices, and charaéter of the
Meffiah, are retained.
Indeed, it muft be owned, the Jews ever looked on this
to be as peculiar to themfelves as any of the reft ; the Mef-
fiah was promifed to them; he was to be their deliverer,
their reftorer, &c. and under this character he 2étually ap-
peared. But, upon taking place of this new revelation, a
new fcene was opened, different from what many of them
apprehended, becaufe they mifinterpreted the prophecies re-
lating to the Meffiah. The ceremonial part of their inititu-
tion, local and temporary in its eftablifhment and ufe, was
abolifhed; and the Meffiah appeared, not, as they erro-
neoufly imagined, to be the reftorer of their civil fovereignty
and liberties, which were now fallen into the hands of the
Romans ; but to reftore and re-eftablifh mankind in general,
who had loft their original righteoufnefs, and were become
flaves of fin ; to preach repentance and remiffion ; and at laft
to fuffer death, that all who believed in him might not die,
but have everlafting life.
Such are the tenor and defign of the Chriftian revelation,
which, in the event, was fo far from being what it/had been
apprehended to be by the people to whom it was fifft pro-
mifed, that it proved the very reverfe; and, inftead of re-
eftablifhing and confirming the other branches of their re-
velation, it fuperfeded, and fet them all afide. The pale
was now broken down, and the being of the feed of Abra-
ham ceafed to be a privilege, all the world being irvited on
the fame terms with the Jews.
The confequence was, that the Jews, denying this to be
the Meffiah that had been promifed to them, becaufe their
pride and prejudice prevented their difcerning the accom-
plifkment of their ancient prophecies in him, were generally
excluded from the privileges of that miffion, which they had
vainly fuppofed to be not only primarily but wholly intended
for themfelves ; and had their ruin completed from the very
means whence they expected their redemption: becaufe
they expe€ted a redemption, different in its nature from that
which their own prophecies, fairly interpreted, propofed.
REVELLO, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Stura, near the Po, feated on the fummit
of a very high mountain, fortified both by nature and art.
Having formerly ferved as a place of refuge for the mar-
quifes of Saluzzo, and with{tood many attacks from their
enemies, it was taken ‘by the French; and in 1588 it fur-
rendered to Charles Emanuel I., duke of Savoy. It con-
tains one parochial church, and three other ao a
caftle,
R'E V
caftle, a palace, and a convent of Dominicans; 3 miles
N.W. of Saluzzo.
REVELS, formed from the French reveiller, to awake,
as alluding to the night feafon, when they were chiefly held ;
entertainments of dancing, mafking, gaming, acting co-
medies, farces, &c. anciently very frequent in inns of courts,
at certain feafons, and in noblemen’s houfes, &c. but now
much difufed.
The officer who has the diretion or ordering of the revels
at court, is called the ma/ler of the revels.
REVELSKOI, in Geography, a province of Ruffia, fo
called from Revel the capital, bounded en the N. and W.
by the Baltic, on the E. by the government of Peterfburg,
and on the S. by the government of Riga; about 144 miles
in length, and from 16 to 60 in breadth; formerly the
duchy of Efthonia. N. lat. 58° 20! to 59° 30'. _E. long.
23° to 28. See Esrionra and Revet.
REVENGE, in Ethics, is an infatiable defire to facrifice
every confideration of pity and humanity to the principle
of vinditive juitice. It renders the demands of that ter-
rific giant paramount to every other claim. It is a pro-
penfity to retaliate evil, too fervent to be cooled by time,
too deep and inveterate to be obliterated by concefiions and
intreaties. It anticipates joy in the contemplation of fighs
and groans, and the only moment of tranfport is the inftant
of infligting mifery. This difpofition approaches very
near to permanent malevolence of the moift defpicable cha-
rater. The abftraét idea of juftice, however, forms a par-
tition between them; for to this, malevolence has no rightful
claim. But its more honourable diftin@tion confifts in that
repentance, which humanity excites in the mind that is not
totally obdurate, after the gratification of this dreadful
paffion.
Anger long indulged to excefs is apt to produce revenge.
See ANGER.
REVENUE, the yearly rent or profits arifing to a man
from his lands, pofleflions, &c.
The word is French, formed from revenir, io return.
Whence revenue is fometimes alfo ufed in ancient authors for
a return; as the revenue of Eafter.
The revenues of the Englifh clergy were firft fixed by
king Ethelwulph, anno 853, who granted them for ever
the tithe of all goods, and the tenth part of all the lands of
England, free ea all fecular fervice, taxes, impofitions,
&c. Though Rapin obferves, that tithes were fettled on
the clergy by the laws of Ina and Offa. But thefe laws
were probably not obferved, or perhaps Ethelwulph ex-
tended the law of tithes all over England. See Tirue.
The certain revenues of the king of England were an-
ciently greater than thofe of any king in Europe; and till
the time of the civil wars they enjoyed, in domains and fee-
farm rents, almoft enough to difcharge all the ordinary ex-
pences of the crown, without any tax or impofition on the
fubject.
The revenue which the Britifh conftitution hath vefted in
the royal perfon, in order to fupport his dignity, and main-
tain his power, is either ordinary or extraordinary.
The king’s ordinary revenue is fuch as hath either fub-
fifted time out of mind in the crown, though, by reafon of
royal grants, the king be not at prefent in the actual pof-
feffion of the whole of it ; or elfe has been granted by par-
liament, by way of purchafe or exchange for fuch of the
king’s inherent hereditary revenues, as were found incon-
venient to the fubjeét. Of the king’s ordinary revenues
there are four, which are of an ecclefialtical kind. Such
are, 1. The cuftody of the temporalities of bifhops, or all
the lay revenues, lands, and tenements, (2n which is in-
4
REV
cluded his barony,) which beleng to an archbifhop’s or
bifhop’s fee, and whicli, upon the vacancy of the bifhopric,
revert immediately to the king, as his right, during the va-
cancy. This branch of the royal revenue was formerly
very confiderable, but is now, by cuftomary indulgence,
reduced almoft to nothing; for, at prefent, as foon as the
new bifhop is confecrated and confirmed, he ufually receives
the reftitution of his temporalities, entire and untouched,
from the king; and then, but not fooner, he has a fee-
fimple in his bifhopric, aud may maintain an action for the
profits. (Co. Litt. 67. 341.) 2. fa corody out of every
bifhopric, or a right of fending one of his chaplains to be.
maintained by the bifhop, or to have a penfion allowed him
till the bifhop promotes him to a benefice (F. N. B. 230.) 5
which is now fallen into total difufe; though fir Matthew
Hale fays, that it is due of common right, and that no pre-
{cription will difcharge it. 3. The tithes arifing in extra-
parochial places, which are held, indeed, under an’ implied
truft, that the king will diftribute them for the good of the
clergy in general. (2 Inft. 647.) 4. The firit-fruits and
tenths of all {piritual preferments in the kingdom. See
Firsr-Fruits and TEnTHus.
The following branches of the king’s ordinary revenue
are of a lay or temporal nature. 5. The firlt of thefe con-
fifts in the rents and profits of the demefne lands of the
crown, which are either the fhare referved to the crown at
the original diftribution of landed property, or fuch as came
to it afterwards by forfeitures cr other means, and were
formerly very extenfive, but are now contracted within a
very narrow compafs, having been almoft entirely granted
away to private fubje&ts. 6. The advantages which ufed
to arife to the king from the profits of his military tenures,
to which molt lands in the kingdom were fubje, till they
were ina great meafure abolifhed by the ftatute 12 Car. II.
cap. 24. to which may be alfo referred the profitable pre-
rogative of purveyance and pre-emption ; which branches
of the royal revenue and power were refigned entirely by
king Charles at his Reftoration ; in recompence for which,
the parliament fettled on him, his heirs and fucceffors for
ever, the hereditary excife of fifteen pence per barrel on all
beer and ale fold in the kingdom, and a proportionable fum
for certain other liquors; fo that this hereditary exeife
forms the fixth branch of his majefty’s ordinary revenue,
7. The rents payable to the crown by fuch perfons as are
licenfed to fell wine by retail throughout England, except
in a few privileged places, firft fettled on the crewn by the
flatute 12 Car. II. cap. 25. but abolifhed by the flatute
30 Geo. II. cap. rg. when an annual fum of upwards of
7000/. per annum, illuing out of the new ftamp duties im-
pofed on wine licences, was fettled on the crown in its flead.
8. The profits arifing fram the king’s forefts, confifting
principally in amercements or fines levied for offences againit
the foreft-laws, for levying which, few, if any, courts have
been held fince 1632, 8 Car. I. g. The profits arifing
from the king’s ordinary courts of juftice; confifting not
only in fines impofed upon offenders, forfeitures of recog-
nizances, and amercements levied upon defaulters, but alfo
in certain fees due to the crown in a variety of legal mat-
ters; as for fetting the great feal to charters, original writs,
and other forenfic proceedings, and for permitting fines to
be levied of Jands in order to bar entails, or otherwife to
infure their title. ‘Thefe, in procefs of time, have been al-
moft all granted to private perfons, or elfe appropriated to
certain particular ufes. All future grants of thefe, by
1 Ann. itat. 2. cap. 7. are to endure for no longer time
than the prince’s life who grants them. 10. The right to
royal fifh. 11. The revenue arifing from fhipwrecks, which
1$
REVENUE:
is frequently granted out to lords of manors, as a royal
franchife. (See Wreck.) 12. The right to mines of
filver and gold. (See Ming.) 13. The revenue of trea-
fure-trove. 14. Waifs. 15. Eftrays, which the law gives
to the king as the general owner and lord paramount of the
foil; though they now moft commonly belong to the lord
- of the manor, by fpecial grant from the crown. 16. For-
feitures of lands and goods for offences. (See ConFIscATE
and Deopanp.) Thefe are for the moft part granted out
to the lords of manors, or other liberties. 17.~The revenue
arifing from the efcheats of lands, reverting, upon the de-
fault of heirs to fucceed to the inheritance, to the king, who
is efteemed, in the eye of the law, the original proprietor of
all the lands in the kingdom. 18. The laft branch of the
king’s ordinary revenue confifts in the cuftody of idiots.
Such is the king’s ordinary reverue, or the proper patri-
»mony of the crown, which was formerly very large, and
capable of being increafed to a magnitude truly formidable :
but, fortunately for the liberty of the {ubject, this here. _
ditary landed revenue is now funk almoft to nothing; and
the cafual profits, arifing from the other branches of the
cenfus regalis, sxe likewife almoft all of them alienated from
the crown. In order to fupply the deficiencies of which,
we are now obliged to have recourfe to new methods of raif-
ing money, unknown to our early anceftors ; which methods
conftitute the king’s extraordinary revenue. See Tax,
Founp, and Nationa Debt.
We fhall here obferve, that the aggregate fund ftood
mortgaged by parliament to raife an annual fum for the
maintenance of the king’s houfehold, and the civil lift.
For this purpofe, in the late reigns, the produce of certain
branches of the excife and cuftoms, the polt-office, the duty
on wine licences, the revenue of the remaining crown lands,
the profits arifing from courts of juftice, (which articles in-
clude all the hereditary revenues uf the crown,) and alfo a
clear annuity of 120,000/. in money, were fettled on the
king for life, for the fupport of his majefty’s houfehold, and
the honour and dignity of the crown. And, as the amount
of thefe feveral branches was uncertain, (though in the lat
reign they were computed to have fometimes raifed almoft a
miltion,) if they did not arife annually to 800,000/., the par-
liament engaged to make up the deficiency. But his pre-
fent majefty, foon after his acceflion, having accepted the
limited fum of 800,000/. per annum for the fupport of his
civil lift, (charged alfo with three life-annuities, to the prin-
cefs of Wales, the duke of Cumberland, and the princefs
Amelia, to the amount of 77,000/.) the faid hereditary and
other revenues were made a part of the aggregate fund,
which was charged with the payment of the whole annuity
to the crown of 800,000/. per annum. 'The expences for-
merly defrayed by the civil lift were thofe that in any fhape
relate to civil government: as the expences of the houfe-
hold ; all falaries te officers of flate, to the judges, and each
of the king’s fervants; the appointments to foreign ambaf-
fadors ; the maintenance of the queen and royal family ; the
king’s private expences, or privy purfe ; and other very nu-
merous outgoings, as fecret fervice money, penfions, and
other bounties ; which fometimes have fo far exceeded the
revenues appointed for that purpofe, that application has
been made to parliament to difcharge the debis contraéted
on the civil lift; as particularly in 1724, when one million
was granted for that purpofe by the ftatute 11 Geo. I.
cap. 17; and in 1769 and 1777, when half a million and
600,000/. were appropriated to the like ufe, by the ftatutes
9 Geo. III. cap. 34. and 17 Geo. III. c. 47... Many of
thefe expences are now charged on the confolidated fund,
and the civil lift comprehends the fupport of his majefty’s
houfehold.
The civil lift is, indeed, properly the whole of the king’s
revenue in his own diftiné& capacity ; the reft being rather
the revenue of the public, or its creditors, though col-
lected and diftributed again in the name and by the officers
of the crown.
The whole revenue of queen Elizabeth did not amount
to more than 600,000/. a-year ; that of king Charles I, was
800,coo/.; and the revenue voted for king Charles II. was
1,200,000/. ; but under thefe fums were included all kinds
of public expence. The fame revenue, fubje& to the fame
charges, was fettled on king James II. (Stat. 1 Jac. II.
c. 1.) But by the increafe of trade, and better management,
it amounted on an average to a million and a half per annum,
(befide other additional cuftoms, granted by parliament,
(ibid. c. 3. and 4.) which produced an annual revenue of
400,000/.), out of which his fleet and army were maintained
at the yearly expence of 1,100,000/. At this time the re-
venues of the king of France were computed at feven mil-
lions fterling ; and thofe of the ftates of Holland at three
millions. After the Revolution, when the parliament took
into its own hands the annual fupport of the forces, both
maritime and military, a civil lift revenue was fettled on the
new king and queen, amounting, with the hereditary duties,
to 700,00e0/. per annum; and the fame was-continued to
queen Anne and king George I. That of king George II.
was nominally augmented to 800,000/. (ftat. 1 Geo. II.
c. I.); and in faét was confiderably more. But that of his
prefent majefty was avowedly increafed to the limited fum of
goo,coo/. The clear yearly fum of 100,000/., to com-
mence from the fifth ot January 1777, over and above the
fum of 800,cc0/. before granted, was granted to his ma-
jefty out of the aggregate fund by itat. 17 Geo. III., but
is now chargeable on the confolidated. fund. Blacktt.
Com. vol. i. chap. vill. See-Funp, and the fequel of this
article.
The following particulars, relating to the revenue, are
extraCted from the Report prefented to the houfe of com-
mons, ending 5th January 1814.
An
REVENUE.
An Account of the Ordinary Revenues and Extraordinary Refources conftituting the Public Income of Great Britain,
for the Year ending the 5th of January 1814.
or
|
Net Produce applicable to
Total Sum to beaccounted | National Obje&is, and Payments into the
Headers eventG Grofs Receipt within the for, deducting out- to Payments into the Exchequer, deduétin
: an Year. ftanding Balances and Exchequer, dedudiing total | total Payments out of the
Bills. Payments out of the net Produce.
grofs Revenue.
Orpinary REVENUES. £ Gece £ Ssabnds £ ean a £ Su dk
Permanent and Annual Taxes.
Cuftoms - - - | 10,325,550 19 10g 19,938,523 16 7% | 8,086,313 2 9% | 7:015,968 19 115
este = - - - oer as ray Ee aoe 9 Ss Lee 4 Fi BOT 19 22
tamps - 3 F = |) $:930s15'5 17 TOs] 9539732174 TAs 72+ 515525400 T° 3a) 6533445400 13 Ft
Land and affefled taxes -| 7,884,841 3 ris 8,101,968 7 34 7,803,459 3 2 | 724330496 18 432
ese : ia - * - | 1,938,517 10 6 25137:437 12 5% | 1,619,136 10 7% | 1,403,000 0 ©
oun
a a nautl Clates fi 19,648 16 & 20,803 10 8 20,423 5 2 Ly sg 25) tan Se
i in th ad
nr udiiodiediel dolatie oa 11,728 17 of 13,521 0 5% 12,151 05. Lie 10,707 9 12
Hackney coaches - - 25,181 10 O 255551 19 3 22,245 6 15 21,887 -0 0
Hawkers and pedlars - 20,160 3 24 20,779 14 4% BSSZOx ts TA 18,120 0-090
Total - | 46,669,637-13 - 3% | 48,251,082 5 23 | 41,661,269 13 2 | 39,304,706 2 1
Small Branches of the Here- |
ditary Revenue. fey ¢ 22000 °
en fines - - se D4 9.539 12 1 8,392 4 : 4,069 12
oft fines - . - 13 93 4,011 17 2 3,953 4
Seizures - - - 22,638 4 7 22,638 4 7 22,638 4 7 22,638 4 7
Compofitions and proffers - 586 15 2 586 15 2 586 15 2 586 15 2
Crown lands - - - 84,930 13 7 90,096 18 54 87,703 4 10 11,016 g 8
ExTrAoRDINARY Rz-
SOURCES.
g eon Reteraie) Sri- shuber2 14 98 Diet 14 98 32759358 5 44) 352759358 5 45
s aoe Sasisayale na ae Rigas 75599 Scala (is ee © 33 | 60739538 4 5
3 A eece Firs e d - | 14,318,816 4 15 | 14,889,444 15 35 | 14,583,286 9 63 13,965,808 7 2
peseaie moh. (of) 1,620 13 8 1,620 13 8 1,593 15 4% 1,593 15 43
2 a 4
which one-third part is x f
for the fervice aE Tre- 310,800 0 © 310,800 © 0 378,666 6 6 278,666 6 6
land) 2 3 k
Monies paid on account
of the intereft of loans
raifed for the fervice of 351982475. 2 10 3:198,475 2 10 39198,475 2 10 33198,475 2 10
Treland - - = ;
On account of balance due
by Ireland on. joint ex- *
penditure Sethe united 329562276 0. © 32956276 9 0 3:956,275 0 0 3.956.276 9 0
kingdom - - °
On account of the com- }
miffioners, appointed by |
act 35 Geo. IIT. c. 127. | :
and 37 Geo. IIT. c. 27. { SHE CO} eS hype Oe 54200 © © 54,200 © ©
for iffuing exchequer |
bills for Grenada, &c. J
On account of the com-
miffioners for iffuing
fille byatt ssGee dil, | 490591 18 9 4905591 18 9 490591 18 9 490,591 18 9
5 III.
Cc. 15. - -J
Carried forward — + | 79,161,420 11 25 | 81,357,521 12 7$ | 73,740,848 5 2 | 70,639,525 3 118
REVENUE.
Net Produce applicable to
4 Total Sum to beaccounted | National Objeéis, and Payments into the
ily : Grof: ipt within the for, deduéti t- P to th Excl » deducti
Lite SSB =a <a Bp hana Balaueep antl Rates ates ‘cial al Papert eae of the
Bills. Payments out of the net Produce.
grofs Revenue.
£ Sa th £ Shenae £ Tape tds £ 5. eds
Brought forward. - | 79,161,420 11 25 | 81,357,521 12 73 | 73,740,848 5 2 | 70,639,525 3 113
On account of the inte-
reft, &c. of a loan :
granted to the prince DATS “3.40 5 PMO 3. 0 SU (320 57270" Sy
regent of Portugal = -
Surplus fees of Pegulated 107,355 18 3 107.355 18 3 104 18 an 18
public offices - “ ; 1355 3 79355 3
Impreft money repaid iy l
fundry public account-
antss gre including ‘i. j 56,504 1 105 56,504 1 10% 56,504 1 10% 56,504 1 10%
tercit -
Other monies paid to the
public 'P 2 t 65,660 9 5 65,660 9 5 65,660 9 5 65,660 9 5
dependent ab ty
Tota pteiioan, i | Toca betts 3 9% | 81,644,212 5 2% | 74,027,538 17 83 70,926,215 16 6}
Loans vain into the
exchequer, including
6,000,000). for the fer- 35995574 17 9 | 352050574 17 9 | 35305574 17 9 | 35,050.574 17 9
vice of Ireland - =
— ———.
Grand total - 114,498,686 1 6% |116,694,787 2 114 |109,078,113 15 52 |105,976,790 14 33
A General Statement of the Revenue of Cuftoms of Great Britain.
England. Scotland. | Great Britain.
Grofs receipt within the year, viz. £ Se a, | rae Se
d. £ on de
7131392 © 94 | 10,080:934 4 5%
Iz
Permanent and annual duties 953675542 3 gi
295,007 5 | $818,272 14 OF
War taxes - - 33523,205 a 8
12,890,747 13 3 7,008,459 § 10% | 13,899,205 19 3
An Account of the Grofs AGtual Receipt in Money, &c. of the Excife Confolidated Duties, Unconfolidated Duties,
Temporary War Taxes, and ‘Tobacco and Malts, annual in England.
: | Grofs Aual Receipt Net Produce of cach | Net Payments into the
Articles. | in Money. Article. Exchequer.
iE . 2 | & San a £ taenade £ sennees
Auétions - - - - -.1 » 343,530 16. 83 335184 4 IF] 335184 0 0
Beer - - - - - - | 2,888,298 13 10% | 2,569,272 3 33 | 29§69,272 0 0
Bricks and tiles - - - - 300,184 8 108 | 293249 9 2¢ | 2931249 0 O
Candles - - - - - 311,305 15 2 | 250,637 6 10% | 250,638 o o
Cocoa nuts and coffee - - - | 124,049 7. 23°| 115,655 12 1% | 115,656 0 Oo
Cyder, perry, and verjuice ~ -| 25,197 17 a 20,996 4 105 | 20,921 0 0
Glafs - - - = 614,054 14 85 | 3839531 6 55.| - 383931 0 0
Hides and iiina. - : - Ss 674,751 3 8} | 590:669 ° = soneg oO
Hops - : : = 4| SS ae ol 39,051 19 25 | J O5§Zz Cy Oo
Carried forward - | §5334:910 © 32! 4.597247 6 42) 4,597,172 0 0 |
Vou. XXX. Oo
Articles.
A
Brought forward
| Starch -
| Stone bottles -
| Sweets and mead
Wea ss °3
| ‘L'obacco and faut
| Vinegar 3
} Wine - - -
| Wire -~ . >
i Licences - = - S
j Malt = = = a
| Paper a = = z
Printed goods 5 A 3
LSaltwar= 5 fe = 3
Soap - = - & =
Baran Britifh 2 3 i
Spirits | Foreign = = 5
eo 6
1. Jt are
O)
Total confolidated duties
Britifh, per 51 Geo. ate & a
Spirits ae do.
Total unconfolidated duties
Temporary War Taxes.
| Malt, per 43 Geo. au c. 81, e
| Sweets - - -
L_Spirits Britifh ne - -
} P Foreign do. - -
| Tea _-
| Tobacco and {nuff, per 46 Geo Te! 30.
raney: per 47 Geo. III. c. 27. -
ae Geo. III. c. 3. = -
Total temporary war taxes
Annual Duties.
Tobacco and fnuff, com. 26 March s
| Malt, additional do. = ch
| Malt, old, com. 24 June - -
Total annual duties
Totals colleéed.
i Confolidated duties . e
| Unconfolidated duties = 2
| Temporary war taxes - -
} Annual duties . _ a
Grand total =
a 552,951 1
- | 17,242,153 16 3
5 339384 10 3
3
I
REVENUE.
Grofs AQual Receipt
in Money.
oe Sash vas
- | 523343910 0 35
7 439,892 15 09
- | 1,120,558 12 10
2 419,570 17 34
i 947:029 I 3
- | 15548,092 14 53
3 643;039 16 74
- | 1,636,503 17 If
- | 1,499,110 8 84
- 37,422 6 Of
3 2,538 3 55
; 251453 6 9
- | 2,048,096 0 of
383,870 9 6
; 425593 16 22
-“| 151005583 12 ‘32
- 12,887 18
- ‘572025. 13. %3
- 28,182 7 of
2 332384 10 35
=' |, °252055220),104 1.7
- 4,220 2 42
- 580,612 6 4
- 742,262 2 32
- | 2,055,263 18 8
e 312,534 3 6
- 58,166 14 23
; 7,821 7 33
-sl, §3900,210.5 5° 3
- 483,081 9g 1
- 893.592 8 9%
25
~ | 17,242,153 16 35
Net Produce of each
Article.
£ Saas
415971247 6 4%
433,750 5 4
I,119.461 11 92
372,976 10 11F
322,145 19 O
15394253 IO 10
551,468 12 9%
| 1,620,883 6 3
| 114235359 11 99
29,178 8 5
2,279 18 2%
255337 10 3,
139145739 17 79
382,001 5 5%
42;155-° 246
980,652 17 114
11,537 10 4%
15,223,429 5 75
52129 4° 9
28,174 14 7%
339303 19. 44
ere ee I 25
»219 Il 4%
sSciaee II 10
742,111 10 13
1,960,299 17 11%
310,566 17 63
58,050 16 112
‘T+
97,820 1 4%
5,850,804 8 6
453,262 6 32
893,158 16 7%
423,808 15 832
I
19
- | 1,929,625 9
- | 5,966,110 5
- | 1,929,625 9
1,770,229 18 72
15:223,429 .5 75
3392393 VLON rd
5,850,804 8 6
1,770,229 18 972
225877;767 12 I
-°) 25271,274 oO 112
Net Payments into the
Exchequer.
£ Se
4597172
43375!
1,119,462
3723976
322,146
153949254
551,468
1,620,883
1,423,488
2079
2,280
259275
19145739:
382,002
eee cree tBlecks lh
uo
eo0o0o0ofr OOOO OO0O0000 0
15,223,414 4
al
ple
2,187,270
4,236
580,466
742,111
1,960,300
310,567
58,051
72777
ooopOO000
eoo0o0omoao0907
plo
5,850,778 4 52 |
1,770,241 O° -O
155223414 4 53
33304 0 0 |
5,850,778 4 55 |
1,770;241 0 oO |
22,877,737 8 115 |
REVENUE.
An Account of the Grofs A€tual Receipt, &ce. of the Excife in Scotland.
| |
Duties. | Grofy A&val Receipt Net Produce.
pe ——
pear n Lie od
fAuGions - z H : . 5 at 18,190 7 53 15,712 12 112
Beer - - - - - = | 80,810 2 6 | 56,188 15 73
Bricks and tiles = = + = S - | 55745 13. 5 55433 2 32
Candles - - - - = - 19,051 17 “9 75;003 "210
Cocoa nuts and coffee - - - - - | 73543 17 54 75343 17 54
Cyder and perry - - - - - - a ee es pals | 34
Glafs = = . - - - 136,912 5 10% 40,852°10 52
Hides and fkins e : : ‘ i 76,966 o 8 | 66,323 18 61
_ | Hops - - = - - = = PAY. Ve ei 25 142
| Licences - - s - - - - 56,259 8 of ! 47,98r 1 54
z Malt - - - - - - - 36,828 10 if | 29-399 1 34
= ¢ Paper 3 = = . = - = 43,368 3 of | 27,075 II 10
= | Printed goods - - - - - - 263,827 8 43 72,446 12 4%
3 Salt - - - - - - - 107,112 “9 54 96,234 2 of
Soap - - - - - : 108,702 13 gt 90,099 6 1
Britih fois - - - - - - 288,879 15 44 268,157 3 rz
| Foreign fpirits - - - - - . 125,669 8 rf 120,178 8 49%
Starch - - - - - - - 3,160 2 25 1,478 9 9
Stone bottles - : - - - - 6 9 44 6 9 4%
Sweets - : - - - - - 257 2 '0 257%, .2 0
Tobacco and {nuff - . - - 45,815 19 53 42,299 5 63
Vinegar - - - - - - - | 794 18 54 794 18 54
. | Wine - - - - - - 67,291 15 on 58,213 7 11d
S ( Britith fpirits, 51 Geo: IIT. c. 59. - : - 82 13 34 8213-32
20) Do.<1do.-,.52-Geo. ITI. c.3. - - - 86,327 12 9 | 83,027 12 9
33 ) Foreign fpirits, 51 Geo. III. c. 59. - - - 494 4 6 | 494 4 6
z Do. do. 52 Geo. III. c. 3. - - = 140 2 113 140 2 112
( Malt, 1803 - - : - - 65,148 14 3 50,523 5 25
EB | Britifh {pirits, 1806 - - - - - 9,460 8 10} 7,610 9 65
5 as fpirits, 1803 - - - . - 62,002 15 113 57,819 14 53
&) D do. 1807 - - - - - 899 3 35 899 3 32
o pale 1803 - = - - - - 42 17,0 42 17 0
F | Tobacco, 1806 - = = > = : 37,108 13. 0 34345 5 32
Fines and forfeitures - - - - - 16,709 5 42 155392 13 113
Total, Excife é <
Malt, 23d June: furplus_ - - - = :
Do. deficient - - = = :
-3 |,Da, 1813 - - - - = -
3 |} Do. 1814 - - : é
& ) Do. 25th March 1812, and receding - 2 =
< | Do. 1813. Cié«r s : =
Do. 1814 - =
Tobacco, ending 25th March 181 3 “and preceding -
Do. 1814 - : C
Total, annual duties - - : 7145345 15
Grand total - - - 1,861,691 4 25 | 1,387,030 19 6
REVENUE.
An Account of the Grofs and Net Produce, &c. of the Duties arifing from Stamps in England.
ood
Deeds, law proceedings, and other written inftruments, (except
legacy receipts, probates and adminiftrations, bills of exchange,
and promiffory notes and receipts,) and on licences to pawn-
brokers and dealers in thread lace : -
Legacies > - -
Probates and adminiftrations -
Bills of exchange and promiffory notes
. Receipts ~ -r -
Newfpapers and almanacs
Medicine and medicine licences
Fire infurances -
Cards = E5 5 = s & iy
' Gold and filver plate - 3 : 2 = =
Dice - - - - - . us =
Pamphlets = - - = C : |
Advertifements = 2 = iS bi =|
Stage coaches - 2 = 5 é ae eral
Poft horfes 4 as a = = i " |
Race horfes - = “ ARS nes : =|
Lottery = = - = s Z %
Grofs Produce.
2,010,598 13
545,115 6
417,263 5
624,353 17
161,080 9g
394,041 0
41,578 11
4372380 18
24,462 5
66,198 9
7280
aipiets
TI4,1LI 12
1675239 17
247,467 10 Oo
868 7 oO
wie
OoOmopho ea at Nw
co
Se
£ sends
5252,898 16 75
|
|
i
|
|
|
Net Produce.
£ peaks
1,901,235 90 9G
52513 4 IO 2
402,576 © 34
602,542 9 §
148,827, 0 22
329,069 17 1
36,188 11° 7%
405,844 2 15
23,788. g I
60,030 15 62
712 38 6
410 0 IO
110,348 9 95
163,010 6 113
244,322 2
736
45954828 8 55 |
33114903 7
An Account of the Grofs and Net Produce, &c. of the Duties arifing from Stamps in Scotland.
a
Deeds, law proceedings, and other written inftruments, (except }
legacy receipts, teftamentary inventories, bills of exchange, |
and promiffory notes and receipts,) and on licences to pawn- >
brokers and dealers in thread lace; alfo newfpapers and ]
almanacs - - -
Gold and filver plate —-
Legacies - - - - - a
Bills of exchange and promiflory notes ° -
Teftamentary inventories - -
Receipts - - - - -
Fire infurance - - -
Medicine and medicine licences
ie eer ey P88 eo
Le Fae es) Pit Sed ai ed ned Pee
CCCP eal loved om)
Advertifements = 4 s
Stage coaches - “ “ FE
Pamphlets S c 5 = 2 <
Race horfes = -
Grofs Produce.
£ Seu, 4a
Net Produce.
£ Sees Ces
24,800 0 0
91,069 13 Io
15,341. 4 (11
10,872 9 11
15,118 6 6
32139 Il 45
17815 6
13,950 11 4
11,427 2 9
(oY ie" Anas}
69 16 8
REVENUE.
An Account of the Grofsand Net Produce, and Payments into the Exchequer, of the Revenue, under the Management
of the Commiffioners of ‘T'axes in England and Wales, including the Property Tax.
Taxes.
| Grofs Produce, 1813.
—— ————
Net Produce.
Soyo #£ fe ide bi sade
and tax = = = - = = 1,272,256 16 34 1,127,078 8 32
“a “Sa Sig - - - - - - 6,155,867 0 6 5:903,818 10 14
roperty tax - - - : - - | 13,016,041 17. 32 12,750,408 2
Aid and contributiontax - = * = - inet : ees d
Income tax - - - - - - 1,020 13 8 993-15 4%
| 20,445,186 7 9
| 19,782,299 O IIZ
An Account of the Grofs and Net Produce, and Payments into the Exchequer, of the Revenue, under the Management
of the Commifiioners of Taxes in Scotland.
Taxes. Grofs Produce, 1813. i Net Produce. |
£ fe: de £ feu de
Land tax - - - - - = 31,143 1 If 18,700 0 Oo
Affeffed taxes - - - - - - 4145593 I9 “15 383,900 0 Oo
Property tax - = = - . - 12553924 15 74 1,215;400 O O
Aidand contribution tax - + = = <
Income tax - - = - - - 600 0 0 600 0 oO
1,702,261 15 102 1,618,600 0 oO
An Account of the Grofs
Poft-office in England and Scotland refpeétively.
and Net Produce, and Payments into the Exchequer, of the Revenue arifing from the
|
Grofs Produce. Net Produce. |
| —_ _——
z ne eed | L ve a.
Inland - = - - - - 1,532,980 12 IT 1,136,027 2 3
Foreign - - - - - - - 128,647 14 10 42,456 18 5
Twopenny poft - ig = : = : 932299 15 5 57,075 19 3
Scotland - - - - - - : 191,884 15 6 154,094 5 II
Ireland - - - - - - 59,236 18 8 29,962 2 10
Total - - - 2,006,049 17 4 | 1,420,216 8 8
On
An Account of the Grofs Receipt and Net Payments isto the Exchequer, on the Duty of One Shilling in the Pound on
: Salaries and Penfions in England and Scotland refpe¢tively.
Grofs Receipt, 1813. Net Produce.
—_— — _ >.
oe 3 eee
4,849 6 10
11,828 17 8
London, Middlefex and Weftminfter
Exchequer
England {
Scotland 2,970 12 2
19,648 16 8
REVENUE.
An Account of the Grofs Receipt and Net Payments into the Exchequer, of the Duty of Sixpence in the Pound on
Salaries and Penfions in England and Scotland refpectively.
'
{
Grofs Meceipt, 1813. Net Produce.
; Dinky Satis £ asus
London, Middlefex. and Weftminfter - 2 3.750 8 105 3,941 17 102
England Ee ce - = os Ms 3 55928 11 oe 6,365 11 3
9,678 19 103 10,307 9 12
Scotland - - = B a 2,049 17 2 400 0 0
——_—_—_—_
11,728 17 0
10,707 9 1}
An Account of the Grofs Receipts, &c. of the Revenues arifing from Hackney Coaches and Chairs.
£25,181 10 0
Grofs amount
21,874 16 103
Net produce { in the year ending Jan. 5th, 1813
An Account of the Grofs Receipts, &c. of the Revenues arifing from the Department of the Hawkers and Pedlars.
Grofs amount z - - = eS £20,160 3 23
Net produce - - - - - 17,581 11 It
An Account of the Grofs and Net Produce, on account of Prefines.
Grofs produce - - - - - £6,817 3 4
Net produce - - - - - 3,659 15 4
An Account of the Grofs and Net Produce arifing from Poft-Fines.
Grofs produce = = = i 3 £516 13 9}
Net produce - - - - - 458 4§ 34
An Account of the Sums received by way of Lottery.
£840,926 16 5
95,000 © O
On account of Lotteries in 1812. - 3 a
Do. do. 1813 - 2 5
An Account of the Total Sums of Money paid into the Exchequer, on account of Public Loans.
£ stead.
651,367 4. 2
S407 3" Tt
2459924. J.-S
25,900,000 7 0
7:712,509 14 8
Contributions to annuities in 1812, for raifing 22,500,000/. 2 - - -
Contributions by debentures in 1813, for railing 6,000,000/. - - - -
Contributions by debentures in 1813, for raifing a further fum_ - - - -
Contributions to annuities in 1813, for raifing 27,000,000/. - - ~ -
Contributions to annuties in 1814, for raifing 22,000,000/. - - - -
Amount iffmed and not
redeemed within the Year.
On what Funds charged, and the total Amount to be iffued
under each Ad.
£ £
52 Geo. III. c. 114. = - - | Supplies - 1812 - - - - 1,289,900
53 Geo. III. c. 16. = = Supplies - 1814 - 10,500,000 - 4,248,300
53 Geo. III. c. 26. = - Supplies - © 1814 - 5,000,000 - = 53000,;000
53 Geo. III. c. 24. z - Supplies - 1814 = 1,500,000 - 1,500,000
53 Geo. IIT. c. 42. a Q Supplies - 1813 - - - - | 155,879,900
53 Geo. IIT. c. 118. - - Supplies - 1814 - 53670,700 - 5,670,700
53 Geo. III. c. 119. - = Supplies - 1814 - 1,000,000 - 545,200 ©
53 Geo. IIT. c. 161. - - Supplies - 1814 - * §;000,000 - | 45358,000
54 Geo. III. c. 2. - - Malt, &c. - 1814 - 3,000,000
- 2,862,000
415354,000
REV
An Account of the Amount of Navy, Vitualling, and
Tran{fport Bills.
£ sd.
JoNamypel) ace erga remo e) scarey [i593 5738otror gs
Vidtualling ~ - - - - | 1,250,947 1 II
-| Tranfport - - - - 9135413 6 ©
| *3:699:740°° 8 2
An Account of the Charge upon the Confolidated Fund,
diftinguifhed under feveral Heads.
j
je For the fupport of his majefty’s| £ si:
as houfehold, per 17 G. III. - 898,000 0 oO
> ) Ditto < 44 G. IIL. - 60,000 0 0
> (Ditto A 52 G. Ill. - 7O;000 0 0
Courts of juftice - - - 69,692 3. 0
Mint - - - - - 175333 17.00
Salaries, Allowances, &c. - - 12,833 13 4
Commiffioners of public accounts - 45,465 14 4%
Commiflioners of Weit India ac- 6 6
counts - - - | 965 It
Mifcellaneous - - - - | 79956 °
His royal highnefs the duke of lacie
Clarence, per 31 Geo. III. - Sede Te a
His royal highnefs the duke of
York, per 32 Geo. III. -$ ES en
Her royal highnefs the duchefs of } | dl
Yorks! per32:Geo.LIbe: »2:, = $ |i OM 219 0c?
His royal highnefs the prince of } | be
52000 0 O
Wales, per 35 Geo. IIT. -S)
His royal highnefs the duke of } |
ed 39 Geo. ITI. = |
His royal highnefs the duke of |
Cumberland, per 39 Geo. III.
His royal highnefs the duke of |
|
12,000 0 O
I2,000 0 O
12,000 © O
Suffex, per 42 Geo. III. <
His royal highnefs the duke of t
Cambridge, per 42 Geo. III. |
His royal Bisieck the duke of
Clarence, per 46 Geo. III. it |
His royal highnefs the duke ay
Kent, per 46 Geo. III. -
His royal highnefs the duke of
Cumberland, per 46 Geo. III. 4
His royal highnefs the duke of
Suffex, per 46 Geo. III. -
“His royal highnefs the duke of
Cambridge, per 46 Geo. III.
Her royal Fokaeke the mule
Charlotte of Wales, 46G. III.
His highnefs the duke of he |
ceiter, per 46 Geo. III. sik ct
Her highnefs the princefs comm t
of Gloucefter, per 46 Geo. III.
Her royal highnefs the mt
Elizabeth, per 52 Geo. III. -
Her royal highnefs the poset
+ Augufta Sophia, 52 G. Ill.
Her royal highnefs the pint }
vest a 52 Geo. ITE. -
Her royal highnefs the Shyasy:
g:c0c0 0 O
g,0co 0 O
1,595,350 6 115
Sophia, per 52 Geo. HI. — -
Thefe, with other penfions,
amount in the whole to -
REV
For more particulars of this kind, fee Porrrican Arith-
metic, Public Dents, Public Fuxps, and Tax.
REVENUE, Auditors of the. See AupIToR.
ReveNvE, Court of. See Courr of Exchequer.
REVENUE, Officers oh are excluded from voting in
eleGtions for members of parliament by 22 Gee. III.
Revenue, Revenu, in Hunting, a flefhy mafs or lump,
formed chiefly of a clufter of whitifh worms on the heads of
deer, and fuppofed to occafion them to caft their horns, by
thofe worms gnawing the roots of them.
The revenue diftilled, is faid to help women in travail.
Revenue is alfo ufed for a new tail of a partridge, grow-
ing out after the lofs of a former. The revenue is mea-
fured by fingers; thus they fay, a partridge of two, three,
and four fingers revenue.
REVERA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Adriatic,
near the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 45°15! E. long. 13°.
REVERBERATION, Reverseratio, formed from
re, and wverbero, q. d. J beat again, in ery the aé&t of a
body repelling or reflecting another, after impinging on
it. In the glafs-men’s furnace, the flame reverberates ‘or
bends back again to burn the matter on all fides. Echoes
are occafioned by the reverberation of founds from arched
obftacles.
Reverberation and refilition refer to the fame ation ; only
the one to the agent, the other to the patient. A polifhed
body reverberates the rays all around; the refilition of the
rays does not arife from their ftriking againit the folid parts
of bodies. See REFLECTION. :
REVERBERATION, in Chemifiry, denotes a kind of circu-
lation cf the flame, by means of a reverberatory ; or the re-
turn of the flame from the top of the furnace back to the
bottom, chiefly ufed in calcination.
Reverberation is of two kinds. The firft with a clof frre ;
that is, in a reverberatory furnace, where the flame has no
vent at top; being covered with a dome, or capital, which
repels its a€tion back on the matter, or the veffel that con-
tains it, with increafed vehemence.
After this manner are refining, the diitillation of acid
fpirits, &c. performed.
Reverberation with an open fire, is that performed in a
furnace, or reverberatory, whofe regifters are all open ;_ ufed
in calcination, &c.
REVERBERATORY, or ReversBeratTinG Furnace,
is a chemical furnace built clofe all round, and covered at the
top with a capital of brick or tiles, fo as not to give any
vent to the heat or flame, but to determine it to reverberate
orturn back from the brick-work with new force, upon the
matters placed at bottom.
When the fire hasno vent or paflage at top, itis a whole rever-
beratory ; when the middle of the capital is open, and only
the fides clofe, fo that there is only a half circulation of
the flame, it is called a 4a/f reverberatory.
The reverberating furnace is chiefly ufed in the fufion and
calcination of metals and minerals, and on other occafions,
where the moit intenfe heat is required, as in aflaying, &c.
Whence it isalfo called the melting-furnace, and affaying fur-
nace. See Reverberating FURNACE.
REVERENCE, in Ethics, is the veneration, or high degree
of refpeét, which is paid to fuperior fan&tity, intermixed with
a certain degree of awe. Itis the high refpeét paid to the
facred character of its object, attended with a confcious
inferiority in moral worth.
REVEREND, Reverenpvs, a title of refpe@ given
to ecclefiattics.
The religious abroad are called reverend fathers ; and ab-
beffes, prioreffes, &c. are called reverend mothers,
8 With
REV :
With us, bifhops are right reverend; and archbifhops mof
reverend. In France, their bifhops, archbifhops, and abbets,
are all alike reverendi/fimes, moft reverend. t
REVERIE, aterm purely French, frequently ufed of
late in Englifh, to fignify a delirium, raving, or diftra¢tion.
Tt is an ill fign in fevers when the patient falls into a re-
verie.
Hence alfo reverie comes to be ufed for any ridiculous,
extravagant imagination, aCtion, or propofition, a chimera
or vifion. Thus we fay, authors obtrude abundance of
their reveries upon us for folid truths.
But the moft ordinary ufe of the word reverie, among
Englifh writers, is for a deep, diforderly mufing or medi-
tation, equivalent to what we popularly call a brocun fludy.
Thus, a little diftraG@ion I would allow; but for that con-
tinued feries of reveries fome people are guilty of who are
ever abfent from the place where you fee them, and are never
prefent any where, it is inexcufable.
REVERO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Mincio, on the S. fide of the Po, oppofite
to Oftiglio.
REVERS, BArrery bE.
REVERSAL, in Zaw. See Reverse.
REVERSATA Arma. See Arma.
REVERSE, in the Military Art, fignifies on the back,
or behind. Thus we fay, a reverfe view, a reverfe com-
manding ground, areverle battery, &c.
ReveErsE, formed of re, again, and verfus, turned, in
Law, &c. To reverfe, fignities to undo, repeal, or make
void.
A judgment may be reverfed or voided for matters fo-
reign to or debérs the record, that is, not apparent upon the
face of it, by writ of error, and by aét of parliament.
The effet of falfifying or reverfing an outlawry is, that the
party fhall be in the fame plight as if he had appeared upon
the capias ; and if it be before plea pleaded, he fhall be put
to plead to the indiiment ; if after conviétion, he fhall re-
ceive the fentence of the law; for all the other proceedings,
except only the procefs of outlawry for his non-appearance,
remain good and effe€tual as before. But when judgment,
pronounced upon conviction, is falfified or reverfed, all
former proceedings are abfolutely fet afide, and the party
ftands as if he had never been at all accufed; reftored in his
credit, his capacity, his blood, and his eftates. But he ftill
remains liable to another profecution for the fame offence.
See ATTAINDER, JUDGMENT, and OUTLAWRY.
Reverse of a medal, coin, &c. denotes the fecond, or
back fide; in oppofition to the head or principal figure,
called the face, or obverfe.
F. Chamillart, a Jefuit, has an exprefs differtation on
this point, whether or no the reverfes of medals have always
a regard to the emperors or emprefles whofe heads are repre-
fented on the front fide of the medal? He fays, that till of
late the antiquaries have made no doubt ef it; but that there
are now feveral authors of another opinion.
The knowledge of the reverfes of medals conftitutes a diftin-
guifhing part of this {cience. Inthe early Greek coins, the
reverfe feldom affords much fancy of fymbol ; and in the im-
perial Greek coins it is chiefly imprefled with temples of their
deities. To Greek artilts we are indebted for the beauty of the
Roman imperial coins; and thefe are fo highly finifhed, that
on fome reverfes, as that of Nero’s decurfion, the “ Adven-
tus’? and ‘+ Progreffio”? of various emperors, the “ Fun-
dator pacis’” of Severus, the features of the emperor riding,
or walking, are as exact as on the obyerfe. .No Roman or
Etrufean coins have been found of the globular form, or in-
dented on the reverfe, like the early Greek. The firft
See BATTERY.
REV
Greek are {mall pieces of filver, while the Roman are large
mafles of copper: the former are itruck, the latter are caft
in moulds. The reverfes of Roman coins are very uniform,
the prow of a fhip, a car, or the like, till about 1cG0 years
before our era, when various reverfes appear on their con-
{ular coins in all metals. See Mepat.
With refpeG to the confular medals, it is obferved, that
the fame reverfe is common to many of them ; as Caftor and
Pollux on horfeback, firft ufed ; then a victory, or one of
the gods; or the perfon to whofe honour the medal was
ftruck, driving a chariot with two or four horfes; whence
the denomination of the denarius bigatus, and quadrigatus.
The ratis or fhip, or prow of a fhip, as an emblem of naval
power, was no uncommon reverfe on the confular coins ;
which were, on this account, called rait#z, Some of the
confular medals, that bore on the face the imprefs of their
ancient kings, preferved on the reverfe the record of fome
worthy aétion which they had performed, as the. famous
aqueduét on the reverfe of. Ancus, in honour of his having
begun it. Medals, {truck on occafion of founding colonies,
have fometimes on the reverle a prieft following a yoke of
oxen, with a plough; defigned to denote the manner in
which the boundaries of colonies were marked out, or that
they were planted by the common people; and thafe trophies
that are fometimes feen on medals of this kind, fignify that
they were planted by the veteran foldiers.
The reverfes of imperial medals are very various; but the
chief of them may be reduced to three clafles, viz. figures
or perfonages; public monuments or buildings; and in-
fcriptions. The figures are fometimes thofe of princes in
miniature, whofe portraits are exhibited more at large on the
face; as on the reverfes of the emperors of the family of
Conftantine, we often fee the emperor ftanding with a la-
barum in his right hand, and a globe, furmounted with a
vidtory, in his left. Sometimes the emperor is difguifed
under the figure of fome god; as on the reverfe of a Dio-
clefian, who had affumed the name Jovius, he appears in the
figure of Jupiter, fitting in a chair, with a globe in his
hand, furmounted with a Victory ; the legend being 1ov1.
H. U.C.C. i.e. Hee voluerunt confules. The Greek coins of
cities prefent us with exquifite heads of deities, apparently
copied from itatues or paintings. The majefty of Jupiter,
the modefty of Diana, the beauty of Venus, the ferocity
of Mars, and other ideal chara¢ters, appear in the Grecian
civic coins with a perfection not to be furpaffled by human
art. Sometimes the figure on the reverfe is fome relation of
that on the face; as Auguftus on the reverfe of Julius, and
Claudius on the reverfe of his mother Antonia. Such
medals are highly elteemed by antiquarians, not only be-
caufe it is a rule with them that every coin ftamped with
portraits on either fide is very valuable, but becaufe they
identify the perfonage on the reverfe to have been the wife,
the fon, or the daughter of fuch a particular prince, and
thus help in the adjultment of aferies. The figure of fome
deity is fometimes feen on the reverfe ; as Minerva on the re-
verfe of a Domitian; andthe goddefs Salus, with a patera
in her hand, facrificing to Efculapius, on the reverfe of a
Marcus Aurelius. (See Mepar.) The virtues for which
the emperors were, or wifhed to be, celebrated, are alfo fre-
quently exprefled by the figures on the reverfes; and thus
the fine perfonifications and fymbols to be found on the re-
verfes of the Roman coins render them entertaining, as well
as initructive, to a perfon of poetical imagination. Virtue
or Courage is reprefented by a bold armed woman with a
{pear in her right hand, and a parazonium in her left, on the
reverfe of a Domitian; Liberty, carrying in her right hand
the cap of liberty, and in her left the wand called rudis or
2 vindicta,
REVERSES.
vindicta, appears on the reverfe of aCommodus ; and Equity,
with a {pear in her right hand, and a balance in her left, on
the reverfe of a Vefpafian. The virtues of the ladies are
alfo celebrated on the reverfes of their medals ; as Piety, in
the habit of a Veital virgin, ftrewing frankincenfe on an
altar, on the reverfe of a Fauttina ;- Fcecunditas on another
medal of the fame, and spes rEIPUBLICH, exprefled by a
female figure, wearing a helmet to reprefent the republic,
and two children at her brea{ts, on the reverfe of a Maxi-
miana Faufta, fecond wife of Conftantine the Great. Hap-
pinefs has fometimes the caduceus, or wand of Mercury,
which Cicero (1 Offic.) tells us was thought to procure
every wifh, She has, in a gold coin of Severus, heads of
poppy, to exprefs that our chief blifs arifes ftom oblivion of
misfortune. Hope is reprefented as a {prightly damfel,
walking quickly, and looking {traight forwards. With her
left hand fhe holds up her garments, that they may not im-
pede the rapidity of her pace; while, in her right hand, fhe
holds forth the bud of a flower, an emblem infinitely mere
fine than the trite one of an anchor, which is the fymbol of
‘patience, not of hope. This perfonification, with fome
others, muft have been very familiar to the ancients, for
often in this, and a few more inftances, no name, as SPES
AuG. or the like, is inferted in the legend. Abundance is
imaged as a fedate matron, with a cornucopia in her hands,
of which fhe f{eatters the fruits over the ground, nor does
fhe hold up her cornucopia, and keep its contents to herfelf,
as many modern poets and painters make her do. ‘The em-
peror Titus, having caufe to import a great fupply of corn,
during a {carcity at Rome, that fupply, or the Annona, is
finely reprefented as a fedate lady, with a full cornucopia in
her left hand, which fhe holds upright, to indicate that fhe
does not, however, mean to {catter it, as Abundance has a
title to do, but to give it to Equity to deal out. This
lait circumftance is fhewn by her holding a little image of
Equity, known by her fcales, and hafa pura, or pointlefs
fpear, in her right hand, over a bafket filled with wheat.
Behind the Annona is the prow of a fhip, decked with
flowers, to imply that the corn was brought by fea, (from
Africa,) and that the fhips had had a profperous voyage.
The beit poet in the world could not have given us a finer
train of imagery ; and the beft painter would be puzzled to
exprefs fo much matter in fo {mall a compafs. Security
itands leaning on a pillar, indicative of her being free from
all defigns and purfuits; and the pofture itfelf correfponds
tohername. Horace, in defcribing the wife man, mentions
his being ‘teres atque rotundus,’’? round and polifhed
againit all the rubs of chance ;—an image feemingly derived
from the column upon which this ideal lady rechines. The
happinefs of the {tate is pi€tured by a fhip, failing before
a pro{perous breeze ; — an image, than which the fuperlative
genius of Gray could not have found one more exquifite ;
and he has accordingly ufed it in his moft capital production,
«The Bard,” with due fuccefs.
Provinces are alfo reprefented by figures or perfonages,
denoting cither the emperor’s conqueit or care of them; as
Judza fitting in a melancholy potture at the bottom of a
pillar adorned with trophies, to fignify her captive ftate,
on the reverfe of a Vefpafian ; and Ltalia with a cornucopia
in her right hand, to denote her fruitfulnefs; a crown of
towers on her head, to reprefent her many cities; a fceptre
in her left hand, and fitting on a globe, to fhew that fhe
was fovereign of nations, on the reverfe of a Commodus,
Britain is often reprefented, One the earlieft imperial coins,
fitting on a globe, with a fymbol of military power, the
Jabarum, in her hand, and the ocean rolling under her feet ;
—an emblem almoft prophetic of the vaft power which her
dominion over the fea will always give her, provided that
Vou. XXX,
fhe aflerts her element of empire with due vigour and per-
feverance, blending moderation and juttice with her mighty
power. On coins alfo we are prefented with Achaia,
Africa, Alamannia, Alexandria, Avabia, Armenia, Afia,
Bithynia, Cappadocia, Dacia, Dardania, Egypt,. Gallia,
Hifpania, Italia, Judea, Macedonia, Mauritania, Pannonia,
Parthia, Phrygia, Sarmatia, Sicily, Scythia, Syria, and
the rivers Danube, Nile, Rhine, and Tiber. This per-
fonification of provinces, fo interefting to the imagination,
feems to have arifen from the figures of provinces carried
in triumphs ; as the perfonification of our old poets {prung
from the ideal perfons, actually reprefented in the mytterial
plays. Whilft we are on the fubject of the poetical imagery
of ancient coins, we muft not omit the mention, even, of a
colonial one and of rude execution, of Augultus: and
Agrippa, inferibed mrp. and prvi F. which has a high claim
to merit in this way. On the reverfe the conqueft of
Egypt is reprefented by the appofite metaphor of the cro-
codile, an animal almoft peculiar to that country, and at
that period efteemed altogether fo, which is chained to a
palm-tree, at once a native of the country and fymbolic of
victory. Moreover, the figure on the reverfe is fometimes
defigned to immortalize fome worthy ation of the emperor ;
as the goddefs Moneta, with a cornucopia in her left hand,
and a balance in her right, on the reverfe of a Domitian,
to denote his care about the public coin. There are fome-
times two, three, or more figures, on the fame reverfe ; as
Honos and Virtus on the reverfe of Galba; and three
kings, with the emperor crowning them, on a medal of
Trajan. (See Mepar.) There are alfo the figures of
animals on the reverfes of fome medals; as the eagle and
peacock, to denote the apotheofis of princes and princeffes ;
the crocodile, as the fymbol of Egypt; aferpent, of Efcu-
lapius ; a camel, of Arabia, &c. ; and elephants in trappings
on the reverfe of an Antoninus Pius and a Severus, import-
ing that thefe emperors procured thefe beafts to entertain
the people at the public fhows. We meet alfo with fabu-
lous animals, as the griffin on the reverfe of one medal of
Gallienus, a centaur on another, and a pheenix on fome
medals of Conftantine and his fons, denoting the perpetuity
of the empire.
The fecond fort of reverfes comprehends public monu-
ments and buildings; as the temple of Janus fhut, on the
reyerfe of a Nero, to fignify the univerfal peace he gave to
the empire ; the Macellum, or fhambles, which he caufed
to be ereted, on another; the fumptuous bridge built by
Trajan over the Tiber, on the reverfe of one of his me-
dals; and the Amphitheatre and Naval Column, on thofe
of Titus.
The third fort of reverfes includes infcriptions on the
table or field of the medal. On feveral Latin and Greek
imperial medals, we find nothing on the reverfe but s. c. or
AWE. for dnuaexixns eEaoroc, inclofed in a crown. Others
reprefent fignal occurrences; as VICTORIA GERMANICA
IMP, VI. COS. 111. on the reverfe of M. Aurelius. Others
have titles of honour granted to the princes; as s. P. @. R.
OPTIMO PRINCIPI, on the reverfe of a Trajan, and alfo of
an Antoninus Pius. Other infcriptions again have refpe&
to public vows, which were made for the emperor every
ten years, or fometimes, in the lower empire, eyery five
years. Thus we have on the reverfe of a Contftantius
VOTIS XXX. MULTIS XXXX. importing probably their en-
gagement to make new vows at the expiration of thirty
years, that he might reign forty years.
Befides the reverfes already enumerated, there are others,
called by Addifon riddles, which cannot be referred to any
of the above claffes. Thus, Mercury in the form of a
Terminus, ftanding on a thunder-bolt, on the reverfe of
Ie an
REV.
an Auguftus, was probably intended for a rebus, to ex-
prefs the fenfe of that emperor’s motto, feffina lente. In-
ftruments of religion were fymbols of the pontifex maxi-
mus, and fignified the piety of the prince, on whofe coin
they appear; as the lituus, the fimpulum, the afperforium,
and the capula, en the reverfe of a Nerva. Two hands
joined, holding two ears of corn, and a caduceus betwixt
them, on the reverfe of a Titus, import the good harmony
and union fubfifting betwixt the prince and the public, the
peace arifing from fuch an union, and the plenty, which
is the fruit of fuch a peace. Pinkerton on Medals, 2 vols.
Addifon’s Three Series of Medals, in his Works, vol. i.
p.522, &c. See MEDALS.
Reverse, in Fencing, a back-{troke.
REVERSED, in Heraldry, a thing turned backwards,
or upfide down.
Reverse Arms, in Military Language, denote thofe
whofe butts are flung or held upwards.
Reversep Talon, in Architedure. See TALon.
REVERSING, or Renversine, in Mufic, the invert-
ing of the order of the parts ; that ts, placing the higher part,
or treble, in the room of the lower part or bafs.
Reverfing is frequently prattifed in figurative counter-
point, where the bafs ferves as treble, and the treble at the
fame time as bafs; and all this in {uch manner, as that the
harmony, though very different, is yet as correct as before
the reverfing, when the parts were in their natural order.
A reverfed fugue, or counter-fugue, called by the Italians
per contrarii movementi, is when the guida falls, and the
other, inftead of imitating by falling, imitates by rifing ;
or, it is a figure per arfin et thefin. See RENVERSE.
REVERSION, Reversio, in Law, is defined by
Coke, a returning of lands, &c. into the poffeflion of the
donor or his heirs, after the expiration of the term for
which they were given or granted to another. Or, an
eflate in reverfion, is the refidue of an eftate left in the
grantor, to commence in poffeffion after the determination
of fome particular eftate granted out by him.
The word has a double acceptation. The firft is, jus re-
vertendi, cum flatus poffeffionis defecerit ; which is no more
than an intereft in the land, when the occupation or pol-
feffion of it fhall fall. .
The fecond is, when the poffeffion and eftate, which was
parted with for a time, ceafeth, and is determined in the
perfon of the alienees, affignees, grantees, or their heirs,
or effetually returns to the donor, his heirs or afligns,
whence it was derived.
This is the moft proper fignification of the word, which
is derived from revertor: ‘ Et apte dici non potett reverfio,
antequam revertatur in faéto.’’ Littlet.
The difference between a reverfion and a remainder con-
fits in this, that a remainder is general, and may remain or
belong to ‘any man but him that granteth or conveyeth the
land, &c.
Whereas a reverfion is to himfelf, from whom the con-
veyance of the land, &c. proceeded, and is commonly
perpetual as to his heirs alfo. And yet fometimes reverfion
is confounded with remainder.
A reverfion is never created by deed or writing, but arifes
from conftruction of law ; a remainder can never be limited,
unlefs by either deed or devife. But both are equally trans-
ferrable, when actually vefted, being both eftates in pre/enti,
though taking effect in futuro. ‘The ufual incidents to re-
verfions, the doétrine of which is derived from the feudal
conftitution, are faid to be fealty and rent.. When no
rent is referved on the particular eftate, fealty however
refults of courfe, as an incident quite infeparable, and
may be demanded as a badge of tenure, or acknowledg-
REV
ment: of fuperiority, being frequently the only evidence
that the lands are holden at all. Where rent 1s referved,
it is alfo incident, though not infeparably fo, to the rever-
fion. (Co. Litt. 143.) The rent may be granted away,
referving the reverfion ; and the reverfion may be granted
away, reverling the rent, by fpecial words ; but by a general
grant of the reverfion, the rent will pafs with it, as in-
cident to it; though by the grant of the rent generally,
the reverfion will not pafs. The incident pafles by the
grant cf the principal, but not ¢ converfo; for the maxim
of law is, accefforium non ducit, fed fequitur, fuum principale.
Comair cr arse:
The law has carefully diftincuifhed remainders from re-
verfions. Thus, if one feized of a paternal eftate in fee
makes a leafe for life, with remainder to himfelf and his
heirs, this is properly a mere reverfion (Cro. Eliz. 321.),
to which rent and fealty fhall be incident ; and which fhall
only defcend to the heirs of his father’s blood, and not to
his heirs general, as a remainder limited to him by a third
perfon would have done (3 Lev. 407.) ; for it is the old
eftate, which was originally in him, and never yet was out
of him, And fo, likewife, if a man grants a leafe for life
to A, referving rent with reverfion to B and his heirs, B
hath a remainder defcendible to his heirs general, and not a
reverfion to which the rent is incident ; but the grantor
fhall be entitled to the rent during the contimuance of A’s
eftate. ‘r And. 23.
For the affiftance of thofe who have an eftate in re-
mainder, reverfion, or expeétancy, after the death of others,
againft fraudulent concealments of their deaths, it is enaéted
by 6 Ann.c. 18. that all perfons, on whofe lives any lands
or tenements are holden, fhall (upon application to the court
of chancery and order made thereupon) once in every year,
if required, be produced to the court or its commiffioners ;
or, upon negleét or refufal, they fhall be taken to be ac-
tually dead, and the perfon entitled to fuch expeétant
eftate may enter upon and hold the lands and tenements,
till the party fhall appear to be living.
It may further be obferved, that whenever a greater
eftate and a lefs coincide and meet in one and the fame
perfon, without any intermediate eftate, the lefs is im-
mediately annihilated ; or, in the law phrafe, is faid to be
merged, that is, funk or drowned in the greater. Thus, if
there be tenant for years, and the reverlion im fee-fimple
defcends to or is purchafed by him, the term of years is
merged in the inheritance, and fhall never exift any more.
But they muft come to one and the fame perfon m one and
the fame right ; elfe, if the freehold be in his own right,
and he’has aterm in right of another (en auter droit), there
is no merger. Therefore, if tenant for years dies, and
makes him who hath the reverfion in fee his executor,
whereby the term of years velts alfo in him, the term fhall
not merge; for he hath the fee in his own right, and the
term of years in the right of the teftator, and fubjeét to
his debts and legacies. So alfo, if he who hath the.re-
verfion in fee marries the tenant for years, there is no
merger; for he hath the inheritance in his own right, the
leafe in the right of his wife. An eftate-tail is an exception
to this rule: for a man may have in his own right both an
eftate-tail and a reverfion in the fee; and the ettate-tail,
though a lefs eftate, fhall not merge in the fee. For
eltates-tail are proteCted and preferved from merger by the
operation and conf{truction, though not by the exprefs
words, of the ttatute de donis: which operation and con-
ftruction have probably arifen upon this confideration ; that,
in the commun cafes of merger of eftates for life or years
by uniting with the inheritance, the particular tenant hath
the fole intereft in them, and hath full power at any time
te
REVERSION
to defeat, deftroy, or furrender them to him that hath the
reverfion ; therefore, when fuch an eftate unites with the
reverfion in fee, the law confiders it in the light of a vir-
tual furrender of the inferior eftate. But in an eftate-tail
the cafe is otherwife: the tenant for a long time had no
. power at all over it, fo as to bar or to deftroy it ; and now
can only do it by certain fpecial modes, by a fine, a re-
covery, and the like: it would, therefore, have been
ftrangely improvident, to have permitted the tenant in tail,
by purchafing the reverfion in fee, to merge his particular
ats, and defeat the mheritance of his iffue: and hence
it has become a maxim, that a,tenancy in tail, which can-
not be furrendered, cannot ;alfo, be merged in the fee.
Blackft. Comm. b. ii.
Reversion of Series, in Algebra, is the method of finding
the value of an unknown quantity, whofe powers enter the
terms of a finite or infinite feries, by means of another
feries, in which it does not enter. Thus, if we have
y ax + bx*:+ cx? + dx* + &e. or
gy Sat batt? $ cumte? 4 dxmt3? 4. &e.
or if we have
ay + By? + yy? + oy? + &c. =
ax+bx™$ cx? + dx*+ &e.
and we can find in thefe, and other fimilar cafes,
x= Ay + By? + Cy? + Dy*+ 4+ &e.
the original feries is faid to be reverted. The reverfion of
feries was firft propofed by Newton, in a letter to Mr.
Oldenbourgh, at that time fecretary to the Royal Society,
with direGions to have it communicated to Leibnitz, and
aAy+aB imac
Bret Ce es tian ty
SENG
Confequently we have aA = 1, and each of the other
co-efficients equal to zero, it being a known property of
two identical funétions, that the co-efficients of the like
powers of the indeterminate quantity are equal to each
other ; and fince, on the firft fide of the above expreflion,
y enters only fimply, it follows, that all the powers of y on
the other fide muft_have their co-efficients equal to zero.
Whence we have
aA =.1
aB+éA*=o
aC +2bAB+CA*=0 :
aD + 2bAC 4+ 4B? + 3cA*B:+dAt*=e
&c. &e.
and hence, again, we have
A=—
a
b
B= aa
2b*>— ac
Sr ee
_ 563 — sabe + a*d
D= — i ea
ra 4b*— 20ab>c +-3a*c* + ba®bd—a'e
a?
&e. Se.
OF SERIES.
in whigh the author gave one of the earlieft proofs of his
great analytical powers. It was afterwards publifhed in
his “ Analyfis per Equationes Numero terminorum In-
finitas,”? and has fince engaged the attention of many of
the moft profound analyits; and accordingly different
methods have been fuggetted for this purpofe ; but that of
M. Arbogatt, in his ** Calcul des Derivations,” is the moft
complete. We have already, under the article Calculus of
Derivations, explained, as far as was confiftent with the
plan of this work, the nature of the fymbols, notation,
and principles of this doétrine ; and we may, therefore,
under the prefent article, give that author’s formule for
reverfion, referring the reader for the firft principles to the
article above-mentioned. Still, however, as many of our
readers would probably wifh to fee the fame in its plainer
Englifh drefs, we propofe, in the firft initance, to fhew the
methods commonly employed for this purpofe by our own
algebraifts. This confitts in afluming a feries of a roper
form for the required unknown quantity, and then fet.
tuting the powers of this feries, inftead of the powers of
that quantity, in the propofed feries, and finally equating
the co-efficients, whereby the values of the indeterminate
or unknown co-efficients, above reprefented by A, B,'C, D,
&c. will be obtained.
Let y = ax + Bx? 4+ cx? + dt 4 exs*4) 0. be
the propofed feries, and
x =Ay + By* + Cy + Dy? + Ey; + &c.
the affumed reverted feries ; then, by fubftituting the feveral
powers of this feries, inftead of the powers of x in that
proposed, we have
+ aD 7 + aE 7
aw Cd + 2bad
+ 6B? py? + 26BC |
+ 3c¢A7B | + 3cA*C > 9° + &e
dA? J + 3cAB?
+ 4¢dA:B
+ eA$ |
And-fince a, 5, c, d, &c. are known in the original feries,
the numeral values of A, B, C, D, &c. in the reverted
feries are thus determined.
With regard to the proper form of the affumed feries, we
may obferve, generally, that in order to find the firft term
of the reverted feries, the rule is, to fubftitute y™ inftead
of x in the propofed feries, and to equate the leaft power
of y arifing from this fubftitution with unity, which will
give the required value of 7; and_as for the indices of the
other powers they will be the fame multiples of the above
value of n, as they are (in the original feries) of waity.
Let there be propofed, for example,
zee em bx™th 4 exter 4 der ts? &c,
Here, in order to determine the form of the feries to be
affumed, let 2” be wrote for x in the given equation, accord:
ing to the ufual method ; and then the exponents, fuppofing
z tranfpofed, will be 1, 2m 2m+npynm+2np, am
+ 3ap, &c. refpectively ; of whieh, the two leaft (1 and
nm) being made equal to each other, 7 is found = Si and
. m
2
the differences are p : a ’ i &ce. Whence the feriex
™m m ™
to be affumed is
e u+oe
+ 7
i+?
nh + Cain
P 2
a
x= tm t+ Be
REVERSION
(for it is evident, by infpeétion, that the co-efficient (A)
of the firft term mutt here be an unit).
This feries being therefore raifed to the feveral powers of
w, in the given equation, and the co-efficients of the homo-
logous terms in the new equation compared together, it will
be found that,
Boas
m _
Fae (1 + m + 2p) b> — 2mc
P anaes 2m
hs 2 + 6p 4 T) j,?
We ee Se P ses ear Shee i aici
6m
:
(1 Haire meee ener a en
m m
From the general value of x, found above, innumerable
theorems, for reverfing particular forms of feriefes, may be
deduced.
Thus, fv +427 +ca°4 dat Kc. = 25 then (m be-
ing = 1,andp =1) wis =z —b% + (266 —c)x* —
(53:— 5c + d) x &e.
And, ifaw + dx +ex54 dx) 4 Ke = 23 (m being
= 1, and p = o)a=xz—bx' + (35b—c) 2 — (128)
— 8cb+4 d)x’ &e.
Alfo, if az + Bete wtb dx, &c. = 2; then (mbe-
ing = 4, andp = 1) x= w—2b2°+ (765 —25) =
— (308 —184c + 2d) x} &e. &e.
It may be obferved, that in all thefe forms of feriefes, the -
firft term is without a co-efficient (which renders the conclu-
fion much more fimple). Therefore, when the feries to be
reverted has a co-efficient in its firft term, the whole equation
mutt be firft divided thereby. Thus, if the equation was
32— 6x7 + 8x3 — 1364 Ke. = 5 by dividing the
8x 13 xt
whole by 3 it will become » — 2 «° + Same SE
where, putting z = + y, we have, by For 1.x =
2y". 1643
&e. = aie cae = &c.
When there are two feries, confifting of like powers of #
andy, as
axtbeitexit &o.=aythy +yyit ke.
affume, asin the preceding cafes,
x=Ayt+ By + Cy +Dy'+ &e.
and let his, and its powers, be fubélituted for x, and the
powers of x, and we fhall have
wy + By toy + dy t ee
&e.
= 355
16
2+ 2274+— 2
3
aAy+aBQ,+4+ aC +aD
~pAt? bapaphy 4 2bAC
+ ¢.A? +6B Pees
+ 3cA°B|
Aa aN
in which, inftead of equating all our co-efficients to zero,
they muft now be equated to a, B, y, 3, +, &c. 5 that is
aA=a
aB+s5A°=8
aC +2,AB4+cA3=y
@D+26AC4+6B?4+3cA°B+adA%= 2
&c. &e.
OF SERIES.
Whence we have the following values of A, B,C. D, &c.
VIZ.
ee
pete Ae
a
Cc vy 2b AB — cA?
7 Beer ees
pair b B= 28 AC —3¢A' B-dAs
a
— 26BC—26AD— 3¢AB—3cA°C —
r= 4d A'B—ec AS
a
whence the values of A, B, C, D, &c. become determined
as before.
In all the above cafes, the feveral co-efficients a, 5, c,d;
&c. are conceived to be totally independent of each other,
and when this is the cafe, that is, when no fpecific law ob-
tains between them, it is obvious, that we can proceed no far-
ther in the praétical folution than we have derived terms in
the theoretical inveftigation ; but if, as moft commonly hap-
pens, the feries we are defirous of reverting arife from the ex-
panfion of any funétion, fo that an uniform law is obferyed
between its feveral co-efficients ; a fimilar law may frequently
be difcovered in the reverted feries, though this generally
depends rather upon an induétion than from any peculiar
form under which the reverted co-efficients arife, which is in-
deed the great imperfeCtion of this method of reverfion.
Let us take, for example, the feries
to find the value of win terms of z.
This agrees with our firft form; where a
¢ = 4, d= i, &c. and we have
a
I
sit tir
1 VITENE U 1
+ i — = SS SS
ie a4) 2 ees aac}
—(5P—sabc+ad)=—= ,
Dass Deng te
+ (14 Bt — 21abet pate + 6atbd— are) =
120
— z :
ay he ey:
And hence, inferring the fame law to have place through-
out, we have
I I I I
PU CNAT. Sail
2
We muft not, however, look for the like uniformity of
refult in all cafes. As an example of the contrary, let there
be propofed the feries
I
—x'— &e,
CTE eval ©
: I I I
*4+ —gtf — yt + oy 3
3° a? 5? st eae + &e
to find x interms of y.
Here
REV
Here a = 1, gett poy aS ay &e.
: 2 249 2 s/Fua
I I I I
=~, P= 37y=>—>5=— &e.
Fhe eer, Rae be
whence
« I
bt hey
a =2
B—bA* 11
a
y—2b6AB—cA*_ 11 _
a Yi 243m:
3— sb B?— 25AC—3cA°B—dA+ 1381 _
a = 2880,
©—26BC—24AD — 3cAB*—&e. _ 1543 op
a ~ 3840
whence the propofed feries is
ac nt PALL p12
* aoa 247 tat * 28807 38407 att:
in which no law of continuation can be difcoyered, either by -
indu@tion, or otherwife.
Ia this refpe&t the fymbols and notation of Arbogait have
a decided advantage, as by thefe means the law of formation
in the reverted feries is exhibited in the cleareft poflible point
of view. Taking for example our firft feries, under the
form
y=Ru+yx toa + eat + Ke.
tofnd x= by + cy? + dy* + cy* + &e.
Here the general refult is expreffed by
2 I 3
z= Boyt sD. p>." + at Pa ea iin . B=*
2 3 4
-y' + &e.
where the law is clearly expreffed by means of the fymbol D ;
and if it be requifite, the co-efficients may be eafily expreffed
in terms of 8, y, 3, &c. thus8—* = 8-'.
I = "hy ~~ at
7? s-"=—8 Bei ds
pre Pte 5 Dosey)
sysop (ob 4b 38% 28)
ee ee
B
3 . 3 2
SB erties HADR? vi Raye eae =s Dy y
4 4 ei
+¢-8-*Y)
ane OF = 4-5, 5 ;
= 4 (48 “Ft ag 4 ~2¥
ih 5.29 99 op
Lin Bist 3
Re ay 5 tae
= F
which will be found to agree with our former refult.
REV
We refer the reader who may not be acquainted with the
ufe and fignification of the above fymbols and notation, to our
article DeRrivATIONs.
In thefe formule the quantities @, y, 0, &c. although
totally independent, are yet apparently connected by means
of the fymbol of derivation D; but the application is Sai
rally made to feries which exprefs the evolution of fome func-
tion, and the co-efficients of which feries are confequently
formed after a certain law: for inftance
3
y+ z + &
Ste tehutana Be ae geet r:
is the evolution of e*, and if y be put
22 3
ae ey Pe ek + &e.
Tiers 2% 1g
then, by the theorem for reverfion,
I I
P= 6 (Fay + Die. Gare Oye
. -(y — 1)? &e.
but in ‘the propofed form
£ at Eve: Foust
Asai) ical easaGally a avg
I
therefore x = iy - 1) = . (y = 1) 30 ake:
And in the fame way from reverfion, if
x 3x
Pie och akenctsub had cho
x3 =)
by reverfion x = &— + ee
Tor2 at eli = ae
We refer the reader for more on this fubje@ to Wood-
houfe’s «Principles of Analytical Calculation,” and Arbo-
gait’s ** Calcul des Derivations ;”? and for the principles of
the method itated in the former part of this article, to Simp-
fon’s «¢ Fluxions,”? vol. ii. p. 302; Maclaurin’s Algebra,
p- 263. See alfo Newton’s “* Analyfis per Equationes,’’
aad Bornycattle’s Algebra, vols. i. and 1i.
Reversions, in the Doérine of Annuities, are either con-
tingent or abfolute. (For the former fee the article Sur-
vivorsHirs.) Of abfolute reverfions, the cafes are very
few, and the folutions fimple and eafy. An ab/olute rever-
fion, whether it is to take place after the extinGion of a
fingle life, or of any number of lives, or after the expiration
of a given number of years, muit neceflarily be more valu-
able, in general, than a contingent reverfion; which, depend-
ing on events altogether uncertain, will be of lefs value in
proportion as thofe events arelefs probable. The following
problems include the principal cafes of abfolute reverfions,
and their folutions being almott felf-evident, require no ex-
planation.
Prosiem I.
To. find the value of the reverfion in fee of an annuity
aftera given number of years.
Solution.—Dedu& the value of an annuity for the given
term from the perpetuity ; multiply the remainder into the
annuity, and the product will be the value required.
Example.— Let the annuity be 15/ the term 15 years,
and the rate of intereit 4/. per cent. By Tab. III. (fee
Awnuitigs) the value of an annuity for 15 years is
11.118, which being deducted from 25 (the perpetuity),
the remainder, or 13.882, multiplied into 15 (the given an-
nuity),
REVERSIONS.
nuity), produces 208.23/. or 208/. 4s. 7d. nearly for the
value required.
Corollary.—In like manner, the value of an annuity
for a given term of years, after the expiration of an-
other term, may be obtained by fubtraéting the value for’
the prefent term from the value during the prefent and re-
verfionary terms: thus, the value of an annuity of 10.
during 15 years, after the expiration of 12 years, is found
by fubtraéting 9.385 (the value for 12 years at 4/. per cent.
by Tab. III. Annurtins) from 16.329 (the value by the
fame table for 27 years), and multiplying 6.944, the dif-
ference, into 10; which produces 69.440/. or 69/. 85. 10d.
nearly for the value required.
Pros. II.
To find the value of the reverfion in fee of an eftate, or
annuity, after the extinétion of a given life.
Solution. —Dedu& the value of an-annuity on the given
life from the perpetuity ; multiply the remainder into the
annual produce of the eftate, or into the annuity, and the
produé will give the value fought.
Example. —Let the annual produce of the eftate or an-
nuity be 18/. the age of the pofleffor of fuch eftate or an-
nuity 35, and the rate of intereft-3/. per cent. By Tab. V1.
(Lire-Anauities), the value of an aunuity on a life of 35, at
3l. per cent. is 15.938. ‘The perpetuity, at the fame rate, 1s
33-3333 the difference between thefe two values, or 17.395;
multiplied into 18, produces 313.110/. or 313/. 2s. 2d. for
the anfwer.
Corollary. —The reverfion in fee after two or three joint
lives, or after the longeft of two or three lives, is found in
the fame manner, by deduéting the values of thofe lives from
the perpetuity. Thus the value of two joint lives, aged
30 and. 35, by Tab. VIII. (Lire-dnauities), at 31. per cent.
1S 12.131, which being deduéted from 33.333, and mul-
tiplied into 5, will give 106.o1/. or 106/. os. 2d. for the value
of the reverfion in fee of an eftate of 5/. per annum after the
extinction of thofe joint lives. . In like manner, the value of
the reverlion in fee of an eftate of 10/ per annum, after three
joint lives, aged go, 35, and 40 years, and computing at
4 per cent. may be found by Prob. IV. (Lire-Aaauities) to
be 163.817. or 163/. 16s. 2d.; and after the longett of
thofe three lives, it may be found. by Prob. V. (Lire dn-
nuities) to. be 59-980/. or 59/. 19s. 7d. nearly.
Pros. III.
To find the value of a given /um, payable on the extin@tion
of a given life.
Solution. —Dedu&, as in the preceding problem, the value
of an. annuity on the given life from the perpetuity ; multiply
the remainder by the given fum, and divide the produ& by
the perpetuity increafed by unity; the quotient will be the
anf{wer. -
Example.—Let the fum be rooo/. the age of the given
life 45 years, and the rate of interelt 5/. per cent. By
Tab. VI. (Lire-Annuities), the value of an annuity, on a
life of 45, at 5 per cent. is 11.105, which being deduéted
from zo, the perpetuity, leaves 8.895. ‘This remainder,
multiplied into 1000, and divided by 21, gives 423.571/.
or 423/. 11s. 5d. for the value required.
In the fame manner may be found the value of a given
fum, payable on the extinétion of two.or three joint lives, or
of the longeft of two or three lives. Thus, the value of two
joint lives, of go and 50, at 4 per cent. by Tab. IX. (Lire-
Annuities), being 8.834; the difference between this value
and: 25; the perpetuity, will be 16.1663 which being mul-
tiplied into ro00, and the produét divided by 26, will give
621.47. or 6210. 155. sd. for the prefent value of 1000/.
payable on the extinétion of thofe joint lives. Again, by
the rule in the article on Lire-danuities, and Tables VI. and
IX. the value of an annuity on the longeft of two lives,
aged 40 and 50, at 4 per cent. nay be found equal to
15.627, which being deducted from 25, and the remainder
multiplied into 1000, will produce 9373, and this, divided
by 26, will give 360.52. or 350/. 10s. for the value of 1oool.
payable on the deceafe of the furvivor of thofe two lives.
Remark.—It will be obferved, that the value of the re-
verfion of an annuity is greater than the value of ‘the reverfion
of a /um, in the proportion of 1/. increafed by its intereft
for a year to 1/3 or, which is the fame thing, in the pro-
portion of the perpetuity increafed by unity to the perpe-
tuity. Inthe one cafe, the payment of the annuity becomes
due at the end: of the yeat, in which the life or lives become
extin@ ; in the other cafe, the fumonly becoming payable
at the end of that year, the annual intereft upon it cannot
be received till the end of the fucceeding year. See “Dr.
Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments. Note E, Ap-
pendix.
Pros. IV.
To find the value of an annuity for a given term of years
after the extinétion of any number of lives.
Solution.—Subtract the value of an annuity on the life.
or lives from the perpetuity; multiply the remainder into
the prefent value of an anauity for the giyen term, and
divide the produ& by the perpetuity ; the quotient mul-
tiplied into the annuity will be the value fought.
Example.—Let it be required to determine the value of
an annuity of 10/. for 20 years, which is not to commence
till the extin@tion of a hfe of 25, reckoning intereft of
money at 5 per cent... By Tab. VI. (Lire-Anauities) the
value of an annuity on a life of 25, is 13.5673 this value,
fubtraéted from 20, and multiplied into 12.4622, the value
of an annuity for 20 years, by Tab. III. (Awnwuirizs)”
produces 80.1693; which being divided by 20, and
the quotient multiplied into ro, gives 40.085/. or 4o/.
1s. gd. nearly for the anfwer. By proceeding in the fame.
manner, the value of an annuity of 15/. for 25 years, after
the extinétion of two joint lives, aged 30 and 40, and after.
the longeft of thofe lives, computing at 4 per cent. may be
re{pectively found to be equal to 136/. and 7o/. 85. 2d.
by Tab. VI. and IX. (Lire-Aanuities), and Tab. III.:
(Annuitigs).
Pros. V.
To find the value of an annuity after the deceafe of a
given life, or of any number of lives, during the continuance
of another life, or of any number of lives, to be nominated
at the time of fuch deceafe.
Solution.—This differs-very little from the preceding pro-
blem, and is anf{wered much in the fame manner. Subtraé& -
the value of an annuity, on the life or lives, from the per-—
petuity ; multiply the remainder into the value of the life
or lives at the time of their nomination, and alfo into the
given annuity ; divide the produ€t by the perpetuity, and
the quotient will be the anfwer,
Example.—Required the value of an annuity of 100/.
after the deceafe of a perfon aged 30, during the continuance
of the life of a perfon to be nominated at the time of fuch
deceafe, whofe age may be fuppofed to he then about 15
years, reckoning intere{t of money at 4/. per cent.
By Tab. VI. the value of a life of 30 is 14.781, which
being fubtraéted from 25, and the remainder multiplied
into 16.791 (the yalue by’the fame table of an annuity on
5 a life
REV
a life of 15), and alfo into 100, the given annuity produces
17.158.7- This fum, divided by 25, gives 686.3/. or
636/. 6s. for the value fought.
If, inftead of a fingle life of go, the annuity had been
to commence after the longeft of two lives, aged 30 and 35,
. tocontinue during the longett of twe lives, {uppofed to be
io and 15 years of age at the. time of the deceafe of the
former lives, the prefent value in that cafe, at the fame
rate of intereft, would. be, according, to the values in
Tab. VI. and VILL. (Lire-dnnuities), equal to 583.234/. or
583/. 4s. 8d. nearly. See Simpfon’s Select Exercifes ;
Dr, Price’s ‘Treatife on Reverfionary Payments ; and Mr.
Morgan’s Dodtrine of Life Annuities.
REVERT, in Law. A thing is faid to revert when it
returns or falls back to its firft owner.
All honours and royal fees alienated revert to the crown,
orare revertible. Apanages, or portions of younger fons
of kings, are granted on condition of reverfion.
REVERTENS, Lat. returning or defcending : as,
Dudus revertens, conducimento, ritornante, all imply a regular
defcent of found; which the Italians likewile call defcendente
di grado.
“REVERTER, Formedon in the, in Law. See ForMe-
DON.
REVES, James per, in Biography, a learned Dutch
Proteftant divine and, profeflor, the fon of a Dutch, burgo-
matter of Deventer, was born in 1586, , While he was very.
young he was taken to Amiterdam, where he was initruted in
the Latin, Greek, and French languages, and then fent to
purfue his ftudies at the univerfity of Leyden. From this
place he removed to the univerfity of Franeker, where he
learned the Hebrew under the two Drufiufes.. In 1610
he travelled into France for farther improvement, where he
refided two years, chiefly at Saumur, Rocheile, and Or-
leans. He next entered upon the duties of the Chriltian
miniltry, and was, in 1641, chofen principal and firlt pro-
feflor of the theological college of the ftates of Holland and
Welt Friefland at Leyden. He died at Leyden in 1658, at
the age of 72. His works are very numerous, of which
the titles. are given in the General Biography : among thefe
may be mentioned, “ Belgicarum Eccletialticarum Doétrina
et Ordo,” &c.; “ Hiftoria Pontificum Romanorum con-
tracta, et ad Annum 1632 contraéta;’’ “ Daveutriz. illuf-
trate, five Hiftorie Urbis Daventrientis, Lib. vi.’ 1651, 4to,
De Reves publifhed an improved edition of «« The Book of
Pfalms,”’ im Dutch verfe, by Peter Dathenus, and he was
concerned in revifing the Dutch verfion of the Old Telta-
ment, which was printed at, Leyden in 1637.
REVETEMENT, in Fortification, is a ttrong wall built
on the outfide of the rampart and parapet, to fupport-the
earth, and prevent its rolling into the ditch, See Corpon.
REVEZ, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Tras os Montes; 10 miles N.E. of Lamego,—
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Sambre and
Meufe; 20 miles S. of Bruffels.
REUGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre and Loire; 9 miles N.E. of Tours.
REVIERS, a town of France, in the department of the
Calvados ; 8 miles N. of Caen.
REVIEW, in Chancery. A Jill of review is where the
caufe has been heard, and a decree therein figned and en-
rolled ; but fome error in law appears in the body of the
decree, or fome new matter is difcovered in time, after the
decree made. A bill of review is not exhibited but by leave
ef the court.
A commiffion of review is a commiffion fometimes granted,
in extraordinary cafes, to revife the fentence of the court of
REV
delegates ; when it is apprehended they have been led into
a material error, ‘This commiffion the king may grant,
although the ftatutes 24 and 25 Hen. VIII. declare the
fentence.of the delegates definitive ; becaufe the pope, as
fupreme head by the canon law, ufed to grant fuch commif-
fions of review ; and fuch authority, as the pope heretofore
exerted, is now annexed to the crown by ftats. 26 Hen. VIII.
cap. I. and 1.Eliz. cap. 1. But this is not matter of
right, which the fubject may demand ex debito juflitie, but
merely a matter of fayour, and which, therefore, is often
denied. See AprraL. , :
Review, in Literary Hiflory. See Journnaxn and Ma-
GAZINE.
Review, in Military Language, is the appearance of an
army, or part of an army, arranged in form of | battles
and exercifed, in prefence of the king or of a general,, The
firings in reviews are generally thirty-fix rounds, viz. by
companies; by grand divifions; by fub-divifions ;. ob-
liquely, advancing, retreating ; by files; in the {quare ;
{treet-firings, advancing and retreating ; and, laflly, a
volley.
The intention of a review is to know the condition of
the troops, and to {ee that they are complete, and that they
perform their exercife and evolutions well.
REVIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Meufe,.and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrié of Bar-fur-Ornain.; 15 miles S. of St. Mene-
hould. The place contains 1800, and the canton go87 in-
habitants, on a territory of 162% kiliometres, in 17 com-
munes.
REVILING ¢he Ordinances of the Church, in Lazw, is
an offence punithable by ftatute. Thus it is provided by
1 Edw. VI. cap. 1 and 1 Eliz. cap. 1. that whoever reviles
the facrament of the Lord’s fupper fhall be punifhed by fine
and imprifonment, See Common. Prayer.
REVILLA Giceno, in Geography, an ifland in the North
Pacific ocean, nearly of an oval form,.so miles long from N.
to S., and 23 in breadth. Capt. Vancouver called it by
this name from refpect to Conde de Revilla Gigedo, viceroy
of New, Spain. N. lat. 55° 6! to 55°55'.. E. long. 228° 27!
to 229° 151. y
Revitxia Gigedo, Canal of, a ftrait of the North Pacifie
ocean, between the forementioned ifland and that of Gra-
vina. ;
REVILLY, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre ; 9 miles N. of Iffoudun.
REVIN, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardennes, on the Meufe; 6 miles N.E. of Rocroy.
REVINGHEIM, a town of France, in the department
of the North; 5 miles N. of Baillenl.
REVISE, among Printers, afecond proof of a fheet to
be printed, taken off after correcting the firlt.
REVIVAL of perfons hanged. See ExEcution.
REVIVER. See Revivor.
REVIVIFICATION, Resusciration, or Redudion,
in Chemifiry, the art of reftoring a mixed body to its: firlt
itate, after it had been altered and difguifed by diflolution,
calcination, and the like. See Repuction, and the feveral
metals.
REVIVIFIED Antimony. See Antimony.
REVIVING, in Law, a renewing of rents and actions
after they had been extinguifhed. ~
REVIVOR, or Reviver, Bill of, is where a bill has
been exhibited in chancery againft one who anfwers: but,
before the caufe is heard, or at leaft before the decree is
enrolled, one of the parties dies.
In this cafe, a bill of revivor muft be brought, praying
the
REV
the former proceedings may ftand revived, and be put in the
fame condition as at the time of the abatement.
REUNION, J/le dela, in Geography. See Bourson.
REVOCATION, Revocatio, in Law, the a&t of re-
voking, calling back, or annulling, a power, grant, &c. made
before.
The revocation of an offer, after-it is accepted of, is in-
valid. All preceding wills or teftaments are revoked by the
laft; but the republication of a former will revokes one of a
later date, and eftablifhes the firft again.
The cancelling or revoking of a teftament is one of the
three ways of avoiding it. For, though I make a laft will
and teftament irrevocable in the ftrongeft words, yet I am
at liberty to revoke it, becaufe my own act or words cannot
alter the difpofition of law, fo as to make that irrevocable
which is in its own nature revocable. (8 Rep. 82.) For
this, fays lord Bacon (Elem. c. 19.) would be for a man to
deprive himfelf of that which of all other things is mott in-
cident to human condition ; and that is, alteration or repent-
ance. It hath alfo been held, that without an exprefs revo-
cation, if a man, who hath made his will, afterwards marries
and hath a child, this is a prefumptive or implied revocation
of his former will, which he made in his ftate of celibacy.
(Ld. Raym. 441. 1 P. Wms. 204.) The Romans were alfo
wont to fet afide teftaments as being “ inofficiofa,” deficient
in natural duty, if they difinherited or totally pafled by
(without afligning a true and fufficient reafon) any of the
children of the teftator. (Inft. 2.18.1.) But if the child
had any legacy, however {mall, it was a proof that the tef-
tator had not loit his memory or his reafon, which otherwife
the law prefumed; but was then fuppofed to have aéted
thus for fome fubftantial caufe; and, in fuch cafe, no
¢ querela inofficiofi teftamenti’? was allowed. Hence pro-
bably has arifen that groundlefs vulgar error of the neceflity
of leaving the heir a fhilling, or fome other exprefs legacy,
in order to difinherit him effetually: whereas the law-of
England makes no fuch conftrained fuppofition of forget-
fulnefs or infanity ; and, therefore, though the heir or next
of kin be totally omitted, it admits no “ querela inofficiofi’””
to fet afide fuch a teftament.
The revocation of a devife of lands and tenements mutt be
in writing, figned by the teftator, or fome other perfon in
his prefence, and by his exprefs dire@tion ; and be fub{cribed,
in his prefence, by three or four credible witnefles.
A prior clauftral is revocable at pleafure. The revoca-
tion of the edit of Nantes was fatal to the French Pro-
teftants.
REVOCATION of Us. See Usz.
REVOLAX, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Ulea; 13 miles E. of Brahettad.
REVOLSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Viborg; 128 miles N.W. of Povenetz.
REVOLUTION, formed from revolve, to roll back-
wards, in Politics, denotes a grand turn or change of go-
vernment. -
There are no ftates in the world but have undergone fre-
quent revolutions. The abbot de Vertot has furnifhed_us
with two or three good hiftories of the revolutions of
Sweden, the revolutions of Rome, &c.
The Revotution, ufed with us by way of eminence,
denotes the great turn of affairs in England in 1688, when
king James II. abdicating, the prince and princefs of
Orange were declared king and queen of England, &e.
See Right of Crown.
The declaration of the prince of Orange, which was dif-
perfed over the kingdom previoufly to his arrival, and which
was recelyed with univerial approbation, contained an enu-
4
REV
meration of the grievances of the nation, and the ftatement
of which evinced the abfolute neceflity of a change in the
government. Thefe grievances were the difpenting and
{ufpending power exercifed by the king ; the court of eccle-
fiaftical commiffion ; the filling of all offices with Catholics,
and the raifing of a Jefuit to be privy-counfellor ; the open
encouragement given to popery, by building every where
churches, colleges, and feminaries for that feét; the dif-
placing of judges, if they refufed to give fentence according
to orders received from court ; the cancelling of the charters
of all the corporations, and the fubjecting of ele€tions to
arbitrary will and pleafure; the treating of petitions, even the
moft modeft, and from perfons of the higheft rank, as crimi-
nal and feditions ; the committing of the whole authority
of Ireland, civil and military, into the hands of papifts ; the:
affuming of an abfolute power over the religion and laws
of Scotland, and openly exaéting in that kingdom an cbe-
dience without referve ; and the violent prefumptions againft
the legitimacy of the prince of Wales. The redreis of
thefe grievances was the prince’s profefled obje& ; and
for this purpofe he propofed to have a loyal and free par-
liament affembled, in order to provide for the fafety and
liberty of the nation, as well as to examine the proofs of
the prince of Wales’s legitimacy. The prince, at the fame
time avowed, that he had no other defign than to procure
the full and lafting fettlement of religion, liberty, and
property. On the moment of alarm the Englifh miniiters
redrefled fome of the grievances of which complaint had
been made; but there ftill remained the foundation of alk
grievances upon whith they could again in an inftant be
erected, an arbitrary and defpotic power in the crown. For
this ufurpation there was no poflible remedy, but by a full
declaration of all the rights of the fubje&t, in a free par-
liament. On the 21{ft of OGober 1688, the prince fet fail
from Helvoetfluys, with a fleet of near 500 veflels, and an
army of above 14,000 men. A ftorm drove him back, but
he foon repaired his lofs, and made fail with a fair wind to-
wards the weft of England. The fame wind detained the
king’s fleet in its ftation near Harwich, and enabled the
Dutch to pafs the ftraits of Dover without oppofition. Both
fhores were covered with multitudes of people, who, befides
admiring the grandeur of the {peG:acle, were held in anxious
fufpenfe by the profpe& of an enterprize, the moft import-
tant, which, durmg {ome ages, had been undertaken in Eu-
rope. The prince had a profperous voyage, and landed his
army fafely in Torbay, on the 5th of November, (1688,) the
anniverfary of the gunpowder treafon. The firft perfon who
joined the prince was major Buerington ; and he was quickly
followed by the gentry of the counties of Devon and So-
merfet. Sir Edward Seymour made propofals for an affo-
ciation, which every one figned. By degrees, the earl of
Abingdon, Mr. Ruifel, fon of the earl of Bedford, Mr. Whar-
ton, Godfrey, Howe, came to Exeter. All England was in
commotion. Lord Delamere took arms in Chefhire, the earl
of Danby feized York, the earl-of Bath, governor of Ply-
mouth, declared for the prince, and the earl of Devonfhire
made a like declaration in Derby. The nobility and gentry
of Nottinghamfhire embraced the fame caufe ; and every
day there appeared fome effe@ of that univerfal combination
into which the nation had entered againft the meafures of the
king. Even thofe who took not the field againit him, were
able to embarrafs and confound his counfels. A petition
for a new parliament was figned by 24 bithops and peers of
the greateit dittinétion, and was prefented to the king. No’.
one thought of oppofing or refifting the invader. "The army
deferted him ; and feveral officers of diftinG@ion informed
Feverfham, the general, that they could not in confcience
fight
——
REVOLUTION.
fight againft the prince of Orange. Prince George of
Denmark and the princefs Anne abandoned the king: an
event which, concurring with feveral other incidents that
had occurred, and which threatened the overthrow of his
royal authority, occafioned an alarm approaching to con-
fternation, and a grief that caufed him to fhed tears. In
- this flate of diftrefs, deferted by his friends and family, and
defpifed by his enemies, he was as much depreffed, as he had
before been vainly elated by profperity. He iffued writs for
a new parliament, and deputed commiffioners to treat with
the prince of Orange. The king every day more and more
alarmed by accounts of the general difaffe€tion that pre-
vailed, and mifled by imprudent counfel operating upon his
fears, precipitately embraced the refolution of efcaping into
France, having fent before him the queen and the infant
prince. Nor before his departure did he provide for the
exercife of the adminiftration ; he threw the great feal into
the river, and recalled all the writs that had been iffued for
the election of the new parliament. During this temporary
diffolution of government, the populace became matters,
rofe ina tumult, deftroyed the mafs-houfes, and even at-
tacked and rifled the houfes of the Florentine envoy and
Spanifh ambaflador, where many Catholics had lodged their
valuable effects. Having difcovered Jefferies, the chancel-
lor, notwithftanding the difguife he had aflumed in order to
fly the kingdom, they fo abufed him that he died foon after.
Feverfham difbanded the troops, and without either dif-
arming or paying them, let them loofe to prey upon the
country. In this extremity, the bifhops and peers, who
were in town, afiembled, and having chofen the marquis of
Halifax fpeaker, gave direétions to the mayor and alder-
men for keeping the peace of the city, and iffued orders,
which were readily obeyed, to the fleet, the army, and all the
garrifons ; and they made applications to the prince of Orange,
whofe enterprize they highly applauded, and whofe fuccefs
they joyfully congratulated. The prince, availing himfelf
of the popularity of his caufe, approached nearer and nearer
to London. In the mean while the king, though difguifed,
was difcovered and feized by the populace at Feverfham,
where he was attempting to make his efcape, and foon after
arrived in London. Whilft he remained at Whitehall he
received few marks of attention and refpect; and whilft he
remained there the Dutch guards took pofleffion of the pa-
lace. In confequence of a meflage conveyed to him from
the prince by Halifax, Shrewfbury, and Delamere, which
commanded him to leave the palace, he removed to Ham,
a feat of the duchefs of Lauderdale’s. Having obtained
permiffion he retired to Rochetter, where he remained for
fome days. But finding that the church, the nobility, the
city, the country, all concurred in neglecting him, and leav-
ing him to his own counfels, he fubmitted to his melancholy
fate ; and being urged by earneft letters from the queen, he
privately embarked on board a frigate which waited for him;
and he arrived fafely at Ambleteufe in Picardy, whence
he haftened te St. Germains. The prince, in compliance
with an addrefs from about go peers and bifhops, fum-
moned a convention, which completed the revolution.
The true ground and principle upon which that memor-
able event proceeded, was an entirely new cafe in politics,
which had never before happened in our hiftory ; the abdica-
tion of the reigning monarch, and the vacancy of the throne
thereupon. Accordingly, in a full affembly of the lords and
commons, met in Convention (which fee) on occafion of this
vacancy, both houfes came to this refolution (Jan. 22, 1689) :
“ That king James the Second, having endeavoured to fub-
vert the conftitution of the kingdom, by breaking the ori-
ginal contraé between king and people ; and, by the advice
- Vor, XXX.
of Jefuits, and other wicked perfons, having violated the
fundamental laws ; and having withdrawn himfelf out of this
kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne
is thereby vacant.’’
The faéts themfelves thus appealed to, viz. the king*s
endeavour to fubvert the conftitution, by breaking the ori-
ginal contraét, his violation of the fundamental laws, and
his withdrawing himfelf out of the kingdom, were evident
and notorious: and the confequences drawn from thefe
faéts (namely, that they amounted to an abdication of the
government (fee AnpicaTion) ; which abdication did not
affect only the perfon of the king himfelf, but alfo all his
heirs, and rendered the throne abfolutely and completely
vacant) it belonged to our anceftors to determine. For,
whenever a queftion arifes between the fociety at large and
any magiftrate vefted with powers originally delegated by
that fociety, it muft be decided by the voice of the feciety
-itfelf; there not being upon earth any other tribunal to
which to refort. And that thefe confequences were fairly de-
duced from thefe faéts, our anceftors have folemnly deter-
mined, in a full parliamentary convention reprefenting the
whole fociety. The reafons upon which they decided may
be found at large in the parliamentary proceedings of the
times, our anceftors having moft indifputably a competent
jurifdiGtion to decide this great and important queftion, and
having in fa decided it, it is now become our duty at this
diftance of time to acquiefce in their determination ; being
born under that eftablifhment which was built upon this
foundation, and obliged, by every tie, religious as well as
civil, to maintain it.
The lords and commons having determined this funda
mental article, that there was a vacancy of the throne, pro-
ceeded to fill up that vacancy in fuch manner as they judged
the moft proper. And this was done by their declaration of
the 12th of February, 1689, in the following manner : “ That
William and Mary, prince and princefs = Orange, be, and
be declared king and queen, to hold the crown and royal
dignity during their lives, and the life of the furvivor of
them ; and that the fole and full exercife of the regal power
be only in, and executed by, the faid prince of Orange, in
the names of the faid prince and princefs, during their joint
lives ; and after their deceafes the faid crown and royal dig-
nity to be to the heirs of the body of the faid princefs ; and
for default of fuch iffue, to the princefs Anne of Denmark,
and the heirs of her body ; and for default of fuch iflue, to
the heir of the body of the faid prince of Orange.’”? Thie
tranfaction, founded in equity, and ftri€tly agreeable to the
{pirit of our conftitution, and the rights of human natare,
formed a new era in the hiftory of our country, in which
the bounds of prerogative and liberty have been better de-
fined, the principles of government more theroughly exa-
mined and underftood, and the rights of the fubje& more
explicitly guarded by legal provifions, than in any other
period of the Englith hiftory.
To the fettlement of the crown was annexed a declara-
tion of rights, in which all the points that had, of late
years, been difputed between the king and people were
finally determined; and the powers of royal prerogative
were more narrowly circum{cribed and more exaétly defined
than in any former period of the Englifh government. It
is worthy of obfervation, fays judge Blackftone, that the
convention avoided with great wifdom the wild extremes into
which the vifionary theories of fome zealous republicans
would have led them. They held that this mifcondué of
king James amounted to an endeavour to fubvert the confti-
tution ; and not toan actual fubverfion, or total diffolution
of the government, according to the principles a Mrs
ocke
REVOLUTION.
Locke (Gov. p. 2. c. 19); which would have reduced the
fociety almoft to a ftate of nature; would have levelled all
diftinGtions of honour, rank, offices, and property ; would
have annihilated the fovereign power, and in confequence
have repealed all pofitive laws; and would have left the
people at liberty to have ereéted a new fy{tem of {tate upon
a new foundation of polity. They therefore very prudently
voted it to amount to no more than an abdication of the
government, and a confequent vacancy of the throne; by
which the government was allowed to fubfift, though the
executive magiltrate was gone, and the kingly office to re-
main, though king James was no longer king. Thus the
conftitution was kept entire ; which, upon every found prin-
ciple of government, mutt otherwife have fallen to pieces, if
fo principal and conitituent a part as the royal authority
had been abolifhed, or even fufpended. Blackit. Comm.
booki, &c. bookiv. Hume’s Hit. vol. vii.
Revetution, French, in its moft popular fenfe, was for
feveral years, after 1789, underitood in England to confitt
of thofe events which at the outfet deftroyed the ufual order
of things, viz. the Parifians’ revolt, the capture and dettruc-
tion of the Baftile, and the fubmiffion of the monarch. But
thefe events, fingular and important as they were, could not
contftitute a political revolution: this mult have required a
change inthe government. It is capable, fays Mr. (now fir
James) Mackintofh, of three fenfes. The king’s recogni-
tion of the rights of the ftates-general to a fhare in the le-
giflation, was a change in the aétual government of France,
where the.whole legiflative and executive power had, with-
out the fhadow of interruption, for nearly two centuries,
been enjoyed by the crown ; in that fenfe, the meeting of the
ftates-general was the revolution, and the 5th of May 1789
was its epoch. The union of the three orders in one al-
fembly was a moft important change in the forms and fpirit
of the legiflature. his, too, may be called the revolution :
and the 23d of June of the fame year will be itsepoch. This
body, thus united, formed the new conftitution, which may
be called a revolution; becaufe, of all the early political
changes, it was the moift important, and its epoch was deter-
mined by the conclufion of the labours of the National Af-
fembly, on the 30th of September 1791, when the king,
Louis XVI., came to the aflembly, and having addrefled
the members, the prefident proclaimed in his own name, and
in the name of the whole body, that “the conftituent af-
fembly declares that its power is at an end, and that it will
fit no longer.’? In whatever fenfe the phrafe be taken, the
effects have been fo momentous, as to claim the attention,
and excite the awe of the whole civilized world, In a work
of this kind it is impoffible to enter into the detail of the
various events connected with the French revolution: thefe
muit require the pen of the hiftorian, who can devote years
to the-inveftigation of facts, and to the developement of the
motives by which the great a¢tors have been impelled to en-
gage in the feveral parts conneéted with their names. The
hiftory of the French revolution will afford ample feope and
abundant materials for the moft interefting narrative of mo-
dern times. The New Cyclopedia, embracing every topic
conneéted with human knowledge, cannot devote much {pace
to the hiftory of any country, and ftill lefs to a fingle event
connected with an individual ftate. In the articles FRANCE
and Lewis XVI. we have given a pretty full account of the
eaufes which led to the French revolution, and of the
ehanges which took place previoufly to the deftruétion of
the Battile: of the confederacy of the crowned heads againft
the popular governments, which were eftablifhed, one after
another, on the ruins of the old conftitution: of the pro-
{criptions and majflacres which were perpetrated in Paris ;
and finally, of the decapitation ef the king, queen, and the
king’s fitter. We have then traced the progrefs of Bona-
parte, from his confulfhip to the high dignity of emperor,
and noticed the vaft.and unprecedented power to which he
attained over almoft the whole continent of Europe, men-
tioning the kings that had been created by his fiat, and the
{lates that had been fubje& to his controul, or that ftood
in awe of his power. ‘This mighty conqueror we followed,
in the article France, to his divorcement of Jofephine, and
marriage with the daughter of the emperor of Germany.
In addition to the above-named articles, to which the
reader is referred, we have now to trace the fleps of this
man from the year 1810, to his expulfion from the throne
and empire of France, and thew by what means his obfti-
nacy and ambition caufed him to fall from the higheft digni-
ties, to which perhaps mortal man ever arrived, to a ftate
of mortification and almoft iniignificance as the exile te
Elba, whick may be regarded as the end of the revolution.
For fome time the very nature of commerce mutt have
operated as much to the prejudice of his own-merchants, as
they could do to the prejudice of the merchants of this
country; he ftruck more direétly and fatally at the liberty
of his fubjeéts by his decrees refpecting prifons, domeitic
fervants, and the prefs.
In the decree refpeéting prifons, to which we referred
in the article France, it was explicitly declared, that there
_were many perfons, in that country, accufed of crimes
againit the {tate, whom it was neither fafe to liberate nor to
bring to trial: for the purpote of keeping thefe prifoners in
fafe cuftody, a number of itrong prifons were reared in the
heart of the country, in which it was determined they
fhould be confined. There might have been fome plea for
this mode of condu& during the convuliions of the revolu-
tion :—thea it might not have been fafe nor prudent either
to have brought to trial, or to have liberated men whofe po-
pular charaéter, or caufe, probably would, in the one cate,
have excited frefh difturbanees; and. in the other have al-
fured their acquittal, however ftrong and full the proofs of
their guilt might have been. But under the exilting order
of things it was impoflible for the emperor of France to pro-
nounce a ftronger libel cn his own government, than could
be inferred from fuch a decree. At this time, indeed, he
reioned with the moft defpotic {way over the French, and
he feemed refolved to eftablifh, in the heart of Europe,
and over a people enlightened by {cience, a defpoti{m
unknown even to the ignorant and enflaved nations of
the Eait. By his decree refpecting fervants it was evi-
dent, that its objeét was not to be confined to perfons in
that condition of life, but that it was meant, by putting
them under fuch ftriét and harfh regulations, to have always
at command {pies in every family,~and thus to eitablifh a
more regular and perfeét fyftem of efpionage. Too thefe
acts he iffued his mandate, which went to deltroy every ad-
vantage which attaches to a free prefe: this, indeed, was
not calculated to excite altonifament, for in all defpotic
countries the liberty of the prefs has been the object of the
tyrant’s fear and hatred. At no period did France ever
enjoy a free prefs; but Bonaparte, who feems to have ex-
amined and compared all the tyrannical proceedings and
meafures of defpotic governments, both ancient and modern,
with a view to improve upon them, and from them to
eftablifh a perfe& fyftem in France, which fhould crufh the
powers of the human mind, had gone beyond all former
precedent. By his decrees in the year 1810, of which we
are {peaking, only a certain number of printers were al-
lowed to carry on their bufinefs within the French terri-
tories, and thefe were to be under the moft flri€t and watch-
ful
REVOLUTION.
ful fuperintendance of the police ; fo that’ nothing could be
printed, but what government thought proper to allow and
fanétion. This has always been the obje& in defpotic
countries; but it was obtained with great difficulty, and
never with fuch perfect fuccefs as was defired. By dimi-
nifhing the number of printers, Bonaparte removed the
chief ‘difficulty towards deftroying the liberty of the prefs,
and fucceeded in placing France in a ftate of mental bon-
dage, perhaps without a parallel in the hiftory of the
world.
During this period the emperor of France was employ-
ing his troops im Spain, with a view of fubjugating that
country and Portugal, and uniting the whole peniniula to
his already too vait empire. By the exertions chiefly of
Great Britain his plans were fruitrated. Bonaparte feems,
indeed, to have been completely thrown out of his expec-
tations and calculations with refpeét to the refiftance,
which he met with in his defighs on the independence of
Spain ; and the protracted and obftinate nature of the con-
telt proved that for a confiderable length of time he carried
on the war there in a defultory manner, by armies appa-
rently unconnected with each other, and by means not act-
ing in concert and co-operation. About the beginning of
1811, however, a regular plan appears to have been formed
by Bonaparte for conducting the war in Spain. The
principal feature in this plan was the occupancy of the
chief cities in the peninfula: and at the end of the year the
French had made confiderable progrefs, they had taken
pofleffion of moft of the chief towns in Spain; their pro-
grefs had been flow, attended with great difficulty, inter-
rupted with many reverfes, and purchafed at heavy ex-
pences; itill they had made progrefs, and the emperor, if
he could accomplifh his objects, never regarded the colt.
In the domeitic hiltory of France, the only thing that
occurred worthy of notice was the birth of a fon to the
emperor, who was immediately defignated as king of Rome,
and in that charaéter received the fervile homage of the
legiflators of the empire. It was the fubject of frequent
remark, that after the fecond marriage of Bouaparte, he
for many months feemed to abandon his reltlefs and am-
bitious projects (with the exception of his attempts on
Spain), or that he took much longer time for their execu-
tion. During the year 1811, rumours of war between
France and Ruflia frequently arofe, and as frequently fub-
fided without any act of hoftility on either fide. It was
not till the {pring of 1812 that the war commenced, which
was ultimately the caufe of the overthrow of the French
or.
sree abe gth of May, 1812, Bonaparte fet out from St.
Cloud, on the 6th of June he crofled the Viftula, and
_on the 22d of that month he formally declared war againit
Ruffia; two days after this he crofled the Niemen, entered
the Ruffian territories, and immediately commenced _hofti-
lities by the capture of Kowno, and on the 28th he en-
tered Wilna, the capital of Ruffian Poland. In this war
he expeéted confiderable affiftance from the Poles; he knew
their rooted enmity to Ruffia, and though he had already
deceived them, in the expectations which he had led them
to form of his erecting Poland again into a kingdom, yet
he well knew how to infpire them again with confidence in
him: as foon, therefore, as he had entered Poland, his
firft public aét was to proclaim it anew, A diet was im-
mediately aflembled, a conititution framed, and the name
and form of liberty were reitored to the Poles.
Bonaparte had not been long in Ruflia before he began
to experience the difaiters of the climate. -In the month
of July, and when his army was not much farther north
than Wilna, a tremendous tempett arofe; torrents of rain
fell; thoufands of his horfes perifhed, and many pieces of
artillery were buried in the mud. His difappointment and
chagrin began to. manifeft. themfelves; he broke out into
invectives on the barbarity of the Ruflians for laying waite
their country in their retreat. Although many fevere
battles were fought, {lil the Ruflians refufed to hazard.a
general engagement. ‘Their perfeverance in the plan of
retreating aftonifhed the world, and mortified, beyond con-
ception, their enemies, who had no means of preventing
this kind of warfare. It was imagined, that for a fhort
time only they would follow up this fyitem, and that their
iteadinefs, paflive courage, and patriotifm would give way,
when they perceived the enemy advancing, notwithilandin
their obitinate perfeverance, the advanced itate of the feafon,
and the defolation of the country. But Ruflia was ani-
mated with one foul, the dread and deteltation of the
French rofe fuperior to every feeling: confiderations of
perfonal interelt or comfort, even the ficht of their families
driven from their homes, and thofe homes abandoned to
the enemy or the flames, had no room in the brealt of the
Roffians: there dwelt only the determination to expel the
French, aud to obey every command of their fovereign,
iffued by him or his generals for that purpofe. The pro-
clamations of Alexander encouraged the enthufiafm and
animated the patient and heroic fuflerings of the people ;
they faid, that the emperor was determined to make no
peace with Bonaparte, while his legions polluted the foil
of Ruflia: that he would facrifice all, even Peterfburg
and Mofcow, rather than they fhould fall into the hands
of the enemy. In all the proclamations of Alexander
there was no irrefolution, no defpondence, no expreflion,
that could lead Bonaparte to indulge the hope, that -he
would propofe, or even liften to terms of peace; or his
fubjeéts to apprehend, that he would not perfevere in what
he had begun. New levies were ordered to be raifed ; the
Ruffian people were invoked by all thofe powerful feelings
and prejudices, which ignorance and fuperftition create;
and when a Roffian is told, that what he has to do, or to
fuffer, is for the fake of his fovereign or his religion, he is
made infenfible to danger and mifery.
Kutufoff continued his retreat, at the head of the main
Ruffian army, till he arrived at Borodino, within a fhort
diftance of Mofcow. The pofition here was extremely
favourable for defence ; though it did not cover the capl-
tal, as there were other roads leading to it. On the 7th ot
September the famous battle of Borodino was fought ; it
continued from fix in the morning till night, when the
French, though matters of one part of the field, retreated.
The lofs on this occafion was immenfe ; not lefs than 60,000
men are {uppofed to haye fallen on both fides. Both fides
claimed the victory ; and at Peterfburg it was imagined, that
Mofcow was rendered perfeCtly fecure by the deteat of the
enemy. The French, however, retreated, only for the purpofe
of meeting a {trong reinforcement which was advancing, and
which actually arrived within a day or two of this tremen-
dous engagement. At the head of thefe he put himfelf, and
prepared to march by another road for Molcow. As foon
as the Ruffian general was informed that Bonaparte had been
reinforced, and that he was mancuvring to get to Mofcow
by turning the Ruffians, he refolved to. abandon that capital
to its fate. Bonaparte therefore advanced to Mofcow un.
molefted, but on his entrance into the city, on the 11th of
September, he found its governor and inhabitants animated
with the true Ruffian {pirit. They made every refiftance
in their power to the entrance of the enemy; a great part
of the effective population was armed, and as foon as the
2 advanced
REVOLUTION.
advanced guard of the enemy appeared they attacked them
in the ftreets, and from the houfes, impeding their progrefs,
and caufing great deftru€tion ; and, when it was no longer
practicable to prevent the entrance of the enemy, the city
was fet on fire, and, as it was built principally of wood, the
fire {pread rapidly in all direétions ; and before the French
could ftop the progrefs of the flames, only a tenth part of
it remained unconfumed. It is impoffible to defcribe or
even imagine the difappointment, mortification, and wrath
of Bonaparte when he beheld Mofcow in flames. He had
promifed his foldiers reft from their fatigues, refrefhments,
provifions in abundance, and comfortable winter-quarters in
it. TThefe were now all at an end: amidft the ruins of
Mofcow his army would in vain feek for fhelter from che
inclemencies of the approaching winter, or for a fupply of
provifions. His indignation foon broke out in conduc
at once tyrannical, cruel, and mean: he feized on the men
who had fet fire to the city, and caufed them to be exe-
cuted.
The fituation of the French army in Mofcow was now moft
critical: they were furrounded with armies almoft as nume-
rous as themfelves, and which were daily increafing. Winter
was already making its appearance: the troops had been
completely worn down by their long march, and at the end
of it, they had met with a reception which neither their
leader nor they could have anticipated. The former was
certain in his own mind that a complete victory muft be the
refult of the battle of Borodino, and that, as a price of peace,
Alexander would find a fupply for all their wants, at the
expence of his own fubjects. Inftead of this, the victory
was not at all decifive, and Bonaparte advanced with the
moft cautious fteps into Mofcow, well knowing, by a fatal
experience, that he beheld an enemy in every Ruffian he met.
He foon faw that he could not remain in the ruins of the
city till {pring fhould open to him a communication with the
fouthern provinces ; and if they retreated, how were they to
obtain provifions, and endure a march of 500 miles in a fevere
and defolating winter, through deep fnows, and by the hidden
and almoft impaflable roads of Ruflia? The Ruffian ge-
nerals, true to the caufe of their country, and infpired by
the animating proclamations of their emperor, took the moft
ative meafures to force Bonaparte from Mofcow, by cutting
off his {upplies ; and when they had compelled him to retreat,
to harafs him in every inch of his journey. For this purpofe
a great number of Coflacks, befides thofe who had been
already employed, were collected, and this was the feafon of
their utility and triumph.
Bonaparte was now fenfible of the dreadful error he had
committed: unlefs he actually expected to dictate terms of
peace at Mofcow, it was the extreme of madnefs to have pro-
ceeded thither at the beginning of a Ruffian winter ; and if
he did expect either to dictate terms of peace, or to have his
own offers accepted, he muft have been ignorant of the de-
termined hatred which all ranks in Ruffia bore towards him.
The apology he offers in his bulletins, for his military career
in Ruffia, isa paltry one; according to him, the Ruffian
winter this year commenced earlier than ufual; as if the
circumftance of the froft fetting in a very few days fooner or
later could have faved or deftroyed his army! What mutt
be the military prudence of that man, who calculates for the
fafety of his army, and the fuccefs of his meafures, on fo
uncertain athing as climate! The fa&t is, Bonaparte, in all
his former campaigns, had been indebted for his fuccefs to
the boldnefs of his advances into the very heart of the enemy’s
country ; that this boldnefs did not affume the character,
deferve the name, and produce the confequences of rafhnefs,
was lefs owing to his own forefight and circum{peétion than
to the pufillanimity, treachery, and want of talents of his op
ponents: without adverting to the different circumiftaxces in
which he was placed in Ruffia, from a difference of climate
and national charaéter,he followed his ufual plan, thus proving
that he was defeGtive in one great feature of a man of abilities,
the adaptation of general principles and plans to particular
circumttances.
Perceiving that, though he was in the heart of the Ruffian
empire, and amidft the ruins of its ancient capital, no terme
of peace were propofed, and that the Ruffians were gather-
ing round him on all fides, he fent to Kutufoff to propofe
terms of accommodation, or, at leaft, an armiftice. The
Ruffian commander received the French negociator in the
midft of his generals, and replied to him with the utmoft
franknefs : he told him, that he was not authorifed to receive
any propofals either for peace, or an armiftice ; that he would
not even fend to Alexander nor receive the letter which
Bonaparte had fent ; and that, with refpe& to an armiftice,
the Ruflian army had no occafion for it, and they were in pof-
feffion of too many advantages to throw them away by ac-
cepting it. The negociator then began to complain of the
favage manner in which the war had been conduéted ; to this
Kutufoff replied in language which ought always to be had
in remembrance by invaders: ‘* The French (he faid) had
introduced the barbarities of which they complained ; they
had commeneced hoftilities without reafon; had invaded
Ruffia; had infli€@ed as much mifery on its inhabitants as
they could; and now, when vengeance and retaliation were
at hand, they wifhed for peace; peace muit not even be
mentioned till the invaders had retraced their fteps, and had
again crofled theViltula; Bonaparte had nothing to do but get
out of Mofcow how he could, fince he came thither without
being invited ; the Ruffians, he might depend upon it, would
do their duty,—and the duty which they owed their fovereign,
their country, their murdered or defolate wives and helplefs
children, demanded that they fhould make their invaders fuffer
as much mifery as poffible: Bonaparte had proclaimed the
campaign at an end at Mofcow, but with the Ruffians it was
only beginning.” At another time, when the French com-
plained of the excefles of the Coffacks, who had even fired
upon their flags of truce, they were told by the Ruffian general
that the Coflacks aéted according to orders: ‘ we want,’?
faid he, “ not to hear of parleys; our object is to fight,
not to negociate ; take your meafures accordingly.”? Per-
ceiving that there was no chance of peace, or an armittice,
and that the Ruffians were fully fenfible of their own power,
and of the reduced and miferable ftate of the French army,
and had formed their plans in fuch a manner, as to take the
utmoit advantage of their own good fortune, Bonaparte,
after having been upwards of a month in Mofcow, prepared
for his retreat. A retreat of greater difficulty, and accom-
panied with more mifery, has never been recorded in the
annals of hiltory. On the firlt days of it, the fufferings of
the foldiers were feelingly and accurately defcribed in an in-
tercepted letter from the viceroy of Italy. «¢ Three days of
fuffering have fo broken down the {pirits of the foldiers, that
T look upon them, at the prefent moment, as {carcely capa-
ble of making any effort whatever. Many of them® have
died of hunger or of cold ; many others have gone and fur-
rendered themfelves to the enemy.’”’ The fufferings of the
French, however, were greatly to be increafed by hunger,
and the feverity 6f the climate.
Early in November the Ruffian winter fet in with more
than its accuftomed rigour : hitherto the roads had been only
deep and heavy, now they became fo exceflively flippery,
that the men could fcarcely keep their feet: hitherto the
horfes, neceflary both for the artillery and for the fuftenance
of
REVOLUTION.
of the foidiers, tor they were compelled and glad to feed
on horfe flefh, had proceeded feebly and flowly on, or
dropped dead only, a few hundreds every day ; but the
firft day of the froft, nearly 30,coo perifhed. All poffibi-
lity of carrying forward their artillery was now at an end; the
{pirits of the foldiers completely deferted them: they
crawled on, expofed to the moft dreadful cold, exhauited
with fatigue and hunger, emaciated, and almoft naked.
The road was literally blocked up with the dead and the
dying : they had no power to defend themfelves againft the
Coffacks, who conftantly hovered round them: they had no
inclination to do it: death to them would have been a blefi-
ing: at the fight of the Cofiacks they hoped their miferies
would foon be terminated: but their enemies were not fo
merciful as to put them to death; piercing them with
wounds, {tripping off the little covering they had, they left
them on the {now, there bleeding and naked, expofed to the
rigours of a Ruffian winter. Whenever the French entered
any village where there was the leait chance of repofe or
food, they exerted their little remaining ftrength, and
crawled on their hands and feet to feek it. Frequently, juft
as they had ftretched out their hands to feize a little food, or
reached the threfhold of a wretched hut, under which they
looked for fhelter from the weather, perhaps for a few
minutes fleep, the remnant of their itrength failed them,
and they expired.
With what feelings and fentiments did they now regard
Bonaparte! No longer the adored general, who feemed to
have chained victory to his car, to be more than mortal, and
to be deitined to render all Europe fubfervient to the interetts
and glory of France; they curfed him as the author of all
the mifery under which they were writhing ; on his perfon
they willingly would have infli&ted vengeance ; but fenfible
of their indignation, he had gathered round his perfon his
principal officers, mounted on almoft the only horfes that re-
mained. For fome time he rode in a coach, till the dreadful
voice of his foldiers commanded him to walk as they did,
and to fhare their fatigue ; he itill, however, defended him-
felf from the inclemency of the weather with a cloak ; “ off
with your cloak’? was another ftern command, that he durit
not difobey. Such was the fituation,—fuch the feelings of
the French army during their dreadful retreat, in which
every thing that could accumulate or fharpen mifery befet
them. It fcarcely needed the prefence of an enemy to
complete the work of deftruction ; the climate of Rufiia,
aided by hunger, was amply fufficient.
In faét, the French foldiers could no longer be faid to com-
pofe an army ; they were ftraggling in all directions, anxious
indeed to avoid the Coflacks, fince from them they expe-
rienced only an aggravation of their mifery, but not unwil-
ling to fall in with the regular Ruffian troops, in the hope
of being taken prifoners, or falling in battle. Their igno-
rance of the country, and the ftate of the roads, were fuch,
that the different divifions of the French army could not
fupport one another ; and frequently when expecting to fall
in with the main body, they encountered the enemy and
were taken prifoners. On the roth of November, before
they reached Smolenfk, general Augereau, with 2000 men
and 60 officers, furrendered themfelves; this was the firit
inftance, during the prefent war, of a whole corps laying
down their arms. It is computed that in three days time,
prior to that date, they loft 20,000 men, befides nearly
20,000 more that fell in the previous engagements ; nearly
300 pieces of cannon had alfo either fallen into the hands of
the Ruffians, or had been {piked and buried by the French.
But thefe loffes, enormous as they were, were only preludes
to greater ones.
It is extremely difficult to form an eftimate of the lofs of
the French in this dreadful campaign. The Ruffian official
accounts ftate that they took upwards of 150,000 men; and
it was calculated that the number of killed, and of thofe who
perifhed by hunger, fatigue, and cold, amounted nearly
to 100,000; fo that reckoning that the French army when
it crofled the Niemen, and began the campaign, amounted to
300,000 men, {carcely more than 50,000 efcaped out of
Ruffia; and of thofe, alarge proportion muft have fuffered
fo dreadfully as to be abfolutely unfit for future fervice.
Such is a bare outline of this difaftrous campaign, the con-
fequences of which have proved fo important to the liberties
of Europe. In it we have feen the firft general of his age,
at the head of one of the fineft armies that was ever raifed,
and which placed in him the moft unbounded confidence,
flying, beaten, difgraced, bereft of the greateft part of his
troops, and the obje& of deteltation to the remainder.
This is an event which, taken under all its circumttances,
cannot be parallelled in hiftory. No war, ancient or modern,
exhibits fuch deitruction and mifery ; more, no doubt, have
fallen in the field, in the courfe of a campaign ; but no army
ever perifhed with fuch lingering and varied mifery. The
caufe of the failure of the Ruffian campaign under the
aufpices of that fame general, who had on almoft all great
occafions been fuccefatal before, is the bufinefs of the hifto-
rian to inveftigate, dnd will long afford matter for {peculation
and curious difcuffion. « It has {earcely ever fallen to the lot
of the hiftorian or annalift,”” fays the intelligent writer in the
New Annual Regifter, “to narrate fuch difafters; and
when we confider that thefe difafters befel a man who, from
a low ftation in fociety, had raifed himfelf to the very fummit
of power, to an extent of dominion and influence never be-
fore witnefled in Europe; that this man, for the purpofe of
a mad, bloody, and defperate ambition, had trampled on all
the laws and ufages of juitice and civilized fociety ; and that
he confidered himfelf, and called upon the world to acknow-
ledge and fear him, as abfolutely beyond the reach of fate, as
fomething more than mortal ; when we moreover refleét on
the peculiar intereft which this country felt in all that befel
him, fince againit this country was his moft implacable and
deadly hatred dire&ted; and from that hatred, his ruin in-
direétly originated ; when we take all thefe things into our
account, we muit acknowledge that we cannot examine too
clofely, or {crutinize too minutely, the caufes of his failure
in the Ruffian campaign.”
lt appears, then, that thefe caufes may be claffed under
two general heads, viz. thofe which proceeded from the
nature of the country which he invaded, and the charac-
teriftic qualities of its inhabitants; and thofe which ori-
inated from the peculiar charaéter of the invader.
In the firft place, the conftitution of the Ruffian army,
and the charaéter of the Ruffian foldiers, contributed in no
{mall degree to the fate of Bonaparte. The Ruffians, from
their infancy, are moft devoutedly attached to their em-
peror, and to their nobility. Philofophers may ridicule
the idea, or difbelieve the aflertion, that the common people
of Ruflia are attached to thofe who a& towards them, in too
many inftances, as tyrants. But hiftory is converfant with
facts, not with theorieg and {peculations ; and the fa& is,
that the Ruflian common people, even before they enter
the army, are moft devoutly attached to their emperor and
nobility. This attachment becomes {till more {trong and
influencing when they enter the army :—they then regard
themfelves, in a more {pecial manner, as entirely at the
fervice of their fovereign; and look upon it as the higheft
honour which can befall them, to fuffer any privation or
mifery, or even death itfelf, at his command, and fo
e.
REVOLUTION.
fake. Military difcipline, with the troops of Hee: ae
nations, is a habit acquired late in life, irkfome and abhor-
rent to former habits, and breken through whenever it can
be done with fafety. But it is far otherwife with the
Ruffian foldier: he looms no habits 3 he has no feeling or
fentiments incompatible with the ttricteft military difcipline :
on the contrary, all his other habits, feelings, and fentiments,
“work to the accomplifhment of the fame end : all ferve and
contribute to render him an excellent foldier, fo far as
{triGinefs of difcipline is concerned. Knowing no difgrace
fo great as difobedience to the orders of his officers, and
efpecially to the commands or ever withes of his fovereign,
he never ftirs from his poft till he is exprefsly directed fo to
do: the idea of flight never enters his mind. But his
{teadinefs is not merely paffive ; endowed with great bodily
ftrength, and with a robuftnefs of conftitution fuperior to
every fatigue or privation, he wearies out his more fiilful
and experienced opponent, by whom he may be out.
manceuvred or flain, but cannot be forced to tly. s
Hence Bonaparte never met with more obftinate re-
fitance than he did from the Ruflians at the battle of
Eylau: his troops were weary with flaughter, but fll
they could not defeat the Ruffians; and had the French
emperor been a man who could be taught mortifying or
difapreeable truths by experience, after his firft campaiga
againft the Ruffians, on the borders of their own country,
he never would have attempted to conquer them, in the
very heart of their empire, and in the midft of a Ruffian
winter.
moth the fecond place, the charaGer of the Ruffian generals
contributed not a little to the defeat of Bonaparte: his
avowed obje&t in the invafion of Ruflia, was to compel the
emperor Alexander to adhere to the continental fyftem,
that was, to forbid all trade between Ruflia and England ;
but this would have been the ruin of the Ruflian nobility,
whofe incomes were almoft exclufively derived from this
commerce. Bonaparte, therefore, was making war upon
them, and they muit have regarded his invafion as pecu-
liarly directed againit them. "This feeling would contribute
to vender them faithful and fteady to the caufe of their
country, and at the fame time {timulate them to put forth
all their a@tivity and talents in the conteft. Befides, the
Ruffian nobility partake with the common people in that
phyfical attachment to the foil and inititutions of their
country, which excites their hatred moft ftrongly again{t
all invaders. Hence they were aboye the influence of
Bonaparte’s promifes and bribes. j :
In the third place, the plan of the campaign which the
Ruffian government had laid down, contributed very effen-
tially to the overthrow of Bonaparte’s hopes and projects.
This plan was, on every occafion, where they could oppofe
Bonaparte, there to oppofe him, but never in fuch a
manner as might bring on a general a€tion, or an action that
could be decifive againit themfelves. Thus, the farther he
advanced the weaker he became; and after every engage.
ment, though he apparently fucceeded in driving back the
‘enemy, the real itate of his affairs was rendered worfe; he
was led further from his refources, deeper into the heart of
a country utterly incapable of fupporting a large army,
and more completely furrounded by the Ruffians.
{n the fourth place, the charaéter of the Ruffian peafantry
<ontributed much to the defeat of Bonaparte: thefe could
jot be feduced from their allegiance ; they uniformly, and
to a man, refufed to hold any communication with the
‘eriemy: while Mofcow was in the hands of the French,
they brought no goods in for fale: they regarded it as a
polluted citys and would have thuddered ta have ‘entered it.
a
To thefe caufes muft be added the firmnefs of Alexander ;
and the nature and climate of the country.
The next clafs of caufes which contributed to Bona-
parte’s difcomfiture and ultimate ruin, mutt be fought for
in his own peculiar charaéter, in which the moft predo-
minant and influential is his obltinacy. Accuftomed to fee
all his plans fucceed, all his predictions, however extrava-
gant, verified, he could ill-brook difappointment : he could
not even fuffer himfelf to admit that he had ated an im-
prudent and rafh purt, and preferred perfeverance in error,
to the acknowledement and reétification of it. His ob-
ftinacy operated in giving rife to the invafion of Ruffia, as
well as influencing his conduét during that invafion. He
probably pufhed forward into Ruffia notwithftanding the
loffes which he fuftained, and afterwards continued in
Mofcow till winter had rendered his retreat almoft impof-
fible, under expectation, or at leat the hope, that Alexander
would be induced to propofe terms of conciliation. This
certainly influenced his condu€t; “ but,” fays a good writer,
«¢ whoever has ftudied the charaéter of obltinate people,
mult be convinced that at laft, when their obftinacy is got
to its greatelt height, they perfevere in the courfe which
muft infallibly condu€& to ruin, without even the moft
groundlefs hope of extricating themfelves. The impulfe
in this {tate of mental diforder, tor fo it may be denominated,
is blind, and almoft mechanical. So it probably was with
Bonaparte, when: he determined to remain fo long at
Mofcow.”’ :
How different were the affairs of this man at the cont-
mencement of 1812, from what they were at the fame
period in the following year. At the former every thing
was profperous, except perhaps the war in the peninfula ;
and that, it was generally believed, he could, at any time,
turn in his favour by fending a larger army there. Ruffia,
though uneafy under the operation of the hard terms to
which fhe fubmitted at the peace of Tilfit, would fcarcely
have ventured to commence a new war; while the fubfer-
viency of Pruffia to his will, his abfolute command of her
fortrefles which are on the confines ef Ruffia, and his alliance
and family connexion with Auitria, feemed to promife him
the eafy conqueft of Ruffia whenever he fhould think proper
to attack her. At the latter period he no longer appeared
as the invincible conqueror, but as the fallen general, whe
had fied to his capital with unexampled celerity, to avoid the
indignation of the fragments of that army which had been
facrificed to the madnefs of his ambition. He who had
always detailed vi€tories the moft fplendid, who had, in
diret language, held himfelf out as fuperior to all the ca.
fualties of war, was now obliged, in his own bulletins, to
confefs that his army was broken, and it was returning toe
wards France defeated and harafled by the Tartars of Afia,
Thus changed in power, in feelings, and in profpeéts, the
Parifians faw their emperor at the beginning of the year
1813, and they, as well as Europe in general, were ex-
tremely anxious for the meeting af the legiflative body, in
order that they might be able to develope his future plans.
At this meeting, on the 14th of February, he declared it
to be his determination itill to carry on the war, and to fa-
crifice nothing for the fake of obtaining peace: «The French
dynalty,”’ fays he, “« reigns, and willreign, in Spain, Tam
fatisfied with all my allies; I will abandon none of them; I
will maintain the integrity of their flates ; the Ruffians fhall
return to their frightiul climate. I defire peace, but J will
never make any but an honourable peace, and one con:
formable to the interefts and grandeur of my empire.”? The
whole tone of his addrefs was warlike, and he immediately
fet on foot a new confeription, which, by means of his gens
aarmeny
REVOLUTION.
d’armes, he readily carried into effeét, at leaft to a certain
point. By means of uncommon exertion and adtivity,
joined to the moft tyrannical defpotifm, he fucceeded, by
the beginning of April, in colleGting a large force on the
banks of the Elbe, though that force was of a very different
defeription from the veteran army which he had loft in
Ruffia. His cavalry and artillery were particularly inferior ;
‘and it was on thefe two branches, efpecially the artillery,
that the French ufed to depend for their vi€tories ; it is even
faidthat, in confequence of his having loft upwards of tooo
pieces of cannon in Ruffia, he was under the neceflity of
supplying his army, in a great meafure, with cannon from
the fhips at Antwerp, which were, of courfe, of a defcription
by no means fuited for military purpofes. .
Before Bonaparte left Paris, to take the command of his
army, he judged it expedient to fettle the form of a provi-
fional government during his abfence: he had fo narrowly
efcaped dettrution in his Ruffiancampaign, at a time when
he had taken no meafures refpeCting the government of
France while the king of Rome was a minor, that he re-
folved to guard sate all accidents for the future. Ac-
cordingly his emprefs was regularly declared regent during
his abfence ; and the king of Rome was nominated, in a more
folemn manner than heretofore, his fucceffor. It is probable
that the appointment of the emprefs as regent had other ob-
jets in view ; Bonaparte knew well the temper and difpo-
fition of the Parifians ; he knew that the beft mode of draw-
ing off their thoughts and fpeculations from the difafters that
had occurred, or might occur, was by keeping up the {plen-
dour, bultle, and pageantry, of a court; and this could be
done with the bett effet by invefting his emprefs with the
name and digmity of regent. Having thus taken what he
conceived to be all due precautions, and fent on before him
immenfe bodies of troops, he clofed the feffion of the legif-
lative body in a fpeech full of his ufual confidence and
haughtinefs, in which he led them and the French nation to
expe@, that on the banks of the Elbe he fhould regain all
thofe laurels which he had loft amidft the fhows of Ruffia.
Having thus detailed the preparations which Bonaparte
made for the commencement of what has been denominated
the German campaign, we muft notice briefly the prepara-
tions of thofe powers who were to oppofe him. Alexander,
at the head of his army, advanced with great rapidity into
the north of Germany. Ass foon as he crofled his own bound-
aries into thofe of Pruffia, he ordered a declaration to be
illued, explanatory of his motives and views. The Ruffian
emperor was every where hailed as a deliverer, and upon his
entrazce into Berlin he was received with the utmoft enthu-
fiafm by all ranks of the people, and in the end Pruffia be-
came a noble ally to the northern potentate. She was in-
deed deftined to a& a conf{picuous part in avenging her own
wrongs and thofe of Germany. Her armies were put on
the beit footing. Blucher, who had already immortalized
himfelf by his condu€, had a leading and extenfive com-
mand; and it feems to have been the wife policy of the con-
tinental fovereigns, in this laft &truggle for their independence,
to feleét thofe generals againft whom Bonaparte had dif-
played the greatelt rancour; they thus fecured themfelves
from treachery, while they called forth all the talents of
their commanders. Befides the regular army of Pruffia, the
landwehr or militia were called out; all were anxious to be
enrolled to co-operate in the deliverance and defence of their
country.
Inthe mean time the Ruffian army continued to advance,
and having liberated great part of Pruflia, directed their
efforts towards the emancipation of Saxony. Count Witt-
genftein, who commanded the Ruffian army, addreffed to the
Saxons a moft noble and infpiriting proclamation, which,
though it probably made a deep impreffion, did not, at the
time, produce the confequences which the Ruffian general
anticipated. The king of Saxony was with the French,
and no {mall part of their country was occupied by thofe
people, circumftances which naturally prevented many from
joining the allies whofe wifhes were cordially with them ;
when, however, an opportunity did occur, it will be feen
that the Saxons proved themfelves worthy of the name of
Germans, and of their anceftors. -A hope was now ex-
cited that Bernadotte, the crown prince of Sweden, and his
numerous army, would be brought to aét in favour of the
allies ; this expeétation was confiderably ftrengthened by
treaties which were concluded between the courts of Sweden,
Ruffia, and Great Britain. By thefe treaties, the army
under the crown prince was immediately to be employed in
the common caufe, and in return for his acceffion of force,
Great Britain, befides granting a {ubfidy to Sweden, agreed
to give up to her the ifland of Guadaloupe, and to gua-
rantee the kingdom of Norway when it fhould be conquered
from the Danes.
Thus it was known that early in the year 1813, Great
Britain, Ruffia, Pruffia, and Sweden, were decidedly againit
France. Hoftilities commenced, and in many parts the
French were decidedly vidtorious ; Hamburgh, and many
other places in the north of Germany, fell into their hands.
The firlt great battle in which Bonaparte was himfelf en-
gaged, was at Lutzen, on the 1ft of May; the Pruffians,
having partially fucceeded in breaking into the fquares of
the enemy, committed great carnage, and the confli@ on all
fides was moit defperate and fanguinary. For a confider-
able time the allies were the aflailants, but towards evening, ©
Bonaparte called in that divifion of his army which was
near Leipfic, and colleéting all his referves, made a molt
furious attack, for which the allies were not prepared ; night
however put an end to the combat. The allies remained
matters of the field that evening, but judged it prudent,
early on the next day, to commence a retreat, in confe-
quence of which Bonaparte claimed the viétory in the battle
of Lutzen. But it was not fuch a viétory as he ufed for-
merly to boaft of ; and on the 21{t of May another bloody
battle was fought at Bautzen, which was ftill in favour of
the French, and the allies again found it expedient to re-
treat. The lofs of the enemy in this obftinate battle was
very fevere; though Bonaparte gained ground by it, he
gained it at fuch an expence of men, and with fuch a con-
vition of the bravery and {kill of the allies, that he muft
have been very unwilling to have obtained many fuch vic-
tories. But the moit alarming cireumftance which occurred
during the battle of Bautzen, was the defertion of a whole
battalion of Wurtemburghers, as well as a body of Saxon
troops, which muit have convinced Bonaparte how little de-
pendence he could place on the German troops. The allies
continued their retreat, and on the 24th of May their head
quarters were within 18 leagues of Berlin. On the 4th of
June, through the mediation of the emperor of Auttria, an
armiltice was agreed on, which was to continue till the
2oth of July. It was a matter of great difficulty to de-
termine on which fide the advantage of this armiftice lay ;
both parties were probably defirous of it, and as the em-
peror of Auttria prefled it moft earneftly, each party readily
agreed toit, in the hope of gaining his affiftance, or avoid-
ing his hoftility. It was, however, extremely unpopular
throughout Germany, and efpecially in the Pruffian ftates ;
fo much fo, that the king deemed it neceffary to iffue a pro-
elamation, in which he declared that the armiftice had not
been fought for by the allied powers, and that they would
only
REVOLUTION.
only ufe it to re-inforce their armies, and attack the common
enemy, at its expiration, with more vigour. Bonaparte, on
his own part, complained that the terms of the armiftice
were not faithfully kept by the allies; this complaint, which
was well founded, arofe from a circumftance which augured
fatally for his future fuccefs; for the landwehr of Pruffia,
and even all the inhabitants who could procure any kind of
arms, notwith{tanding the fufpention of hottilities, were
continually attacking and harafling the French, and in many
cafes they captured their fupplies of ftores and provifions,
and rendered precarious and difficult their communication
with France.
It was foon evident that the armiftice would not lead to
peace, each party was exerting itfelf to the utmoft to re-
cruit and re-inforce their army. The emperor Alexander
ordered frefh troops to be brought acrofs the Viftula, and
in a fhort time the re-inforcements that joined the allied army
from Ruffia alone, amounted to 75,000 men. The king of
Pruffia contributed as much to the common caufe as the ex-
haufted ftate of his country, and of its finances, would
allow. Bonaparte was equally active; oppofite to the
main army of the allies he had colleéted nearly 130,000 men.
The armiftice was prolonged till the middle of Augutt,
during which a congrefs was held at Prague, at which little
or nothing was done, or perhaps even attempted. The
mediation of the emperor of Auftria was of no avail; the
terms which he propofed as juft and equitable to all parties,
were peremptorily rejected by Bonaparte. No alternative,
therefore, he faid, remained for him to adopt, but to unite
his forces with thofe of the emperor of Ruffia and the king
of Pruffia. Still, however, he, as well as they, were going
to fight, not for the purpofes of ambition or-conquett, but
folely for the attainment of a juft, honourable, and laiting
peace. As foonas this could be brought about, they would
moft cheerfully lay down their arms; but till it was brought
about, they would continue united in hoftilities, and exert
themfelves to the utmotft.
Ruffia, Auftria, Pruffia, and Sweden, were now to try
their ftrength againft France; the jealoufies and felfifhnefs
of the allied fovereigns, which had rendered former coalitions
of no value, were abforbed in the deep and awful conviction
that now they were fighting for their own exiftence ;_befides,
in the former contefts, they were averfe from, or indifferent
to, the caufe of their fovereign ; now they were cordial and
zealous in their co-operation. The allied powers alfo very
wifely made ufe of other weapons than thofe of warfare’
the moft eloquent and popular writers in Germany were
employed to roufe the people, to hold out Bonaparte as no
longer formidable ; as having been conquered; but {till as
the implacable enemy of the happinefs and peace of Ger-
many, as the common deftroyer of the liberty of the fove-
reign and the peafant.
Befides the crown prince of Sweden, another Frenchman
entered into the lifts againft Bonaparte, viz. general Moreau,
who, after he had been liberated by him, had gone over to
America, where, in peace, quiet, and retirement, he had
{pent fome years of his life. It is not known by what par-
ticular motives he was induced to enter again into public
fervice ; but it appears that the emperor Alexander, as foon
as he found that war with Bonaparte was inevitable, fent
over a confidential perfon to America, with whom general
Moreau returned to Europe, He joined the allied army
foon after the congrefs at the Prague was diffolved.
On the ryth of Augutt’ hoftilities recommenced, and a
moft fevere battle was, afew days after, fought at Drefden,
in which, after a terrible flaughter on both fides, the French
fucceeded in repulfing the allied armies, but the moft dif-
aftrous event in the courfe of this battle was, the death of
Moreau, who had both his legs fhot off by a cannon ball.
Bonaparte reprefented the battle of Drefden as moft de-
cidedly favourable to him, and he probably confidered the
lofs and difcomfiture of the allies as much more ferious than
they really were, as in order to intercept their retreat into
Bohemia, he difpatched Vandamme, one of his generals,
with a force which it would have been madnefs to have fent
againit them, had he not believed their army to have beer
not only much reduced in numbers, but retreating in great
diforder. Inthe attack, Vandamme, and fix other generals,
were taken prifoners, befides 10,000 men, 60 pieces of ar-_
tillery, and 6 ftandards.
In Silefia the campaign opened on the 18th of Augutt,
the allies in this quarter moving on towards Drefden; they
firft attacked and defeated a corps under marfhal Ney, which
induced Bonaparte to fet out to re-inforce his general; the
French having now greatly the fuperiority, general Blucher
retreated, and took up a ftrong pofition behind the Katz-
bach. ‘The plan of the allies bemg to diftraét and divide
Bonaparte’s forces, they fell farther back, while the grand
army from Bohemia, as we have feen, marched on to Drefden,
and drew off Bonaparte to that quarter. On the 25th and
26th the French advanced again{t Blucher, but on the latter
of thofe days the Pruffian general attacked them. The
battle was fought near the Katzbach, and from that takes
its name ; in it Blucher and the Pruffians proved their deter-
mination to avenge the difgrace which their country had fo
long fuffered by having been under the tyranny of France.
They fought with the moft unparalleled bravery, and gained
a complete victory. Among the fruits of their {poil were
18,000 prifoners, 103 pieces of cannon, and 280 ammu-
nition waggons. In another quarter the crown prince was
likewife victorious over the French; and in a fecond battle,
viz. that of Juterbock, it was calculated that the vanquifhed
French had loft from 16 to 18,000 men, more than 50 pieces
of cannon, and 400 ammunition waggons.
After thefe defeats the fituation of Bonaparte became
more critical, yet he ftill remained at Drefden, and continued
there till the 7th of Ottober, when he quitted it, taking
with him the royal family of Saxony. Hitherto the allies
of Bonaparte had remained more faithful to him than might
have been expected, but about this period the king of :
Bavaria deferted him, and concluded a treaty of alliance and
concert with Auftria, by which 35,000 Bavarian troops
were immediately to co-operate with thofe of Auttria. ~
On the 14th of O&ober Bonaparte colleéted his whole
force in and round Leiptic, and on the 18th the famous
battle of Leipfic was fought, in the courfe of which two
Saxon battalions, and two Weftphalian regiments of huffars,
quitted the ranks of the enemy and joined the allies; the
artillery which they brought over with them, they imme-
diately turned againit the French, and the crown prince
headed the men in a charge againft their former oppreffors.
In the battle of this day the French loft at leaft 50,000
men in killed, wounded, and prifoners, befides 65 pieces of
artillery. Bonaparte now left Leipfic, and in two hours
afterwards the allied armies entered that town.
The retreat of Bonaparte from Leipfic with the wreck of
his army, to the amount of 809,000 men, was {carcely fur-
pafled in diforder and mifery by his retreat from Mofcow.
As foon as he reached the Rhine he left his army, haftened
to Paris, and on his arrival, another confcription of 300,000
men was ordered, but France was now too much exhaufted
to anfwer the demand; the Ruffian and German campaigns
had almoft entirely ftript her of the efficient military popu-
lation ; befides, there was wanting that enthufiafm which had,
6
twenty
REVOLUTION.
twenty years before, been charadteriftic of the country, fo
that it was almoft deaf to this new demand.
In the mean time the mighty edifice which Bonaparte had
erected out of the ruins of the independence and liberties
of the continent, and which had been cemented by the blood
of hundreds of thoufards, was falling to pieces; the victory
of Leipfic, by freeing the minds of the princes of Ger-
many from all apprehenfions of his power, proved how
eager they were to refume their legitimate chara¢ter and au-
thority. _Wurtemburgh deferted him, and made her peace
with the allies; and the confederation of the Rhine was
diffolved ; fo that, to ufe his own words, no fovereigns re-
mained attached to him except the king of Denmark and
the king of Naples. :
Holland, which had long groaned under French tyranny,
early in the month of November broke her fhackles, dif-
mifled the conttituted authorities, eftablifhed a provifional
form of government, and by the affiftance of Great Britain
fhe was at length enabled to hold up her head as a free and
independent nation, recalling’ her hereditary prince, and in-
vefting him with new powers, and higher (itles than the
members of the houfe of Orange had formerly exercifed and
claimed. Rather before this period the allied troops, under
the command of the crown prince, had entered Hanover,
which they liberated from French thraldom, much to the
fatisfa€tien of the inhabitants, and by the end of November
almoft all the ftrong places between the Elbe and the Rhine
were in poffeffion of the allies, and fuch as were not, were
clofely invelted. On the rift of December they iffued their
famous proclamation, which, from its juftice and moderation,
probably did them as much, or more, fervice, than any of
their victories. ‘The allied powers,” fay they, “do not
make war upon France, but againft that preponderance
which, to the misfortune of Europe and of France, the
emperor Napoleon has too long exercifed beyond the limits
of hisempire.
« Victory has conduéted the allied armies to the banks of
the Rhine. The firft ufe which their imperial and royal
majetttes have made of viétory, has been to offer peace to
his majefty the emperor of the French. An attitude
ftrengthened by the acceffion of all the fovereigns and princes
of Germany has had no influence on the conditions of that
peace, Thefe conditions are founded on the independence
of the French empire, as well as on the independence of the
other ftates of Europe. The views of the powers are juft
in their object, generous and liberal in their application,
giving fecurity to all, honourable to each.
« The allied fovereigns defire that France may be great,
powerful, and happy ; becaufe the French power, ina ftate
of greatnefs and itrength, is one of the foundations of the
focial edifice of Europe. They wifh that France may be
happy» that French commerce may revive, that the arts
(thofe bleffings of peace) may again flourifh, becaufe a
reat people can only be tranquil in proportion as it is happy.
he allied powers confirm to the French empire an extent of
territory which France, under her kings, never knew ; be-
caufe a valiant nation does not fall from its rank, by having
in its turn experienced reverfes in an obftinate and fan-
inary conteft, in which it has fought with its accuftomed
Plies ,
Immediately after the iffuing of this declaration, the
allies having completed their arrangements, crofled the
Rhine for the purpofe of invading France; as, however, the
. ftrong fortrefles near Mentz rendered the paflage in this
place rather difficult, they preferred pafling through Swit-
zerland, by the inhabitants of which country they were
hailed as friends, and afforded every affiftance.
~ Vor. XXX.
The allied army entered Switzerland on the 20th of De-
cember, penetrated to Zurich and Berne, and crofled the
Rhine at Bafle without firing a fhot, and before the end of
the year detachments of the allies made their way to Lan-
gres, in Champagne, which was about 100 miles within the
old French frontier. The year 1814 opened with an inva-
fion of France, not only by the allies in the eaft and north,
but on the fouth by lord Wellington, while the Auftrian
forces in Italy, aided by the naval exertions of Great
Britain, and by detachments from our garrifons in the Medi-
terranean, completely kept the viceroy in check. Every
event tended to fhew that Bonaparte’s power was tottering,
and he muft have been convinced that he had only one thing
to depend on, viz. his own perfonal prowefs. He accord-
ingly left Paris on the 25th of January to take command of
the armies, and on the rift of February a great battle was
fought between him and marfhal Blucher, which was decided
in favour of the allies, and the retreat of Napoleon from his
pofitions about Brienne, with the lofs of 4000 prifoners,
was the confequence of his defeat.
On the 7th of February the pofition and town of Troyes
was taken pofleffion of by the allies ; this town was thought
to be of great importance to their caufe, on account of its
refources, its population, and of the number of roads lead-
ing to it from different parts of France. At this period ne-
gociations were carrying on at Chatillon-fur Seine for the
purpofe of effecting a peace, during which the allies had
gained feveral conquefts over the French armies. Bonaparte
had been beaten in feveral engagements with Blucher and
prince Schwartzenburg, whofe armies, at the clofe of Fe-
bruary, were at Troyes and Chalons, while he himf{elf was
at Rheims. On the roth of March the negociations were
to terminate, and on that day Napoleon refufed the terms
that were offered him, though by thofe terms he would have
continued at the head of the French, with dominions as ex-
tenfive and powerful as had ever been enjoyed by any of the
former monarchs.
On the day that the conferences at Chatillon were termi-
nated, the French army moved upon Arcis, behind which
the corps commanded by field marfhal count Wrede was
potted.
The allies, under Schwartzenburg, concentrated on the
Aube, near Pougy and Arcis, and a general attack was
made by the allies on the zoth, in which the enemy was de-
feated at all points, with great lofs, and Arcis was taken-
At this junéture, Napoleon formed the defperate and ex-
traordinary plan of pafling between the two armies of the
allies, and of itriking at their communications with the
Rhine, intending at the fame time to liberate the garrifon
of Metz. For this purpofe he moved by Chalons on Vitry
and St. Dizier, his head-quarters being, on the 22d, at Ob-
comte, between the two latter places. This bold and cha-
racteriftic refolution was formed*in the expeétation that it
would alarm the allies fo much for their own fafety, as not
only to draw them away from Paris, but a€tually entangle
them in the very difficulties with the profpe& of which he
endeavoured to terrify them ;—this movement was fortu-
nately defeated by their refolution of marching upon Paris,
a refolution which was—confidering the time and circum-
{tances in which it was taken—one of the grandeft that ever
entered into the mind of man, and does the higheft honour
to the names of the emperor Alexander and prince Schwart-
zenburg ;—to which of thofe great men the idea fuggefted
itfelf, perhaps they themfelves are not confcious ; but it is
certain they both eagerly adopted it, and muft equally fhare
in the glory of that great enterprife in which they rifked
themfelves and their armies for the deliverance of mankind.
For
REVOLUTION.
For two days after this determination and change of
march, Bonaparte was employed, as he hoped, in auntici-
pating the allies, and in preparing the {prings in which his
victims were to be caught ; but no enemy came—no intelli-
gence arrived: from Paris he heard nothing—from the reft
of France little; and a hoftile army of 200,0c00 men mult
be, he knew, at no great diftance from him, but he could
not guefs where. Over Winzingerode, who was in his
vicinity, near St. Dizier, with a {mall force, he obtained
fome, and claimed greater advantages; but thefe fuccedles
left him as much in the dark. as ever.
He was convinced that this corps was but the advanced
guard of the Ruffians ; and when one of his generals re-
ported it was not fo, and that the main body of the allies
had fufpended their retreat, he himfelf thought the news
almoft too good to be believed, and calculated that the time
thus loft would enable him to perteét his plans for their
deftruction.
In thefe circumftances, it was Napoleon who thought his
enemies undone; and far from confidering them as having
refumed the offenfive, he faw in their movement of con-
centration only a meafure of retreat. He announced it
triumphantly to the emprefs in letters written with his own
hand: thefe letters were intercepted by the allies. They
were then certain of having deceived him, and they urged
with great precipitation their movement againft the ca-
ital.
‘ Of the march upon Paris either he never thought, or his
arrogance haftily rejected the idea; but at laft, after a lofs
of three days, he felt that it became abfolutely neceflary to
afcertain the enemy’s pofition, and he accordingly haftened
by forced marches through Bar-fur-Aube towards Troyes.
A junétion was, however, formed by prince Schwartzen-
burg and marfhal Blucher; and the whole allied force
marched upon Paris, with a rapidity that infured its fuccefs.
The defences which had been raifed in the neighbourhood of
that city were attacked late in the day of the 3oth March,
and the enemy, under the command of Marmont, made a
moft determined refiftance ; but the allies were almoft every
where fuccefsful.
At the moment of thefe decifive advantages, a flag of
truce was fent from Marmont, intimating a defire to receive
any propofitions that it might have been intended to make
to him by a flag of truce, which had previoufly been refufed
admittance. An armiftice was alfo propofed by him for
two hours; to obtain which, he confented to abandon every
pofition he occupied without the barriers of Paris.
On the 31/t in the morning, the allies entered Paris. In
‘the evening, Caulincourt came from Bonaparte to the em-
peror of Ruffia, offering to accede to the terms of peace
which the allies had offered at Chatillon. The emperor
gaye no other anfwer, than that the time was paft for treat-
ing with Bonaparte as fovereign of France.
Immediately, by the defire of the emperor of Ruffia, the
fenate met, and chofe a provifional government, confifting
of Talleyrand and four other members. - At their fecond
fitting, they declared that Bonaparte had forfeited his right
to the empire, and that his dynafty was at an end. ‘They
alfo refolved, that the fenate and legiflative bodies fhould
form fundamental parts of the new conftitution.
On the 1ft of April the provifional government inftalled
itfelf, and of this Bonaparte feems to have been aware; and
on the 2d he colle&ted at Corbeil, Fontainebleau, and the
neighbourhood, at leaft 20,000 men, whom he reviewed
and thus addrefled: ‘* The enemy is in Paris. I do not
with to fpeak of the inhabitants of that city, but a horde
of emigrants, whom I had recalled, reftored, and laden
with perfonal favours, have offered their fervices to the
emperor of Ruffia, and have hoifted the white cockade-
The tri-coloured cockade we won in our revolution; we
have ennobled it in our empire. It has fhared too many
triumphs with us ever to be abandoned. If Paris is to be
retaken at the point of the bayonet, I will march at your
head. May Ireckon upon you? Am 1 right? Will you
ever abandon this national cockade?? ‘* Never, never 3
vive Vempereur! vive Napoleon! a Paris !”” was the anfwer
of the whole line of troops.
The marfhals prefent at this {cene were far from par-
taking or encouraging this enthufiafm: they that fame
night aflembled in the palace, and when admitted to Na-
poleon’s prefence, with many references to their former fer-
vices, and profeffions of duty and affection, acquainted
him that all was loft; that at moft he could colleét but
56,000 men, and that for them he had not two days pro-
vifions ; but the only means of faving any thing from this
great fhipwreck, was to abdicate in favour of the king of
Rome.
Bonaparte, for the firft time in his exiltence, heard a re-
monftrance in filence, and ultimately affented to the pro-
pofal. On the 3d, marfhal Ney put into his hands the Paris ~
journals, in which the déchéance, pronounced by the fenate
the day before, was publifhed; and, in the name of his
brethren, on the public parade, gave him that advice fo
terrible to the ear of a tyrant, “ Sire, il faut abdiquer ;
c’eft le woeu de la France et de Varmée.’? Napoleon,
thunderftruck, retired into the palace. On the 4th he
figned his own abdication, and addrefled an order of the day
to his army, in which, after contrafting forcibly and juftly
the former fervility and prefent tergiverfation of the fenate,
he intimates, that if he is the only obftacle to peace, he is
ready to make the lait facrifice for France; and that he
has fent Ney, Caulincourt, and Macdonald to Paris,
“pour entamer des negociations.”’? ‘Thefe negociations,
which had for their object the continuance of Bonaparte’s
power under the cloak of a regency, to be adminiftered by
his wife, in her own name, or that of her fon, happily
failed. Others then enfued, in which the difcuffions were
not queftions of policy, power, or government, but of
pounds, fhillings, and pence; and on the 11th of April was
fioned the famous treaty, by which Bonaparte abandoned
fer himfelf and his family the thrones of half the world, and
ftipulated only for the empty titles of his better days, a
retreat in the obfcureft corner of his late dominions, and a
penfion of 2,000,000 of livres per annum from the civil lift
of Lewis XVIII.; and, finally, on the 12th he figned the
formal inftrument of his abdication on the part of himfelf
and his dynafty.
Such was the termination of this difaltrous revolution ;
and in a very few weeks after the depofition of Bonaparte,
Lewis XVIII. returned, and took a quiet poffeffion of the
throne of his fathers. Of the ftability of the new govern-
ment we prefume to offer no conjeétures. Of the charaéter
of the prefent fovereign much might be {aid in applaufe ;
of the new conftitution, at prefent, we know but little:
and into what it may ultimately fettle it is difficult to
{peak. Many recent occurrences in different parts of
Europe have mortified the friends to human happinefs ; the
fociety of Jefuits, always inimical to the interefts of man-
kind, has been re-eftablifhed. The Inquifition, which
Bonaparte abolifhed, and which it was imagined could,
in this enlightened age, never more rear its horrid head, has
been revived in Spain, to the everlaiting difgrace of the
prince who ordered its eftablifhment, and to the people
who permitted it. When we read the decree, that ‘the
9 tribunal
REU
tribunal of the Inquifition is abolifhed, as derogatory to the
fovereign power, and to civil authority,’? we did antici-
pate a new era, even for Spain, and are mortified, beyond
the power of language to defcribe, to find that feveral of
the beft and moft virtuous inhabitants of that country are
now fuffering under a tribunal which curfed the world for
fo many centuries, which, for the boldnefs and wickednefs
of the original conception, the immenfe extent of its power,
the audacity of its attempts, the greatnefs of its fuccefs, and
the length of its domination, finds no parallel in the records
of the world.
We might, as a conclufion to this article, take fome
notice of the principal ators and fufferers in the revolution
which we have been contemplating, but we are afraid of
tran{grefling the allowed limits. Befides, in our alphabetical
arrangement, we have already noticed feveral of the moft
diftinzuifhed of thefe perfons ; fee particularly the articles
Baitiy, Connorcet, Marat, Miraseau, Lewis XVI.,
Matesuerses, and Neckar, and to fome others, accord-
ing to the plan of our work, diftin& articles will hereafter
be given. (See Roranp-Turcor, Rosespierre, VERG-
NIAuD, &c.) Of Danton, who took a very alive part in
fome of the bloodieft fcenes in Paris, and who fell a
victim to the axe which he had fharpened for others, we
may obferve, that he was educated to the law, and in the
progrefs of the revolution was fucceflively the aflociate of
Mirabeau, Marat, and Robefpierre. He organized fome of
the chief tumults and maflacres in the city, particularly
that of the roth of Augutt. After the fall of royalty, he
obtained an appointment of adminiltrator of juftice, a ftation
in which money poured on him from all fides, and which
was {peedily diltributed by him to procure adherents and
reward atrocities. He was deeply involved in the horrid
maflacres of September, and, when fubfequently called to
account for the diltribution of the money charged for
fecret fervice, he declared, that * in a revolution there
could be no reckoning in detail.” It was Danton who
prevented the national affembly from leaving Paris on the
approach of the Pruffians. He was brought to the guil-
lotine by Robefpierre, who was his rival, but his inferior
in every thing but cunning and hypocrify. For this article,
we refer, as authorities, chiefly to the volumes of the New
Annual Regitter.
ReEvoLuTIon of America.
STATES.
RevouTion in Poland. See PoLtann.
Revo.urion, in Geometry. The motion of any figure
quite round a fixed line, as an axis, is called the revo-
lution of that figure; and the figure fo moving is faid to
revolve.
Thus, a right-angled triangle, revolving round one of
its legs, as an axis, generates, by that revolution, a cone ;
which fee.
RevoLutTion, in Aflronomy, denotes the period of a ftar,
planet, comet, or other phenomenon; or its courfe from
any point of its orbit, till it return to the fame.
The planets have a twofold revolution. The one about
their own axis, ufually called their diurnal rotation, which
conttitutes what we cail their day.
The other about the fun, called their annual revolution
or period, conttituting their year. See Motion of the Pia-
NETS.
REVOLUTUM Fottum, in Botany. See Lear.
REUS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia,
where feveral merchants at Barcelona haye agents for the
purchafe of wine, brandy, and fruit, with which the country
abounds.
REUSS, a river that rifes from a lake in Mount St.
See America, and Unrrep
REV
Gothard, croffes the canton of Uri, pafles through the lake
of the Four Cantons to Lucerne, and then taking a northerly
courfe, runs into the Rhine, two miles N. of Klingnan, 10
the county of Baden. ‘ Y.
REUSSEN, a princely county of Saxony, divided into
feveral branches, which take their names from the towns
which they poflefs, all fituated in the Vogtland.
REUSSIN, or Repzen, a town of the duchy of War-
faw ; 40 miles S.S.W. of Pofen.
REUT, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg; three miles E. of Forcheim.—Alfo, a river of Eu-
ropean Turkey, which runs into the Dnietter, near Utha,
in the province of Moldavia.
REUTELE, in Jchthyology, a name ufed by fome for
the umbla minor, or red charr, a fifh common in the lakes of
Germany, and of the northern parts of England and Wales.
The name is originally German.
REUTLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Wurtem-
berg, on a {mall river, which runs into the Neckar. It has
only one parochial church, together with one hofpital, an
orphan-houfe, and a grammar-fchool. The magiftrates and
burghers are Lutherans. Near it was difcovered, in 1716, a
fulphurous {pring ; 32 miles W. of Ulm. N. lat. 48° 30!.
E. long. 9° 8.
REUTO, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland; 6 miles
W.S.W. of Plauen.
REUTTE, a town of Germany, in the county of Bre-
gentz; 9 miles S.S.E. of Bregentz.
REUTTEN, or Rerra, a town of the Tyrolefe, on the
borders of Swabia; 32 miles N.W. of Infpruck.
REVULSION, in Medicine, the derivation of the fluids
of the body, from a part in which they are morbidly accu-
mulated, to another part, whether near or diftant.
This principle is much aéted upon in the praétice of me-
dicine, although confiderably lefs than by the advocates of
the kumoral pathology. Thefe practitioners carried the
principle fo far as to make their evacuations generally at
{ome point oppofite and diftant to the part difeafed; thus,
to relieve the head, they would bleed from the foot, or from
the hemorrhoidal veins about the anus; and if a pleurify
occurred in the left fide, they would open a yein in the right
arm ; and fo forth. Thefe were mere hypothetical refine-
ments, and have fallen into difufe in this country. Much of
the practice of medicine, however, in acute and in fome local
chronic difeafes, hinges upon the principle of revulfion.
Thus, for the removal of inflammatory congeftion in any
internal organ, as in the lungs or brain, a counter-inflam-
mation is excited externally in the {kin of a contiguous part,
by applying a blifter, or a itimulating liniment, to the {ur-
face of the cheft, to the neck, or on the fcalp: and thus
by bringing an afflux of the fluids to thefe external parts,
which are of lefs importance to life, the congeftion in the
veflels of the more important and yital organs is diminifhed,
and the inflammation cured. In a fimilar manner, the de-
rivation of the fluids to the inteftines by cathartic medicines,
to the kidnies by diuretics, and to the fkin by fudorifics,
tends to diminifh the congettion of the circulating fyitem at
large, and confequently of particular organs. Blood-letting,
whether by direétly opening the veins and {mall arteries,
or by the application of leeches, or of cupping-glaffes
after fcarification, likewife operates upon the principle of
revulfion. ’
Confiderable errors, however, have been committed, efpe-
cially by the humoral pathologilts, by carrying this doctrine
too far. For in their attempts to procure evacuations of
the fluids, efpecially from the fkin, they have employed
heat, and ammoniacal, {pirituous, and other f{timulant me-
dicines, which, by the excitement and irritation which they
R2 occafioned
RE W
oceafioned in the nervous and vafcular fyftem, produced
much more inflammatory aGion, than the revulfion, refult-
ing from the evacuation, could poffibly fubdue. See Hu-
MORAL Pathology.
Revutsion is alfo ufed for a fpontaneous turn or reflux
of humours in the body. Sudden difeafes are occafioned
by great revulfions of humours, which fall all at once on
certam parts.
REWAH, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in the
country.of Allahabad; 57 miles $.S.W. of Allahabad. N.
lat. 24° 35/.° E. long. 81° 36!. ;
REWARDS. Military rewards, among the Athenians,
confifted fometimes in crowns prefented to thofe that had
merited them; on which their names and noble aétions were
inferibed. Some had leave granted them to ereé& pillars or
ftatnes in honour of fome god, with inferiptions fetting
forth their vi@tories. This was a favour that was feldom
granted ; Cimon indeed was honoured with it, but Themif-
tocles could never obtain the like. Another honour con-
ferred at Athens on the valiant, was to have their arms
placed in the citadel, and to be called Cecropide, or citizens
of the true old blood. Others were prefented with a wavoraic,
or complete fuit of armour. Songs of triumph were ho-
norary compliments paid to fome. Tihe children of thofe
who were killed in battle were maintained at the public ex-
pence, till they came-to maturity ; at which time they were
prefented before the aflembly of the Athenian people with
a complete fuit of armour, one of the public minifters
proclaiming before them, “ that hitherto, in remembrance
of their fathers’ merits, the commonwealth had educated
thefe young men, but now difmiiled them fo armed, to go
forth and thank their country by imitating their fathers’
examples.”
Solon made a farther provifion for the parents of thofe
that died in the wars, it being extremely reafonable that they
fhould be maintained at the public expence, who had lott
their children, the comfort and fupport of their declining
age, in the fervice of the public.
As for thofe who were any wife difabled, they had an al-
lowance from the public towards their maintenance. Potter,
vol. ii.
Triumphal honours were reckoned among the military
rewards which the ancients voted to their beft generals. Fa-
bius Maximus, Paul Emilius, Camillus, and the Scipios,
were fatisfied with this recompence for their fervices. With
refpe€t to old infirm foldiers, who were invalided, they were
provided for by receiving, each, a lot of ground, which they
cultivated andimproved. Lands, thus appropriated, formed
part of the republican or national domains, or were divided
amongit them in the conquered countries,
The Roman officer was rewarded for his fervices, or for
particular ats of bravery, in three ways: 1ft. By marks of
honour or diftinGtion, which confifted of two forts, viz.
of that which was merely ornamental to their own perfons,
or limited to the inveftiture for life; and of that which may
be called rememorative, fuch as ftatues, &c. The latter
defcended to their pofterity, and gave their families a cer-
tain rank inthe republic. 2dly. By penfions or allowances.
And 3dly. By a grant of lands which exceeded the lots given
to private foldiers. : :
The French, who-got poffeffion of the country which was
formerly occupied by the Gauls, had, at firft, no other
method of recompenfing their generals than by giving them
a certain proportion of land. This grant did not exceed
their natural lives, and fometimes it was limited to the time
they remained in the fervice.
Thefe ufages infenfibly changed, and by degrees it be-
came cuftomary for the children of fuch men as had received
5 RE W
grants of national territory, to continue to enjoy them ;
upon condition, however, that the aGtual pofleflors of fuch
lands fhould be liable to military fervice. Hence the origin
of fiefs in France, and the confequent appellation of milice
des fieffis, or militia, compofed of men who held their
lands on condition of bearing arms when called upon.
The French armies were for many years conftituted in
this manner; and the cuftom of rendering military fer-
vice in confideration of land tenure, only ceafed under
Charles VII. Fj
Tn procefs of time, thofe lands which had been originally
beftowed upon men of military merit, defcended to their
children, aad were gradually loft in the aggregate lots of
inheritable property. Other means were confequently to be
reforted to by the ftate, in order to fatisfy the juft claims of
deferving officers and foldiers. The French, therefore, re-
-turned to the ancient cuftom of the Romans, and rewarded
thofe, who diftinguifhed themfelves in war, by honorary
marks of diftinction. :
Honorary rewards and compenfations for fervice were not
confined to individual officers and foldiers. Whole corps
were frequently diltinguifhed in the fame manner. When
feveral corps acted together, and one amongit them gave
fignal proofs of gallantry and good conduét, that one fre-
quently took precedence of the others in rank, or was fe-
legted by the fovereign to be his perfonal guard. Some-
times, indeed, the king placed himfelé at the head of fuch
a corps on the day. of battle, thereby teltifying his appro-
bation of their conduét, and giving a proof of his con-
fidence in theit bravery. *
It is now ufual, in moft countries, to confer marks of
diftinction on thofe corps that have formed part of any
army that has fignalized -itfelf. Thus the kettle-drums,
under the appellation of nacaires, were given to fome regi-
ments, as proofs of their having behaved gallantly on trying
occafions. °
The military order of St. Louis, which was created by
Louis XIV. in 1693, and that of Maria Therefa, as well
as many other orders in different countries, were only infti-
tuted for the purpofe of rewarding military merit. The
eftablifhment of hofpitals for invalids, fuch as Chelfea, &c.
owes its origin and continuance to the fame jult fenfe of
what is due to deferving officers and foldiers. Hence, like-
wife, our invalid companies and retired litts. j
Philip Auguitus, king of France, firft formed the defign
of building a college for foldiers who had been rendered in-
firm, or were grown old in the fervice. -Louis, furnamed
the Great, not only adopted the idea, but completed the
plan in a grand and magnificent {tyle. Charles II. on his
reltoration to the crown of Great Britain, eftablifhed Che?-
fea, and James II. added confiderable improvements to this
royal inftitution. During the prefent reign, military merit
has been rewarded by titles and penfions; but, what is ftill
more creditable to the government, and refle&s honour
upon his royal highnefs the duke of York (for his co-opera-
tion with thofe who originally fuggefted the idea) old and
meritorious foldiers are taught to expeé a fecure retreat in
the decline of life ; and every rank is provided for accord-
ing to the claims and fervices of individuals.
Rewarps, in a legal fenfe. There are rewards given in
many cafes, by ftatute, for the apprehending of criminals,
and bringing them to juftice ; as a reward of 40/. to thofe
who.apprehend robbers on the highway, and profecute them
to conviction, by 4 & 5 W. & M.c. 8, tobe paid to them
(or, if killed in the endeavour to take them, their executors)
by the theriff of the county ; to which the ftatute 8 Geo. II.
c. 16. fuperadds ro/. to be paid by the hundred indemnified
by fuch taking. Alfo the like reward of 4o/. for appre-
hending
REX
hending and profecuting of burglars.
See Larceny.
The fame reward for apprehending of money-coiners,
or clippers, &c. 6 & 7 W. III. And the like reward for
the apprehenfion of thief-takers, not profecuting felons ;
and of perfons refiftiny the officers of the cuftoms, by force
of arms, &c. 6 Geo. I. cap. 20. 22. See Discovery of
Accomplices.
REWARI, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, in
the Subah of Delhi, between Ballogiftan on the N. and
Mewat on the S.—AlIfo, atown of Hindooftan, and capital
of the forementioned circar; 48 miles S.W. of Delhi. N.
lat. 28° 13/.. Es long. 36° 52’.
REWEY, a term among Clothiers, fignifying cloth un-
-evenly wrought, or fullof rewes. 43 Eliz. cap. 10.
REX Amaroris, in Botany, Rumph. Amboin. v. 2.
12g. t. 41, a fhrub or tree, fo called on account of its fu-
preme bitternefs, as well as its reputed medical virtues.
The natives of Ternate, according to Rumphius, efteem it
a perfec& panacea. In cholera, pleurify, and various kinds
of fevers, it is particularly recommended. The fruit, of a
compreffed heart-like fhape, and coriaceous texture, is cut
into {mall pieces, and chewed with Betle-nut. Its exceflive
bitternefs caufes a naufea, fuppofed to be beneficial to the
patient. Linnzus cites the above chapter of Rumphius, in
his Syf?. Veg. under Ophioxylon, but incorrectly, Rex amoris.
A {pecimen of the true plant is found in his herbarium, but
it has no affinity to Ophioxylon. We have a more perfect
fpecimen, gathered in the ifland of Honimoa, by the late
Mr. Chriftopher Smith, in March 1797, by which the plant
feems to belong: to Pentandria Digynia. The leaves are
elliptical, entire, a fpan long, alternate, on long ftalks ;
their under fides filky, efpecially when young ; with one
ftout midrib, and many ftraight parallel tranfverfe veins.
Flowers very {mall, in numerous, fimple, filky, axillary,
folitary clufters. Calyx minute, apparently of only two
acute leaves. Petals five, larger than the calyx, uniform,
oblong, concave, at length reflexed. Stamens awl-haped,
fimple. Aathers roundifh, fimple, two-lobed. Germen fu-
perior, obovate, compreffed, cloven at the top. Styles none.
Stigmas obtufe, converging. The ripe fruit we have not feen.
Rumphius fays it confilts of two cells, with a white feed,
like that of a cucumber, in each. The foliage bears con-
fiderable refemblance to fome of the Contorte, but there is
no charaéter of that tribe in the frutification ; as far, at
leaft, as we can difcern. The germen and ffigmas are not
unlike thofe of U/mus. The half-formed fruit proves intenfely
bitter, as foon as itis put into the mouth.
Rex Minflrellorum, king of the minftrels. About the
year 1330, the minftrels of Paris formed themfelves into a
company, and obtained a charter. The police frequently
repreffed their licentioufnefs, and regulated their conduct.
Philip Auguftus banifhed them the firlt year of his reign ;
but they were recalled by his fucceflors, and united under
the general name of mene/fraudie, minttrelfy ; having a chief
appointed over them who was called king of the minitrels.
Lewis IX. exempted them from a tariff or toll at the en-
trance into Paris, on condition that they would fing a fong,
and make their monkies dance to the tollman, perhaps to
prove their title to fuch indulgence ; and hence arofe the
well-known proverb, ‘ Payer en gambades et en monnoie de
finge »”
The affociated minftrels inhabited a particular ftreet, to
which they gave the name, which it ftill retains, of St. Julien
des Meneitriers. It was here that the public were provided
with muficians for weddings, and parties of pleafure ; but as
a greater number of them ufually attended on fuch occafions
Stat. 5 Ann. cap. 31.
REY
than were ordered, and all expected to be paid the fame
price, William de Germont, provoft of Paris, in 1331
prohibited the jongleurs.and jonglerefles from going to thofe
who required their performance in greater numbers than had
been ftipulated; upon’ a fevere penalty. In 1395 their
libertinifm and immoralities again incurred the cenfure of
government, by which it was itri&ily enjoined that they
thould henceforth, neither in public nor private, fpeak, at,
or fing any thing that was indecorous or unfit for modeft
eyes and ears, upon pain of two months’ imprifonment, and
living on bread and water. ;
In the reign of Charles VI. they feem to have relinquifhed
the juggling art, and to have confined themfelves more par-
ticularly to the practice of mufic. It was about this time
that treble and bafe rebecs, or viols with three ftrings,
began to be in ule, either to play in oftaves to each other,
or perhaps in a coarfe kind of counterpoint, of which the
laws were now forming: on this occafion the minftrels
aflumed the title of players on high and low inftruments
(joueurs des inftrumens tant haut comme bas), which feems
to imply treble and bafe inftruments. And the charter
under this denomination was confirmed in 1401.
Rex Mullorum, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome
authors to a fpecies of mullet, diftinguifhed from all the
others by its having a prominent belly, and having no beards
under the mouth.
Rex Sacrificulus, the King-prief, in Mythology, was in-
ftituted, ae the expulfion pak Wass ar ore, to per-
petuate the memory, according to Dionyfius Halicarnafleus,
of the great fervices fome of their kings had done to Rome.
A law was made, that the pontiffs and augurs fhould choefe
one of the oldeft to have the charge of divine worfhip ;
but for fear that the name of king fhould again create
jealoufy, it was appointed at the fame time, that the rex
facrificulus fhould be fubject to the high prieft. He
had likewife the name of * Rex Sad¢rorum,’? and his wife
that of «« Regina Sacrorum.” “The firft perfon that was
chofen under this appellation, after the expulfion of the
Tarquins, was Maxim Papirius, of Patrician extraction.
Rex, in Ornithology, a{pecies of Turdus ; which fee.
Rex Vulturum. See Vuttur Papa.
REY, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak, called Rae; which fee.
Rey, a river of England, in Wiltfhire, which runs into
the Thames, near Cricklade.
Rey Jfle, a {mall ifland in the bay of Panama. N. lat.
8°. W. long. 79° 46'. i
Rey-Gra/s, in Agriculture, a hardy early fort of grafs,
much efteemed among farmers. See Lotium Perenne, and
Ray-Grafs.
REYES, in Geography, a town of New Navarre; 64
miles S. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a town of Peru, in the
Audience of Lima; 12 miles N. of Tarma.
Reyes, Los, a townof South America, in the province
of St. Martha; 140 miles W. of Maracaybo. N. Jat. 10°
15'. W. long. 73° 30'.—Alfo, a fmall ifland near the coaft
of Patagonia, at the entrance of Port Defire. S. lat.
47° 50.
Reyes Magos, atown of Brazil; 40 miles N. of Spiritu
Santo.
Reyes le Yapey, Los, a town of South America, in the
rovince of Buenos Ayres; 180 miles S.E. of Corrientes.
REYGADA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; fix miles N.N.E. of Pinhel.
REYGATE, or ReiGAre, a borough and market-town
in the weit half hundred of Reygate, and county of Surrey,
England, is fituated at the diftance of 19 miles eaft” from
Guilford,
RBYGATE.
Guilford, and 21 fouth by weft from London. It is of
great antiquity, aad is mentioned in the General Survey by
the appellation Cherchefelle, or Cherchfield ; but it foon
afterwards became generally known by that of Ridge-gate,
fince corrupted into Reygate. The manor was formerly
vefted in the crown; and, previous to the Conquett,
conftituted part of the property fettled by king Edward
the Confeflor on his queen, Edith. King William Rufus
anted it to the illuitrious family of the Warrens, earls
of Warren and Surrey, feveral of whom obtained con-
fiderable privileges for the town. John, earl of Warren, in
the reign of Edward Il. procured for the inhabitants the
charter, under which they now enjoy the right of holding a
weekly market on Tuefday. Another, held on the firf&
Wednefday of every month, was eftablifhed by charter from
Charles IT. ; it was for many years difufed, but has lately
been revived. Se
Reygate is a borough by prefcription only. The govern-
ment is vefted in a-bailiff, conitable, tythingman, ale-taiter,
flefh-tafter, fifh-tafter, and leather-feller, with a conftable for
the foreign divifion, and a tythingman for each of the fo-
renfic fubdivifions, or tythings. [his town originally fent
members to parliament in the twenty-third year of Edward I.
The eleGtors are the freeholders of mefluages or burgage
tenements within the precinéts of the borough, and the bailiff
is the returning officer. ;
The parifh of Reygate is divided into two capital pre-
cin@s, which provide feparately for the maintenance of their
refpective poor, viz. the borough and the forenfec, or foreign,
the latter including all that portion of the parifh not compre-
hended in the former. Within the precinét of the borough
ftands the town itfelf, which is feated at the bafe of a iteep
hill of chalk. The buildings are principally difpofed in two
long and fpacious ftreets, of which one, called the High-ftreet,
runs in a direction from weft to eaft; and the other, called
Bell-ftreet, in a direétion from north to fouth. The parifh
church, placed at a {mall diftance from the town, although
not diftinguiffied for its antiquity or elegance of its architec-
ture, is neverthelefs one of the beit eccletiaftical ftru€tures
inthe county. It is divided into anave, two fide aifles, and
a chancel, with an embattled tower at the weft end. The
nave and chancel are feparated from the aifles by feven
pointed arches ; five of which, on each fide, are in the nave
and two in the chancel ; thofe of the former being fupported
by pillars, alternately round and oétagonal; and thofe of
the latter by cluftered pillars of a more elegant form.
Every portion of the interior is crowded with monuments
and infcriptions to the memory of the Thurlands, of
Thurland Caftle in Nottinghamfhire, the Jamefes of Rey-
gate, the Skinners of the fame place, and others of lefs note.
In a vault under the chancel, conftructed by William, firft
baron. Howard of Effingham, are depofited many leaden
coffins, containing the remains of the founder, and of feveral
of his defcendants, earls of Nottingham, and their families.
The moft remarkable of thefe is that infcribed to the me-
mory of Charles Howard, earl of Nottingham, who com-
manded the Britifh fleet in the memorable conteft with the
Spanifh armada, A. D. 1588.
The old market-houfe ftood at the welt end of the town,
but it having gone to decay, the prefent houfe was erected,
by fir Jofeph Jekyll, near the {cite of the ancient priory,
which formed one of the terminations of Bell-ftreet. This
religious eftablifhment was founded ky William de Warren,
earl of Surrey, and Ifabel his wife, about the year 1230.
The inmates confifted of a prior, and a few canons regular,
of the order of St. Auguiftine, whofe clear annual revenue,
at the time of the diflolution, amaunted to 68/ 16s. 8d.
After that event the {cite of the priory, with its appurte-
nances, was granted by king Henry VIIE. to William, lord
Howard, in exchange for the rectory of Tottenham in Mid-
dlefex. The other religious buildings here were, two chapels,
dedicated to St. Lawrence, and to Thomas a Becket, and
the hofpital of the Holy Crofs, which feems to have been
connected with the priory.
On a confiderable eminence to the north of the town,
ftood the ancient caftle of Reygate, the foundation and hif-
tory of which are little known. Moit of the very flender
accounts of it which have reached our times, afcribe its
origin to fome of the more ancient earls of Warren and Sur-
rey, but others affert, that the original ftruéture was of much
earlier date, andthe work of our Saxon anceftors. Indeed,
if the inhabitants of this part of the country were fo aétive and
fuccefsful in repelling the Danifh invaders, asto give rife to
the proverb-attributed to them by Camden, “ The Vale of
Holmefdale,—never wonne, ne never fhail,’”’ it feems not im-
probable, confidering alfo the importance and advantage of
the fituation, that their leaders had a fortrefs here fufficient
for the purpofes of rendezvous and fecurity. It is certain that -
there wasa fortrefs at Reygate, of confiderable note, under
the earls of Warren, and which feems to have been for many
years one, at leaft, of the capital feats of their barony.
William, earl of Warren, who poffeffed it in king John’s
time, is the firft of the family fpoken of by Dugdale as the
proprietor of it; and he acknowledges his title to be derived
from his earlieft anceftors. This earl, in the conteft between
that king and his barons, was one of the neutral lords who
joined in the confederacy againft the king with relu€tance,
and who, at the great council at Runnymead, were inclined
to favour him; and by whofe advice the great charter was
eventually figned by him. This dubious policy of the earl
occafioned the lofs of his caftle at Reygate, which, foon after
the landing of Louis the dauphin, was furrendered to him.
When it was firft difmantled is uncertain, but it is mentioned
as having been decayed and ruinous in the reign of James I.
Even then, and for fome time after, it muft have been capable
of defence, as in the time of the civil wars, A. D. 1648, the
committee of the houfe of commons were ordered “ to take
care of it, and to put it into fuch a condition, that no ufe
might be made to the endangering the peace of the king-
dom.’? What the immediate refult of thefe orders was
we are not informed, but it was probably demolifhed foon af-
terwards, though a {mall part of the walls was ftanding
within the laft forty years. Now, however, every vettige
of thefe is gone; but the vallum and ditch are {till nearly
entire on the fouth and welt fides; and in the centre of the
area is a defcent, by a flight of fteps, to a paflage 235 feet
long, which leads into a cave 123 long, 13 wide, and 11 bigh.
This cave is conjectured to have ferved the double purpofe
of arepofitory for military ftores, anda place of cuftody for
prifoners: it might alfo be a place of fafety in times of
public commotion.
The park at Reygate is fituated to the fouth of the
town. It contains about 150 acres, and appears, by a
furvey made in 1622, to have been then well ftored with
timber trees, and with venifon. It was difparked within
_twenty years from that period, and now retains few of its
former charateriftics, except the name. At Eaft-Beech-
worth, to the weitward of Reygate, is a feat of the late
Hon. William Henry Bouverie, which was built by fir Ralph
Freeman in the reign of James I.; and near it is Wonhan,
a manfion belonging to vifcount Templetown; Gatton, to
the northward, about two miles, affords an example of no-
minal borough reprefentation, fcarcely a houfe being left
ftanding within its limits. In this parifh, at a place called
Battle;
R EY
Battle-bridge, tradition affirms that a great (laughter of the
Danes took place. Aubrey ftates that a caitle exilted here,
but no traces of fuch a building can now be difcovered. See
Gatton.
Meritham, to the eaft of Gatton, is noted for its ftone
quarries, which were anciently held in fuch high repute that
the crown deemed it expedient to keep them in its own pof-
_feffion. A great part of Windfor caftle, and the magni-
ficent chapel of Henry VII. at Weltminiter, were con-
itructed with ftone from thefe quarries. The quality which
_ tenders it peculiarly valuable, is its effectual refittance againft
fire, whence it is denominated fire-ftone. It is very foft
when firlt raifed from the quarry, but becomes indurated by
expofure to the atmofphere. A rail-road has been formed
here to facilitate the conveyance of ftone and lime from the
quarries to the metropolis. Mer{tham-place is a fpacious
mantion belonging to Hylton Jolliffe, efq. In the parifh
of Newdigate, about fix miles fouth-weft from Reygate,
is Ewood, a manfion lately ereGed by the prefent duke of Nor-
folk. The houfe ftands on the brow of an eminence, and is
furrounded by a park containing about 600 acres of ground,
and ornamented with a fine lake, covering fixty acres. At
Nutfield, as well as at Reygate, are fome fuller’s-earth pits,
which yield excellent earth. Hiftory and Antiquities of the
County of Surrey, by the Rev. Owen Manning; edited,
with additions, by W. Bray, efq. F.S.A. ; vol. i. folio.
Beauties of England and Wales, 8vo. vol. xiv. by I.
Shorbel.
REYHER, Samuet, in Biography, an eminent German
mathematician, was born at Schleu ingen, in Saxony, in the
year 1635. He received the early part of his education
under his father, and then purfued his mathematical {tudies
at the univerfity of Leipfic. He next went to Leyden, and
ftudied the algebra of Vieta under the celebrated James
Golius, with whom he contraéted an intimate friendfhip.
On his return to Leipfic, he obtained fo high a reputation
in teaching the mathematics, that he was nominated pre-
ceptor to the young prince of Gotha, the eldeft fon of the
duke of Saxe-Gotha. In 1665 he accepted an invitation to
fill the mathematical chair at the univerfity of Kiel, and
having firlt paid a vifit to Leyden, he was there admitted to
the degree of doétor in civil law. Ina few years afterwards
he was appointed profeffor extraordinary of civil law, in
1683 profeffor in ordinary of the Inftitutes, and in 1692
proteflor of the code of Juftinian. He diedin 1714, in the
Soth year of his age. He tranflated the works of Euclid
into the German language, illuitrating the geometrical with
algebraical demonftrations, wherever they would admit of it ;
and he publifhed, among many other works, a learned work
entitled ‘ Mathefis Biblica ;”” and a very curious “ Differ-
tation concerning the Infcription on the Crofs of Jefus
Chrift, and the Hour of his Crucifixion.”? Moreri.
,REYN, Jan pe, or RueEnI, called alfo Lang Jan, was
an artift of very confiderable merit, a difciple, and {kilful
imitator, of Vandyke ; to whom he was fo much attached
that he followed him to Londen, and remained fome time
with him. He was born at Dunkirk in 1610; and he fo
effetually benefited by the inftructions of Vandyke, that
his pi€tures are frequently fold for thofe of that matter.
But as he, in general, painted hiftory more than portrait, he
has a freer line in compofition, though not fo correct a one
as his mafter. His works are fcarce, though he lived to
the age of 68, but their apparent fcarcity is poflibly owing
to fo many of them being imputed to Vandyke. Among
the works which are indifputably his, are mentioned the
Baptifm of Totila, which is in a church at Dunkirk ; and
a grand altar-piece in the parifh church of St. Martin, at
‘RAY
Bergues, reprefenting Herodias bringing the head of St.
John to Herod. He died in 1678.
REYNA, Cassioporus pg, celebrated for being the
firit tranflator of the whole bible into the Spanith language,
and on this account he is noticed, though we have no parti-
culars concerning his life. T'o his tranflation he introduced
notes explanatory and critical. The place where this verfion
was printed is not mentioned in the utle-page, though, from
fome typographical marks, it may be afcertained pretty cor-
rectly that it was at Bafil; and as the author was probably a
Proteftant, he thought proper to conceal his name, that it
might not prevent his work from being received among the
Spanifh Catholics, and it has only his initials R. C. to a Latin
preface, recommending it to the kings, princes, and nobles
of Europe, and particularly of the Roman empire. The
date is 1569, and it is entitled ** La Biblia, Que Es, Los
Sacros Libros Del Vieio y Nuevo Teitamento. Tranfla-
dada en Efpagnol.”? The firft edition of this verfion is
now very fcarce. Moreri.
REYNEAU, Cuarces Rent, an eminent French ma-
thematician, was born at Briflac, in the province of Anjou,
inthe year 1656. At the age of twenty, he took up his re-
fidence in the houfe belonging to the congregation of the
Oratory at Paris, without any intention of entering into the
community. His objeét was to enjoy the advantages in
itudy which that celebrated order afforded for improvement
in literature. In a fhort time, however, a change took
place in his mind, and he became a member of the houfe.
He became itrongly attached to the fcience of geometry,
and in 1683 he was appointed to a mathematical profeflor-
fhip at Angers: this poft he retained 22 years with extra-
ordinary reputation. In this fituation he undertook to re-
duce into one body, for the ufe of his fcholars, the prin-
cipal theories fcattered through the writings of Defcartes,
Leibnitz, Bernouilli, the Leipfic A€ts, the Memoirs of the
Parts Academy of Sciences, and other works. The fruit
of this undertaking, entitled «The Analyfis demonttrated,
&c.’” he publifhed at Paris in the year 1708, in two vols.
4to. He aflumed this title for his work becaufe it contained
demonttrations of feveral methods of aaalyfis which had not
been demonftrated by the authors of them, or, at leaf, not
with fufficient perfpicuity and exaétnefs. By fupplying
what was left undone by other perfons, he rendered fo fignal
a fervice to mathematical ftudents, that it became a maxim,
at leaft in France, that to follow father Reyneau was the
beft way to make much progrefs in mathematics. Hence
he was elteemed the Euclid of the fublime geometry. His
great work was reprinted in 1738. In the year 1714 he
drew up an elementary work on the fubje&t, under the title
of “The Science of Calculation, &c.’’? which was moft
favourably received. This came out in one volume, and he
had prepared materials for a fecond, which did not make its
appearance till after the author’s death. In 1716 the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris admitted fome new members,
under the defignation of «free affociates :’’ father Reyneau
was of that number, and he frequently affifted at their meet-
ings. He diedin 1723, at the age of 72, regretted as well
for his maay virtues, as for profound and extenfive learning.
The firft men in France for talents deemed it an honour to
count Reyneau among their friends. In this number was
father Malebranche, of whom Reyneau was a zealous dif-
ciple. He left behind him a treatife on ‘* Logic, or the
Art of Reafoning,” which was publifhed in 1745. Moreri.
REYNEL, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Marne; 12 miles W. of Bourmont.
REYNESBURCH, a town of Holland; three miles
N.W. of Leyden.
REYNOLDS,
REYNOLDS.
REYNOLDS, Sir Josuus, Knt., in Biography, was
the fon of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds, rector of Plympton,
near’ Plymouth, in Devonfhire, and was born there, on
July 16, 1723; the tenth of eleven children, five of whom
‘died in their infancy. He was, for fome time, inftru&ed
in the claffics by his father, and was intended for the practice
of phyfic; but he began, at a very early age, to difplay an
inclination for the art in which he fubfequently made fo dif-
tinguifhed a figure. At eight vears of age he made him-
felf fo far matter of perfpeétive, as to draw his father’s
bookcafe according to rule, and, encouraged by his affec-
tionate parent, amufed himfelf by copying prints that he
found in books, and particularly thofe in Jacob Kat’s em-
blems. From thefe early labours the tranfition was eafy to
the attempt at drawing likeneffes of his friends, and in
thefe he obtained tolerable fuccefs. Richardfon’s Treatife
on Painting was then put into his hands, and, according to
his own report, he was, by that work, ftimulated to the
greateft degree of enthufiafm for the art of painting, and
led to regard its profeflors, particularly Raphael, as among
the greateft and moft illuttrious of men, either in ancient or
modern time. After he had {pent fome time praétifing in
the neighbouring country, his parents were induced, by the
advice of a Mr. Cranch, to fend him to London, as the place
beft calculated to improve talents fuch as he had fo decidedly
-exhibited ; and accordingly, in O&ober 1741, he firft vifited
the capital, and was immediately placed with Mr. Hudfon,
the moft renowned portrait painter of that time, in order to
acquire the firft rudiments of this art.
Whatever was the caufe, whether, as it is faid, Hudfon
became jealous of the ability of his pupil, or, as is equally
probable, the pupil became difgufted with the want of tafte
exhibited by his mafter, in little more than two years they
difagreed, and young Reynolds returned to his father, and
again employed himfelf in painting his friends. Many of
thefe early produétions of his pencil are {till to be feen in
the town and neighbourhood of Plymouth, and fome of
them poflefs very confiderable merit, and indicate his future
rowels. _ One of them, particularly, of a boy reading in
refleted light, 30 years afterwards, excited furprize in his
own mind, and an expreffion of regret that, in fo many years,
he fhould have made fo little progrefs in his profeffion. He
is faid to have lamented having paffed this period of his life
in the way he had done; moit probably, however, that re-
gret alludes to his abfence from London, where he would
moft undoubtedly have feen more of the art, and learnt
more of its practice, than elfewhere. But perhaps it was a
fortunate occurrence that he was removed to a ftation where
he had to rely upon his own emotions, unbiafled by the
grofs and barbarous tafte which then prevailed } fince, guided
by thofe emotions, he attempted to follow the diGates of
nature, untrammelled by the pedantry of amateurs, and
the low ignorance of the greater part of the profeflors of
the day.
Finding his pra@tice increafing, he took a houfe at Ply-
mouth Dock, and there became known to the family of
Mount Edgecumbe, by whom he was warmly patronized,
and recommended to captain (afterwards lord) Keppel, who
carried him to Italy in 1749; and it would appear, from a
letter of his to lord Mount .Edgecumbe, written when he
was in Rome, that that noble lord defrayed the expence of
his refidence there. The courfe of his ftudies during the
three years that he {pent there, is not precifely known.
He made fome few copies of figures and heads from the
works of Raphael, but that does not appear to have been a
favourite mode of ftudy with him, for in one of his le€tures
he has faid, «the man of true genius, inftead of {pending
’
all his hours, as many artifts do while they are at Rome, in
meafuring ftatues, and copying pictures, foon begins to
think for himfelf, and endeavours to do fomething like what
he fees. I confider general copying as a delufive kind of
induftry ; the ftudent fatisfies himfelf with the appearance
of doing fomething ; he falls into the danger of imitating
without feleting, and of labourmg without any determinate
obje€t: as it requires no effort of the mind, he fleeps over
his work ; and thofe powers of invention and difpofition,
which ought particularly to be called out and put in aétion,
lie torpid, and lofe their energy for want of exercife. How
incapable of producing any thing of their own, thofe are,
who have {pent moft of their time in copying, is an obferva-
tion well known to all who are converfant in our art.”
That he reflected deeply on the great works of the ancient
and modern matters is evident, both from his pictures and
writings ; though the tafte with which he fubfequently ap-
plied the knowledge he had acquired, proves the-orizinality
of hismind, and the extent of his genus. =
Mr. Reynolds returned through Paris to England in
O€tober 1752, and after a fhort time fpent at his native
place, to recruit his health, which had fomewhat fuffered
by the journey, he fixed his fettled refidence in the metro-
polis; taking a, houfe in St. Martin’s-lane. He there
painted, as his firft eflay, a head, from an Italian youth he
had brought over with him, (Giufeppe Marchi). He
drefled it in a rich turban, and its execution excited fo
much attention, that his old mafter, Hudfon, was induced to
go to fee it, and carefully watched its progrefs: when,
upon feeing at length no trace of his own manner left, and
unable, or unwilling, to find any other merit in it, he ex-
claimed, “why Reynolds, you don’t paint fo well as you did
when you left England!’ Notwithftanding this augural
declaration, the pupil became the fuperior favourite with
the public ; and Hudfon retiring, left him without a com-
petitor.
In 1753, or 4, he took a large houfe in Newport-ftreet,
where he refided for eight or nine years, and there he
painted a whole length portrait of his friend commodore
Keppel walking on the fea-fhore, which drew upon him
univerfal admiration, and fixed him completely in the public
efteem. At this time his price was ten guineas for a head ;
in 1755 he raifed it to twelve; and in 1758 to twenty
guineas; and he afterwards, by degrees, advanced it to
fifty ; at which it remained ull he declined praétice ; the
price of a half length, during the latter period, being 100,
and for a whole length 200 guineas. .
To fay that he was univerfally regarded as being at the
head of the proteflion of portrait painting at the time ad-
verted to, cannot indeed be confidered as any great praife,
fuch was its degraded condition ; though Hudfon had cer-
tainly advanced above his immediate predeceffors. Reynolds
however, deferved much more, for he united to a dignifted
charaéteriftic refemblance of the head, an endlefs variety of
fpirited and graceful attitudes, picturefque back-grounds,
novel and ftriking effeéts of light and fhade, with a volup-
tuous richnefs and harmony of colour, which certainly had
never before been feen' united to fo many other qualities in
that branch of the art. It muft not, however, pe under-
ftood, that his performances at that time poffefled thofe
excellencies to the degree in which we find them in his latter
works ; for he was one of the few, whofe efforts ended
but with his life; who has been heard to fay, that he never
began a picture without a determination to make it his beft ;
and whofe unceafing progrefs almoft juftified the maxim
he-was fo fond of repeating continually, « that nothing is
denied to well direéted induftry.”? Befides his uncommon
8 affiduity,
REYNOLDS.
afiiduity, which was apparent to all, little information re-
mains to us of the precife method of {tudy by which fuch
extraordinary excellence was attained, except what may be
colle&ed from the following extraé, made from fome
papers left by him, and intended perhaps for infertion in
another difcourfe ; in which, as his biographer obferves, he
_ fpeaks of his merits and defects with fingular modefty and
candour. ‘¢ Not having the advantage of an early acade-
mical education, I never had that facility of drawing the
naked figure which an artift ought to have. It appeared
to me too late when I went to Italy, and began to feel my
deficiencies, to endeavour to acquire that readinefs of inven-
tion which I obferved others to poffefs. I confoled myfelf,
however, by remarking, that thofe ready inventors are ex-
tremely apt to acquiefce in imperfection, and that if I had
not their facility, I fhould, for this very reafon, be more
likely to avoid the defect which too often accompanied it,—
a trite and common-place invention. How difficult it is
for the artiit who poffefles this facility to guard againlt
eareleffnefs and common-place, is well known; and in a
kindred art, Metaftafio is an eminent inftance, who always
complained of the great difficulty he found in. obtaining
correéinefs, in confequence of his having been in his youth
an improvifatore. Having this defett conftantly in my
mind, I never was contented with common-place attitudes
or inventions of any kind. I confidered myfelf as play-
ing a great game; and inftead of faving money, I laid it
ont falter than I got it, in purchafing the beft examples of
the art that could be procured ; for I even borrowed money
for this purpofe. The poflefling portraits by Titian, Van-
dyke, Rembrandt, &c. I confidered as the beft kind of
wealth. By ftudying carefully the works of great matters,
this advantage is obtained: we find that certain niceties of
expreflion are capable of being executed, which otherwife
we might fuppofe beyond the reach of art. This gives
us a confidence in ourfelves, and we are thus incited to
endeavour at not only the fame happinefs of execution,
but alfo at other congenial excellencies. Study, indeed,
confifts in learning to fee nature, and may be called the art
of ufing other men’s minds. By this kind of contemplation
and exercife, we are taught to think in their way, and
fometimes to attain their excellence. Thus, for inftance,
if I had never feen any of the works of Correggio, I fhould
never, perhaps, have remarked in nature the expreffion
which I find in one of his pieces: or if I had remarked it,
I might have thought it too difficult, or perhaps impoffible,
to be executed.
«« My fuccefs and continual improvement in my art (if I
may be allowed that expreffion), may be afcribed, in good
meafure, to 2 principle which I will boldly recommend to
imitation ; I mean a principle of honefty, which in this, as
in all other inftances, is, according to the vulgar proverb,
certainly the beft policy. TI always endeavoured to do my
belt. Great or vulgar, good fubjeGts or bad, all had
nature ; by the exaG reprefentation of which, or even by
the endeavour to give fuch a reprefentation, the painter
cannot but improve in his art. .
«« My principal labour was employed on the whole toge-
ther, and I was never weary of changiag andtrying different
modes and effets. I had always fome fcheme in my mind,
and a perpetual defire to advance. By conftantly endea-
youring to do my belt, I acquired a power of doing that
with Perakanectta felicity, which at firft was the effort
of my whole mind, and my reward was three-fold; the
fatisfaction refulting from aéting upon this juft principle,
improvement in my art, and the pleafure derived from a
conftant purfuit after excellence,
Vor. XXX.
“I was always willing to believe that my uncertainty of
proceeding in my works, that is, my never being fure of
my hand, and my. frequent alterations, arofe from a refined
talte, which could not acquiefce in any thing fhort of a
high degree of excellence. I had not an opportunity of
being early initiated in the principles of colouring ; no man,
indeed, could teach me. If J have never been Eilied with
refpeét to colouring, let it at the fame time be remembered,
that my unfteadinefs in this refpeét proceeded from an in-
ordinate defire to poffefs every kind of excellence that I
faw in the works of others ; without confidering that there
are in colouring, as in ftyle, excellencies which aré incom-
patible with each other: however, this purfuit, or any
fimilar one, prevents the artift from being tired of his art,
We all know how often thofe mafters who fought after
colouring changed their manner, while others, merely from
not feeing various modes, acquicfced all their lives in that
in which they fet out. On the contrary, I tried every
effe&t of colour ; and by leaving out every colour in its
turn, fhewed every colour that I could do without it. As
I alternately left out every colour, I tried every new one;
and often, as is well known, failed. The former practice,
I am aware, may be compared by thofe whofe firit object
is ridicule, to that of the poet mentioned in the Spectator,
who in a poem of 24 books, contrived in each book to leave
out a letter. But I was influenced by no {uch idle or
foolifh affe&tation ; my ficklenefs in the mode of colouring,
arofe from an eager defire to attain the higheft excellence,
This is the only merit I can aflume to myfelf from my
condué in this refpect.’’
His affiduity and love of his profeffion left him little
leifure for country excurfions. Occafionally, however, he
{pent a few days at his villa on Richmond-hill, and vifited, at
different times, the feats of fome of the noblemen and gen-
tlemen of his acquaintance, from whence he was always
glad to return to the praétice of his profeflion, and the
enjoyment of that intellectual fociety, of which, like his
friend Johnfon, he juftly confidered London as the head-
quarters. He, very foon after he became fettled, perceived the
advantage which one confined to the laborious duties of an
arduous profeffion might derive from the fociety of literary
men. Finding how little time he could {pare from his pro-
feflion, for the purpofe of acquiring general knowledge
from books, he refolved to partake as much as poffible of
the benefits which might be drawn from the converfation
of the learned and ingenious men of his time. In confe-
quence of this, and of his cheerful and convivial habits, his
table, for above thirty years, exhibited an aflemblage of all
the talents of Great Britain and Ireland; there being,
during that period, fearcely a perfon in the three kingdoms
diftinguifhed for his attainments in literature or the arts, or
for his exertions at the bar, in the fenate, or the field, who
was not occafionally found there.
Soon after the return of fir Jofhua from Italy, he be-
came acquainted with Dr. Johnfon, to whofe fuperior ta-
lents he was always proud to acknowledge his obligations ;
and in the paper we have before-mentioned, had exprefled
his fenfe of the benefit he had derived from his fociety.
When {peaking of the value of aflociating either perfomally
or by ftudy with the truly great, he adds, ‘¢ May I pre-
fume to introduce myfelf as an inftance of the truth of what
I have remarked. Whatever merit the difcourfes which
Ihave had the honour of delivering from this place may
have, it may in great meafure be imputed to the education
which I may be Bia to have had under Dr. Johnfon. I do
not mean to fay, though it certainly would be to the credit
of thefe difcourfes, FI could fay it with truth, that he
S contributed
REYNOLDS.
contributed even a fingle fentiment to them ; but he qualified
my mind to think juftly. No man had, like him, the faculty
of teaching inferior minds the art of thinking.””—* The
obfervations which he made on poetry, on life, and on every
thing about us, I applied to one art; with what fuccefs
others muft judge.” The great leviathan of literature
found in the mind of Reynolds a congenial purity and
ftrength, and became zealoufly attached to him; who, with
fuch a coadjutor, found but little difficulty in colle€ting
around him a circle of the moft able and ufeful members of
fociety. Many illuftrious foreigners were perfonally inti-
mate with him; and his friendfhip was fought by individuals
of the higheft quality ; who revered his genius as much as
they refpe€ted the worth of his private charaGter. From
fuch conne@tions, his mind, rich in its own ftores, received an
acceffion of moft extenfive information, and an inexhautftible
treafure for converfation. He had a mind ever open to
acquire ufeful knowledge; a found and penetrating judg-
ment to fele€t what he acquired, and great induftry and
application in rendering his acquirements ufeful.
The variety of talent he exhibited, and the confequent
eminence which he gained, qualified him to fhare the ho-
nours of the firft fcientific inftitutions. He was accord-
ingly admitted to the Royal, the Antiquarian, and the
Dilletanti Societies; and when the late lord North was
inftalled chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford, in July
1773, fir Jofhua was admitted to the honorary degree of
doGor in civil law. He had previoufly, in 1769, been
eleéted to the prefidency of the Royal Academy, in the
formation of which he had a principal fhare, and had, upon
the occafion, been honoured by his majefty with the rank of
knighthood. ‘To this inftitution he was a moit invaluable
member, and repaid the honour and fame he acquired from
his fituation in it, by a zealous attention to its interetts.
Nor did the Academy derive lefs credit from the admirable
works which he continued yearly to exhibit in it, confifting
indeed chiefly of portraits, though he rarely fuffered a
feafon to pafs in which he did not bring forwards one or
more f{pecimens of his powers in hiftory. From the year
1769, when, as we have faid, the academy was founded, till
1790, inclufive, it appears that he fent no lefs than 244
pictures to the exhibition.
The tafk of reading leGtures was no part of the prefcribed
duty of his office: but impofed voluntarily upon himfelf
for the following reafons, affigned by him in his fifteenth dif-
courfe. “If prizes were to be given, it appeared not
only proper, but almott indifpenfably neceflary, that fome-
thing fhould be faid by the prefident on the delivery of thofe
prizes; and the prefident, for his own credit, would with to
{ay fomething more than mere words of compliment : which,
by being frequently repeated, would foon become flat and
uninteretting ; and by being uttered to many, would at laft
become a diftinétion to none. I thought, therefore, if I were
to preface this compliment with fome inftruétive obfervations
on the art, when we crowned merit in the artifts whom we
rewarded, I might do fomething to animate and guide them
in their future attempts.’? To the exertions which this moft
judicious fenfe of propriety ftimulated him to make, he is
indebted, principally, for his renown as an author. In the
courfe of twenty-one years, viz. from 1769 to 1790, inclu-
live, he compofed fifteen difcourfes ; replete with the foundeft
principles, and the moft ufeful information concerning the
art he prattifed, that ever have been given to the world.
In which, though it muft be acknowledged that there are
fome few points not {ufficiently explained, yet they are free
from the affected rant of connoifleurfhip, and practically
efficient to guide the young, whilit it confirms the more ad-
vanced, in purfuit of the juft objeéts of the art of painting,
and the fureft means of obtaining fuccefs. Befidesthefe, he
wrote three papers for the Idler, in 175953 viz. Nos. 76,
79, and 82; in whichis exhibited his original turn of think-
ing on the nature and properties of beauty and of art: and
in 1783, his notes to Mafon’s tranflation of Du Frefnoy’s
poem on Painting, gaveto the world many practical obferva-
tions and explanations of the rules laid down in the text,
which convey inftruction of the moft ufeful kind, and tend
to fhew how carefully, and how fy{tematically, his mind
was-made up on the fubject. :
It has been conjeétured, and widely diffufed in opinion,
that fir Jofhua did not compofe his leGtures himfelf. In fup-
port of what is due to him on that head, Mr. Northcote,
who lived fome years in his houfe, has faid in his memoirs,
«© At the period when it was expected he fhould have com-
pofed them, I have heard him walking at intervals in his room
till one or two o’clock in the morning, and I have on the fol-
lowing day, at an early hour, feen the papers on the fubje&
of his art which had been written the preceding night. I
have had the rude manufcript from himfelf, in his own hand-
writing, in order to makea fair copy from it for him to read
in public: I have feen the manufcript alfo after it had
been revifed by Dr. Johnfon, who has fometimes altered it to
a wrong meaning, from his total ignorance of the fubje&
and of art; but never, tomy knowledge, faw the marks of
Burke’s pen in any of the manufcripts.
«© The bifhop of Rochefter, alfo, who examined the
writings of Mr. Burke fince his death, and lately edited a
part of them, infermed a friend that he could difcover no
reafon to think that Mr. Burke had the leatt hand in the dif-
courfes of Reynolds.”? And Burke himfelf, in a letter to
Mr. Malone, after the publication of fir Jofhua’s life and
works, fays, «* I have read over fome part of the difcourfes
with an unufual fort of pleafure, partly becaufe being faded
a little inmy memory, they have a fort of appearance of no-
velty ; partly by reviving recollections mixed with melan-
choly and fatisfation. ‘The Flemifh journal I had never
feen before. You trace in that, every where, the {pirit of
the difcourfes, fupported by new examples. He is always
the fame man; the fame philofophical, the fame artift-like
critic, the fame fagacious obferver, with the fame minutenefs,
without the {malleft degree of trifling.’ We may fafely
fay, this is not the language of one who had himfelf contri-
buted much to thofe difcourfes. And if neither Johnfon nor
Burke wrote for Reynolds, to whom elfe among his contem-
poraries fhall the praife due to thofe invaluable compofitions
be given, if Reynolds is to be deprived of it!
It is much to be lamented, that the world was deprived
of this great artift before he had put into execution a plan
which his biographer, Mr. Malone, fays appears, from fome
loofe papers, to have been revolved in his mind. ‘I haye
found,” fays that author, ‘¢ among fir Jofhua’s papers, fome
detached and unconnected thoughts, written occalionally, as
hints for a difcourfe, on anew and fingular plan, which he
feems to have intended as a hiftory of his mind, fo far as cone
cerned his art ; and of his progrefs, ftudies, and pra@tice ;
together with a view of the advantages he had enjoyed, and
the difadvantages he had laboured under, in the courfe that
he had run: a fcheme, from which, however liable it might
be to the ridicule of wits and f{coffers, (of which, he fays, he
was perfectly aware,) he conceived the ftudents might derive
fome ufeful documents for the regulation of their own con-
dué& and practice.’? Sucha compofition, from fuch a man,
written after he had {pent a long life in fuccefsful pratice,
with none to guide him ; who had chofen a line of art for
himfelf, ftamped with originality ; and in which he had to
develope
REYNOLDS.
develope principles, and elucidate them by praétice ; and
competent as he was to explain the operations of his own
mind; could not fail of being interefting and ufeful in the
higheft degree. One of thefe detached ideas we have quoted
above, and lament that any of them fhould be withheld from
publication.
_. In 1781, during the fummer, he made a tour through Hol-
land and the Netherlands, with a view of examining critically
the works of the celebrated mafters of the Dutch and
Flemith fchools. An account of this journey, written by
himfelf, containing much excellent criticifm on the works
of Rubens, Vandyke, Rembrandt, &c. in the churches and
’ different colleétions at Antwerp, Bruffels, Ghent, the Duf-
feldorf gallery, and at Amiterdam, was publifhed after his
death ; it concludes with a mafterly drawn charaGer of
Rubens.
In 1783, in confequence of the emperor’s fuppreffion of
fome religious houfes, he again vifited Flanders, purchafed
fome piétures by Rubens, and devoted feveral more days to
the contemplation and further inveftigation of the per-
formances of that great man. On his return, he remarked
that his own piétures wanted force and brilliancy, and ap-
peared, by his fubfequent pratice, to have benefited by the
obfervations he had made. This year, on the death of Ram-
fay, he was made principal painter in ordinary to his majetty,
and continued fo till his death.
For a very long period he had enjoyed an almoft uninter-
rupted ftate of good health, except that in the year 1782 he
was for a fhort time afflicted with a paralytic ftroke. A
few weeks, however, perfectly rettored him, and he fuffered
no inconvenience from it afterwards. But in July 1789,
whilft he was painting the portrait of lady Beauchamp, he
found his fight fo much affeted, that it was with difficulty
he could proceed with his work ; and notwithitanding every
affiftance that could be procured, he was in a few months to-
tally deprived of the ufe of his lefteye. After fome ftrug-
gles, he determined, left his remaining eye fhould alfo fuffer,
to paint no more ; and though he was thus deprived of a con-
{tant employment and amufement, he retained his ufual {pirits,
and partook of the fociety of his friends with apparently the
fame pleafure to which he had been accuftomed ; and was
amufed by reading, or hearing others read to him. In Oc-
tober 1791, however, his fpirits began to fail him, and he
became deje&ted, from an apprehenfion that an inflamed tu-
mour, which took place over the eye that had perifhed,
might eccafion the deftruction of the other alfo. Meanwhile
he laboured under a more dangerous difeafe, which deprived
him both of his fpirits and his appetite. During this period
of great affliction to all his friends, his malady was by many
fuppofed to be imaginary, and it was erroneoufly conceived,
that by exertion he might fhake it off; for he was wholly
unable to explain to the phyficians the nature or feat of his
diforder. It was only about a fortnight before his death that
it was found to be in the liver; the inordinate growth of
which, as it afterwards appeared, had incommoded all the
funétions of life. Of this difeafe, which he bore with great
fortitude and patience, he died, after a confinement of three
months, at his houfe in Leicefter-fquare, on Thurfday
evening, February 23, 1792, at the age of 69. :
In ftature, fir Jofhua Reynolds was rather under the mid-
die fize, of a florid complexion, roundifh, blunt features,
-and a lively pleafing afpeét ; not corpulent, though fome-
what inclined to it ; and extremely active. With manners
-uncommonly polifhed and agreeable, he pofleffed a conftant
flow of fpirits, which rendered him at all times a moft de-
\firable companion : always ready to be amufed, and to con-
tribute to the amufement of othess, and anxious to receive
information on every fubjeét that prefented itfelf : and though
he had been deaf almoit from the time of his return from
Italy ; yet, bythe aid of an car trumpet, he was enabled to
partake of the converfation of his friends with great facility
and convenience. On the 3d of March his remains were
interred in the crypt of St. Paul’s, near the tomb of fir
Chriftopher Wren, with every honour that could be fhewn
to worth and genius by an enlightened nation; a great
number of the moft diftinguifhed perfons attending the fune-
ral ceremony, and his pall being fupported by three dukes,
two marquifles, and five other noblemen.
In many refpe&ts, both as aman anda painter, fir Jofhua
Reynolds cannot be too much ftudied, praifed, and imitated
by every one who wifhes to attain the like eminence. His
inceflant induftry was never wearied into defpondency by
mifcarriage, nor elated into negleét by fuccefs. Either in
his painting-room, or wherever elfe he pafled his time, his
mind was devoted to the charms of his profeffion. All na-
ture, and all art, was his academy, and his reflection was
ever on the wing, comprehenfive, vigorous, difcriminating,
and retentive. With tatte to perceive all the varieties of the
picturefque, judgment to feleét, and fkill to combine what
would ferve his purpofe, few have ever been empowered by
nature to do more from the fund of his own genius: and
none ever endeavoured more to take advantage of the labours
of others. He made a fplendid and ufeful colleGtion, in
which no expence was fpared. His houfe was filled, to the
remotelt corners, with cafts from the antique ftatues, pic-
tures, drawings, and prints, by various matters of all the
different {chools. Thofe he loaked upon as his library, at
once objeéts of amufement, of {tudy, and competition. Af-
ter his death they were fold by auction, with his unclaimed
and unfinifhed works, and, together, produced the fum of
16,947/. 7s. 6d. The fubitance of his whole property, accu-
mulated entirely by his pencil, and left behind after a life in
which he freely parted with his wealth, amounted to about
80,000/.
It remains to {peak of his ftyle_as an artift, which is pre-
cifely that, denominated in his le€&tures the ornamental {tyle ;
but which, beautiful and feducing as it undoubtedly is, can-
not be recommended in fo unreferved a degree as his induftry
both in itudy and praétice : that which he charaéteriftically
terms his own uncertainty, both in defign and in execution,
operates too frequently and too powerfully againf its entire
adoption. In the higher attainments of the art, colouring
and chiaro-fcuro were undoubtedly elements which he fa-
voured, and in which he moved uncontrolled. Drawing, as
he himfelf candidly confeffed, was the part of the art in
which he was moft defective ; and from a defire perhaps to hide
this defeét, with an over-folicitude to produce a fuperabund-
ant richnefs of effect, he was fometimes tempted to fritter
his lights, and break up his compofition, particularly if it
happened to be large, into too many parts : yet, in general, his
tafte in lines and forms was at the fame time grand and grace-
ful; and the tafte and fkill with which he drew and fet to-
gether the features of the human face, has never been fur-
pafled by any artift. We would be underftood to fpeak of
his fineft productions; of the ordinary clafs among them,
we muft allow, that the marking favours of manner, and
the fubftance isnot always chara¢teriftic of flefh.
In execution, though he wanted the firmnefs and breadth
which appertain to the higheft ftyle of art, yet the fpirit
and fweetnefs of his touch were admirable, and would have
been more remarkable, had he been more a maiter of draw-
ing : but not being able readily to determine his forms, he
was obliged to go over and over the fame part, till fome of
the vivacity of his handling was’ frequently loft ; his la-
S°2 bour,
R Ee
bour, however, was never wholly fo, for he added to the
force and harmony of his pictures by thefe repetitions ; and
frequently attained graces by them which would otherwife
perhaps have remained unknown.
Che numberlefs inftances in which he is known to have
borrowed thoughts, both in ations of figures, and effect
of colour, feem to impeach his power of invention. But
furely it could not proceed from want of a fufficient por-
tion of that high and neceffary quality, that he, who pro-
duced fo many novel combinations, adopted that fhort-hand
path to compofition. We fee it exemplified in a fuperior de-
sree in mott of his principal produétions; and particularly
in his whole length and half length portraits; the arrange-
ments of which are no lefs beautiful and intereiting, than
new, andentirely his own. ‘Thefe are compofed in a tafte
far furpaffing all that had ever been done by his predeceflors ;
uniting the grandeur, fimplicity, and fulnefs of Titian, and
the grace and nature of Vandyke, with the artful and at-
tractive effects of Rembrandt.
Mott probably he adopted that line of conduct from
neceflity ; driven to it by the immenfe fource of employment
which his talents for portraiture fhowered upon him. He had
fcarcely time to invent new actions or effects in all cafes,
or to beftow that ftudy upon them which woeld have been
requilite, and therefore he fatisfied himfelf by endeavourmg
to infufe into thofe he borrowed more elegance, more feel-
ing, or more fentiment. How effectually he did this, needs
not here be mentioned. One quality he had, which no
ether painter that ever breathed fhares with him in an
equal degree, fafcination. The effect of his belt pictures
acts like a charm, and arrelts the tafteful beholder with
irrefiftible power. On the works of others we look with
approbation, and fometimes with feelings of admiration
and delight, or even with a fenfation of awe; but in thofe
of Reynolds there is generally an indefcribable unity and
amenity, which a€t upon us with moft fafcinating power,
and rivet the attention with fuperior gratification, No
real connoiffeur can deny the exiltence of this quality in his
pictures, but wherein it {pecitically dwells, it is not eafy
to difeover or define. They are not laboured to perfeét
imitation, indeed they {top very far fhort of that ; yet they
prefent a full image, with a degree of life and animation,
that has rarely been difplayed upon canvas. It is a dan-
gerous doGrine to-advance, and may be abufed ; but, per-
haps, this power may be in great meafure owing to his
having painted lefs upon fyftem, than from feeling ; and
the latter governing the exercife of his pencil, not to the
negle& of, but in a fuperior degree to the influence of the
former, neceflarily imbued his works with a glow of nature ;
which, it will be allowed, attraéts beyond the power of
art. | Whencefoever this fafcination, of which we fpeak,
proceeds, it muft be acknowledged, that no painter ever
poffefled it like, Reynolds.
His hiftorical works are but few. Thofe, however, ex-
hibit a power, of which it is fair to fay, that if it had
been early cultivated, and kept in employment, he would
moft probably have rivalled the great names of antiquity.
His poetic and fancy fubje€ts are treated with originality,
variety, tafte, and fentiment.
The fenfe of his extraordinary talents was revived and
ftrengthened to its proper medium, by a moft juft and
pleafing tribute paid to his memory in the courfe of the
year 1813: viz. a public exhibition of a felection of his
works at the gallery of the Britifh Inftitution, Pall Mail.
About 150 pictures, productions of his eafel, collected
from various pofleflors, were arranged for the in{pection
of the public; and prefented an aflemblage of tafte and
REY
genius, fuch as we conceive no other country in the world
could boaft. At leaft in an equal number of any other
artilt’s produétions, fo pleafing a combination of the beau-
ties of the art of painting could no where be found: and
thefe were but a fmall proportion, indeed, of the number of
pictures which he painted. There are engravings from
upwards of 700 of his works, and a vat number of others
shave evidently never been under the engraver’s hands.. The
idea of this token of refpeét to our great artift originated
in converfation at the annual dinner of the Royal Academy,
in 1812; when, upon its being propofed to his royal high-
nefs the prince of Wales, who was prefent, he entered moft
‘cordially into it, and profeffed his readinefs to lend his
own pictures for the purpofe. The exhibition being pre-
pared, it was opened on Saturday, the r1th of May, when
the members of the inftitution gave a grand dinner to a
large portion of the nobility and the members of the
Royal Academy, which was honoured by the prefence of
the prince regent. After the dinner the rooms were illumi-
nated by lamps, and the company increafed and adorned by
the adnuffion of ladies, many of whom had been the happy
fubjeéts of his ingenious pencil: for he is faid to have
preferved to potterity the features of three generations of
the beauty and fafhion of the country.
The pleafure afforded to the country at large by this ex-
hibition was teftified by the immenfe cencourfe of people
that flocked to behold and admire, during the- whole time
of its remaining open. So that the funds of this excellent
in{titution were well replenifhed, its obje€t of exalting the
honour of the artift and his profeffion moft amply effeéted,
and the country itfelf exalted in the eftimation of the ~
world, by this effeCtive difplay of native power in an art,
the negle&t of which had been the fource of obloquy upon
our climate, as it continues, notwithitanding and more
juftly, ftill to be upon our government.
We fhall conclude our account of this great and valuable
man, by quoting part of an eulogium written by his friend
Mr. E. Burke a few hours after the melancholy event,
which it commemorates, had taken place. ‘* He pofleffed,”’
faid that clear inveltigator of character, ‘ the theory, as
perfectly as the praétice, of his art. ‘To be fuch a:painter,
he was a profound and penetrating philofopher.
“ In full affluence of foreign and domettic fame, admired
by the expert in art, and by the learned in fcience, courted
by the great, carefled by fovereign powers, and celebrated
by diftinguifhed poets, his native humility, modefty, and
candour, never forfook him, even on furprize or provoca-
tion; nor was the leaft degree of arrogance or aflumption
vihble to the moft fcrutinizing eye, in any part of his con-
du& or difcourfe.
“‘ His talents of every kind, powerful from nature, and
not meanly cultivated by letters, his focial virtues in all the
relations and all the habitudes of life, ‘rendered him the
centre of a very great and unparalleled variety of agreeable
focieties, which will be diffipated by his death. He had
too much merit, not to excite fome jealoufy ; too much in-
nocence, to provoke anyenmity. The lofs of no man of
ae time can be felt with more fincere, general, and unmixed
orrow.
ss Hail! and Farewell !”?
Reynotps’ J/land, in’ Geagraphy, a {mall ifland in the
Florida Stream. N. lat. 24°. W. long. 81° 30!.
REYNOSA, a town of Spain, in Old Cattile; 35 miles
N.W. of Frias.
REYOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Condapilly ; 15 miles S.E. of Condapilly.
REZ,
RHA
REZ, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Irbit. N.
lat. 57° 50'. E. long. 62° 34!.
REZEMICO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Lario; 20 miles N. of Como.
REZITZA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Polottk ; 72 miles N.N.W. of Polotfk. N. lat. 56° 25’.
. E, long. 27° 4!.
REZZATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Mela; 4 miles E. of Brefcia.
REZZLE, a term proyincially fignifying the weezle.
RHA, in Botany, ex, or jx, of Diofcorides, “ which
fome,”’ fays he, “ call jis,” is deferibed by that ancient
writer as the produce of the countries above the Bofphorus,
from whence it was brought to Greece. «The root is
black externally, like the Greater Centaury, but fmaller,
and internally of a more reddifh hue, deftitute of odour,
loofe, fungous, and rather light.”” He proceeds to de-
fcribe its flavour and virtues. The plant of Diofcorides
has generally been fuppofed one of the rhubarbs of the
fhops, which acquired, fubfequently to his time, the name
of Rha-barbarum, becaufe it was procured from countries
deemed barbarous by the Greeks and Romans. What pre-
cife fpecies of Rurum (fee that article) it might be, we pre-
fume not to determine. Sometimes it has been termed Rha-
ponticum; though the latter appellation has alfo been be-
{towed on a fpecies of Centaurea, which Dddonzus and
others have thought to be the true ancient Rha, or
Rheum, and which Linneus, therefore, names Centaurea
Rhapontica.
RHAAD, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Otis ; which fee.
RHABARBARUM, in Botany. See Rua.
RHABDOIDES, ‘Pxfdoutn:, formed from j26%o:, rod,
or flaff, and sdo:, form, in Anatomy, a name given the
fecond true future of the fkull, called alfo the /agittal /u-
sure.
RHABDOLOGY, or Rasnotoey, in Arithmetic, a
name fometimes given to the method of performing the two
molt difficult and operofe rules, viz. multiplication and
divifion, by the two eafielt, viz. addition and fubtraGion,
by means of two little rods or lamin, on which are in-
{cribed the fimple numbers, and which are to be fhifted ac-
cording to certain rules.
Thefe rods are what we popularly call Nieper’s Lones,
from their inventor, a Scottifh baron, who likewife in-
vented logarithms. For their defcription and ufe, fee
Nieper’s Bones.
RHABDOMANCY, an ancient method of divination,
performed by means of rods or flaves.
Whence its name, from the Greek jx6do-, rod, and pov-
viz, divination.
St. Jerom makes mention of this kind of divination, in
his commentary on Hofea, ch. iv. 12. The fame he finds
again in Ezekiel, xxi. z1, 22.
If it be the fame kind of divination that is mentioned in
the two paflages, rhabdomancy muft have been alfo the
fame fuperftition with belomancy.
In effe&, the two are ordinarily confounded. The
Seyenty themfelves tranflate the []¥m of Ezekiel, by
jaS%o:, a rod; though in ftritnefs it fignifies an arrow.
This however is certain; the inftruments of divination
mentioned by Hofea are different from thofe of Ezekiel.
In the former it is }Yy, ¢t/o, )I D1, maklo, his wood, his
flaff; in the latter, YM, hhitfim, arrows. Though it
is poflible they might ufe rods or arrows indifferently ; or
the military men might ufe arrows, and the reft rods. It
appears by the laws of the Frifones, that the ancient in-
habitants of Germany pralifed rhabdomancy The Scy-
RH &
thians were likewife acquainted with the ufe of it; and
Herodotus obferves (lib. iv.) that the women among the
Alani fought and gathered together fine ftraight rods or
wands, and ufed them in the like fuperitition.
RHABDONALEPSIS, ‘PoCdoy Avarndes, among the
Greeks, the Reception or Elevation of the Rod, a feitival
kept every year in the ifland of Cos, at which the priefts
carried a cyprefs-tree.
RHABDOPHORI, ‘PaSdotoce, among the Greeks,
officers appointed to preferve peace and good order, and to
corre the unruly at their public games.
RHABDUS, ‘Pa$dos, among the Ancients, the tron rod
with which the boys rolled the trochus.
RHACHITIS, in Surgery. See Racuiris and Ric-
KETS.
RHACOMA, in Botany, a name adopted by Linnzeus
from Piiny, and applied to the genus called by Browne
Croffopetalum, but which proves not diflin& from Mycinpa .
fee that article. The real Rhacoma of Pliny appears, by
his copious account of its chara¢ters and qualities, to be
fome kind of rhubarb (fee Rua and Rueum) ; nor do we
pretend to account for the Linnzan application of the
name.
RHACOSIS, from jzx0:, a rag, in Surgery, a ragged
excoriated, and relaxed ste of He faeeuae y Raat
RHADAMANTHUS, in Mythology, one of the three
judges or fovereigns of Hades, or the invifible world, to
whom was affigned Tartarus, as Erebus was to Minos, and
Elyfium to acus. He was the brother of Minos, and the
fon of Jupiter and Europa; and is faid to have been pre-
ferred to the honour of prefiding over Tartarus, on account
of the diftinguifhed wifdom and juftice of his adminiftration.
According to Plato, AZacus judged the Europeans ; and
Rhadamanthus, who had left Crete, and fixed his refidence
in Afia, had the Afiatics for his lot, among whom were alfo
comprehended the Africans. The ftern Rhadamanthus fu-
perintends in Tartarus the execution of the fentences which
his brother Minos pronounces, after fhaking the fatal urn
in which are contained the deftinies of all mortals. The
ei of Rhadamanthus is defcribed by Virgil, /Eneid,
ib. iv.
«© Gnoffius hec Rhadamanthus habet duriflima regna
Caitigatque auditque dolos, fubigitque fateri,
Que quifque apud fuperos, furto letatus inani
Diftulit in feram commiffa piacula mortem.”
RHADAMISTUS, in Entomology, afpecies of Scara-
beus ; which fee. It inhabits Tranqucbar.
RHADEN, in Geography, atown of Weitphalia, in the
principality of Minden; 15 miles N.W. of Minden.
RHADES, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, anciently called “ Ades ;”? fix miles S.E. of Tunis.
RHATEUM, or Rueteum, in Ancient Geography, a
promontory in the vicinity of Troy, on which was erected
a tomb to Ajax, mentioned by Strabo (I. 13.) and other
ancient writers. Horace indeed fays (Sat.1. 2.) that this
hero remained without burial; but he deviates from the
truth, in allufion to that incident in the tragedy of Ajax,
where Sophocles feigns that Agamemnon was unwilling to
allow the honours of burial to be conferred upon him, but
that he yielded at length to the importunate intreaties of
Teucer.
RHAETIA, a country of Europe, which occupied part of
the Alps, and was fituated to the north of Italy, and to the
eaft of Helvetia. It is not eafy to afcertain its limits to the
north, but we may fay that it was bounded in that quarter
by Vindelicia ; and, in general, that it correfponded to the
country
RHA
country of the Grifons, and to the cantons of Uri, Glaris,
&c. as far as the “ Brigantinus lacus,”’ or lake of Conftance :
it extended alfo over the Tyrol. This country was called
Wettern Illyricum, and was divided into Rhetia Prima or
Propria, and Secunda, extending towards Swabia, Bavaria,
and Auftria. This diftri€&t was fubjefted to the Romans by
Drufus, under the reign of Auguftus. Soon afterwards
Vindelicia took up arms in their favour, and Tiberius was
fent againft them, and reduced their country, fo that the pof-
feffions of the Romans extended as far as the Danube. The
whole of this extenfive territory had borne the name of
Rhetia; but under Dioclefian it was divided, as we have
faid, into Rhetia Prima and Secunda, the latter of which
divifions was Vindelicia. Rhetia, Noricum, and fome
other territories, became a Roman province, and be-
longed to the kingdom of the Oltrogoths in Italy ; but
upon the declenfion of it, they fell under the dominion of
the Franks, about which time the name of Bavarians firlt
became celebrated in hiftory. The principal rivers of Rhe-
tia were the Rhenus or Rhine, the Athefis or Adige, the
Oenus or Inn, the Ticinus or Tofin, and Addua. The molt
confiderable places were Curia or Coira, at a {mall diftance
eat of the Rhenus, and Tridentum or Trent, on the Athefis.
Ptolemy, in his geography of Rhetia, reckons upon the
Danube the following towns, viz. Bragodurum, Dracuina,
Viana, and Pheniana ; and towards the fource of the Rhine,
Tagahum, Brigantium, Ebodunum, Drufomagus, and Ec-
todurum.
RHAGADES, ‘Payadec, in Surgery, a Greek term ufed
for the chaps or clefts in the lips, hands, anus, and other
foft parts of the body.
Rhagades are a fort of fiffures, and little chapped ulcers
of the cedematous kind; formed of a fnarp faline humour,
and occafioning a great contraction and ftraightening of the
part, which is by this means fhrivelled up like a wet parch-
ment, when held to the fire.
They are chiefly found on the fundament, the neck of
the womb, the preputium, lips, &c. fometimes even in the
mouth ; in which cafe the patient is not able to fpeak, chew,
or the like.
They are fometimes moift, and of a cancerous nature,
eating deep, and difficult of cure ; but they are more com-
monly of a lefs malignant tendency, being often in the anus
the confequence of a diarrhoea, dyfentery, or the like.
RHAGADIOLUS, in Botany, fee Larsana; under
the fourth fpecies.of which its etymology is given.
RHAGAUDURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Aria, between Siphara and Zamuchana. Ptolemy.
RHAGE, a word ufed by medical writers for a fiflure
or chap in any part. The ftones of grapes are alfo by fome
called rhages ; and by others the fame word is made to ex-
prefs the extremities of the fingers or toes.
RHAGEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Parthia, near Appha, according to Ptolemy.
RHAGES, a town of Macedonia, on the banks of the
river Peneus, about ten miles from Larifla, according to
Livy. Q
RHAGIA, a town of Afia, in Babylonia, towards
Arabia Felix, between Jamba and Chiriphe, according to
Ptolerry.
RHAGIANA, a town of Gedrofia, near the “ Portus
Mulierum ;”’ fo called in the tranflation of Ptolemy; but
in the text of Ptolemy it is called ‘* Rapava.’’
RHAGODIA, in Botany, from exé, a berry, becaute its
little pulpy fruit affords a principal mark of diftin@ion be-
tween this genus and feveral others, to which it is nearly re-
lated.—Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl, v. 1. 408. Ait. Hort.
IO
RHA
Kew. v. 5. 440.—Clafs and order, Polygamia Monoecia;
Brown; but we fhould rather fay Pentandria Digynia;
though fome of the flowers are defective as to the ftamens
or the piftil, Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn. Atriplices, Jull.
Chenopodee, Decandolle and Brown. :
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, concave,
permanent, in five deep ovate fegments. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments five, awl-fhaped, oppofite to the fegments of the
calyx, and about as long; anthers roundifh, two-lobed.
Pift. Germen orbicular, deprefled ; {tyles two, divaricated,
fhort ; ftigmas fimple. eric. Berry orbicular, depreffed,
encompafled underneath by the calyx. Seed folitary, the
fhape of the berry, ‘ furnifhed with albumen, and a double
coat.”’ Brown.
Obf. Labillardiere and Brown defcribe fome flowers as
wanting the ftamens, others the piftil, though the reft have
both. In this polygamous charaéter, but efpecially in the
nature of the fruit, which is a true acca, this genus differs
from CHENOPODIUM, as well as from Kocura, and other
neighbouring genera, of Mr. Brown; fee thofe articles.
The ftamens are fometims fewer than five. Brown.
Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep fegments.
none. Berry deprefled, encompafled with the permanent
calyx. Seed folitary, orbicular, depreffed. Some male or
female flowers are interf{perfed.
The {pecies, all natives of New Holland, are generally
fhrubby, rarely herbaceous. Leaves almott always alter-
nate, fimple, often clothed with mealy powder. Flowers
either {piked or conglomerated, deftitute of dbraéeas.
1. R. Billardieri. (Chenopodium baccatum; Labill.
Nov. Holl. v. 1. 71. t. 96.)—Shrubby, ere&, without
thorns. Leaves entire, linear-oblong or lanceolate, flat ;
powdery beneath. Spikes branched. Native of New
South Wales, as well as of the fouthern coaft of New Hol-
land. Stem fhrubby, branched, five feet or more in height,
with round, leafy branches, ftriated when dry. Leaves
ftalked, fpreading, an inch and a half, or two inches, long,
and one-third of an inch broad, fharpifh; tapering at the
bafe. Flowers {mall, greenifh, in terminal, much com-
pounded, or panicled, fpikes. Berries red, about the fize
of muftard-feed.
2. R. craffifolia.—Shrubby, ere, without thorns. Leaves
entire, oval, or linear-oblong, flefhy, convex and powdery
beneath. Spikes branched.—Gathered by Mr. Brown, on
the fouth coaft of New Holland.
3. R. linifolia.--Somewhat fhrubby, decumbent. Leaves
entire, linear-lanceolate, flat, ftamens one or two. Found
by the fame botanilt, in the tropical part of New Holland.
4. R. hafata. Ait. n. 1.—Somewhat fhrubby, ereét.
Branches diffufe. Leaves nearly oppofite, haitate, fome-
what rhomboid, entire, very fmooth. Spikes terminal,
leaflefs.—Native of New South Wales, from whence it was
{ent to Kew by Mr. Peter Good, in 18c3. This is a hardy
fhrub, flowering with us in June and July, and appears te
be the only fpecies of the genus before us, that has, as vet,
been cultivated in England. |
5: R. parabolica.—Shrubby, erect, without fpines. Leaves
triangular, obtufe, powdery. Spike branched.—Obferved
by Mr. Brown, on the fouth coaft of New Holland, but
without fruit.
6. R. /pinefcens.— Shrubby, ereé& ; the young branches
becoming {pines. Leaves partly oppofite, hattate, fome-
what rhomboid, entire ; powdery and heary on both fides.
Spikes fimple. — From the fouth coatt. :
ru R. nutans.— Herbaceous, proftrate, Branches afcend-
ing when in fruit, drooping at the extremity. Leaves op-
polite, lanceolate-haftate, acute,—Gathered by Mr. Brown,
on
Corolla
RHA
on the fouth coaft of New Holland, as well as in Van Die-
men’s ifland.
RHAGOIDES, “Payorion-y in Anatomy, the fecond
coat or tunic of the eye; more ufually called uvea.
It has its name rhagoides, as refembling a grape-ftone.
Tn the tunica rhagoides is the hole called the pupil.
RHAHAANS, in Hifory, a name given to the prietts
of the Birman empire, to whom are affigned kioums, or con-
vents ; which are different in their ftru@ture from common
houfes, and much refemble the archite¢ture of the Chinefe.
Thefe buildings are conftru€ted of wood ; the roof is com-
pofed of different ftages, fupported by ftrong pillars ; the
infide comprehends one large hall ; the whole houfe is open
at the fides ; fome are curioufly carved with various fymbolic
reprefentations of the divinity. There are no apartments
for the private recreation of the Rhahaans; publicity being
the prevailing fyftem of condu& among the Birmans, who
admit of no fecrets either in church or ftate. From the
number of convents in the neighbourhood of Rangoon, the
Rhahaans and Phonghis, who are an inferior order of priefts
called Tallapoins, are prefumed by colonel Symes to exceed
1500; including in this eftimate thofe in their novitiate.
The age of induction into thefe convents, is generally from
eight to twelve years, and young perfons are introduced into
them with great formality and ceremony. Parents vie with
each other in obtaining this honour for their children, and
{pare no coft on the occafion of their admiflion ; the princi-
pal charge confitting in entertainments, and the cuftomary
prefents to the Rhahaans. When a boy is to be introduced
into a convent, either as a temporary refident, or with a view
to future confecration, his friends prepare their offerings of
cloth, rice, preferves, fruit, fans, cufhions, mats, and
houfhold utenfils. On an appointed day he parades the
{treets, drefled in yellow, and mounted on a horfe richly ca-
parifoned, led by two fervants: a band of mufic goes be-
fore, and a party of Rhahaans encircle him: his male
friends follow in a troop, and the females of their families
bring up the rear, the latter carrying on their heads the offer-
ings meant for the Rhahaans. Thus they proceed to the
convent of which the novice is to become a member, where
he is prefented in form to the fenior of the brotherhood.
This ceremony is repeated three times, and at each perambu-
lation, frefh prefents are to be provided.
The Rhahaans, like the Carmelites, ro barefooted, and have
their heads clofe fhaven, on which they never wear any co-
vering. Yellow is the only colour worn by the prieithood :
they have a long loofe cloak, which they wrap round them,
fo as to cover mott part of the body; they profefs celibacy,
and to abitain from every fenfual indulgence. The prefcribed
punifhment for a Rhahaan deteted in an aét of incontinence
is, expulfion and public difgrace ; the delinquent is feated on
an afs, and his face daubed with black paint interfperfed with
{pots of white ; he is thus led through the ftreets, witha
drum beating before him, and afterwards turned out of the
city : but fuch inftances of degradation are very rare. The
juniors are re{tri€ted from wandering about licentioufly,
either hy day or night. There is a prior in every convent,
who has a difcretionary power to grant permiflion to go
abroad.
The Rhahaans never drefs their own victuals, holding it an
abufe of time to perform any of the common funétions of
life, which, fo long as they occupy, muft divert them from
the abftra& contemplation of the divine eflence. They re-
ceive the contributions of the laity ready cooked, and prefer
cold food to hot. Atthe dawn of the morning they begin
to perambulate the town, to colle& fupplies for the day :
each convent fends forth a certain number of its members,
RHA
who walk at a quick pace through the ftreets, fupporting
with the right arm a blue lackered box, in which the dona-
tions are depofited ; thefe ufually confift of boiled rice mixed
with oil, dried and pickled fifh, fweetmeats, fruit, &c,
During their walk, they never caft their eyes to the right
nor to the left, but keep them fixed on the ground; they
do not {top to folicit, and feldom even look at the donors,
who appear more defirous to beftow, than the others to re-
ceive. The Rhahaans eat but once a day, at the hour of
noon. A much larger quantity of provifion being com-
monly procured than fuffices for the members of the con-
vent, the furplus is difpofed of, as charitably as it was given,
to the needy itranger, or the poor {cholars who daily attend
them to be initructed in letters, and taught their moral and
religious duties.
In the various commotions of the empire, colonel Symes
fays, that the Rhahaans take no aétive fhare, nor do they
publicly interfere in politics, or engage in war: by this
prudent conduét they excite no refentment : the Birmans
and Peguers profefling the fame religion, the conquerors, to
whichfoever party they belonged, equally refpeéted the mi-
nifters of their faith. The head of the Rhahaans at Ran-
goon, called Seredaw, is treated with great veneration. He
lives in a very handfome monaftery half a mile from the
town, on the road leading to Shoedagon, or temple. He
is in no refpect diftinguifhed, as to his outward appear-
ance, from the common Rhahaans. He goes every day,
at the fame hour, to the temple, to offer his devotions,
and performs the journey, which is about four miles, on
foot. In his converfation with Symes he betrayed a
worldly pride inconfiitent with his years (being about
feventy-five) and facred funtion; he announced, with much
pomp, that he was the head of the church at Rangoon, and
oftentatioufly difplayed, engraven on iron plates, his facer-
dotal titles, which had been conferred on him by the prefent
and the Jate king. Fermerly there were nunneries of vir-
gin priefteffes, who, like the Rhahaans, wore yellow gar-
ments, cut off their hair, and devoted themfelves to chaftity
and religion; but thefe were not Jong ago abolifhed, as
being injurious to the population of the ftate. At prefent
there are a few old women, who fhave their heads, wear a
white drefs, follow funerals, and carry water to the convents;
and thefe venerable dames are treated with fome portion of
refpect. Symes’s Ava, vol. ii.
RHATIADAR, or Ruayaner, in Geography, a borough
and market-town in the cwmwd of Glynn-Jeithon, cantref
of Maelieny dd (now called the hundred of Rhayader), county
of Radnor, South Wales, is fituated on the banks of the
river Wye, at the diftance of 20 miles N.W. from New
Radnor, and 176 W.N.W..from London. This place is a
borough by prefcription, and lays claim to a very high an-
tiquity. It is governed by a bailiff, who is annually eleGted
ata court-leet, held in the town-hall, at which alfo the bur-
gefles are chofen by a town jury. Rhayader is one of the
five contributary boroughs to return a reprefentative to ferve
in parliament for the town of New Radnor. This place
was formerly of much greater confequence and extent than
at prefent. On Cefn-Ceido, about half a mile to the north-
eait, is a traét of land, called Pant-yr-Eglwys, where, accord-
ing to tradition, a church anciently ftood, which was in-
cluded within the precinés of the borough. The great
feffions for the county were at one time held here ; and the
county-court alternately met at New Radnor and Rhayader,
till removed from the latter place to the town of Prefteigne,
in the reign of Henry VIII. The gaol for the fecurity of
criminals then {tood on a {pot of ground now occupied by a
Prefbyterian meeting-houfe ; and the place of execution was
at
RHA
at the north end of the town, near a houfe known by the
appellation of Pen-y-Maes. At prefent Rhayader confitts
of four ftreets which interfe& each other at right angles,
and lie nearly parallel to the four cardinal points. In the
wide {pace formed by the interfection of thefe ftreets ftands
the town-hall, which is a handfome building, rebuilt by fub-
feription in 1762. The church is a plain ftructure, orna-
mented with a tower at one end; befides which there is a
place of worfhip for Prefbyterians and another for Method-
its. The grammar-fchool was erected A.D. 1793, and has
an endowment for the education of a limited number of poor
children. The borough of Rhayader is a diftin@ parith of
itfelf, and is exempt from the payment of county rates.
The market-day here is Wednefday, weekly ; and there are
fairs on the 6th and 27th of Auguft, 26th September, 14th
Otober, and 3d December, for horfes, fheep, and cattle ;
befides three great markets in May. The chief fupport
of this town arifes from the manufacture of woollens, prin-
cipally flannel. According to the population returns of
¥811, the parifh contained 97 houfes and 446 inhabitants.
On an eminence to the N.W. of the town ftood the
ancient caftle of Rhayader, which was erected, in the year
1178, by Rhys-ap-Gruffydd, prince of South Wales, in
order to check the incurfions of the Normans, who, at that
period, made great irruptions in the marches of Wales. In
1194, prince Rhys having been furprized and taken pri-
foner by his own fons, this caftle was befieged and compelled
to furrender to the fons of Cadwalhon-ap-Madawe of
Maelienydd, by whom it was fortified for their own ufe.
In the year 1231, after Llywelyn, prince of North Wales, had
taken and deftroyed the caitle of Montgomery, he marched
hither, and vifited the caftle of Rhayader with a fimilar fate.
Et was rebuilt, however, and continued to bea place of de-
fence till the civil wars in the feventeenth century, when it
was difmantled and totally deftroyed ; the fofle by which it
was furrounded being the only veltige of it remaining at
the prefent day. ‘The tower, or citadel, ftood in a dire&
line between the caftle and the gaol, overlooking the river.
The mount adjacent is {till denominated Tower-hill. Near
this place a ftone bridge is thrown over the Wye, which the
Welfh call Rhaiadr-Gwy, in allufion to the rumbling noife
its impetuous waters make amidft the rocks. The only re-
ligious houfe, recorded to have been fituated at Rhayader,
was a convent of Dominican, or Black friars, founded foon
after their firft arrivalin England, A. D. 1221. This houfe
was fupprefled in the 31ft year of king Henry VIII.
In the immediate vicinity of Rhayader, the fcenery of the
Wye is peculiarly grand. Raging in its rocky bed, this
river is feen through the light fone of impendent trees,
fometimes precipitating its waters over a bold ledge of rock,
and fometimes fearching its way among protruding crags, in
a contracted fheet of gliftening foam. The mountains by
which the vale of Rhayader is environed, difplay a wild and
rugged character, and are noted, according to local tradi-
tion, as being the place of thelter in which king Vortigern
eluded the fearch of Hengift, after his alleged murder of
the Britifh nobles at Stonehenge. Thefe hills abound with
various kinds of minerals, particularly lead and copper.
There are fever?! cairns in this neighbourhood, the moft re-
markable of whichis that of Tommen Sant Ffraid, on the
S.W. fide of the town, in the parifh of Cwm-y-dan-Ddwr,
{uppofed to be the cemetery of Saint Fraid, the Popifh tu-
telary faint of that parifh. - Carlifle’s Topographical Dic-
tionary of Wales, gto. r8rr. A Tour throughout South
Wales and Monmouththire, by J.T. Barber, F.S.A. vo.
1803.
REIAIDR, a river which rifes in the E. part of Merio-
i
RHA
nethihire, North Wales, and runs into the Severn on the
borders of Shropfhire.
- RHAIR, a confiderable river of Hindooftan, which runs
by the fouth fide of Shawpour.. The ftream, which is about
100 yards wide and four feet in depth, dafhes with great
rapidity over a bed of rock ; which prevents its being navl-
gable for large boats. This river rifes in the hills and
foretts of Surgooja, and after being joined by the Bijool and
Gutauin, falls into the Soane near Agowry.
RHAMNA, or Ruann#, in Ancient Geography, a peo-
ple of India, in the mountains near the river Namadus.
Ptolemy. z
RHAMNI, in Botany, a natural order of plants in
Juffien, being the g5th in his feries, or the 13th of his
14th clafs, and owing its name to the principal genus. See
RuHAMNUS.
See the chara€ter of the clafs under FicoipE®.
order is thus defined.
Calyx: inferior, of one leaf, with a definite number of feg-
ments in the limb. Petals five, rarely four or fix, and very
rarely wanting, inferted into the upper part of the calyx,
or into its difk, either oppofite to, or alternate with, its
fegments, and equal to them in number ; fometimes refem-
bling little {cales, and furnifhed with claws ; fometimes united
by their broad bafes. Stamens of the fame number as the
petals, and inferted into the fame part, either alternate with
them, or oppofite to them. Germen fuperior, encompafled
below with the difk of the calyx. Styles either folitary, or
of fome definite number. Stigmas one or more. Lruit fu~
perior ; in fome inftances pulpy, either with many cells, or
many nuts, the cells, or nuts, fingle-feeded; in other cafes
capfular, of many cells. and many valves, the partitions from
the middle of each valve, and the cells containing either one
or two feeds. Corculum flat and ftraight, furrounded with
a flefhy albumen. Stem arboreous er fhrubby. Leaves
either alternate or oppofite, accompanied by /fpulas, that
are often very minute.
SeGtion 1. Stamens alternate with the petals. Fruit cap-
fular. Staphylea; Euonymus ; and Celaffrus of Linnzus ;
with Polycardia of Lamarck.
Se&t. 2. Stamens alternate with the petals. Fruit a drupa
or berry. Some genera of this feétion have the petals con-
nected by their broad bafe.
Myginda; Goupia of Aublet, which is Glofzpetalum of
Schreber ; Rubentia of Commerfon, certainly the fame genus
with Jacquin’s Elzodendrum, as Juffieu indeed fufpected ;
Caffine ; Schrebera of Linneus, a genus founded altogether
in error, as we fhall explain in its proper place; J/ex; and
Prinos.
Sect. 3. Stamens oppofite to the petals. Fruit drupaceous.
_ Mayepea of Aublet, erroneoufly placed here, as belong-
ing really to the Jafminee (fee MayePEA); Samara; Rham-
nus 5 Ziziphus ; Paliurus ; the two latt feparated from the
Linnean Rhamaus, by Juffieu. See Patturus.
Sea. 4. Stamens oppofite to the petals. Fruit three lobed.
Colletia of Commerfon, Lamarck Illuftr. t. 1293 Ceano-
thus ; Hovenia; and Phylica; to which is to be added La-
SIOPETALUM ; fee that article.
: Seas 5. Genera akin to Rhamni, their germen moftly
Superior.
Brunia of Linneus, fome of whofe reputed fpecies have
the germen fuperior, others inferior; and Pumalda of
Thunberg.
Set. 6. Genera akin to Rhamnt, but differing ia having an
inferior germen. : rt We
Gouania ; Pleéronia, dubioufly admiffible here, as we
have obferved in its proper place ; Carpodetus of Forfter 3
Aucuba
The
Ro A
Aucuba of Thunberg ; and Glofoma of Schreber, which is
Aublet’s Votomita. ;
RHAMNOATZ, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Weltmannland ; 20 miles N. of Stroemfholm.
RHAMNOIDES, in Botany, aname given by Tourne-
fort, and others, to a genus of plants, called by Linneus
hippophae ; which fee.
RHAMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a borough of At-
tica, belonging to the Ajantide tribe, 60 ftadia from Mara-
thon, in a northerly direction from the /Egean fea, in a
place where the land formed a {mall peninfula or Cherfonefus.
The houfes were on the fea-coaft ; and upon an eminence
was the temple of Nemefis, in which was a fine ftatue of the
goddefs, made by Phidias, of marble, which the Perfians
had brought from Paros for the purpofe of forming a
trophy, and which had been found in their camp after the
battle of Mara*hon: the pedeftal was adorned with four
baffo relievos, reprefenting different fubje&s of Grecian hif-
tory. Leda is alfo exhibited prefenting Helena to her mo-
ther Nemefis. See Nemesis.
Ruamnvs, in Botany, fo called by the ancient Romans,
and by the Greeks jxu:; words derived, according to De
Theis, from the Celtic Ram, a head or tuft of branches,
which is the origin of the Latin ramus, &c. and of the
French Rame, ramier, &c.—Linn. Gen. 105. Schreb. 142.
addend. 823. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1092. Mart. Mill. Dict.
v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 261. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1.
157. Ait. Hort. Kew.-v. 2. 14. Juffl. 380. “Lamarck
Tiluftr. t. 128. Gertn. t. 106.—Clafs and order, Pentan-
dria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn. Rhamni, uff.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, urceolate ;
its limb in five fpreading, acute, equal, coloured fegments ;
the bafe permanent. Cor. Petals five, minute, between the
fegntents of the calyx, oppofite to the ftamens, converging.
Stam. Filaments as many as the petals, awl-fhaped; anthers
fmall. Pi?. Germen roundifh ; ftyle thread-fhaped, equal
to the ftamens; ftigma in various divilions. Peric. Berry
roundifh, naked, divided into fewer cells than there are feg-
ments of the calyx. Seeds folitary, roundifh, gibbous on
one fide, compreffed on the other.
Obf. We follow Juffieu and Schreber (in his addenda)
in our denomination of the different parts of the flower, in-
ftead of taking the calyx for a corolla, with Linneus. The
genera of Pariurus and Zizipnus, feparated from the
original Linnean Rhamnus, will be found in their proper
places. Frangula and Alaternus of Tournefort have no jutt
pretenfions to be removed from the prefent genus.
Eff. Ch. Calyx urceolate. Petals five, oppofite to the
ftamens. Berry fuperior.
We thall briefly define the fpecies which authors have re-
tained in Rhamays, adding fome new ones. The whole are
fhrubby, fometimes climbing. Leaves fimple, undivided,
italked, veiny ; moftly alternate. /oqwers lateral, {mall,
green or ‘yellowifh; fometimes with only four fegments,
petals and ftamens, and in that cafe often dioecious, or poly-
gamous, as in the firft feGtion.
SeGtion 1, Branches armed with terminal thorns.
1. R. catharticus. Purging Buckthorn. Linn, Sp. Pl.
279. Willd.n,1. Fl. Brit.n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1629.
Woody. Med. Bot. t. 114. Fl. Dan.t. 850. (R. folutivus ;
Ger. Em. 1337, with Clufius’s figure of the following {pecies.
Spina infectoria; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 143-)—Flowers four-
cleft, polygamous. Leaves ovate, Stemereét. Berry with
four feeds. —Native of woods and hedges throughout Europe,
efpecially in moift fituations, This is the white-thorn of the
modern Greeks, A rigid bufhy /brub, nearly {mooth in
every part; its branches terminating in itrong thorns, Leaves
Wh, ue
RHA
ferrated, ‘with feveral lateral ribs. F/aqwers from ‘the dame
buds as the ‘leaves, yellowith-green, moftly, but not alte-
gether, dioecious. Stigma four-cleft. Berry round, black,
very purgative, when unripe affording a yellow dye.
2. R. mfe@orius. Turkey-berry Buckthorn, or Graine
@’Avignon. Linn. Mant. 49. Willd. n. 2. Ait. in. 2.
(R. catharticus minor; Arduin. Mem. 78.t.14. R. folu-
tivus minor; Ger. Em. 1337. Spina infeétoria pumila
prima; Cluf. Hitt. v. r..111.)—Flowers four-cleft, dioecious.
Stem procumbent.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Fre-
quent in rough itony places in Greece, and rightly con-
fidered by Dr. Sibthorp as the Avxior, Lycium, of Diofco-
rides. The unripe berries are much ufed for dyeing, and
imported in great quantities into England. They are what
give the yellow colour to Turkey leather, or yellow morocco.
This fhrub is very nearly related to the firit {pecies, but
grows procumbent, not erect, and the /eaves are {maller and
narrower. Gerard obferves, that the fegments of the calyx:
are but the length of the tube ; not longer, as in catharticus ;
and that the figmas are two, reflexed. F/. Gallopr. 462.
The fipwas are Vnear; not awl-fhaped, as in the former ;
but we dare not rely on that circumf{tance, without further
examination,
3- R. Jycioides. Box-thorn Rhamnus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 279.
Willd. n.3. Ait. n.3. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 66.'t.182. (R.
tertius, forte niger Theophrafti; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. rro.
R. tertius Ciufii; Ger. Em. 1334.)—Leaves nearly linear,
obtufe, entire.—Native of Spain; frequent on the lime-
ftone hills of Valentia. Cavan. Differs widely from both
the former in the narrow and entire eaves, tapering down
into their flender footfalks.
4. R. Erythroxylozn. Red-wood Buckthorn. “Pall. Roff.
Vv. I. p. 2. 26. t. 62, and t. 100. f. 8. Willd. n. 4.—Leaves
linear-lanceolate, ferrated, rather acute.—Native of dry
rocky places in Siberia.—The ftrongly ferrated and acute
eaves diitinguifh this from the laft. A variety with fmaller,
more finely ferrated, eaves, is Pallas’s R. /yctotdes, t. 63,
5- R. olzoides. Olive-leaved Buckthorn. Linn. Sp. Pl.
279. Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 4. (R. fecundus ; Cluf. Hitt.
v. I. 110. ‘Ger. Em. 1334.)—Leaves obovate, entire ; re-
ticulated with veins beneath.— Native of Spain, A/jiroemer ;
of Barbary, Desfontaines ; of the fouthern part of Greece,
and the ifland of Milo, Sidthorp. The thorter obovate
leaves, copioufly reticulated with veins, efpecially at the
back, differ materially from thofe of /yciotdes. ‘The fruit
moreover has amuch fhorter ftalk, though it 1s not fo per-
fe&tly feffile as in Clufius’s figure, which neverthelefs we
cannot hefitate to refer to this {pecies.
6. R. prunifolius. Plum-leaved Buckthorn. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. n. 549. (R. creticus, amygdali folio mi,
nort; Tourn. Cor. 41.)—Stem procumbent. Flowers flat-
tith, four-cleft, dioecious. Leaves obovate, obtufe, crenate,
naked.—Found on the higher mountains of Crete.—Like
the laft in habit, but diftinguifhed by its crenate, or fome-
what ferrated, /eaves. Stem depreffed, or pracumbent, with
many entangled branches. The female floqvers have ocea-
fional rudiments of flamens. Style cloven half way down.
We find no figures referrible to this or the following.
4. R. crenulatus. Teneriffe Buckthorn. Ait. n. 5. Willd,
n. 6.—~Stem ereét. Flowers three or four-cleft, dioecious.
Leaves elliptic-oblong, bluntly ferrated, permanent.—Na-
tive of the Canary iflands; Mafon. Brought in 1778 te
Kew, where it bloffoms in the greenhoufe in March. “A
ftout, ereét, much-branched /brab, The /eaves are finely
reticulated beneath,
8. R. /axatilis. Rock Buckthorn. Jacq, Auftr. +t. 53.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1671, ili es +. iAit.n’6. «“(Refoh-
RHAMNUS.
tivus pumilus; Ger. Em. 1337. Spina infectoria pumila
fecunda; Cluf. Hift. v. 1..112.)—Stem fpreading. Flowers
four-cleft, dioecious. Leaves obovate, acute, ferrated, de-
ciduous.-—Native of Auttria, Switzerland, Italy, and
Greece. The rigid branched /fems are more {preading or
diffufe than thofe of R. crenulatus ; the leaves deciduous,
much lefs evidently reticulated. The jlowers are pale yel-
low. Stigma in*two deep acute divifions. Berries black.
g. R. theezans. Tea Buckthorn. Linn, Mant. 207.
Willd. n. 8. (R. Thea; Ofbeck’s Travels, v. 1. 375-)—
Leaves ovate, finely ferrated; paler beneath. [lowers in
terminal {pikes, five-cleft.—Native of China.—A /hrub fix
feet high, with long, roundifh, downy, {preading branches ;
the lateral ones bearing hairy terminal {pikes of flowers, and
fubfequently becoming fpinous. Leaves an inch long, fome-
what heart-fhaped, befet with fine fharp ferratures; fhining
and reticulated above; paler, opaque, and more even be-
neath. The poor people in China are faid to ufe the leaves
as a fubftitute for tea. 2
Se&. 2. Without thorns, or prickles. u
10. R. Sarcomphalus. Timber Buckthorn. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 280. Willd. n. 9. (Sarcomphalus ; Browne Jam. 179.)
— Leaves oval, coriaceous, emarginate, entire. Flowers in
denfe, corymbofe, filky tufts.—Native of Jamaica, ‘Browne
fays it is one of the beft timber-woods im the ifland, and
rifles generally to a very confiderable height. The trunk is
often above two feet and a half in diameter, covered witha
thick fealy bark. Wood hard, dark-coloured, clofe-grained.
Leaves about three inches long, and two broad, {mooth,
with a ftrong mid-rib, and many interbranching veins.
Browne’s generic name applies to the thick, flefhy, umbili-
cated ne@ary, or receptacle of the flower. He defcribes no
petals. The ftyle is cloven, with two acute /figmas. Berry
of two cells.
11. R. ferreus. Iron-wood Buckthorn, Vahl. Symb.
v.3.41. t.58. Willd. n. ro. Mart. n. 10.—* Leaves
oblong-ovate, emarginate, membranous, {mooth, entire.
Flowers in axillary umbels.’”?—Native of the ifland of Santa
Cruz; Von Rohr and Weft. Branches ound, {mooth, afh-
coloured. eaves an inch or more in length, very finely
ribbed and veined. Unmdbels on fhort ftalks. Vahl.
12. R. Jevigatus. Polifhed. Buckthorn. Vahl. ibid.
Willd. n.11. Mart. n. 11.—** Leaves oblong, entire, co-
riaceous, {mooth. Flowers axillary, about two together.”
— Found in the fame ifland. Wef. Branches round,
fmooth, afh-coloured. Leaves an inch and half long, paler
and yellowifh at the edges, efpecially the younger ones ;
{carcely veiny on the upper fide; not at all fo underneath.
~ Flowers two or three together, on very fhort, fimple, {mooth
ftalks. Calyx {mooth. Stigmas two. Vahl.
13. R. tetragonus. Square-branched Cape Buckthorn.
Linn. Suppl. 153.. Willd. n.12. Thunb. Prodr. 44.—
‘s Leaves ovate, entire, fmooth, feflile. Branches fquare.”’
—Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good Hope.
We have feen no fpecimen, nor is there any figure of this
fpecies.
14. R. polifolius. Poley-leaved Buckthorn, Vahl. Symb.
v. 3-41. Willd. n. 13.—Leaves lanceolate, entire ; {now-
white and downy beneath. Flowers axillary, nearly feflile,
moftly folitary.—-Suppofed to be a native of New Zeeland.
Branches Slender, hoary; downy when young. Leaves
hardly an inch long, pointed; {mooth and fomewhat
wrinkled above. oot/falks very fhort, downy.
15. R. valentinus. Valentia Buckthorn. Willd. n. 14.
(R. pumilus ; Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 65. t. 181.) — Leaves
roundifh-elliptical, minutely crenate, nearly feffile. Flowers
four-cleft. Style deeply three-cleft. Berry dry.—Gathered
I
by Cavanilles, on the mountains of Meca and Palomera, in
the kingdom of Valentia, flowering in May. If he be correét
as to the nature of the fruit, this is a very diftiné fpecies ;
otherwife its habit is very like pumilus hereafter defcribed.
The flems are fhort and deprefled. Leaves on very fhort
ftalks, and obfcurely crenate. Flowers hermaphrodite,
four-cleft. Style divided to the bafe into three parts. Cap-
fule, or dry berry, of three cells.
16. R. cubenfis. Cuba Buckthorn. Linn. Sp. Pl. 281.
Willd. n. 15. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 28. t. 49.—* Leaves
rugofe, entire, downy. Flowers hermaphrodite. Capfule
of three cells.”’—Native cf bufhy places near the fea, in
the ifland of Cuba. We have not examined any {pecimen,
but by Jacquin’s account, this appears rather to have the
fruit of a Ceanothus. The petals indeed are oppofite to the
Jtamens, which is an important character of Rhamnus. The
fruit however is not a dry derry, but a true capfulz, with
elaftic valves.
17. R. celubrinus. Bahama Red-wood Buckthorn. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 280. Willd. n. 16. Ait.n.7. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
v- 3.28. t. 50. (Arbor baccifera indica, foliis majoribus
fplendentibus, flore pentapetalo; Comm. Hort. v. 1. 175.
t. go.) — Leaves ovate, entire, with ruity footttalks.
Flowers monogynous, erect. Capfules three-lobed.— Native
of the Bahama iflands; introduced into our ftoves by
Catefby, in 1726. This has alfo the fruit of Ceanothus, to
which genus Miller refers it.
18. R. dauricus. Daurian Buckthorn. Pall. Rofs. v. 1.
p- 2.25.t. 61, catharticus. Willd. n. 17. (Cornus foliis citri
anguftioribus ; Amman. Ruth. 200. t. 33. )—Leaves ovate,
ferrated, veiny ; tapering at the bafe. Flowers four-cleft,
dioecious. —Found by Gmelin and Pallas on the banks of
the river Argunus in Dauria. The «wood is red, and called
Sandal-wood by the Ruffians. The afpe& of the /bruéd is
much like &. catharticus, but there are nothorns. Pallas’s
names, pages, and references are wonderfully confufed in
this, and too many other, parts of his pompous book.
19. R. alpinus. Alpine Buckthorn. Linn. Sp. Pl. 280.
Willd-n. 18. Ait. n. 8. (R.n. 823; Hall. Hilt. v. 1. 366.
t.40. Frangula ora folii ferrata; Hall. Enum. 164.
Alnus nigra baccifera, rugofiore folio, feu major; Bauh.
Hift. v. 1. 562. Creutzbeer; Lonic. Kreuterb. 59 ?)—
Stem erect. Leaves elliptic-oblong, with glandular crena-
tures ; fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe; veins hairy at
the back. Flowers dioecious.. Stigma four-cleft.—Native
of the alps of Switzerland, Dauphiny, Auftria, Carniola,
&c. Gathered probably by Dr. Sibthorp on mount Par-
naflus; feen. 21. A /brub, eight or ten feet high, ereét,
with a fmooth grey bark. Leaves two inches or more in
length, broadly elliptical, occafionally obtufe or acute ;
more or lefs heart-fhaped at the bafe: finely and regularly
crenate throughout, with rounded glandular teeth ; {mooth,
except that the numerous ftraight parallel veins. are hairy
beneath, efpecially at their origin. F/owers copious, axil-
lary, ftalked, four-cleft, dioecious. Stigma in four narrow
deep fegments. Berry black, of three cells, with moftly a
feed in each. -The female flowers have the rudiment of a
ityle, according to Wulfen in Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 16, but the
fhrub is neverthelefs perfe@ly dioecious.
20. R. pumilus. Wwarf Rock Buckthorn. Linn. Mant.
49. Willd.n.1g. Ait.n.g. - Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 141. t. 11.
(R. rupeftris; Scop. Carn. v. 1. 164. t. 5, bad. Villars
Dauph. v. 2. 538.)—Stem proftrate. Leaves fomewhat -
obovate, crenate, {mooth on both fides. Stigma three-cleft.
—Native of mount Baldus, and the alps of Dauphiny and
Carmola. We have gathered it on mount Cenis.. This is
a {mall deprefled /brub, creeping clofe to the rocks. 'The
leaves
RHAMNUS.
leaves are fmaller than the lait, with broader lefs numerous
crenatures, and we find them alfo tapering conitantly at the
bafe, not inclined to be heart-fhaped, as Scopoli and Wulfen
(in Jacquin), both reprefent them. The latter erroneoufly
deferibes and delineates a fimple capitate /figma ; in our {pe-
cimens, and thofe of Villars, that part is deeply three-cleft.
_ We fee no reafon to believe the pumilus of this laft author
diftin& from his rupefris. The flowers of our pumilus are
defcribed, by moit writers, as having all perfe&t_ flamens and
piftils, but Villars fays they appeared to him dioecious.
21. R. pubefcens.. Downy Mountain Buckthorn. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth.n. 552. Fl. Gree. t. 239, un-
publifhed.— Leaves obovate-rhomboid, villous, nearly entire.
Flowers dioecious. Style deeply divided. —Gathered by
Dr. Sibthorp on mount Parnaflus. This is a knotty, zigzag,
{preading, not very upright, /brub, vyeing in magnitude
with &. alpinus, for which poflibly Dr. Sibthorp might at
one time have taken it, when he made a memorandum of
alpinus being found on Parnaflus ; as we-obferve no {pecimen
in his collection to confirm fuch memorandum. It is, never-
thelefs, extremely probable that both fpecies may grow
there. The prefent is very diltin& from a/pinus in havin
downy, and nearly entire eaves. The flower-ftalks and calyx
are allo downy. Petals roundifh, concave, found in the
male flowers only. Female flowers ona feparate plant. Style
divided nearly to the bate, with only two /ligmas. This
fpecies is more akin to the following than to any of the
foregoing.
22. R. Frangula. Alder Buckthorn, or Berry-bearing
Alder. Linn. Sp. Pl. 280. Willd. n. 20. Fl. Brit. n. 2.
Engl. Bot.t. 250. Fl. Dan. t. 278. (Frangula; Camer.
Epit. 978. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 609. Alnus nigra, five
Frangula ; Ger. Em. 1470.) —Leaves obovate, entire,
fmooth. Style fimple, very fhort. | Stigma cloven.— Native
of bufhy places in the north of Europe more efpecially,
though Dr. Sibthorp obferved it about Conftantinople. It
flowers, like moft of the fpecies of Rhamnus, in the fpring.
The flem is fhrubby, about four feet high. Leaves two or
three inches long and about one broad, fomewhat pointed.
Flowers whitifh, with very minute petals and /famens, in the
fame individuals with the piflils. Style very fhort, with two
fmall fegments to the fligma. Berry black, roundifh, with
feldom more than two /éeds, though we have feen three, in
which cafe, we prefume, there muit have been a three-cleft
figma. Thefe berries are fometimes mixed, by herb gatherers,
with thofe of the true Buckthorn, n. 1, or fubftituted for
thofe berries ; but the fmaller number of feeds betrays the
deception. Their qualities perhaps differ very little.
23. R. Jatifolius. Broad-leaved Azorian Buckthorn.
L’Herit. Sert. Angl. 5.t.8. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 1f-—
Leaves elliptical, pointed, entire. Calyx hairy. Style fimple.
—Gathered by Mr. Maffon in the Azores. He fent it to
Kew in 1778, and it bloffoms there in July, being kept in
winter under cover. This isa tall upright /orud, with round,
ftraight, {mooth branches. Leaves four or five inches long,
and two broad ; fmooth above ; paler with hairy ribs, be-
neath. Flowers hairy, axillary, many together, on_ hairy
rulty flalks. Petals broad at the bafe. Stigma flightly three-
cleft.
24. R. glandulofus. Madeira Buckthorn. Ait. n. 12.
Willd. n. 22. Venten. Malmaif. t. 34.— Leaves ovate,
bluntly ferrated, fmooth; glandular at the bafe. Stem
ere&. Flowers racemofe. Style in three deep fegments.—
Native of Madeira, andthe Canary iflands. Introduced at
Kew, by Mr. Maffon, in 1785. This has the habit of an
Ilex or Phillyrea. The leaves are dark green, {mooth, two
inches long, more or lefs, ovate, pointed, rather diltantly
ferrated, marked on the upper fide, near the bafe, with two
or three glandular fpots. //owers yellowifh, numerous, on
{mooth, racemofe axillary flalks. Stamens twice as long as
the petals. Style deeply three-cleft. Stigmas fimple. We
know nothing of the fruit.
25. R. eliipticus. Oval-leaved Jamaica Buckthorn. Ait.
n. 13. Willd.n.\23. Swartz Ind. Occ. v.1. 497. (R.n.1;
Browne Jam. 172. t. 29. f.2. Ceanothus reclinatus;
L’ Herit. Sert. Angl. 6.)—Leaves elliptical, acute, entire;
rather villous beneath. Flowers axillary, fomewhat umbel-
late. Stylein three deep fegments. Berry dry.—Native of
bufhy places on the mountains of Jamaica. Miller cultivated
it in the ftove at Chelfeain 1758. Aiton. Stem forming a
{mall tree, with fpreading or dependent branches. Leaves
two or three inches long, thin, downy on the veins beneath.
Flowers greenifh-white. The fruit ee by. Swartz’s de-
{cription, a dry berry, like that of fome other fpecies of
Rhamnus, and not the valvular capfule of a Ceanothus,
though, when quite ripe and dried, it {plits into fix parts,
as we find itin Browne’s {pecimen. The feta/s however are
oppofite to the famens.
26. R. prinoides. | Winter-berry-leaved Buckthern.
L’Herit. Sert. Angl. 6.t.9. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 14.
(R. celtifolius; Thunb. Prodr. 44. Celtis foltis {ubrotundis
dentatis, flore viridi, fruGtu luteo; Burm. Afr. 242. t. 88.)
—Leaves ovate, ferrated, fmooth. Stem ere&. Flower-
italks fimple. Style flightly three-cleft. Flowers poly-
gamous.—Native of woods at the Cape of Good Hope,
where it bloffoms in September ; as is the cafe in England,
where this. fhrub was firft cultivated by Robert Edward,
lord Petre. Its habit is that of a Prinos, or Phillyrea. The
leaves are from one to two inches long, pointed ; fhinin
above; paler beneath ; fmooth, except occafional hace
at the origin of each vein. F/owers on fimple, flender, ax-
illary flalks, feveral together. Petals narrow. _ This {pe-
cies, except in its inflorefcence, and the want of glands on
the /eaves; bears a confiderable refemblance to the glandu-
lofus.
27. R. my/ffacinus. Wiry Buckthorn. Ait. n. 15. Willd.
n. 25.—Leaves heart-fhaped, entire. Stem climbing with
tendrils. Flowers in axillary umbels. Stigtha three-cleft.
—Said to be a native of Abyflinia ; at leaft it was brought
to Kew, in 1775, by the celebrated traveller Mr. Bruce.
It is kept in the itove, and blooms in November. The /fem
is weak, climbing to aconfiderable extent, by means of fimple
folitary axillary tendrils from the upper part of the branches.
Leaves aninch long, rather downy beneath, obtufe with a
{mall point, on very fhort fosifalks. Flowers greenifh-
white. Germen immerfed in a {now-white glandular recep-
tacle, filling the tube of the ca/yx. As nothing is known of
the fruit, this plant may poflibly prove of the genus Zi-
zyphus, to which it feems moft akin in habit.
28. R. alnifolius. Alder-leaved American Buckthorn.
L’Herit. Sert. Angl. 5. Willd. n. 26. Ait. n. 16.—
Leaves obovate, pointed, ferrated, {moothifh, opaque ; reti-
culated beneath. Flowers hermaphrodite. Stem ereét.—
Native of Pennfylvania, from whence we have a {pecimen,
communicated by the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg. It has much
the afpe& of R. alpinus, but the haves, as l’Heritier ob-
ferves, are lefs fhining, and more reticulated ; they feem to
us more tapering at the bafe, and not at all heart-fhaped.
29. R. /pherofpermus. Clear-berried Buckthorn. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. 1. 499- Willd. n. 27.—Leaves oblong, ferrated,
fmooth. Stemere&. Flowers in axillary clufters. Style
three-cleft. Berry nearly globular, pellucid.—Native of
bufhy hills in the mere temperate parts of Jamaica, flowering
in Auguft.—A_ fmall tree, ten to fifteen feet high, with
EL, Se fpread«
RHAMNUS.
{preading’ branches. Leaves pointed, finely veined. Cluflers
ole yomeed the length of the footftalks. Flowers fmall,
yellowifh-green. Style very fhort. Berry the fize of a {mall
pepper-corn, either quite globular, or obfcurely three-lobed,
pellucid, pale green, with one or three feeds. It ripens in
ober.
re R. Aybridus. Mule Buckthorn. L’Herit. Sert.
Angl. 5. Willd. n. 28.—* Leaves oblong, pointed, fer-
rated, {carcely perennial. Stem erect. Flowers male and
fernale on the fame tree.”’—L’Heritier defcribes this as
having f{prung up in a garden, from feeds of R. alpinus im-
pregnated by R. Alaternus, and partaking of the nature of
both parents. , :
gr. R. Alaternus. Common Alaternus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 281.
Willd. n. 29. Ait. n. 17. (Alaternus 1 et 2; Clu. Hitt.
vy. 1.50. Ger. Em. 1398.)—Leaves ovate, ferrated, co-
riaceous, fmooth. Stem ereét. Flowefs dioecious, in ax-
illary, fomewhat compound, braéteated clufters. Stigma in
three deep fegments.—Native of the fouth of Europe. — A
hardy evergreen Jbrub in our gardens, flowering in the {pring.
The /eaves are about an inch long, of a fhinmg yellowith-
green, and of a thick rigid texture. Flowers copious, yel-
lowith. Berries dark purple, with two or three /eeds.
The goth fpecies of Willdenow, R. carpinifolius, adopted
from Pallas’s Fl. Rofl. t. 60, is, we believe, the fame tree
with Ulmus nemoralis, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1326, or at leaft
of the fame genus. See Utmus.
Sect. 3. Branches armed with prickles.
32. R. capenfis. Prickly Cape Buckthorn. Thunb.
Prodr. 44. Willd. n. 31.— Prickles folitary. Leaves
ovate, notched or entire, fmooth. Umbels axillary.” —
Found by Thunberg, at the Cape. :
33. R. circum/cifjus. Prickly Eaft-Indian Buckthorn.
Linn. Suppl. 152. Willd. n. 32.—Prickles folitary, hooked.
Leaves obovate, abrupt, emarginate, entire, fmooth. Umbels
axillary.—Found by Koenig, m the Eaft Indies. Branches
angular. Prickles numerous, ftrong. Leaves almott an inch
long, and nearly as broad. _ Umbels many-flowered. Style
fimple, fhort, permanent. Bafe of the ca/yx cup-like after
the limb is fallen.
Ruamnus, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the tree
and fhrub kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated are ; the
purging buckthorn (R. catharticus) ; the pubefcent rham-
nus, or buckthorn redwood (R. colubrinus) ; the alder buck-
thorn, or berry-bearing alder (R. frangula) ; the common
Chrift’s-thorn (R. palurus) ; the common alaternus (R.
alaternus); the blunt-leaved buckthorn (R. jujuba) ; the
pointed-leaved buckthorn (R. cenoplia) ; the fhining-leaved
buckthorn, or common jujube (R. zizyphus) ; and the Sy-
rian Chrift’s-thorn (R. {pma Chritti).
It is found that the juice of the unripe berries, in the firft
fort, has the colour of faffron, and is ufed for ftaining maps
or paper, being fold under the name of French berries: the
juice of the ripe berries,, mixed with alum, is the fap-green
of the painters; but if the berries be gathered late in the
autumn, the juice is purple. ‘The bark affords a beautiful
yellow dye.
In the third fort, the berries gathered before they are ripe,
dye wool green and yellow ; when ripe, blue-grey, blue,
and green., The bark dyes yellow, and with preparations
of iron, black.
There are two varieties of this fort, the broad-leaved,
which has larger and rougher leaves ; it grows naturally on
the Alps: and.the dwarf er round-leaved, which is of humble
growth, feldom rifing above two feet high; it grows on the
Pyrenees. :
The fifth is a native of the fouth of Europe, and of Bar-
bary, The frefh branches or young fhoots, with the leaveg,
will dye wool-afine yellow. It flowers about April. And
there are varieties with variegated leaves, commonly called
bloatched phillyrea by the -nurferymen; and with the
leaves {triped with white and with yellow, called filver and
old-ftriped alaternus. The latter has the leaves much
faoder and narrower, and the ferratures on the edges
much deeper : this fhoots its branches more ere€t, forms a
handfomer bufh, and is equally hardy. It is likewife ob-
ferved, that the phillyreais fometimes different ; and accord-
ing to fome, there are alfo the large-growing, the fmall-
rowing, the broad-leaved, the narrow-jagged-leaved, the
yellow-ftriped jagged-leaved, the white-itriped jagged-
leaved: all which are confounded with the alaternus, by
fuch perfons as are not botanifts ; but they may eafily be
diftinguifhed by the pofition of their leaves, which are alter-
nate in this, but placed oppofite by pairs in that. And it
is fuppofed, that the alaternus was much more in requett
formerly than at prefent, having been planted againft walls
in court-yards to cover them, as alfo to form evergreen hedges
in gardens ; for which purpofe it is very improper, as the
branches fhoot very vigoroufly, and being pliant, are fre-
quently difplaced: by the wind ; in winter, when much {now
falls in ftill weather, the weight of it often breaks the
branches ; thefe hedges muft alfo be clipped three times in
a feafon to keep them in order, which is both expenfive and
occafions a great litter in a garden.
The fruit, in the eighth fort, is fold in the market at Can-
ton during the autumn. In Italy and Spain it is ferved up at
the table in deferts during the winter feafon, as a dry fweet-
meat.
And the common or cultivated jujube, aceording to
Miller, has a woody ftalk, dividing into many crooked irre-
gular branches, armed with itrong ftraight thorns, fet by
pairs at each joint ; the leaves are two inches long and one
bread, flightly ferrate, on fhort footitalks ; the flowers are
produced on the fide of the branches, two or three from the
fame place, feffile, fmall and yellow : the fruit oval, the fize
of a middling plum, fweetifh and clammy, including a hard
oblong ftone, pointed at both ends.
The wild jujube has flender woody ftalks, which fend out
many weak branches, covered with a greyifh bark, and armed
with fpines in pairs, one: longer and {traight, the other fhort
and recurved ; the leaves fmall, oval, veined, half an inch
in length and breadth, and feffile. It is found about Tunis
in Africa.
Method of Culture.—The firft, third, and fourth forts may
be increafed by feeds, layers, and fometimes by cuttings ;
the feeds fhould: be fown in autumn as foon as ripe, on a bed
of light earth, and flightly raked in: the plants moittly ap-
pear in the folowing fpring, and when they have had a year
or two’s growth, they fhould be planted out in nurfery-rows,
to have two or three years more growth, when they may be
finally fet out where they are to ftand.
It may be noticed that the layers fhould always be made
from the young fhoots, and be laid down in the autumn,
in the ufual way, giving a little twift or nick at the time
in the bark, at a joint. They moftly become well rooted in
twelve months afterwards.
Cuttings of the firft and third forts may be made from the
young twigs, and be planted in rows in the autumn, in a
wes good earth, when moft of them will fucceed and grow
well.
And all the evergreen or alaternus kinds may be raifed
from feeds and by layers. The plain forts fucceed in
both methods, but the variegated forts only with certainty
by layers, well laid down.
And
RHA
And the feeds fhould be put into the ground in the early
autumn in the fame manner as above; and the layers laid
down in the autumn as in the other kinds of plants.
All the other {pecies may be raifed by fowing the ftones
of the fruit in potsin {pring, plunging them in a moderate
hot-bed. When the plants have aitained fome growth they
fhould be removed into feparate pots, and be managed as
~ other tender plants. They alfo fucceed by fuckers from the
roots and layers, as in the above forts. And the fixth and
eighth forts may be placed in the greenhoufe, and the others
in the ftove.
Thefe are all ornamental plants ; the hardy forts for the
pleafure-ground, and the more tender forts for the green-
houfe and itove, among other potted plants of thefe depart-
ments.
Ruamnus catharticus, or /pina cervina, purging buckthorn,
in the Materia Medica. he fruit or berries of this fhrub,
which have been long réceived into the materia medica, are
about the fize of a {mall pea, and, when ripe, of a fhining black
colour ; they contain a pulpy deep green juice, called by the
French verd de veflie,”? or Sav-green (which fee), which has
a faint unpleafant fmell, and a bitterifh, acrid, naufeous tatte ;
they operate brifkly by {tool, and hence the plant derives the
trivial name “ catharticus:”’ their purgative effects are con-
itantly accompanied with confiderable thirft, and drynefs of
the mouth and throat, and frequently with fevere griping of
the bowels, efpecially unlefs fome diluting liquor be plentifully
drunk immediately after taking them. The dofe is faid to
be about 20 of the frefh berries in fubftance ; twice or thrice
that number in deco¢tion ; a drachm or a drachm and a half of
the dried berries ; an ounce of the exprefled juice; or half
an ounce of the rob or extract, obtained by infpiflating the
juice. The juice made into a fyrup is the officinal prepara-
tion, and im this ftate it has been generally preferred by
phyficians, who found that in dofes of one ounce or two it
proved a very powerful purgative ; and was therefore much
employed asa hydragogue. Tew patients, however, are able
to bear a frequent repetition of this medicine; and even
Sydenham, who was partial to the purgative treatment of
hydropical difeafes, found that other cathartics more effec-
tually anfwered this purpofe. Att prefent it is rarely pre-
feribed, except in conjunétion with other medicines of this
clais. Lewis’s Mat. Med. Woodville’s Med. Bot.
RHAMNUSIA, in Mythology, an appellation given to
Nemefis, on account of her celebrated ftatue at Rhamnus,
in Attica, which has been generally afcribed to Phidias.
Pliny, however, gives the honour of it to Ageracritus, a
fcholar of Phidias, who, as he fays, had defigned it for a
Venus ; but feeing one preferred to it, which was executed
hy Alcamenes, another fcholar of the fame matter, fold his
to the Rhamnufians, on condition that they would only take
it for a ftatue of Nemefis, whence fhe gained the name of
Khamnufia. See Nemesis and Ruamyus.
RHANDA, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in
Drangiana, on the confines of Afia.. Ptolemy.
RHANTERIUM, in Botany, fo named by Desfon-
taines, from jayne, a kind of brufh for /prinkling water,
like that ufed in Catholic churches; the down, or crown,
of the feed having a fimilar form.—Desfont. Atlant. v. 2.
291. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2105.—Clafs and order, Syn-
genefia Polygamia-fuperflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidee,
Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl. i ho =:
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx imbricated, nearly cylindrical ;
feales lax, recurved. Cor. compound, radiated; florets of
the difk numerous, equal, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft, erect,
all perfect ; thofe of the radius few, ligulate, three-toothed,
recurved, female. Stam. in the perfeét florets five, awl-
RHA
fhaped,, {hort; anthers fimple, united into a five-teothed
cylinder, Pi//, Germen in all the florets inverfely conical,
furrowed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens;
ftigmas two, club-fhaped. eric. none, except the per-
manent calyx. Seeds of all the florets the fhape of the ger-
men; thofe of the difk crowned with from four to fix
briftles, thickened and, feathery. at the top; thofe of the
radius naked. Recept. flat, chaffy ; f{cales; acute, hollowed.
on, one fide.
Ef. Ch,
briitles, feathery at the top.
Seeds of the radius naked.
1. R. fuaveolens. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 291. t. 240.—,
Found by Desfontaines on the fandy fea-coalt, near Sfams,
in the kingdom of Tunis. Root perennial. Syem ereét,
much branched, round, leafy, one or two feet high.
Branches flender, downy, ftriated, often entangled to-
gether. caves {cattered, feffile, three quarters nt an inch
long, lanceolate, acute, ftrongly ferrated, either f{mooth or
downy ; the upper ones {maller, linear and entire. Flowers
terminal, folitary, refembling thofe of feverai of the {fmaller-
flowered American Aiters, except in being entirely yellow.
This plant flowers. in fummer. The bruiled leaves have a
fragrant {mell.
RHAPHANES, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Syria, placed by Ptolemy between Epiphania and
Anteradus.
RHAPHIS, in Botany, fo called from ja¢sc, a needle,
or aw/, becaufe of the long needle-like awn of the female
flowers.—Lour. Cochinch. 552.—Clafs and order, MMo-
nsecia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Gramina.
Gen. Ch. Male flowers two, ftalked, in one common
involucrum. Cal. Glume fingle-flowered, of two awl-
fhaped, coloured, beardlefs, nearly equal valves. Cor.
Glume of two lanceolate, membranous, fringed, beardlefs
valves, fhorter than the calyx. - Stam. Filaments three,
fhort ; anthers oblong.
Female flower folitary, in the fame fhort, one-leaved,
hairy involucrum, feflile, below the male flowers,
Cal. as in the male, but fhorter. Cer. Glume of two
valves, nearly equal to the calyx; one of them furnifhed
with a longifh, very fharp awn. Pi. Germem ovate;
ftyles two, fhort; {tigmas feathery. eric. none, except
the permanent glumes. Seed folitary, oblong, com-
prefled.
Efi. Ch. Inyolucrum of one leaf, three-flowered. Male,
Calyx of two valves, coloured. Corolla of two fringed
valves.
Female, Calyx like the male. Corolla of two valves:
one of them awned. Styles two. Seed one, oblong.
1. R. trivialis. (Gramen aciculatum, Cuflu Cuflu;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. book 10. chap. 8. t. 5. f. 1. Co
may of the Cochinchinefe. )—A very common grafs in China
and Cochinchina, growing by road fides, and proving very
troublefome on account of its feeds, which flick into the
clothes of pailengers, and cannot be fhaken out. Rumphius
{peaks of it as equally common in the iflands of the Eatt
Indies. The root is annual, creeping. Stem a foot high,
ereGt, round, flender, {mooth, fcarcely branched, almoft
leaflefs, except at the bafe. Leaves nearly all radical, fef-
file, fhort, lanceolate, clafping the lower part of. the ftem.
Panicle fimple, folitary, terminal, conical, lax ; its branches
long, ftraight, afcending. Linnzus erroneoufly cites the
above fynonym of Rumphius, under his Panicum, colonum, a
widely different plant.
Mr. Brown, in Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 2. 199, fuggetts
that the above plant of Loureire and Rumphiveought to be
referred
Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down. of about five
Calyx cylindrical, imbricated,
RHA
referred to the genus Holcus, along with all the panicled
{pecies of Andropogon ; and he remarks, on the authority
of a {pecimen from the author, in fir J. Banks’s colleétion,
that it feems fearcely dittin& from Andropogon acicularis of
Retzius, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 906, for which indeed the
fame fynonym of Rumphius is quoted.
RHAPIS, fo called by the younger Linnzus,° from
gaxss, a rod, probably in allufion to the name it has ob-
tained from Europeans in China, of Ground Ratan; but
we know not precifely how that name applies to the plant.—
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 3. 473. ed. 2. v. 5. 473. Schreb.
442. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 1093. Mart. Mill Did. v. 4.—
Clafs and order, Polygamia Monoecia; rather Hexandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Palma.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, rigid, of one
leaf, in three deep, broad, concave, permanent fegments.
Cor. of one petal, larger than the calyx, in three deep,
ere&t, concave, equal fegments, deciduous. Stam. Fila-
ments fix, awl-fhaped, nearly as long as the corolla; an-
thers roundifh, two-lobed. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, three-
lobed; ftyle fhort, awl-fhaped; itigma obtule. - Peric.
Berry roundifh-ovate. Seed folitary, roundifh, bony.
Obf. The flowers are often polygamous or dioecious.
Eff. Ch. Calyx three-cleft. Corolla of one petal, three-
cleft. Berry with one large, roundifh, bony feed.
1. R. flabelliformis. Creeping-rooted Palmetto, or
Ground Ratan. Ait. n. 1. Willd. nv x. Sm. .Tour,
v. I. 12. and279. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 3. 36. t. 316.
Curt. Mag. t. 1371. (Chamerops excelfa; Thunb. Jap.
130.)—Leaves palmate, plaited; their plaits and margins
fharply toothed. — Native of China and Japan. Root creep-
ing, with numerous long ftraight fibres. Stem rifing to a
great height in its native country; in our ftoves it has not
yet reached above fix or eight feet ; it is clothed with a loofe
network, formed of the bafes of the decayed leaf-{talks.
Leaves ttalked, divided almoft to the bafe into many plaited
oblong lobes, a {pan long, rough at the ribs and edges with
prickly teeth. Flowers moftly dioecious, yellow, in pa-
nicled cylindrical fpikes. Berry {mall, dark purple, {weet
with a bitterifh flavour, barely eatable. :
2. R. acaulis. Swamp Palmetto. Willd. n. 2. Ait.
n. 2. (Corypha minor; Jacq. Hori. Vind. v. 3. 8. t. 8.
Sabal Adanfoni; Gawl. in Curt. Mag. t. 1434. Purfh
v. I. 239.)—Leaves palmate, ftriated, entire, {mooth.—
Native of the fea-coaft of Carolina and Georgia, flowering
in Auguft. Of humble growth, having no leafy fem. The
leaves are longer and narrower than in the foregoing, quite
{mooth and entire. Flowers numerous, greenifh-white, in
numerous, cylindrical, lax, panicled fpikes, fupported by
a ftraight, round common ftalk, taller than the foliage.
Berry the fize ofa {mall pea, black, fweetifh. Jacq.
3. R. arundinacea. Simple-leaved Palmetto. Ait. n. 3.
Willd, n. 3.—Leaves in two deep, acute, plaited lobes ;
roughifh at the edges.—Native of Carolina. A green-
houfe plant at Kew, flowering in September. u
The orthography of the generic name in Curt. Mac.
1434, is remarkably confufed, and feems to have mifled Mr.
Purth to print it Raphis, citing Willdenow without exa-
mination.
RHAPONTICUM. See Rua. ;
RuAponricuM, a medicinal foot, in form refembling
rhubarb, and nearly of the fame virtues.
It was called rhaponticum, q.d. root of Pontus ; becaufe
chiefly produced in the country of Pontus in Afia.
It is the root of a plant, which is a {pecies of the rheum,
with {mooth roundifh leaves, -and fomewhat channelled pe-
dicles. It grows wild on'the mountain Rhodope in Thrace,
Rh HA
from whence it was brought into Europe by Alpinus about
the year 16103 it bears the hardeft winters of this climate.
The root of this plant, fays Dr. Lewis, which appears to
have been the true rhubarb of the ancients, is confounded
by fome with the modern rhubarb, though confiderably dit-
ferent from that root in appearance, as well as in quality.
The rhapontic is of a duily colour on the furface, and of a
loofe fpongy texture; more aftringent than rhubarb, and
lefs purgative: in this laft intention, two or three drachms
are required for a dofe. Lewis’s Mat. Med.
It has, however, been much controverted, whether the
rhaponticum of the ancients, and the rhubarb of the mo-
derns, be one and the fame plant: the reafoning on both
fides may be feen in the appendix to the fecond volume of.
John Bauhin’s Hiflory of Plants. See Ruvusanrs.
RHAPPHA, in Ancicnt Geography, a town of India,
on the other fide of the Ganges, among the people called
Gangani. Ptolemy. 2
RHAPSA, a town of Affa, in the interior of Media.
RHAPSODI, ‘Palwiau, Ruapsopists, in Antiquity,
perfons who made a bufinefs of finging or reciting pieces of
Homer’s poems. -
Cuper informs us, that the rhapfodi were clothed in red,
when they fung the Iliad; and in blue, when they fung the
Odyfiey.
They performed on the theatres; and fometimes {trove
for prizes, in contelts of poetry, finging, &c.
After the two antagonilts had finifhed their parts, the
two pieces,’ or papers they were written in, were joined to-
gether again ; whence the name, viz. from farzw, /uo, [join
together, and wn, ode, fong.
But there feem to have been other rhapfodi of higher an-
tiquity than thefe ; people who compofed heroic poems, or
fongs in praife of heroes and great men, and fung their own
compofitions from town to town, for a livelihood; of which
profeffion, it is faid, was Homer himfelf.
Hence, fome critics, inftead of the former origin, derive
the word rhapfodilt from ja6d» dew, to fing with a laurels
rod in the hand, which, it feems, was the badge of the pri-
mitive rhapfodi.
Philochorus, again, derives the word from party saz woes,
g. d. curb, to compofe fongs or poems ; as if they were the
authors of the poems they fung. This opinion, to which
Scaliger inclines, reduces thefe rhapfodi to the fecond
kind.
In effeét, it is probable, that they were all of the fame
clafs, whatever diftinétion fome authors may imagine among
them ; and that their bufinefs was to fing or rehearfe poems,
either of their own, or other people’s compofition, as might
beft ferve their purpofe, which was gaining a pecuniary ad-
vantage by them. So that we do not apprehend it any in-
jury to them, to fet them on the foot of our ballad-fingers ;
fome of whom may probably pen their own ditties. After
Homer’s time, it is no wonder they confined themfelves
altogether. to his pieces, for which the people had the ut-
moft veneration ; nor is it furprifing, that they fhould ere&
ftages, &c. and difpute the point of recitation in fairs and
markets.
The import of the word rhapfodift underwent feveral
changes in antiquity: it was firlt appropriated to bards,
who fung their-own verfes from town to town, or at the
tables of the great ; in this fenfe Homer was called.a rhap-
fodilt. It was next beftowed on thofe who fung the verfes
of Homer on the ftage, ufually for a prize, allotted to the
belt performer of them; and, lattly, to fuch fingers of
centos, as have been jult deferibed. A rhapfody, in mo-
dern language, conveys. no. other meaning than that of an
incoherent
RHA
incoherent jumble of ideas. This fenfe of the word un-
doubtedly took its rife from the notorious folly and abfur-
dity of the’ rhapfodifts, in their rapturous comments upon
their favourite poets ; for they undertook to explain, as well
as to recite. Hence it 1s that in Suidas, the word je) wdic
is defined by Gaver, nonfen/e.
RHAPSODOMANCY, jad aoucvesse, an ancient kind
of divination performed by fixing on a paflage of a poet at
hazard, and reckoning on it as a predi€tion of what was to
come to pafs.
There were various methods of praétifing this rhapfodo-
mancy. Sometimes they wrote feveral verfes or fentences
of a poet on fo many pieces of wood, paper, or the like ;
fhook them together in an urn; and drew out one, which
was accounted the lot. ;
Sometimes they calt dice on a table, on which verfes were
written ; and that on which the die lodged, contained the
prediétion.
A. third manner was by opening a book, and pitching on
fome verfe, at fir fight. This method they particularly
called the fortes Prene/line, and afterwards, according to
the poet thus made ufe of, fortes Homerice, Sortes Virgiliane,
&e.
RHAPSODY, jalotiz, in Antiquity, a difcourfe in
verfe, fung or rehearfed by arhapfodilt.
Others will have rhapfody properly to fignify a collection
of verfes, efpecially thofe of Homer; which, having been
a long time difperfed in pieces and fragments, were at
length, by Pifittratus’s order, digefted into books,. called
rhapfodies; from the Greek aria, /uo, I few, and «3»,
Song.
Hence, among the moderns, rhapfody is alfo ufed for an
aflemblage of paflages, thoughts, and authorities, raked
together from divers authors, to compofe fome new piece.
Lipfius’s Politics make fiich.a rhapfody, in which there is
nothing of the author’s own but conjunétion and particles.
RHAPTE, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis of the
Ethiopians, near the river Raptus. Steph. Byz.
RHATOSTATHIBIUS, or, as Baxter thinks it was
originally written, Retofaubius, a river of the ifle of Albion,
(England,) on the weitern fide, the mouth of which is
placed by Ptolemy between that of the Tobius and the
eltuary of Sabrina. This is the river Wye, and _ its
ancient name is derived from ‘** Rot in Tav,’’? the courfe
of a river.
RHATTA, a town of Afia, in Babylonia, in the vici-
nity of Chiriphe. Ptolemy.
RHAUCUS, atown of the ifland of Crete.
Byz.
RHAVENA, a prefecture of Afia, along the Eu-
phrates. Ptolemy places in it fix towns on the banks of the
Euphrates, and four in the interior of the country. ~
‘“RHAVIUM, ariver of Hibernia, the mouth of which
is placed by Ptolemy between the promontory ‘ Boreum?”
and the town ‘Magnata.”’
RHAUNEM, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Birkenfeld. The place contains 547, and the
canton 5886 inhabitants, in 35 communes. :
RHAUNETI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Felix, onthe Arabian gulf, between the town “ Phoenicum’’
and the extremity of this Cherfonefus. Ptolemy.
RHAURARIS, a river of Gallia Narbonenfis, ac-
cording to Strabo. This river is called ‘ Araurius’”’? by
Ptolemy, and “ Arauraris’’? by Pomponius Mela. ;
RHAUZIUM, the metropolis of Dalmatia, according
to Cedrenus and Curopalata.
Steph.
RHA
RHAW, Geonreg, in Biography, a learned bookfeller and
mufician of Wittemberg, born in 1494. In 1531 appeared
an “ Enchiridion utriufque Mufice Pra¢ticz, ex variis Mufi-
corum Libris congeftum,” in 8vo. And in 1538 he not
only publifhed << Seleat Harmony for four Voices,’’ con-
fitting of two Latin Paffiones, the one by John Galliculus,
and the other by Jacob Otrecht, with mafles, lamentations
of Jeremiah, and motets by John Walther, Lewis Senfels,
Simon Cellarius, Benedict Dux, Eckel, Lemlin, Stoel,
and Henry [faac, to which Melanéthon furnifhed him with a
Latin preface ; but in 1544 publithed, in oblong quarto,
123 German facred fongs, of four and five parts, for the ufe
of fchools. Prefixed to the fecond part of this publication,
containing ecclefiaftical hymns, fet by fixteen different
German compofers, there is a print of the editer, Geo.
Rhaw, Typographus, Wittemb. anno etatis fue LIV.
RHAZES, one of the oldeft and moft diftinguifhed of
the Arabian phyficians, was born at Rei, in the proyince of
Chorafan, about the year 852. There wasa {chool in his
native town, at which he received his early education ; but
he is faid not to have commenced the ftudy of medicine tilt
fomewhat late in life, having given up his time much to the
cultivation of mufic. After he was thirty years of age, he
removed to Bagdad, and then he turned his attention to
philofophy, and afterwards to phyfic. He became, how-
ever, indefatigable in his application, and was continually
occupied in obferving, reading, and writing, until he ob-
tained the higheit reputation ; and he was feleéted out of a
hundred eminent phyficians, who were then refident at Bag-
dad, to fuperintend the celebrated hofpital of that city.
The hiitorians confidered him as the Galen of the Arabians ;
and from his long life and conftant praétice, during which he
paid the moft afliduous attention to the varieties of difeafe,
he obtained the appellation of the experimenter, or the ex-
perienced. He was faid alfo to be profoundly {killed in all
the {ciences, efpecially in philofophy, aftronomy, and mufic.
He travelled much in purfuit of knowledge, and made fre-
quent journies into Perfia, his native country, and was much
confulted by feveral princes, particularly by Almanzor, the
chief of Chorafan, with whom he frequently correfponded,
and to whom he dedicated feveral of his writings. Abi
Ofbaia enumerated two hundred and twenty-fix treatifes
compofed by Rhazes, among which the éen books, addrefled
to his patron Almanzor, are mentioned, and therefore are
doubtlefs genuine, although Haly Abbas, who has given an
account of him and his works, has not noticedthem. This
work Rhazes defigned as a complete body of phyfic, and it
may be deemed the great magazine of all the Arabian me-
dicine ; the ninth book, indeed, which treats of the cure of
difeafes, was in fuch general eftimation for feveral centuries,
that it was the text-book of the public fchools, and was
commented upon by the moft learned profeflors. Never-
thelefs, like the reft of the Arabian writings, it contains
very little more than the fubftance of the works of the
Greeks, from whom the Arabians borrowed almoit all their
medical knowledge. They have, indeed, and Rhazes in
particular, given the firit diitin€t account of the /mall-pox,
a peftilential malady which the Greeks have no where ac-
curately defcribed, and which is, therefore, generally inferred
to have been unknown among that people. This is quef-
tionable ; but, at all events, the firft {pecific account of the
{mall-pox is to be found in the works of Rhazes. He was
the author, alfo, of the firft treatife ever compofed:refpe&-
ing the difeafes of children. His book on the affections of
the joints is interefting, and contains an account of fome
remarkable cures, effected chiefly by copious blood-letting.
He defcribes the fymptoms of hydrophobia very well ; at
°
R HE
allo fome difeafes ‘peculiar to eaftern Countries, as the ignis
erficus, vena medinenfis, &c.; and he firlt noticed the
difedfe called {pina ventofa. Rhazes had ‘the reputation of
being a’fkilful alchemift ; ‘the art of chemiltry, in fac, ori-
ginated with the Arabians, and Rhazes is the firft, as Dr.
Treind has fhewn, ‘who mentions the tife of chemical pre-
parationsiin medicine. ‘He hasa chapter onthe qualifications
ofaphylfician; and’afingular tract on quacks and impottors,
in which ‘he:bas pourtrayed ‘that clafs of pretenders to ‘the
life; and his detail of their ‘pretenfions fhews that ‘they were
at leaft as numerous, and ‘ingenious in their contrivances of
cheatery, as in‘more ‘recent times.
‘Rhazes lived to the age of ‘eighty, and loft his fight : he
‘died‘in the year 932. “His works 'that have come down to
us, ‘through the medium of ‘tranflations in ‘Latin, are, 1. A
fort ‘of common-place ‘book, entitled «Continens,’? or
s¢ LiibriCoitinerites.” 2. A much more perfeét work, the
«Libri Decem, ad -Almanforem,’’ ‘publifhed at Venice,
rgro. 3. Six ‘books of aphorifms, ‘publifhed under ‘the
titleof “Liber de Secrétis, qui Aphorifmorum appellatur,”’
Bononie, 1489. 4. A'traé on'the {mall-pox, often tranf-
lated, and'printed with the title of « De Peftilentia ;” the
beft ‘tranflation is ‘by Channing, London, 1766. Freind’s
Hitt. of ‘Phyfic. Eloy Dic. Hitt. dela Med.
RHAZUNDA, ‘in Ancient Geography, a town of Atia,
insthe interior of Media, between ‘ Sanais”’ and ‘ Veneca,”’
according to Ptolemy.
RHEA, a town of Afia, in Margiana, according to
Ptolemy.
Rua, in Mythology, one of the titles of Cybele, de-
rived from-j:, J flow, on account of ‘that abundance of be-
nefits which ‘the difpenfes.
‘Rhea ‘was, according to Diodorus Siculus, one of the
eight great divinities of Egypt; the other feven being the
_ Sun, ‘Saturn/or'Chronos, Jupiter, Juno, Vulcan, Vetta, and
Mercury. Chronos, fays ‘this hiftorian, having married
Rhea, ‘became, according to fome, ‘the father of Ofiris and
‘fis, and, ‘according to others, of Jupiter and Juno. "The
children of Rhea, by Saturn, were, according ‘to fabulous
-hiftory, Vetta, Ceres, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, and Jupiter,
‘the father of gods‘and men ; but that’ god learning from an
‘oracle delivered by Ceelus and Terra, that one of his chil-
‘dren fhould dethrone him, devoured them as Rhea brought
‘them forth, which threw her into extreme diltrefs. So that
when fhe'was nearher time of being delivered of Jupiter,
‘fhe confulted her parents'to know in what manner fhe might
‘tefcue him from the cruelty of his father, and by their ad-
vice fhe fecretly withdrew into Crete, where fhe was deli-
‘ered, and prefented Saturn with a {tone wrapped about
‘geith fwaddling clothes, which he fwallowed. Jupiter being
‘grown up, refcued Coelus from the chains with which Saturn
had loaded him; and Ctelus, in return for his fervice, gave
*him thunder, by which he became the fovereign of gods and
‘men, ‘Rhea was one of the names under which the earth was
‘worfhipped,
Ruea Sylvia, was the mother of Remus and Romulus ;
sand in order to give dignity to their origin, the fable reports
that her uncle Amulius got into her cell, and hey father Nu-
‘mitor propagated the ftory that the twins fhe brought forth
“had been begotten by the god of war,
RuEA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of the ftruthio or aftrich,
‘the fame bird with the whan-duguacw of the Bratils, See
Struturo.
‘RHEBAN, in darient Geography, a river of “Afia, in
‘Bithynia, “According to Aprian, the fource of this river was
“on mount Olympus, and its mouth in ‘the Fuxine fea, near
‘that: df ‘Pfillis,
RAE
RHECHIUS, a river of Greece, which difcharged
itfelf into the fea near Theflalonica. ‘At the mouth of this
river Juftinian ere€ted a fort called « Artemifa.”’
RHEDA, in Geography, atown of Germany, 'the capital
of a lordfhip, in the county of Lingen; 10 miles N. of
Lipperitadt.. N. lat. 51°47! E.long. 7° 50!.
Ruepa, a town of Holland, in Guelderland, on the
lffel; feven miles N. of Arnheim.
RHEDONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
in Armorica, according to Cefar and Ptolemy.
RHEEDIA, in Botany, called Vanrheedia by Plumier,
in honour of a moft illuftrious promoter of the ftudy of
Ealt Indian plants, Henry Van-Rheede Van-Draakenttein,
to whofe judgment and munificence, while governor of Ma-
labar towards the latter part of the 17th century, the pub-
lication of that fplendid work the Hortus Malabaricus, in
12 folio volumes, is owing. —Linn. Gen. 260. Schreb. 348.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Jufl.258. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 457.
(Vanrheedia; Plum. Gen. 45. t. 18.) Clafs and order,
Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Guitifere, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Gal. none. > Cor. Petals four, feffile, obovate,
concave, {preading. Stam. Filaments numerous, thread-
fhaped, longer than the corolla; anthers oblong. Pi/f.
Germen f{uperior, ovate; ftyle cylindrical, the length of
the ftamens; itigma funnel-fhaped. Peric. Berry ovate,
thin, of one cell. Seeds three, very large, ovate-oblong,
marked with fimple or branched lines.
Eff. Ch. Petals four. Calyx none.
with three feeds.
1. R. laterifora. Linn. Sp. Pl. 719. ( Vanrheedia folio
fubrotundo, fruétu luteo; Plum. Ic. 255. t. 257.)—Native
of South America. A treeknown only to Plumier, whofe
figure reprefents it with large, oppolite, ftalked, ovate, en-
tire /eaves ; axillary tufts of numerous, rather fmall, fowers ;
and ovate pendulous frwit, about two inches long. Juffieu
doubts whether the ca/yx be really wanting.
Linnezus does not appear to have ever had a fpecimen of
this plant; nor can we account for hss ftriking out (in
Mant. gor.) the obfervation in his Sp. Pl. for which he has
fubflituted, in Sy{t. Veg., the following defeription, taken
from fome Eatt Indian {pecimen, as his original manufcript
fhews, and certainly foreign to the true Rheedia. “A tree,
Berry fuperior,
with jointed, comprefled, even, downy branches. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, lanceolate, entire, fmooth. Fvot/lalks
fhort, downy. Floqwer-flalks axillary, about three together,
three cleft, three-flowered.”
Willdenow has omitted this genus, in its proper place, nor
have we difcovered what he has done with it.
RHEGADORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afta,
in Cappadocia.
RHEGIANU®M, atown of Lower Meefia, on the bank
of the Danube. Ptolemy.
RHEGIAS, a town of Afia, in Syria: according te
Ptolemy it was in Cyrrheftica, between Ariferia and Ruba,
RHEGIUM, or Reaium, (Reggio), a town of Italy,
at the extremity of Brutium, in the ftrait of Sicily, In the
time of Dionyfius the tyrant, the inhabitants of Rhegium
formed a league againft him, which terminated in a treaty
in the year 354. A difference afterwards occurring be-
tween them, he betfieged the town and took it, after about
eleven months, in 365. The conduét of Dionyfius during
this fiege was in the highelt degree fayage and brutal,
Rhegium afterwards hecame fubject tothe Romans; but a
legion, encouraged by the example of the Mamertins of
Meffina, revolted in 472, and took poffeffion of the city.
After ten years’ poileffion, it was belieged by the Romans,
and thofe who eicaped the deltruGion of the fiege, ta the
3 amount
RHE
amount of about 300, were carried to Rome, where they
were fcourged and beheaded. This city fuffered much
from the earthquake that ravaged Calabria; and even in
the time of the Romans it was abandoned by its inhabitants,
on account of the calamities which it had fuffered; but
Cefar rebuilt it, after having driven Pompey from Sicily.
Virgil (1. iii. v. 414, &c.) thus defcribes it :
* Hee loca vi quondam, et vafta convulfa ruina
pane #Evi longingua valet mutare vetuttas)
ifhiluiffe ferant, quam protenus utraque tellus
Una foret ; venit medio vi pontus, et undis
Hefperium Siculo latus abfcidit arvaque et urbes
Littore diduétas augutto interluit zftu.”’
RHEGMA, a place of Afia, in Cilicia, at the mouth
of the river Cydnus. Strabo.—Alfo, a town of Arabia
Felix, on the coatt of the Perfian gulf, in the country of
the Anarites. Ptolemy.
Ruecma, formed of pnywui; I break, a word ufed by
the ancients to exprefs any breaking .or burfting of a foft
part without a wound, but moft frequently for abfcefles
breaking inwardly.
RHEID, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Roer; 2 miles E. of Gladbeck.
RHEIMS. See Reis.
RHEIN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Natangen,
on a lake which communicates with Spirding lake. It
has a large fortified caftle, and an inferior court of juttice ;
68 miles S.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 53° 48’. E. long.
2142
RHEINAU, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Rhine, fituated on the Rhine, and very much
reduced by the inundations of the river; 5 miles S. of
Strafburg.—Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the Thurgau,
fituated on an ifland formed by the Rhine, with a convent ;
5 miles S.S.W. of Schaffhaufen.
RHEINBACH, a river of Saxony, which joins the
Loderbach, near Bitterfeld.
Ruersacn, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Bonn. The place contains 1119, and the canton
16,478 inhabitants, in 37 communes.
RHEINBECK, a town of the duchy of Holftein; 10
miles E. of Hamburg.
RHEINBERG, a town of France, in the department
of the Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of
Creveldt ; 44 miles N.W. of Cologne. The place contains
1705, and the canton 7166 inhabitants, in 17 communes.
RHEINE, or Retnen, a town of Germany, in the
bifhopric of Munfter, on the Embs, near which are fome
falt {fprings; 22 miles N. of Muntter. N. lat. 52° 21'.
E. long. 7° 25'.
RHEINECK, or Ruaeinecc, a town of Switzerland,
and capital of the Rheinthal, fituated on the Rhine, near
its confluence with the lake of Conttance, mhabited chiefly
by Proteftants ; 26 miles S.E. of Conttance.
RHEINFELDEN, a town of Germany, and lately one
of the four foreft towns of Auftrian Swabia, on the S. fide
of the Rhine, on the oppofite bank of which is a covered
way, built like a horn-work, and communicating with the
town by means of a bridge; g miles IE. of Bale. N. lat.
A7eas!. EE. long: 7° sol.
RHEINFELS. See RuHENFELS.
“"RHEINHAUSEN, a town of Baden, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine, on the E. fide of the Rhine; 3 miles
S.E. of Spire.
RHEINMAGEN. See Remacen.
Vou. XXX.
RHE
RHEINSDORF. See Ronspore.
RHEINTHAL, a bailiwie of Switzerland, between the
canton of Appenzel and the Rhine, belonging to the nine
cantons, about 30 miles long, and from three to eight
broad. The country is fertile, and produces excellent
wine. ‘The number of inhabitants is about 13,000, who
are partly Proteftants and partly Roman Catholics.
RHEINWALD, a valley in the country of the Grifons,
about 20 miles long, which takes its name from a branch
of the Rhine that pafles through it.
RHEMAN, or Reman, in Ancient Geography, a fortified
place of Afia, in Mefopotamia, which belonged to the
Romans, according to Ammianus Marcellinus.
RHEMBA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a charaéter cor-
refponding in many parts to the popular Venus of the
Greeks. Like her the {prang from the foam of the ocean,
when churned by the gods and demons for the purpofe of
obtaining the amrita, or beverage of immortality, as no-
ticed under the articles KurmAvatara and Laxsunr.
She is fometimes faid to be an incarnation of Lakfhmi,
confort of Vifhnu. More correctly, however, fhe is
flationed in the court of Indra, as the chief of his bands of
celeftial chorifters, named A pfara, Devangana, Gandharva,
&c. The Apfaras, or Upfaras, are the Nereids of the ;
Hindoo Pantheon: having {prang from water, they are
called water nymphs, and aflift Indra, the Jupiter Pluvius
of India, in his regency over aqueous phenomena. (See
Upsara.) In the churning procefs above adverted to,
thefe fair damfels were produced in extravagant numbers,
according to the Ramayana, viz. 600 millions! « of re-
{plendent and celeftial form ; adorned with glorious orna-
ments, and endowed with beauty, youth, {weetnefs, and
every grace.” Thefe interefting offspring of poetical
imagination are proyerbially elegant and graceful. ~The
three wives of the mortal father of Ramachandra are faid, in
the work juft quoted, to be queens, who, ¢ in elegance of
form, rivalled the Apfaras.”? As the chief of thefe damfels
of Paradife, the fubje& of this article is fometimes {tiled
Rhemba-devi, or the goddefs Rhemba.
In Hindoo writings, efpecially in amatory poetics, allu-
fions frequently occur to the Upfaras, who correfpond alfo
with the fairies of the Perfians. Many are mentioned by
name, Rhemba the ofteneft, Urvafi, Tilotamma, Menaka,
&e. (See thofe articles.) Under the name of the laft
we have given an inftance of the ufe made by Indra of
thefe obfequious fulfillers of his will; for, as well as
in the line of finging, dancing, &c. condefcenfions to
the Indra-dikas, or the demi-gods, the Apfaras are the
fafcinating difturbers of holy men, when engaged in fuch
fervent auiterities as threaten the fafety of Indra in his
firmamental throne. In explanation of which, it re-
quires to be noticed that Indra was originally a mere mortal ;
but learning that the throne of heaven was the reward of
the man who fhould, with the prefcribed ceremonies, per-
form one hundred afwamedhas, or facrifices of a horfe, he
did fo, and obtained his dominion, and the name of Shat-
kratu, or he who performs a hundred {facrifices. (See
Inpra.) His throne he retains until another mortal thall
equal or exceed him in this potent ftile of propitiation.
He is, therefore, always on the watch; and being all eyes,
never fails to difcover auitere faints while performing their
rigid duties ; when he either fteals or defiles the horfe ia-
tended and fanétified for the next facrifice, or detaches
Rhemba or Menaka, or fome other of his damfels of « fafci-
nating fymmetry of form,”’ who always fucceed in exciting
emotions incompatible with the required purity of fuch as
afpire to ouft Indra from his ethereal throne. See MpNAKa.
U The
RHE
The name Apfara is fometimes written Upfara, under
which latter word fomething farther concerning thefe
damfels will be found. -
RHENA, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Mecklenburg; 22 miles W.S.W. of Wilmar.
N. lat. 53° so’. E. lone. 11° 10’.
RHENANUS, Bearus, in Biography, a learned Ger-
man, was born at Rheinac in 1485, and died at Strafburgh
in 1547. He was corrector of the prefs for Frobenius,
and by that means formed an intimacy with Erafmus.
He wrote “ A Hiftory of Germany,” 4to.; Ilyrici
Provinciarum utrique Imperiorum Romano, tam Conittan-
tinopolitano Servientis, Defcriptio,”? 8vo. He was alfo the
editor of Velleius Paterculus, and other works.
RHENEA, in Ancient Geography, anifland of the A. gean
fea, in the neighbourhood of that of Delos. Strabo fays
that it was deferted, but that it was the place of burial for
the inhabitants of Delos; which being deemed facred, 1t
was forbidden to bury the dead in it. The two ifles of
Delos and Rhenea are called « Dili or Ifdiles.”’
Rhenea retains its name, and is denominated alfo Great
Delos ; it is feparated from the famous ifland of Delos by
a ftrait of about soo toifes. In the middle of this narrow
channel are two fhoals, called the Great and the Little
Ramateari: the ancient Greeks had confecrated the larger
to Hecate or Diana, and called it the ifland of Hecate, or
Pfammite. Ships, even men of war, find. good anchorage
near this ifland. N. lat. 37° 10'.. E. long. 25° 15’. See
De os.
RHENEN, in Geography, a town of Holland, in the
department of Utrecht, feated on the river Leck ; 20 miles
N.N.E. of Bois-le-Duc. N. lat. 51° 59’. E. long. 5° 30!.
RHENFERD, James, in Biography, a celebrated orien-
tal {cholar, was born at Mulheim, in Weftphalia, in the
year 1654. He went through a courfe of academical
itudies at the college of Meurs, a city in the duchy of
@leves, and afterwards travelled for improvement into fo-
reign countries. In 1678, when he was 24 years of age,
he accepted an invitation to become rector of the Latin
college in the city of Franeker; but upon the condition
that, while he held that poit, he fhould be at liberty to
deliver lectures on the Oriental languages. He religned
his re€torfhip and removed to Amfterdam, where fome of
the moft wealthy families in that city employed him in the
capacity of tutor, and he enjoyed, at the fame time, a fa-
vourable opportunity for converfing with learned Jews,
and improving his knowledge of rabbinical learning. In
the year 1683, a vacancy having taken place in the pro-
feflorfhip of the Oriental languages and {acred philofophy
at the univerfity of Franeker, by the removal of the famous
Vitringa to the theological chair, M. Rhenferd received an
invitation to fill it; which he accepted. M. Rhenferd
held this poft nearly thirty years, during which he had the
honour of being thrice chofen re¢tor of the univerfity. He
died in 1712, when he wasin the 59th year of bis age. His
learning was general and extenfive ; but he chiefly excelled
in an acquaintance with the Hebrew, including the Rab-
binical, the Chaldee, and Syriac. He was author of feveral
learned works, among which the following may be men-
tioned; ‘* De Antiqmitate Characteris hodierni Judaici,”
1696, 4to.$ in which he endeavoured to eftablifh the claim of
the prefent Hebrew charaéters to the higheft antiquity, and
to prove that the Samaritan characters were borrowed from
the Hebrews ; ‘¢ Comparatio Expiationis anniverfarie Pon.
tificis maximi in Vet. Teft. cum unica atque eterna Expia-
tionis Chrifti Domini;” « Inveftigatio Prefeftorum et
Miniftrorum Synagoge,”? 1700, ato.; “ Diflertationum
RHE
Theologico-philclugicaram de Stylo Novi Telltamenti Syn-
tagma, quo continentur Olearit, Cocceii, &c. de hoe genere
Libelli,”’? &c. 1701, 4to.; ‘* Arabarchay feu, Ethnarcha
Judzorum,”’ 1702, 4to.; “ De Statuis et Aris, falfis verif-
que Dei et Hominum Internunciis,’”’ in illuftration of
Exod. xx. 23, 24,1705, 4to. 3 “ Obfervationum feleCtarum
ad Loca Hebraea Nov. Teft. partes five Difput. Tres,”’
1705, 4to. &c. In 1706 he commenced the publication of
a work, entitled « Rudimenta Grammatice Harmonice
Linguarum Orientalium, Hebree, Chaldaice, Syriace, et
Arabice,”’ which he did not live to finifh.
RHENONES, among the ancient Germans, a kind of
garment covering the fhoulders and breaft down to the
middle. It was either entirely made of fkins, or ccvered
over with them; the long hair of which being outward,
proved a good defence againft rain.
RHENUS, in Geography. See Rurxe.
RHEO-STATICS, is ufed by fome for the flatics, ox
the fcience of the equilibrium of fluids.
RHERIGONEUS Sinus, in Ancient Geography.
Rericontan Bay.
RHESAPHA, a town of Syria, in the Palmyrene, near
Chole. Ptol.
RHESCIPA, or RescnrpHa, a town of Afia, in Mefo.
potamia, upon the banks of the Euphrates, between Be-
thaunaand Agamana. Prtol.
RHESINA, a town of Afia, near Mefopotamia, on the
river Aboras. Steph. Byz.
RHETICUS, Grorce Joacuim, in Biography, an
excellent German aftronomer and mathematician in the 16th
century, and a native of Feldkirk, the chief town of one
of the weftern counties of the T'yrolefe, was born in the
year 1514. Difcovering early an inclination towards the
{tudy of the mathematics, he was initiated in the elements ef
that {cience at Zurich ; whence he removed to the univerfity
of Wittemberg : here he took the degree of maiter of philo-
fophy in 1535, and two years afterwards he was made joint
profeffor of the mathematics and aftronomy with the famous
Remnwoitp. (See his article.) While he was daily rifing
into reputation by his lectures, he was informed of the hypo,
thefis of Copernicus concerning the revolution of the hea-
venly bodies ; which appeared to him to be fo reafonable,
that he determmed to refign his profefferihip, and ttudy
the do&trine under the inttruGtions of its author. Accord-
ingly, in 1539, he left Wittemberg, and went into Pruffia,
where he became a difciple of that great man. To the
fyftem of Copernicus he foon became an entire convert ; and
he afterwards affifted his mafter for fome years in his aflro-
nomical Jabours. In vain did he for a long time urge
Copernicus, in ¢ommon with the other friends of that
aitronomer, to favour the world with his grand work, « De
Revolutionibus Orbium Ceeleftium.”? At length, ‘the per-
fuations of his friends having prevailed upon Copernicus to
permit the appearance ef his work, the care of editing it
was confided to Rheticus, who caufed it.to be printed at
Nuremberg in. 1543, in folio. He now began his very
elaborate “ Canon Doérine Triangulorum,”’ or canon of
fines, tangents, and fecants, to fifteen places of figures, and
to every ten feconds of the quadrant: a defign which he
did not live to complete. The canon of fines, however, to
the fame radius, for every ten feconds, and for every fingle
fecond in the firft and lait degree of the quadrant com-
puted by him, was publifhed at Francfort in 1613, folio.
Upon the death of Copernicus, who lived only a few hours
after he received a copy of his printed work, Rheticus re-
turned to Wittemberg, and was again admitted to his pott
of mathematical and altronomical profeffor. For fome time
after
See
R-H E
after this he taught the mathematics at Leipfic ; and he
afterwards left Saxony a fecond time, and went into Poland.
In the year 1576, upon the invitation 6f a Hungarian
nobleman, he went to Caflavia in Hungary, where, in con-
fequence of fleeping ina room regently plaiftered, he caught
a diforder on his lungs, which proved fatal to him in the
63d year of his age. He compofed and publifhed « Ephe-
merides,’? according to the do¢triae of Copernicus, till the
year 1551; ‘¢ Orationes de Aftronomia, Geometria, et
Phyfica,” &e.
RHETORIANS, Ruerori, a fe&, in the fourth cen-
tury, in Egypt, fo nominated from their leader Rhetorius.
His diitinguifhing doétrine, as reprefented by Philattrius,
was, that he approved of all the herefies before him, and
taught that they were all in the right. But what Philaf-
trius mentions of him appears fo abfurd and ridiculous, that
St. Augultine, Heref. 7, could not perfuade himfelf it
was true.
RHETORIC, Ruerorica, formed from fnropixx, of fsx,
T fpeak, whence jnzve, /peaker, orator, Sc. the art of {peaking
copioufly on any fubjeét, with all the advantages of beauty
and force.
Rhetoric is generally confidered as the art of perfuafion.
It attempts to produce conviction concerning fome par-
ticular objeét, that it may influence the will to a corre-
fponding determination. It feeks either to aroufe the mind
to action, or to diffuade it from a€ting upon the refolutions
already taken, or fuch as are in contemplation. Its im-
mediate employment is not to fearch after truth, but to
render acknowledged or fuppofed truths influential. It
leayes to logic the province of cool inveftigation, and of
drawing legitimate conclufions from admitted premifes,
without any regard to motives. The rhetorician is foli-
citous to effeét fome particular purpofe, and calls in the
art of reafon merely as an auxiliary. He attempts to in-
fluenee the will by reafoning with the affections ; knowing
that if they be gained over to the party efpoufed, the will
is ready to follow. He, therefore, artfully conceals, or
{lightly pafles over, every circumftance which is not favour-
able to his views, and brings forwards and largely expatiates
upon thofe which are. He fuggelts motives of pleafure, uti-
lity, fafety, honour, pity, &c. as the fubject admits. He not
only pre-{uppofes the object in view of the firit importance,
but he employs every method to implant this conviction in
the minds of thofe whom he endeavours to perfuade. Thefe
attempts become moit fuccefsful by a clofe imitation of
that train of ideas, and thofe modes of expreffion, which
any particular paffion or affection is prone to fuggeit. If
the defign be to excite anger and re/entment, rhetoric imitates
the language of anger. It places the fuppofed offence in
the ftrongeit point of view, and defcribes it in the -moft
vivid colours. | It affiduoufly colleéts and expatiates upon
every cireumftance which contributes to the aggravation
of the crime. It is indignant againtt that {piritlefs tranquil-
lity which can patiently endure fuch infults, and attributes
reluctance to revenge to mean and cowardly motives. If its
obje& be to excite Aorror, it affembles together every cir-
cumftance which has a tendency to alarm with a fenfe of
danger. It {tigmatifes courage with the epithet of rafhnefs,
and flight is dignified with the title of prudence, &c. If
compajfion be the obje&, it expatiates upon the wretched
{tate of the fufferer ; his fears, his apprehenfions, his peni-
tence. It palliates his faults, extols his good qualities, and
thus colleéts, in one point of view, all his claims on com-
miferation. The [pecies of argument, which perfons under
the influence of paffions and itrong affeétions perpetually
adopt, is rendered more efficacious by appropriate language.
RHE
The rhetorician, therefore, ftudies and imitates the parti-
cular language of each paflion, either in its energy, vivacity,
or diffufenefs. Hence he liberally employs all thofe tropes
and figures of fpeech which nature fuggefts, and art has
claffified.
Oratory adds to rhetorical compofition the advantages
of elocution. It adapts the manner of delivery to the
nature of the fubje&t and the appropriate language. It
takes the charaéteriftic figns of each emotion for its model,
as far as it dares to imitate, without the imputation of
mimickry ; it enters into the attitudes, geftures, tones of
voice, accents, emphiafis, expreffions of countenance, infpired
by the particular emotion, in fuch a manner, that not an
idea is {uffered to lofe its proper effe&t, by any deficiency
in kind or degree of energy communicated to it ; and thus
it enjoys every advantage to be derived from the power of
fympathy.
Eloquence, according to the modern ideas of it, appears
to be the medium between the impetuofity which oratory
admits, and which was highly charaéteriftic of ancient
oratory, and the ftudied artifice of the profeffed rhetorician.
The term is fometimes applied to compofition, and fome-
times to delivery. When applied to both, it comprehends
a certain degree of elegance, both of dition and of manner,
The want of that energy which approaches to violence, is
compenfated by pertinency of language, fluency of utterance,
and guarded chaitity of addrefs. In a word, its excellency
confifts in a pleafing adaptation of language to the fubjeé,
and of manner to both. It refufes too clofe an imitation of
the turbid emotions, but it delights in animated defcription.
It feems rather partial to the pathetic ; the elegance and
graces which it loves, harmonize moft eafily and fuccefs-
fully with the fofteft and fineft feelings of our nature.
(Cogan on the Paffions.) See Exocution, ELoquence,
and ORATORY.
Rueroric, Charaders in. See CHARACTER.
RHETORICAL Numsers. See Numsers.
Rireroricat Accent, among Hebreww Grammarians.
AccENT.
RHETORICIAN. See Oratory.
RHEU, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ille and Vilaine; five miles W.S.W. of
Rennes.
RHEUM, in Botany, a name derived, as Linneus fup-
pofes, from f:w, to flow, on account of its aéttve medicinal
properties. The Pxov, or P2, of Diofcorides is probably of
this genus, and the origin of the name.—Linn. Gen. zor.
Schreb. 271. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.488. Mart. Mill. Dia.
v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.430. Jufl. 82. Gertn. t. 119.
Lamarck Did. v. 6. 192. Illuttr. t. 324. (Rhabarba-
rum; Tournef.t.18.) Rhubarb.—Clafs and order, En-
neandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn. Polygonee,
Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, narrowed at
the bafe, withering, but permanent, cloven into fix obtufe
fegments, sleenately {maller. Cor. none, except the three
inner fegments of the calyx be confidered fuch, as in Rumex.
Stam. Filaments nine, capillary, equal in length with the
calyx, and inferted into it ; anthers twin, oblong, obtufe.
Pif!. Germen fuperior, fhort, triangular ; ftyles fcarcely
any ; ftigmas three, reflexed, feathery. eric. none.
Seed folitary, large, triangular, acute, with membranaceous
margins.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fix-cleft, permanent.
gular.
1. R. Rhaponticum. Rhapontic Rhubarb. Linn. Sp
Pl. 531. Alpin. Rhapont. 1. t. 1.—_ Leaves obtufe,
U2 fmooth ;
See
Seed one, trian-
RHEUM.
fmooth ; veins foniewhat hairy beneath; the finus dilated
at the bafe: {talks furrowed on the upper fide, rounded at
the edge.’’—Native of Afia, and. cultivated, like all the
other {pecies (except Leucorrhizum), at Kew, where they
moftly flower in May and June.—Root large and thick, much
divided, reddifh-brown on the outfide, yellow within. Stems
from two to three feet high, jointed, purple. Leaves not
expanded at firft, but folded, {mooth, roundifh heart-fhaped,
on thick, reddifh, channelled ftalks, which have an acid fla-
your, and are ufed for making tarts... Flowers white, form-
ing a thick, obtufe, denfe tuft, which becomes a panicle of
large, triangular, brown /éeds.
2. Re undulatum. Waved-leaved or Chinefe Rhubarb.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 531. Ameen, Acad. ve 3. 230. t. 4.—
sé Leaves rather hairy, undulated ; the finus dilated at the
bafe: ftalks flat above, fharp at the edges.”?—Native of
China and Siberia.— Root compofed of numerous thick fibres,
running further into the ground, and of a deeper yellow than
the foregoing. Stem upright, three or four feet in height,
of a pale brownifh colour. Leaves fomewhat tapering,
much waved at their edges, ftrongly veined beneath.
Flowers white, in loofe panicles or bunches. Seeds of a
rulty brown, :
3. R. palmatum. Officinal or Turkey Rhubarb. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 531. Mill. Iluftr. t. 30. Woodv. Med. Bot.
127. t. 46.— Leaves palmate, pointed, roughith ; the finus
dilated at the bafe : ftalks obfoletely furrowed above, round-.,
ed at the edge.”’—Native of China and Tartary.—Xoot pe-
rennial, thick, oval, fending forth numerous tapering
branches, externally brown, internally yellow. Stem erect,
fix or eight feet high, round, hollow, jointed, fheathed,
flightly furrowed, branched towards the top. Radical-leaves
numerous, large, rough, roundifh, deeply lobed 5 /fem-eaves
one at each joint, from a membranous fheath, {maller up-
wards. Flowers of a greenifh-white colour, furrounding the
branches in numerous clufters, forming a kind of {pike.
The roots of this and the lait fpecies conftitute the drugs
which in our fhops are known by the names of Chinefe and
Turkey Rhubarb, although other fpecies of Rheum, efpe-
cially compadum, poflefs like medicinal properties, and their
roots are of courfe fometimes fubftituted for the true ones.
Profeflor Martyn and Dr. Woodville have taken great pains
to illuftrate this genus, fo juftly celebrated for its purgative
qualities. Dr. Pulteney remarks, that if R. undulatum and
R. palmatum are planted near each other, they produce a
hybrid variety, more excellent in kind than the parent
plants.
4. R. compaéum. Thick-leaved Rhubarb. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 531. Mill. Ic. v. 2. 145. t. 218.—Leaves fomewhat
lobed, very obtufe, lucid, fharply toothed, quite fmooth.
—Native of Tartary.—Roots large, much divided, yellow
within. Stems five or fix feet high, green, branched at the
upper part. Leuves long, broad at the bafe, coriaceous
and compact, rather waved, and having a fharp acid flavour.
Flowers white, forming an erect panicle or f{pike. This is
frequently fubitituted for the real rhubarb.
.-R. ¢artaricum. Tartarian Rhubarb. Linn. Suppl.
229. Willd. n. 5.— Leaves ovate, heart-fhaped, undivided,
flat, fmooth, on roundifh, angulated ftalks. Panicle fur-
rowed.—Native of Leffler Tartary. We know of neither
f{pecimen nor figure of this fpecies. Linneus defcribed it
from the Upfal garden as having large /eaves, the radical
ones procumbent, with dilated veins, on red flalks, which
are convex beneath. Jnflorefcence {carcely higher than the
leaves.
6..R. Rides. Warted-leaved Rhubarb. Linn. Sp. Pl.
532. Desfont. in Ann. du Mof. v. 2. 261. t. 49. (LLa-
pathum orientale, afpero et verrucofo folio, Ribes Arabi-
bus diétum ; Dill. Elth. v. 1. 191.t. 158. f. 192.)—Leaves
very obtufe, verrucofe, with {pinous veins beneath ; {talks
flat above, rounded at the margin.—Native of the Levant ;
on mount Libanus, and other mountainous parts of Syria.
— Root thick and fiefhy. Stems two feet high, hairy, green,
tinged with purple towards the bottom. Leaves large,
curled at the edges, veined, of a purplifh-green colour,
paler beneath, ftudded with warts. Linneus, who had
never feen the flower, referred this plant to Rheum from its
habit.
7. R. hybridum. Battard Rhubarb. Willd. n. 7. Murray
in Comment. Gott. 1779, 7. t. 1.—Leaves fmooth above,
rather hairy beneath, {lightly lobed, acute; the finus nar-
rowed at the bafe ; {talks ob{curely furrowed above, rounded
at the margin.—Native of the north of Afia.—Very fimi-
lar in habit and appearance to A. palmatum, and we are much
difpofed to confider it, with profeflor Murray, as a hybrid
plant produced between that and fome other {pecies. The
leaves of this are not fo much nor fo deeply cut as thofe of
palmatum.
8. R. leucorrhizum. White-rooted Rhubarb. Willd.
n. 8. Pallas Nov. A&. Petrop. 1792, 381.—Leaves
tranfverfely oval, deprefled. Panicle divaricated when in
feed. Two fegments of the calyx many times larger than
the reft.—Native of defart places, on the mountains of Si-
beria.—Adopted by Willdenow, on the authcrity of Pallas,
who defcribes it thus. ‘¢ Radical-leaves ufually three, pro-
cumbent, four or five inches wide, three-nerved, much
veined, {mooth, coriaceous, lengthened out at the bafe;
rough at the edges, with very minute, cartilaginous, acute
crowded teeth. Sva/ks comprefled, {mooth, folid, fucculent.
Flowering-flem a {pan high, furrowed, panicled.”
Rueum, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbaceous,
perennial, luxuriant kind, of which the fpecies chiefly culti-
vated are; the rhapontic or common rhubarb (R. rhapon-
ticum) ; the palmated-leaved (R. palmatum); the com-
pact thick-leaved rhubarb (R. compactum) ; the waved-
leaved Chinefe rhubarb (R. undulatum) ; the warted-leaved
Perfian rhubarb (R.-ribes) ; and the Tartarian or heart-
leaved rhubarb (R. tartaricum. )
It is ftated, on the authority of feveral cultivators of the
firft fpecies of this plant, by the editor of Miller’s Dic-
tionary, that by proper attention in the growth and prepa-
ration of the root, it may be obtained here nearly in equal
goodnefs to the foreign.
Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are all increafed by
feeds, which fhould be fown in autumn foon after they are
ripe, where the plants are defigned to remain, as their roots
being large and flefhy when they are removed, they do not
recover it foon; nor do the roots of fuch removed plants
ever grow fo large aud fair as thofe which remain where they
were fown. When the plants appear in the {pring the
ground fhould be well hoed over, to cut up the weeds ; and
where they are too clofe, fome fhould be cut up, leaving
them at the firft hoeing fix or eight-inches afunder ; but at
the fecond, they may be feparated. to a foot and a half
diitance, and more. When any weeds appear, the ground
fhould be {cuffed over with a Dutch hoe in dry weather ;
but after the plants covgr the ground with their broad
leaves, they keep down the weeds without any further trou-
ble. ‘The ground fhould be cleaned in autumn when the
leaves decay, andin the fpring, before the plants begin to
put up their new leaves, be dug well between them. In the
fecond year, many of the ftrongeft plants will produce
flowers and feeds, and in the third year moftof them. It is
advifed, that the feeds be carefully gathered when ripe, and
not
Ree Es
not permitted to featter, left they grow and injure the old
lants. - i
‘ The roots continue many years without decaying, and it
is faid that the old roots of the true rhubarb are much pre-
ferable to the young ones. The roots may be generally
taken up after four years, but if they remain longer, it is
fo much the better.
Thefe plants delight in a rich foil, which is not too dry
nor over moift ; and where there is a depth in fuch land for
their roots to run down, they attain a great fize, both in the
leaves and roots.
Some cultivators think that the fowing is beft performed
in the Jater {pring months ; but in this way, as the feeds are
flow in vegetating, there is much time loft. And a hot-bed
has been fometimes employed, though it is not much ad-
vifed.
The rhubarb plants may be alfo increafed from offsets,
feparating fome of the eyes or buds which fhoot out on the
upper parts of the root, together with a {mall parte of the
root itfelf, having fome of the fibres to it. Thefe offsets
may be taken from roots of three or four years old, without
any injury tothe plant. By this method a year is faved,
and the plants are not in fuch danger of being devoured by
vermin as thofe from feed, nor fo uncertain in growing ; they
are not fo tender, and only require keeping clear of weeds.
There is no difference in the fize of the roots thus raifed,
from thofe which grow from feeds. This method was prac-
tiled by Mr. Hays, andin Mr. Hayward’s praétice feveral
offsets were flipped from the heads of large plants in the
fpring, and fet with a dibble about a foot apart. Four
ears after, he took up the roots, and found them very
Lie, and of excellent quality. On further experience,
when he took up his roots, either in {pring or autumn, he
divided the head into many parts; thefe he planted direétly,
at two feet diftance, if intended for future removal ; but if
to remain fora crop, at four feet and a half.
And in the culture of this root for medicizal ufes,
the nature of the afpect is faid not to be very mate-
rial, provided it be not fhaded too much on the fouth or
welt. The indifpenfable points are the depth and good qua-
lity of the foil, which fhould be light, loamy, and rich, but
not too much fo, left the roots be too fibrous : it can {carcely
be too dry, for more evil is to be expected from a fuper-
-abundancy of moifture than from any aétual want of it.
If, with thefe advantages, the plantation can be placed ona
entlé“declivity, fuch a fituation may be faid to be the moft
a Geble. Where a plantation does not poffefs the natural
advantage of being on a declivity, narrower beds and
deepened trenches are among the artificial means that fhould
be adopted; but molt fituations will require fome care to
prevent the ill effects of water remaining on the crowns of
the plants; therefore, when the feed-{talks are cut off, which
ought always to be done immediately upon the withering
of the radical leaves, they fhould be covered with mould, in
form of ahillock. This procefs will anfwer two good pur-
pofes ; that of throwing off the rain, and keeping open the
trenches by taking the earth from them. And itis obferved,
that the injuries to which the young plants are moft liable,
are from flugs and other vermin, from inattention to the
feafon and manner of planting, and from too great an ex-
pofure to froit, Little damage is to be feared from heat ;
and, in general, they are hardy andeafy of cultivation when
arrived beyond a certain term. It is advifed to take great
care of the nurfery bed, as the pains beftowed by conftant
waterings, and protecting the young plants from the ravages
of infets, will amply repay the planter. Roots that thrive
well here, will in three years arrive at an equal fize with
/
RHE
others, that have not fucceeded fo well at the end of five.
When a plantation is to be formed, or a vacancy filled Ups
feleét the fineft and moft thrifty plants. No plant will come
to any thing when it has loit its principal bud.
It is alfo obferved, that there is a difference of opinion
in re{peét to the age at which the roots ought to be taken
up for ufe; but it is probably beft done from four to eight
years. They are the beft when taken up in autumn, ina
dry time, and fhould be immediately dried and prepared by
cutting into pieces and cleaning, hanging them on proper
firings in a dry airy place.
And fome plants of each of the forts may alfo be intro-
duced in the dry borders and clumps, for the ornamental
effe& of the leaves and flowers.
Rueum, in Medicine, jupna, defludion, a term which was
in common ufe in the vocabulary of the humoral patholo-
gilts, to denote the fluid difcharged from a part, as of
mucus in coryza and catarrh, and alfo a fuppofed accu-
mulation or congeltion of fluidin a part. In their doétrine,
every inflammation and tumour was afcribed to a deflu€tion
of fome humour in the part affe€ted; but modern obferva-
tion has taught us, that the accumulation of fluid, in thefe
cafes, is generally the effeét, and not the caufe, of the dif-
eafe ; being the confequence of inflammatory a¢tion of the
veflels, which produces an increafed difcharge and an al-
tered condition of their fecreted fluids. Although the
term and the doctrine are both exploded, they have left a
popular appellation attached to a difeafe, which is univer-
fally called rheumatifn.
RHEUMATISM, from the preceding word, a painful
difeafe ufually affeting the joints, and fometimes the
mufcles. The appellation feems to have been firft limited
to this diforder by a celebrated French writer, Baillou, or,
as he calls himfelf in Latin, Ballonius; and has fince been
adopted both by the erudite and the vulgar.
Rheumatifm aflumes two or three forms, remarkably dif-
ferent from each other, independently of the varieties which
difference of feat occafions; a difference, indeed, which is
rather nominal than real. Of the latter diftin@tions, we
have /umbago, when the difeafe is feated in the loins (/uméi) ;
ifchias, or fciatica, when it occurs in the hip; and pleuro-
dyne, when it attacks the fides, which are lined with the
membrane called pleura, &c. The more remarkable f{pecies
of the difeafe, however, to which we have alluded, are the
acute and chronic forms which it exhibits. There is alfo a
third form, partaking more of the acute than of the chronic
{pecies, which has been called, with fome impropriety,
rheumatic gout, or arthritis rheumatica. It will be neceffary
to {peak of the acute and chronic rheumatifm, as well as of
the rheumatic gout, feparately ; fince the treatment, which
they refpeCtively require, is confiderably different.
RueumatisM, Acute, otherwife called rheumatic fever,
begins, like moft other febrile difeafes, with fits of chillinefs,
which are fucceeded by increafed heat, frequent pulfe, thirit,
lofs of appetite, and proftration of ftrength. Not unfre-
quently, however, the peculiar fymptoms appear before
any febrile fymptom is obferyed; namely, pain and inflam-
mation in the joints. The pain fometimes affects the joints
alone, but often it affe€ts alfu the mufcular parts, fhooting
along the courfe of the mufcles from one joint to another ;
and it is always increafed by the ation of the mufcles, that
is, by any attempt to move the joints that are difeafed. Its
ufual feat is in the larger joints, fuch as the hips, knees,
fhoulders, and elbows: the ankles and wrifts are alfo fre-
quently attacked ; but the fmaller joints, fuch as thofe of
the toes and fingers, fuffer confiderably lefs. Two, three,
or more of éhete joints are commonly affected at the fame
time ;
RHEUMATISM.
time; but the pain is conftantly fhifting its place, leaving
fome joint and going to another, and frequently returning
again to each of them feveral times during the courfe of the
difeafe; and in this manner the difeafe is often protracted
for a confiderable length of time. Soon after, and fome-
times at the fame moment with the commencement of the
pain, the joint feized becomes {welled and fomewhat red ;
and this {welling is extremely painful to the touch. The
pain is fometimes relieved by the occurrence of {welling, but
not always; neither is the joint thus rendered more fecure
from a return of the attack. The patient, thus unable to
move the joints affe€ted, which are irritated and acutely
pained by external contact, fometimes even by the weight
of the bed-clothes, and in a ftate of fevere internal pain, un-
able to find any pofition of eafe, lies fleeplefs and reftlefs for
feveral days and nights together. The fever accompanying
the difeafe is moft confiderable during the night, at which
time the pains alfo are moft violent. The pulfe is com-
monly from ninety to a hundred in a minute, and occafion-
ally more frequent; often full, and fometimes hard and
fharp, but moft frequently foft. The heat of the fkin is
confiderable, and the difeafe is commonly attended with
fweating, even from an early period, which is often profufe
and conftant, but never either relieves the pains permanently,
or proves a crifis to the fever. The urine, in acute rheu-
matifm, is remarkably high-coloured from the beginning,
and afterwards depofits moft copioufly a brownifh-red fedi-
ment, like brick-duft. This fediment, however, is pro-
bably the refult rather of the profufe fweating, than of any
peculiarity belonging to the difeafe ; fince it is commonly
feen after a defe of fudorific medicine, or any other variety
of perfpiration. Like the fweating, it does not occafion or
betoken any favourable change in the fever. When blood
is drawn in this difeafe, it always exhibits, and generally in
a high degree, the buffy coat, as it is called, or a coriaceous
covering of coagulable lymph, on its furface. :
With the fymptoms above detailed, the rheumatic fever
often continues for feveral weeks: it feldom, however,
proves fatal, and perhaps never, while the joints alone are
the feat of the difeafe; the fever, indeed, ufually becomes
lefs violent after two or three weeks, and the pains lefs fe-
vere, and lefs difpofed to change their place. But occa-
fionally the inflammation of the joints has difappeared, and
fome vital organ, as the brain, lungs, er ftomach, has been
f{eized with inflammation, by which the patient has been
carried off; or thefe organs have become fimultaneoufly af-
fe&ted, and the fame fatal event hasenfued. We have had
occafion to witnefs two in{tances of this kind, out of feveral
hundreds of cafes, in which a tranfition of the difeafe from
the joints to the lungs took place, or, at leaft, in which, on
the {peedy ceffation of rheumatifm in the joints, a violent in-
flammation of the lungs fupervened, and terminated fatally.
We have alfo feen fuch a metafafis to the lungs, which was
removed by vigorous treatment. The venerable Dr. Hay-
garth, however, has given a more unfavourable {tatement of
this matter from his experience ; for ‘* out of 170 cafes,”
(fpeaking of acute rheumatifm,) he fays, ‘ I have found
twelve which had a fatal termination, either by a tranflation
of the inflammation to the brain, lungs, kidnies, ftomach,
or fome other vital part, or as being found in combination
with other difeafes.”? (See Clinical Hift. of Acute Rheu-
matifm, p. 61.) Dr. Cullen has not mentioned any fuch
efult of the difeafe. From the obfervations of our con-
temporaries, it has been found that the heart is peculiarly
liable to be affected by a metattafis of rheumatic inflamma-
tion, or to be attacked with a flow difeafe, by which its
bulk becomes increafed, and its functions difturbed, after
the ceffation of acute rheumatifm. This fa&t was firlt men-
tioned by Dr. Baillie, on the authority of the late Dr. Pit-
cairn, and has fince been more fully eftablifhed by the re-
cords of feveral cafes. See efpecially a paper by Mr. fer-
jeant-furgeon Dundas, in the firit volume of the Medico-
Chirurgical Tranfaétions ; alfo Dr. Baillie’s Morbid Ana-
tomy.
It has been remarked by Dr. Cullen, as indicative of the
peculiar nature of rheumatic inflammation, that “ the acute
rheumatifm, though it has fo much of the nature of the
other phlegmafiz, differs from all thofe hitherto mentioned
inthis, that i is not apt to terminate in fuppuration. This al-
moft never happens in rheumatifm; but the difeafe fome-
times produces effufions of a tran/parent gelatinous fluid into
the fheaths of the tendons. If we may be allowed to fup-
pofe that fuch effufions are frequent, it mult alfo happen
that the effufed fluid is commonly re-abforbed ; for it has
f{eldom happened, and never indeed to my obfervation, that
confiderable or permanent tumours have been produced, or ~
fuch as required to be opened, and to have the contained
fluid evacuated. Such tumours, however, have occurred
to others, and the opening made in them has produced
ulcers difficult to heal.’ (See Cullen, Firft Lines, par. 448.)
The non-occurrence of fuppuration in thefe violent rheu-
matic inflammations is of itfelf a ftriking charaCteriltic of the
difeafe ; and the circumftance, that it is not produdtive, on
the other hand, of what are called chalk-/lones, or of that
cretaceous-like fecretion which is the refult of the inflamma-
tion of gout, diftinguifhes it from the latter malady. In
addition to this circumiftance, however, there are other
points of diftinétion between the gouty and rheumatic inflam-
mation; namely, that the latter ufually attacks the large
joints ; that it is not preceded by fymptoms of indigeftion ;
that it does not recur in regular paroxy{ms ; and that it at-
tacks younger people, and thofe not liable to gout from
their modes of life; and, as we fhall fee immediately, is
ufually the effect of a {pecific caufe, cold.
Caufes of Acute Rheumatifm.—The circumftances which
conttitute a predifpofition to the attacks of acute rheumatif{m
are various. Perfons of an irritable, plethoric, or fan-
guineous habit, are moft liable to be affected, when expofed
to the action of the exciting caufes; and a certain period of
life, in which there is a confiderable vigour in the fangui-
ferous fyftem, alfo predifpofes toit. It affects, indeed, per-
fons of all ages, from five to above fixty years ; but is much
the moft frequent between the time of puberty and the
thirtieth year. Dr. Haygarth confiders it as moft common
between fifteen and twenty. Some difference has been fup-
pofed to exift with refpe& to fer; fince it is certain that
males are much more fubje¢t to the difeafe, in this country,
than females; Dr. Haygarth fays, in the proportion of
nearly four to three. But it is probable, as the fame writer
fuggetts, that this arifes from the more conftant expafure of
men to cold and rain, by the nature of their occupations,
than women; whence, he was informed, that, in Holland,
the rheumatifm is feldom found in women, though the air is
very humid, becaufe they are more domefticated than in this
country, and their drefs is warmer. Preceding attacks of
the difeafe feem to afford a ftrong predifpofition to future
recurrences of it.
When thefe predifpofitions exift, the acute rheumatifm is
readily excited by the fudden application of cold or damp,
when the body has been already much heated, and is per-
{piring after fatigue; or when one part of the body is ex-
pofed to cold, while the other parts are kept warm; or,
laftly, by any long continued application of cold and moif-
ture, under any circumitances, as by wearing wet or damp
3 clothes,
RHEUMATISM.
clothes. Whence the difeafe is almott exclufively obferved
in cold and changeable climates; and is moft frequent in
the molt variable feafons, as in the {pring and autumn, very
Seldom occurring during the fteady heat of fummer.
Cure of Acute Rheumatifn.—With refpe& to the treat-
ment, which is moit fuccefsful in the remeval of this dif-
trefling and painful malady, confiderable difference of
opinion, and fome fluctuations of opinion, have taken place
among profeffional men. The acute pain, the great heat,
the quicknefs and fulnefs of the pulfe, and the buffy or in-
flammatory appearance of the blood, when drawn, have led
the majority to look upon it as a highly inflammatory
difeafe, and to be cured almolt exclufively (like the other
organic inflammations) by copious 4/ood-letting. Boerhaave
maintained this doétrine ; and Cullen followed him to the
full extent. ‘ The blood ought to be drawn in darge quan-
tity,”? Lays the latter, ‘ and the bleeding is to be ape in
proportion to the frequency, fulnefs, and hardnefs of the
pulfe, and to the violence of the pain. Yor the moft part,
large and repeated bleedings, during the firft days of the dif-
eafe, feem to be neceffary, arid accordingly have been very
much employed ; but to this fome bounds are to be fet; for
very profufe bleedings occalion a flow recovery, and, if not
abfolutely effeGtual, are ready to produce a chronic rheu-
matifm.””? (Firft Lines, parag. 463. See Boerhaave,
app. 1493-) The Cullenian doctrine is, we believe, even
now taught in the {chool of Edinburgh, with fearcely any
of the cautionary bounds mentioned by that fagacious prac-
titioner.. Sir John Pringle trufted much to the fame prac-
tice. Sydenham began his career by ordering four bleedings
for the cure of rheumatifm; but he appears to have gra-
dually declined in his attachment to that practice, and fays,
that he found it better to purge after the fecond bleeding.
And again, in the Jaft piece which he ever-wrote, he fays,
«If we obftinately perfift in thefe evacuations, till the
fymptoms entirely go off, the difeafe will often terminate
fatally.” (Sched. Monitor.) He alfo fays, in his Pro-
ceflus Integri, which he compofed for the ufe of his fon,
that in young perfons, who live temperately, ‘“ the rheu-
matiim may be as fuccefsfully cured-by a very cooling and
moderately nourifhing diet, as by repeated bleedings, which
they cannot fo well bear.?? Van Swieten, who has traced
out this progrefs-of Sydenham’s experience, admits that he
has cured many cafes of acute rheumatifm without bleeding,
if they were mild in the beginning.
Now this has been the progrefs of the general experience
in our own times; and at prefent, few Englifh phyficians
deem blood-letting the leading rémedy for acute rheuma-
tifm. On the contrary, the molt experienced have fully
decided, that, in the great majority of cafes, evacuation is
entirely unneceffary ; and that, if it is frequently repeated,
it does a material injury, by finking the patient into a long
and tedious chronic difeafe, as Dr. Cullen ftated, from
which there is fometimes no recovery ; and always occafions
a lingering convalefcence. Perhaps the only cafes in which
it is requifite are in perfons of highly vigorous and inflam-
matory habits, in whom a fingle bleeding may diminifh that
diathefis; and in thofe cafes in which metattafis threatens,
or atually takes place. Where this tranflation has indeed
already occurred to any vital organ, as the lungs or brain,
then the molt vigorous venefeCtion mult be reforted to, as
for the moft dangerous forms of pleurify or phrenitis.
But, we repeat it, experience has legitimately proved,
that blood-letting may be fuperfeded altogether, in a great
majority of cafes of acute rheumatifm, by other remedies.
'Thefe other remedies, to which different pratitioners have
reforted, have been chiefly purgatives, fudorifics, opiates, and
the Peruvian dark, of each of which it will be neceflary te
take fome notice ; for they are all ufeful under certain con-
ditions of the patient and the difeafe, and conftitute the
principal means of cure.
Purgatives, as they contribute, if properly feleGted, to
reduce every {pecies of febrile excitement, though they are
alone incapable of effectually relieving this difeafe, are yet
eflentially beneficial as a part of the plan of cure. The fa-
line purgatives, fuch as the fulphate of magnefia, are the
beft adapted to relieve the bowels and the fyftem at large ;
or they may be affifted by moderate dofes of calomel, which
perhaps more effectually empties the upper bowels. They
become alfo more particularly neceffary, when the narcotic
medicines, to be mentioned prefently, are adminiftered, with
a view to obviate the conftipation which the latter produce.
But no practitioner would confide in cathartics alone for the
cure of acute rheumatifm.
With refpect to /udorifics, there is a more general ten-
dency to tru(t the cure to them; partly becaufe the pains
are often faid to be eafier, while perfpiration is prefent ; and
partly with the view of afliiting the apparent efforts of the
conftitution. It may be remarked, however, that although
the moft profufe fweats very frequently break out fpon-
taaeoufly, they feldom afford any effential relief; and they
will continue day after day, without any apparent influence
upon the difeafe. Accordingly, much dire@ benefit could
not in reality be expe¢ted to arife from augmenting a dif-
charge, already very profufe, and of confiderable duration ;
and, in truth, we believe mere fweating is produétive of no
benefit. But the medicines given as fudorifics, efpecially
antimonials and Dover’s powder, operate beneficially per-
haps by their other qualities. [hus the antimonials, and
the ipecacuanha, and falt of this powder, are kindly and
gentle laxatives, and thus produce an antiphlogiitic efle& as
evacuants; but the principal operation of the powder of
Dr. Dover is probably the refult of the opium which it
contains.
For opiates alone, that is, uncombined with antimony or
ipecacuanha, have been relied upon by fome practitioners,
and with the moit marked fuccefs. As opium, and other
fubftances, poflefling a fimilar narcotic power, have been
known from ancient times to be highly flimulant, that is,
to caufe an increafed a¢tivity and vigour in the circulation
and nervous fyitem, and therefore to be highly injurious in.
ative inflammations ; fo all thofe phyficians, who advocated
venefection, fhunned the ufe of opiates religioufly: and
even thofe, who found by experience that blood-letting was
not required, queflioned neverthelefs the impunity with
which opiates might be adminiftered. Experience, how-
ever, has now fully determined this point alio; that opium
may be adminiftered largely, not only with fafety, but with
molt eflential benefit, in the moft fevere cafes of acute rheu-
matifm. As far as our own obfervation has gone, indeed,
(and we have had occafion to treat fome hundreds of per-
fons affe€ted with this malady,) the combination of repeated
dofes of opium, with a daily faline laxative, with copious
thin diluent drinks, and a light diet, in the beginning of
the difeafe, conititutes the moft fuccefsful management of
the difeafe ; a practice which, it is but jultice to fay, was
introduced into St. George’s hofpital, many years ago, by
the prefent fenior phyfician, Dr. George Pearfon. From
half a grain to a grain, or more, of folid opium may be
given three times a day, in the combination juit mentioned,
without affeGting the head or the itomach, with great,
{peedy, and often permanent relief to the difeafe, and with-
out leaving the tendency to a flow convalefcence, or a
chronic malady, like the violent depletory fyftem.
In
' RHEUMATISM.
In favour of the treatment of this apparently acute in-
flammation by the ftill more oppofite means of a powerful
tonic, the cinchona, or Peruvian bark, the recorded tefti-
mony is {till more confiderable. Dr. Cullen affirmed of the
bark, that he had « feldom found it ufeful, and in’ fome
cafes hurtful,?? when employed before the phlogiftic dia-
thefis was abated, and fomething like remiflions occurred
in the fever. Other practitioners, however, have con-
fidered thefe previous changes unneceflary, except in a very
partial degree, and contend, that the early ufe of the bark
is the molt efficacious mode of curing acute rheumatifm.
Dr. Haygarth is one of the moft ftrenuous advocates for
this pradtice ; indeed, a conviction of its advantages is the
avowed motive for the publication of his ‘Clinical Hiftory”’
of the difeafe, to which we have already referred. He
was led to the adoption of the remedy early, on the re-
commendation of the celebrated Dr. Fothergill, who re-
ceived it from fir Edward Hulfe. Dr. Haygarth has re-
corded eighty-four cafes in which the cinchona was ad-
miniftered, in general, very early in the difeafe, after a
moderate evacuation of the ftomach and bowels, principally
by means of antimonial medicines. On fome occatfions,
however, Dr. Haygarth alfo preceded the ufe of this re-
medy by a bleeding, where the fymptoms were very vio-
lent.
On the whole, the inference which we are difpofed to
draw-from thefe authorities, aided by perfonal obfervation,
is, that the moft fuccefsful praétice confifts in a free purga-
tive evacuation, and an occafional bleeding in particular
habits, in the very onfet of the difeafe, followed imme-
diately by the free ufe of opiates, with copious drinks and
faline laxatives, and this fucceeded, without delay, when
the pains and tumours have fomewhat remitted, by a refort
to the decoétion of cinchona, or fome gentle tonic.
All external applications to the parts which are fwelled
and painful, in acute rheumatifm, are of little or no fervice.
The warm bath and fomentations, efpecially in the begin-
ning of the difeafe, rather aggravate than relieve the pains.
Bliftering, or the minor degree of {uperficial inflammation
produced by rubefacients, if they diminifh the pain in one
part, generally only occafion it to fhift to another, and do
> little towards the cure of the general affection. The fame
obfervation is applicable to refrigerant remedies, fuch as to
wafhing with cold water or other lotions the tumid joints ;
the difeafe but changes its tation, without any tendency
to ceafe altogether; and the change of fituation, though it
4s commonly from joint to joint, may neéverthelefs occa-
fionally take place from the joints to a more important
organ.
RueumMatisM, Chronic. In many inftances, this form
of rheumatifm is the direét confequence of an attack of
the acute form of the difeafe. The febrile fymptoms, the
fwelling, and particularly the rednefs of the joints, have
difappeared, and the general fundtions have refumed their
healthy condition; but {till certain joints continue to be
affeGted with pains and {tiffnefs, which are particularly felt
on motion, and are often accompanied by a fpontaneous
coldnefs, and a torpor, fometimes almoft amounting to
paralytic. Thefe affections are much influenced by the
changes in the temperature and humidity of the atmofphere,
and are diftin@ly aggravated by external cold, and relieved
by external warmth. The parts affected are not eafily
made to perfpire, and when the other parts of the body are
brought into a ftate of free and warm perfpiration, that on
the pained joints is only cold and clammy. The pains ate
alfo, like thofe of acute rheumati{m, moft fevere in the
night.
- appointment.
This chronic affe€tion of the joints, however, is very
often altogether independent of any previous inflammation
and {welling, and occurs in many perfons who have never
been fubject to-an attack of acute rheumatifm. It occurs,
indeed, very frequently in perfons fomewhat advanced in
life, and beyond the period when the acute form of the
malady is ufually feen. In thefe cafes it is commonly
afcribed to the ation of cold; very often to partial ex-
pofures of the particular parts of the body in which it
takes its feat; and it is apt to be produced again and again
in thofe parts which have once fuffered from expofure of
other parts of the body to cold. Thus, getting the feet
wet will induce an attack of lumbago, {fciatica, or a crick
in the neck, according to the predifpofition induced in
thefe refpeCtive regions by former attacks. Many cafes of
chronic rheumatifm are afcribed, however, to violent {trains
of the mufcles of particular parts, occurring on fudden and
fomewhat violent exertions, and even to fatigue from long
continued exertions of particular mufcles. -
As the exaét- nature of the affection called chronic
rheumatifm is not very clearly underltood, {fe the method
of cure, which is ufually purtued, is fomewhat empirical ;
z. e. the mere refult of the obfervation of the effects of
different medicines which have been tried. Dr. Cullen,
indeed, attempted to explain the nature of the difeafe, by
faying, that it confifted in ‘an atory both of the blood-
veflels and of the mufcular fibres of the part affeCted, to-
gether with a degree of rigidity and contraction in the
latter, fuch as frequently attend them in a ftate of atony ;”’
and therefore concluded, that fuch remedies were required,
as were fuited “to reftore the a€tivity and vigour of the
vital principle in the part.’? - The explanation of Dr.
Bardfley, however, though not very different, is perhaps
more confonant to the general opinion upon this fubject.
He confiders the principle of cure as fimple and uniform ;
namely, that “ it confifts in removing paflive inflammation,
and reltoring the debilitated veffels and mufcular fibres to
their due tone and attion.”? (See Dr. Bardfley’s Medical
Reports, p. 4.) The remedies by which thefe objects
are attained, may be included under two heads, internal and
external. :
The internal remedies which have been recemmended ~
for the cure of chronic rheumatifm, though very numerous,
have, on the whole, been found to poflefs a very uncertain
power over the fymptoms of that difeafe ; and many which
have been highly extolled, have been given up in total dif-
Neverthelefs, in many inftances, ‘thefe re-
medies are effentially beneficial, fometimes curing the dif-
eafe alone, and generally aiding the operation of external
applications. They may be defcribed under the denomina-
tion of fudorifics and ftimulants, or_ {timulant-diaphoretics,
to which may be added mercurials, and fome individual ar-
ticles of peculiar operation.
Thefe fudorifics appear to poflefs very little remedial
power over the chronic rheumatifm, and the lefs in propor-
tion as the difeafe partakes lefs of the fwelling and inflam-
mation of the acute {pecies, or as it is of longer ftanding.
In the majority of cafes they are even worfe than ufelefs.
Dr. Bardfley fays, ‘in fhort, I can {peak decidedly of the
injurious effects of fudorifics, when pufhed to any great ex-
tent, in every inftance of fevere local affection of the joints 3
and alfo in moft other cafes, where the difeafe has been lone
continued, and the patient’s conftitution much debilitated.
In chronic Iumbago and fciatica, I have never experienced
any lafting beneft to refult from this mode of praétice.”?
Dr. Bardfley, indeed, {peaks very lightly of the effeGts of
all the internal remedies, not only of this, but of the {timn-
lant
4 RHEUMATISM.
lant clafs. He admits that {mall dofes of antimonial powder,
eombined with calomel and opium, are certainly ufeful in
allaying pain and irritation ; but he believes that their
efficacy confifts rather in palliating fymptoms, than in curing
the difeafe, when it is confiderable in degree and obftinate in
kind. The fame obfervation,” he fays, ‘¢ will nearly
apply to the ufe of ftimulant remedies, fuch as refin of
- guatacum, the clafs of terebinthinates, and of effential oils.
In the moft aggravated inftances of general chronic rheu-
matifm, where great torpor and debility prevailed, guaiacum,
in fuch large dofes as the ftomach and bowels would bear,
was found to be a powerful auxiliary ; and certainly the
moit generally efficacious of all the internal remedies that
were employed. But I have feen no inftance of its com-
plete fuccefs, when unaided by topical applications, in any
{pecies of the difeafe where much local injury of the joints
had taken place. It ated moft beneficially when exhibited
in fubftance, well triturated with mucilage ; to which was
occafionally added gum kino, or tin€ture of opium, te
prevent its effects on the bowels. In many obttinate cafes,
the ammoniated tin@ture of guaiacum, incorporated with mu-
cilage, and joined to a {trong decoétion of bark, proved of
great fervice, where the conititution was broken down by
the violence and length of the difeafe. There were but few
protracted cafes in which the Peruvian bark was not pre-
feribed with advantage as a tonic, efpecially at the clofe of
the difeafe. It was, however, never adminiftered with any
other defign than as an auxiliary.”? (Loc. cit. p. 16.) We
have quoted this paragraph, as containing the refult of the
dedu@tions from a large number of cafes, treated in a public
hofpital,; by a careful and intelligent obferver; and, there-
fore, as effording a probable approximation to the general fact
of the operation of thefe medicines. The fame obfervations,
we believe, are applicable to fome of the other remedies,
of a ftimulant aad diaphoretic quality, which are often re-
forted to; fuch as the preparations of ammonia, infufion of
horfe-radifh, deco€tions of mezereon and rhododendron,
muitard-feed, and all the terebinthinate fubftances and hot
gums. The oil of turpentine itfelf has been much employed,
aud perhaps conititutes a part of the celebrated noftrum called
the eflence of muitard; but our experience of its effeéts ac-
cords with that of Dr. Bardfley, who fays, that, in every
form, turpentine was found to bean ungrateful medicine to the
ftomach ; often impairing the appetite, and not producing,
when even duly perfifted in, effects as falutary as the guaia-
cum and other remedies already mentioned. Neverthelefs,
we muit remark, that in different individual inftances, one of
thefe remedies will fometimes fucceed when the others have
failed, and that therefore none of them fhould be excluded
from the catalogue of ufeful expedients.
Some other fubitances have been employed, with occafional
fuccefs, in the cure of different cafes of chronic rheumatifm,
which do not appear to poffefs any quality in common, and
the operatien of which, therefore, cannot be fatisfactorily
explained. Among thefe we may mention /ulphur, which
has long poffefled a fort of popular reputation for the cure
of lumbago, and fome other varieties of the difeafe. Taken
nightly in a confiderable dofe, fo as to a& gently upon the
bowels, it has fucceeded, in fome inftances, in affording a very
{peedy and marked alleviation of the fymptoms; but, on the
other hand, it has very often failed to produce any effeét what-
ever ; and under what circumftances thefe refpeCtive variations
in its operation occur, we have not been able to afcertain.
Another remedy has enjoyed a very high reputation in fome
parts of the country, efpecially in Lancafhire ; we mean the
cod-liver gil, or ling-liver oil ; for it appears that the oil ob-
tained from the liver of either of thefe fifth is equally effica-
Vor, XXX.
cious. Of this remedy many teftimonies might be adduced
in proof of its occafional efficacy in the moft unyielding
cafes of chronic rheumatifm. From long and repeated ex-
perience, Dr. Bardfley affirms that he is enabled to {peak of
it as a medicine of confiderable but limited powers: in fome
inftances, where every other means had proved unfuccefsful, it
has operated in a manner fo decidedly beneficial, as to excite
aftonifhment ; but, on the other hand, he found it to fail
often in the more mild and common rheumatic affe@tions. He
believes it to be moit beneficial in the chronic rheumatifm of
perfons advanced in age, which is accompanied with extreme
rigidity of the mufcles, and inflexibility of the joints, in
confequence of much expofure to cold and moifture, with
hard fare and much fatigue. It was commonly taken in
warm table-beer by the hofpital patients, in dofes of half
an ounce, or from that to an ounce and a half twice or thrice
a day, according to its effe&ts, or to its agreement with
the patient’s tomach. Its operation is various, fometimes
upon the kidnies, and fometimes upon the bowels ; and occa-
fionally it produced an eruption on the fkin: but thefe effets
occurred only at the firft taking ; for after a fhort continuance,
it ceafed to produce any fenfible operation. When it pro-
duced relief, this was obvious by the end of a fortnight, and
continued flowly to increafe ; and in thefe cafes the patients
generally began to increafe at the fame time in bulk and
atnefs. Neverthelefs, the objections . to the general ufe of
this medicine, from its extremely naufeous {mell and tafte,
which render it abfolutely intolerable to many ftomachs,
however difguifed, and the admiffion of Dr. Bardfley, that
it is only to be deemed an auxiliary, and in many ref{peéts
inferior to guaiacum, do not lead us to expect that it will
ever be generally adopted, notwithftanding its reputation
and extenfive employment in the Manchefter Infirmary, where
the annual confumption has been nearly fixty gallons for
about forty years. Bardfley, loc. cit. p. 22.
As another expedient for the cure of chronic rheumatifm,
the ar/enical folution of Dr. Fowler has been recommended by
Mr. Jenkinfon and others. For our own part we have not
been fo fortunate as to difcover any remedial properties of
this fort in that folution ; but from the evidence of two or
three cafes adduced by Dr. Bardfley, it appears probable
that this medicine is capable of producing very beneficial
effe&ts in protra&ted chronic rheumatifm, where the vital
powers are much diminifhed, and the ends of the bones,
periofteum, capfules, or ligaments of the joints, are likewife
partially affeted ; though in the milder cafes, where the
mufcles and their invefting membranes are the feat of the
complaint, it appears to be ufelefs.
External Remedies.—Among the remedies which are
ufually employed externally for the cure of chronic rheu-
matifm, and which, when aided by the adminiftration
of medicines internally, have been found moft fuccefsful,
are principally the warm and vapour bath, and various epif-
paflic, rubsfacient and ftimulant platters, liniments, and em-
brocations, empleyed with or without confiderable frigion.
The warm or tepid bath, from the temperature of 85° to
95° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, is very ufeful in foothing
pain, and in relaxing the itiffened joints and rigid fibres ot
the mufcles, efpecially in elderly patients, whofe ftrength is
confiderably reduced by the length and violence of the dif-
order. But the ufe of a warmer bath, fo as to excite
{weating, is apt to induce both local and general debility in
protracted cafes, and affords but a temporary relief to the
difeafe. But on the whole, the application of the vapour
of hot water to the furface is a more efficacious remedy.
Dr. Bardifley fays, “ whenever the joints were found fo rigid
as to be nearly immoveable, and the pains upon motion ex-
quifitely
RHEUMATISM.
quifitely fevere, or when the mufcles had: become contracted
and almoft paralytic,—and indeed in every protracted cafe
of the difeafe of the hip-joint, /umbago, or fciatica, the va-
pour of hot water, locally and properly applied, afforded
{efpecially in conjunétion with other topical applications)
a fafe and often fuccefsful remedy.’”? It may be neceflary to
defcribe the mode of employing this vapour. It confifts in
conveying the fteam, from a boiler, through tubes of dif-
ferent diameter, fo as to apply it to the different parts of the
body. In all obftinate affeCtions of the joints, the author
juft, quoted obferves, a pipe of nearly half an inch in diameter
is to be preferred, and a quarter of an hour is the fhortett
period for its application. In the commencement, however,
itis better, as a general rule, to ufe a pipe of {maller fize,
and only to permit the vapour to ftrike upon the affected
part at fome diftance from its aperture; for by thefe means
an inconvenience will be avoided, which has fometimes pre-
vented the fteady application of the remedy; namely, a
confiderable irritation of the {kin from an excefs of heat.
By degrees the parts become able to bear a large column of
vapour, at avery {mall diftance from the extremity of the
pipe; and thus the remedy will be moft likely to produce
its full effet. This effect, however, is generally only to be
deemed auxiliary, at leaft in obftinate cafes ; for it will fel-
dom alone accomplifh the cure.
Among the epifpattic applications, dij/ering is commonly
reforted to, and often with confiderable benefit, efpecially
when the pains appear to be feated only in the fafcia and
fuperficial fibres. of the mufcles. A repetition of blifters is
preferable on the whole, both as productive of lefs diftrefs
to the patient, and more benefit to the difeafe, to the prac-
tice of keeping the blifter open by a ttimulating ointment.
Some authors have recommended ifies in preference to bhif-
ters, where they could be applied without inconvenience.
The excitement of an external inflammation, by the appli-
cation of the ointment of emetic tartar, has been alfo em-
ployed inftead of bliftering ; and in fome cafes its effects
have been highly beneficial.
~~ Rubefacientsy or thofe fubftances which ftimulate the cu-
taneous velflels, and excite a rednefs of the furface by cauf-
ing them to be diltended with blood, have been found by
the experience of all ages to be capable of removing flight
inftances of chronic rheumatifm, and of alleviating the
more fevere, efpecially when their operation was aided by
fridion, and by warm or {timulant plafters. Where the pains
are local and permanent, that is, not liable to thift about
from joint to joint, great advantages refult from {timulating
the fin with an active liniment, and fupporting the excite-
ment by means of a warm plalter. The liniments may be
compofed of any ftimulant, oleaginous, {pirituous, or fapo-
naceous liquids: as the common liniment of ammonia and
oil, the foap liniment, with camphor, ammonia,” tincture of
cantharides, or turpentine; and the platters may be com-
pofed of the gum refins, efpecially ammoniacum, with the
acetic acid, or vinegar of fquills, turpentine, pla{ter of
cantharides, &c. Dr. Ferriar’s formula, which is berrowed
from Dr. Home, and confifted of two drachms of cam-
phor, with an ounce of ‘bafilicon, and half-an ounce of
black foap, is faid by him to have been very efficacious. in
the relief of /umbago. - Thefe liniments fhould be diligently
rubbed upon the parts affected, after the {kin has been
warmed and irritated by the friction of hot, dry, and coarfe
cloths, or the application of the flefh-brufh; or, efpecially
in feiatica and lumbago,. during the expofure of the part to
the yvapour-pipe. By thefe methods the itimulating effects
of the liniments are much increafed, the pain is more effec-
tually-relieved, and the cure much accelerated ; efpecially
the pain does not
when a warm platter is added to keep up thefe effets. (See
Bardfley, loc. cit; and Ferriar’s Med. Hilt. and Reflections,
vol. i. p.. 186.) The liniment originally employed by Dr:
Home was f{pread upon leather, and applied over the dif-
eafed part ; he fpeaks, not only from his own experience,
but from that of others who had adopted it, of the efficacy
of the prefcription. (See Medical Facts and Experiments,
part 1. feét. 4 and again ia his Clinical Experiments and
Hittories, feét. 14.) His formula is perhaps more a¢tive than
that of Dr. Ferriar, containing cumin feed and. ammonia in
addition to the camphor, oil of turpentine, and common black
foap. But the difpenfatories abound with formulas for
the compofition of ftimulating liniments and platters of
fimilar powers.
Among other {timulants which have been employed for
the cure of chronic rheumatifm, efpecially in thofe cafes
which are obftinate and of long duration, or are accompanied
by confiderable torpor and rigidity, and a diminution of
the vital heat, the influence of the e/e@ric and galvanic fluids
has been reforted to ; and many teftimonies might be adduced
in proof of the beneficial operations of both thefe agents.
Dr. Bardfley affirms, that the application of eleGtricity by
{parks and fhocks, efpecially the former, was manifeitly ad-
vantageous; at the fame time he acknowledges, that it was
chiefly in conjuntion with the local application of vapour,
and with tonics and anodynes, adminiftered internally, that the
mott marked advantages were produced. [or our.own part,
we have witnefled fo little decided effect from the operation
of eleétricity in any difeafe whatever, that, after a long and
frequent ufe of that agent, we have given it up in defpair.
Where it produces any effect at ail, it is probably by its ope-
ration upon the mind of the patient, upon the fame principle
as the metallic tradors occafionally alleviated pain, (fee Ima-
GINATION, Influence of; on the Body,) and not from any
{pecific operation upon the difeafed mufcles.
The operation of mere /ridion affiduoufly employed,
either by means of flannel or rough cloths, of the flefh-
brufh, or fimply of the hands, or that fort of rubbing or
kneading of the body which 1s called champooing, have been
often reforted to with confiderable benefit, efpecially in the
cafes connected with a paralytic torpor and rigidity of the
parts affected. Perhaps, indeed, it is the ftimulus of the
friction, to which much of the benefit of liniments and em-
brocations ought to be aferibed ; but asthe patient’s faith is
chiefly fixed upon medicated frictions, fo it is generally necef-
{ary to prefcribe them, in order to enfure. his perfeverance
in the rubbing,
The preceding obfervations have been applied to rheu-
matifm generally, with only occafional references to the
particular forms under which it occurs, fuch as /umbago,
feiatica, pleut >, vyheumatic head-ache, &c. becaufe the
treatment generally applicable to the different fituations
oft] sh the difeafe feats itfelf. The princi-
Dp requilite to thefe varieties arifes from the
tymptoms to thofe of fome other dif-
eurodyne, or rheumati{m affecting the
sud the diaphragm, being accompanied
icult re{piration, might be confounded
erroneoufly treated: bat in this rheu-
he cheit there is feldom any cough, and
ois which are neceflarily prefent in the
ain, the /umbago is apt to be miftaken
in the kidnies, connected with in-
us, or with the prefence of gravel
s: itmay be diftinguifhed, however,
ikidnies, by the cireumftances, that
follow the courfe of the ureters, but
ftretches
matic aileé
no fever, twa tyr
cafe of plevrily
for nephralgic, ov
flammation in thefe
in them or in tie
from the difeafe:
RHE
ftretches rather down the thighs to the toes; that it is
chiefly fevere on afluming the ere& polture; that it is not
accompanied by ficknefs or vomiting ; and that the urine is
not changed in quantity or quality. Dr. Home, and fome
others, have believed that the f{ciatica is feated in the great
fciatic nerve, or in its fheath, and the lumbago in the lumbar
nerves.
Of Arthritis rheumatica, or rheumatic gout. This term,
though improper, and calculated to miflead us in our notions
refpecting the nature of the difeafe, is retained in confequence
of the want of a more correét appellation. The difeafe, in
faét, is not a compound of gout and rheumatifm, but pro-
bably rheumatifm refembling, in fome refpeéts, the gout in
‘its appearances. It has been called, by an able teacher at
a large hofpital in Southwark, the rheumaiagra, or acuto-
chronic rheumatifm. In fome cafes, the difeafe is merely a
partial degree of acute rheumatifm, affecting only one or two
of the {maller joints, as the wrift or even the knuckles, with
fwelling, rednefs, and acute pain. This is often called gout ;
but as it occurs under circumftances which differ materially
from thofe under which gout appears, is not preceded by in-
digeftion, and does not terminate in the formation of chalk-
itones, it is cbvioufly a different difeafe. In many cafes,
however, it is the coniequence of acute rheumatifm, in which
the joints lait occupied by that difeafe, efpecially the ankles
and wrifts, remain fwelled, ftiff, and painful, and fometimes
cedematous, for many weeks. The pain, in thefe cafes, is
generally aggravated at night, or by external heat; but it is
accompanied by very little or no feverifhnefs.
The more acute cafes require nearly the fame treatment
as is employed for the cure of acute rheumati{m. But
when they aflume more of a chronic form, when the liga-
ments and membranes of the joints are the peculiar feat
of the difeafe, or an enlargement of the extremities of the
bones appears to have taken place, efpecially in young
or vigorous fubjeéts, the firft attempts to relieve fhould
be made by means of /ocal bleeding, either by the appli-
cation of leeches, or, what is perhaps preferable, by the
operation of cupping and f{carifying. Thefe local evacua-
tions fhould be repeated, if the pain and irritation are not
materially relieved ; and the good eflects may be aided by
the application of d/iflers over the affeGted joints. Dr. Bardf-
ley itrongly recommends the opening of a drain from the
parts by means of i/fues, made by cauitic ; and affirms that,
in obitinate cafes, which have refilted all other means, he
has found the happieft effects from iffues. The tepid bath
will often aid the operation of thefe remedies, together with
the ufe of mild diaphoretics, followed by tonic bitters, fuch
as the Peruvian bark, chalybeates, the myrrh mixture
with feel, and the occafional ufe of antimonials with ca-
lomel. ;
Nodofity of the Joints. —Before we conclude the fubjeét of
cheumatifm, it feems neceflary to notice a ftate of the joints
which is enerally deemed rheumatic. Dr. Haygarth, how-
ever, obferves, that it is nearly allied to gout in its chara@ter,
and in the perfons whom it attacks. Thefe nodes, which
occur moft commonly about the fingers, hands, and writts,
but occafionally alfo on the knees, ankles, feet, elbows,
fhoulders, and other joints, produce {trange diftortions of
the parts, twilting the fingers, &c. in various directions, and
rendering the joints almoit immoveable. They are not fe-
parate tumours, but feel as if they were an enlargement of
the bones themfelves. Dr. Haygarth, indeed, is of opinion,
that the ends of the bones, the periofteum, and the capfules
or ligaments which form the joints, are the feat of this dif-
eafe ; though he does not appear to have ever examined the
matter anatomically, In bad inveterate cafes, he believes
RHE
that the joints are not merely diftorted, but diflecated. ‘The
fwellings are generally painful, efpecially in the night,
though not feverely, and often fore to the touch. In a tew
patients, a crackling noife is perceived in the joints when
moved, particularly in the neck. ‘The fkin is feldom, if
ever, affected with inflammation. There is one diftrefsful
circumitance belonging to this difeafe, that it has no inter-
miflion, and but flight remiflions : for during the remainder of
the patient’s life, the nodes gradually enlarge, impeding more
and more the power of motion. The malady alfo f{preads
to other joints, without producing any alleviation in thofe
which it had previoufly attacked. In one cafe; mentioned
by Dr. Haygarth, the fingers, wrifts, knees, ankles, elbows,
fhoulders, neck, and hips, were all affe€ted with this difeafe
at the fame time, that is thirteen joints, exclufive of the
nuruerous joints of the hands: if each individual joint of the
hands had been taken into the account, they would have
amounted to not lefs than forty. In this cafe, the malady
had been rapidly advancing for ten years: yet, though
thefe nodes, in their gradual progrefs, fadly embitter the
comforts, they do not fhorten the duration of life: for
Dr. Haygarth’s firft patient lived to the age of ninety-three.
From the experience of this veteran phylician it appears,
that women are much more frequently the fubje@ of no-
dofity at the joints than men, and that it commonly firtt
begins to fhew itfelf about the period of the ceffation of
the menfes.
Various remedies have been recommmeded for the relief
of thefe nodes ; but they have not been found in general to
be poffeffed of much efficacy. On the whole, the warm bath,
a ftream of warm water, fuch as the Bath pumping, or a warm
douche on the nodes, together with the repeated application
of leeches, appear to be produétive of the moft decided he-
nefit in this djfeafe ; and the ufe of the leeches appears to
conftitute a very important part of that praétice. In bad
cafes, from four to ten fhould be applied to the affeéted
joints once or twice a week. The temperature of the pump-
ing and douching fhould be varied, and that which appears,
from the patient’s report, to agree the beit, and to be
productive of the mott decided effe& in alleviating the pain
and {welling, and in improving the power of motion in the
joints, fhould be adopted. This will be found to vary, in
different perfons, from 81 to 113 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer.
Some authors have conceived that, together with thefe
external remedies, the ufe of foda, or the vegetable alkali,
internally, has been attended with confiderable benefit. And
Dr. Bardfley relates a cafe, in which the continued ufe of
mercury, fo as to excite a moderate ptyalifm, was apparently
remedial. See Haygarth’s Clinical Hiftory of Difeafes,
pt. ii. ; and Bardfley’s Reports. ‘
RHEXIA, in Botany, derived from nz. @ rupture, or
fradure, is the fynonym in Pliny of a plant, reputed to be
endowed with numerous virtues, and, amongft others, with
the powers of curing ruptures, or fimilar complaints. His
defcription leaves us in no doubt as to his plant ; fo far, at
leait, as its being of the Alkanet tribe, a fpecies of Anchu/a,
or perhaps of Echium. Why Gronovius and Linnzus chofe
this name for the prefent elegant American genus, does not
appear.—Linn. Gen. 187. Schreb. 249. Willd. Sp. PI.
y. 2.301. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Aut. Hort. Kew. v. 2.
340. Purfh v. 1.257. Juffl. 330. Lamarck Tiluftr. t.. 283.
Gertn. t. 112.—Clafs and order, O@andria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Calycantheme, Linn. Melaftome, Juli.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, oblong,
{welling in the lower part ; limb in four deep, acute fegments,
without any intermediate teeth or feales ; permanent. Cor.
D Se Petals
R HE
Petals four, roundith, fpreading, inferted into the calyx. Stam.
Filaments eight, thread-fhaped, inferted into the calyx, longer
than its limb; anthers declining, furrowed, linear, obtufe,
verfatile, with a curved beak. Pi? Germen roundith,
f{uperior, unconneéted with the ‘tube of the calyx; ftyle
fimple, the length of the ftamens, declining ; ftigma oblong,
obtufe. Peric. Capfule roundifh, of four cells and four
valves, within the body of the calyx, but unconneéted with
it. Seeds numerous, roundifh. Receptacles four, attached
to the central column.
Eff. Ch. Calyx with four permanent fimple teeth. Petals
four, inferted into the calyx. Anthers declining, beaked.
Capfule of four cells, within the body of the calyx. é
Obf. For the difference between this genus and Os-
BECKIA, fee that article.
Willdenow has 17 fpecies of Rhexia, but we have \not
the means of correétly afcertaining the generic charaCters of
all of them. They are divided into twe fections, of which
the following examples may fuffice.
Section 1. Leaves feffile.
R. virginica. Virginian Rhexia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 104.
Willd. n. 1. Aiten. 1. Curt. Mag. t. 968.-- Leaves tel-
file, lanceolate, three-ribbed, with fringe-like teeth. Calyx
fringed with glands.—Native of watery places in North
America, flowering in July and Augutt. It fucceeds toler-
ably with us, in a bog bed, with plenty of water, but re-
quires fhelter in winter ; nor is it fit for general cultivation ;
which is much to be regretted, confidering the great beauty
and fingularity of the large crimfon flowers, with their great
yellow curved anthers. "The root is fibrous, perennial. Stem
herbaceous, erect, {quare, with membranous angles. Leaves
ftrongly ribbed, {mooth, with acute flender teeth. Pavicle
forked, {preading. . Calyx brown, befprinkled with hairs,
whofe points are laathaley and vifcid.
R. mariana. Maryland Rhexia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 491.
Willd. nz. Ait.n. 2. (Lyfimachia non pappofa, terre
mariane, &c.; Pluk. Mant. 123. t. 428. f.1. Lamarck,
f.1?)— Leaves feffile, lanceolate, three-ribbed, fringed
with foft hairs. Hairs of the calyx ftellated.’?—Found in
bogs, and fandy woods, near waters, from New Jerley to
Carolina, flowering in July and Augult. From one to three
feet high. Flowers handfome, either purple, light red, or
pale. Purfh.
Set. 2. Leaves fralked.
R. glutinofa. Vitcid Shrubby Rhexia. Linn. Suppl. 216.
Willd. n. 8.—Leaves ftalked, oppofite, elliptical, three-
‘ribbed, fmooth. Stem fhrubby. Flowers in terminal, denfe,
forked panicles. Calyx fmooth.—Found in New Granada
by Mutis, who fent Ane dried {pecimens to Linnzus, along
with an Indian-ink drawing, cited in the Supplement as a
publithed work. The whole plant is very handfome, quite
deftitute of pubefcence, but the ca/yx, and upper fide ot the
leaves, are extremely glutinous. The /eaves are rather above
an inch long, with three ribs, united above their bafe ; the
under fide pale and yellowifh. //owers copious, large, purple.
R. inconfians. Stitch-leaved Rhexia. “ Vahl. Ecl. y.1. 37.”
Willd. n. 13. (Ofbeckia ornata; Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2.
647.)—Leaves ovate, clothed with depreffed brittles ; pale
and three-ribbed beneath. Panicle forked, of few flowers.
Calyx rough with {preading briftles.—Native of elevated
fituations on the mountains of Guadaloupe, Nevis, Mont-
ferrat, St. Kit’s, &c. among mofs.—The /fems are a foot
or two high, ere&t, branched, rigid, fquare and briftly.
Leaves ovate, a quarter of an inch long, their green convex
upper fide moft elegantly clothed with itrong, depreffled,
yellow briftles, as if ftitched with gold thread. FYocvers
purple, ufually five-cleft.
‘longed the town of Dauaba.
RHI
R. aquatica. Marfh Rhexia. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2.
650. Willd. n. 16. Ait. nm. 3. (Melaltoma aquatica;
Aubl. Guian. y. 1. 430. t. 169.)—Leaves oppotite, heart-
fhaped, minutely crenate, nearly f{mooth. Panicles_termi-
nal, three-forked, flender, widely {preading, many-flowered.
—Native of watery places in Guiana and the Weft Indies.
—Stems fhrubby, a yard high. Leaves flat, above an inch
long, pointed. /owers copious, rather fmall, white, with
purple famens. Calyx {mooth.
Ruexia, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, her-
baceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are ;
the Virginian rhexia (R. virginica); and the Maryland
rhexia (R. mariana’.
Method of Culture—TVhefe plants may be increafed by
{owing the feeds procured from their native fituations, in
the autumn or {pring, i pots filled with good frefh mould,
placing them under the protection of frames, or if in a mild
hot-bed they will be rendered more forward. When fown
at the latter feafon, the plants feldom appear the fame year.
When the plants have attained {ufficient growth they fhould
be planted out partly in a dry theltered ea{t border and partly
in pots, to have the protection of a frame againtt the frolls
in winter. They flower the fecond year, and with care cou-
tinue three or four. ©
And they may be introduced, as they afford ornament, in
the borders as well as among flowery potted plants.
RHEXIS, or Rueema, formed from fxkic, rupture, of
pnyyujety L break, in Surgery, denotes a rupture of the corner
of the eye. :
RHHENZABERN, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Lower Rhine; 8 miles S.E. of
Landau.
RHIBII, in Ancient Geography, a people of Scythia, on
this fide of the Imaus, near the river Oxus, to which be-
Ptolemy.
RHIGIA, a town fituated in the interior of the eafern
part of Hibernia, near Rhocbe, according to Ptolemy.
RHIME, or Rim, in Poetry. See Ruyme.
RHINANTHUS, in Botany, derived from fx, a nofey
or fnout, and ayto:, a flower, becaule of its ringent corolla,
comprefled at the upper lip, fo as to refemble the {nout of
fome animal.— Linn. 304. Schreb. 400. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 188. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 649.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 2. Purfh 429. Michaux. Boreal.-
Amer. v. 2.17. Jufl. ror. Lamarck Iluttr. t. 517.
Gaertn. t. 54. (Pedicularis; Tournef. t. 77. Elephas;
Tournef, t. 482.)—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofper-
mia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. ~ Pediculares, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, roundifh,
inflated, comprefled, four-cleft, permanent. Cor. of one
petal, ringent; tube rather cylindrical, the length of the
calyx ; limb gaping, comprefled at the bafe: upper lip
helmet-fhaped, comprefled, emarginate, narrower; lower
{preading, flat, trifid half way down, obtufe, the middle
ferment broader. Stam. Filaments four, the length of the
upper lip, the two fhorter ones concealed under it ; anthers
incumbent, cloven on one fide, bairy. Pi. Germen fu-
perior, ovate, comprefled; ttyle thread-fhaped, longer-than
the ftlamens, but ftanding between them; ftigma obtufe, in-
flexed. Peric. Capfule obtufe, ere&, comprefled, of two
cells and two valves, gaping at the margins; partition con-
trary. Seeds numereus, compretled. ‘
bf, ExepHas of Tournefort has the margin of the
capfule blunt ; the feeds fimple; and the calyx unequal, of
two lips. It was fo named from the refemblance its flowers
bear to an elephant’s trunk.
CrisTa-GALL of Rivinus has the margin of the capfule
extended,
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extended, the feeds membranous, clothed with wool; and
the calyx equal, four-cleft.
Eff. Ch. Calyx inflated, comprefled, four-toothed. Up-
per lip of the corolla comprefled. Capfule of two cells,
blunt, comprefled. Seeds imbricated, flat.
1. R. orientalis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 840. (Elephas orientalis
_ flore magno probofcide incurva; Tournef. Voyage, v. 2.
126, with a figure.)—Upper lip of the corolla awl-fhaped,
incurved.—Native of the Levant, on the confines of Perfia,
flowering in July.—Stems more than a foot high, hollow,
{quare, hairy. Leaves oppofite, on fhort ftalks, notched,
hairy, veined. Flowers on the upper part of the {tems,
fragrant, of a yellow colour, with a brown fpot on the
lower lip and two red ones on the upper. Tournefort
reckons this a very ornamental plant.
2. R. Lkephas. Linn. Sp. Pl. 840. (Elephas Campo-
clarenfium ; Column. Ecphr. 186. t. 188.)—Upper lip of
the corolla awl-fhaped, {traight.—Native of fhady woods in
[taly, flowering in May.—'This annual is very fimilar in
habit to the lait, but its calyx is trifid, with two of the
fegments recurved, and the third larger, ereét, plaited,
acute. ‘ournefort mentions a variety of this which he
found on the coaft of the Black fea.
3. R. Crifa-galli. Yellow Rattle. Linn. Sp. Pl. 840.
Engl. Bot. t. 657. Curt. Lond. fafe. 5. t. 43. Mart.
Ruit. t. 148.—Upper lip of the corolla arched. Calyx
fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated.—Common in our mea-
dows and paitures, flowering from June to Auguft. Root
annual, fibrous. Stem branched, fmooth, frequently {potted.
Leaves oppofite, fetlile, rough; heart-fhaped at the bafe.
Flowers {omewhat alternate, on fhort ftalks, yellow. Seeds
with a membranous border. The Englifh name has ob-
tained, from the rattling of its feeds in the capfule.
4. R. Trixago. Linn. Sp. Pl. 840. (Bartfia Trixago ;
Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 427. Trixago apnla
unicaulis ; Column. Ecphr. 199. t. 197.)—Calyx hairy or
downy. Leaves oppotite, bluntly ferrated. Stem perfectly
fimple.—Native of Italy, the fouth of France, and Palef-
tine. It flowers in May.— Root annual, but throwing out
runners. S¥em more than a foot high, ftraight, firm, fquare,
rather wotlly. Zeaves long, narrow, pale green, toothed
or rather jagged. F/owers in large, yellow fpikes. Ray
obferves that the figure of Columna poflibly may be a va-
riety of this {pecies, for it differs in a few flight particulars.
5. R. maximus. Willd. n. 5. Desfont. Atlant. vy. 2. 34.
— Lower lip of the corolla longer than the upper ; fegments
obtufe, equal. Calyx villous. Upper leaves alternate, ob-
long, bluntly toothed. Stem branched.—Native of Crete.
We know not of any figure of this fpecies which is admitted
on the authority of Willdenow and Desfontaines.—Svem
from eighteen inches to two feet high, branched at the up-
per part, and downy. Lower leaves oppofite. Flowers
in yellow {pikes at the tops of the ftem and branches. This
fpecies has much the appearance of Bart/ia vifcofa, of which
indeed the R. maximus of Lamarck is merely a variety.
The fame author makes the prefent a variety of the
following.
6. R. verficolor. Willd. n. 6. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 33.—
Corolla gaping ; lower lip longer than the upper ; fegments
obtufe ; the middle one narrower. Calyx villous. Leaves
moftly oppofite, lanceolate, the upper ones toothed at the
bafe. Stem fimple.—Native of Italy and the north of
Africa. This differs from the preceding, in having a fimple
Jfiem. Laves \inear-lanceolate, the upper ones only toothed
at the bafe. BraGeas ovate, acuminate. Corolla only half
as large, of a purple colour, the middle fegment of the
lower Ip narrower than the other two,
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7+ R. capenfis. Willd. n. 7. (Buchnera africana; Linn,
Sp. Pl. 879.)—Calyx downy. Braéteas ovate. Leaves
lanceolate, toothed.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope,
This is nearly allied to R. Trixago, becoming totally black
in drying.—The /eaves have three or four teeth on each fide
the upper ones fometimes alternate. Bradeas downy, ‘
little pointed. Calyx four-cleft, obtufe as in Crifta-galli.
8. R. indicus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 841. Fl. Zeylan. 107,
Burm. Ind. 131. t. 39. f. 1.—Leaves nearly lanceolate,
hairy, entire.—Native of Ceylon.—Root annual. Stem a
{pan high, ereét, fimple, {quare, hifpid. Leaves oppofite,
—_ Flowers {ellile, folitary, oppofite, turned to one
ide.
9. R. virginicus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 841. Gronov. Virg. 192.
—Corolla {preading at the throat. Leaves finuated and
toothed.—Native of Virginia. This plant is nearly akin to
Gerardia, of which it is moft probably a fpecies. The
anthers are rough with hairs.
10. R. trifda. Willd. nw 10. Vahl. Symb. v. 1. 44.—
Corolla wide at the throat. Leaves trifid.— Native of fandy
hills in Armenia and Galatia.— Root annual. Stem fix inches
high, herbaceous, 2fcending, quite fimple, rather downy,
round. Leaves oppolite, feflile, downy, ribbed, deeply three-
cleft. £/owers axillary, folitary, oppofite, feffile.
RHINBERG, in Geography. See RHEINBERG.
RHINE, a river which rifes in the Grifon Alps in three
branches, which unite into one ftream. Cefar is the moftt
ancient author who has traced the courfe of this river from
its fource in the Alps to its difcharge into the fea. Ac-
cording to this writer it commenced in the territory of the
Lepontii ; and Pomponius Mela mentions two lakes \hich
it traverfes foon after, viz. the “« Lacus Venetus’”’ and the
“ Lacus Acronius.”” Of the defcriptions given by ancient
writers of this river, that of Tacitus is the moft precife and
{atisfactory. The Rhine, fays this hiftorian, after having
purfued its courfe in one bed, and arriving near the country
of the Batavi, divides itfelf into two branches; one of
which preferves its name and the rapidity of its courfe
along the borders of Germany until it difcharges itfelf into
the fea; the other runs towards Gaul, in a larger channel
and more tranquil ftate, and is called by the people of the
country ‘¢ Vahalis,”? or Wahal. But it foon changes this
name for that of « Mofa,’? or Mente, and blended with this
river difcharges itfelf into the ocean. Such is the account
of Tacitus, to which we fhall fubjoin fome other particulars
from ancient writers. The Rhine, which, as we have faid,
has its fource in the Alps, affumes a northerly direétion,
and for a confiderable interval feparates Gaul from Ger-
many. At the town of “ Burgenatium,”’ or “ Quadribur-
gium,”’ it feparated itfelf into two arms or branches; the
one flowing northward, and the other towards the welt.
This laft aflumed the name of Vahalis (Vahal), and wa-
tered the towns of Noviomagus, Grinnes, &c. united with
the Mofa or Meufe, and in this confluent {tate difcharged
itfelf into the fea. The other branch, which ran in a
northerly direétion, watered Arenatium, fince called Cattra
Herculis ; at which place commenced the canal of Drufus,
“ fofla Drufiana.”” Here a new divifion took place; the
canal of Drufus purfued a northerly courfe, and the bed of
the Rhine was directed towards the welt. This laft watered,
befide other places, Batavodurum, Trajectum, Lugdunum
Batavorum, and emptied itfelf into the fea, at a place called
‘* Caltellum Romanum.’”? We ought, however, to obferve,
that near Trajectum it furnifhed a {mall branch which had a
northern courfe. The canal of Drufus flowed northwards,
and it is now called the Yiflel. This canal, before it reached
the fea, traverfed a {mall lake called Flevo, from which ilfued
a {mall
BH. 1
a fmall river of the fame name, which ran towards the fea in
a northerly direGtion, and difcharged itfelf into it near a
place called « Caftellum,” which defended the entrance of
this river. The lake juft mentioned is confiderably enlarged,
and communicates with the fea under the name of Zuider-
zee. ‘The Rhine has been almoft always regarded by the
Romans as the boundary of their empire between Gaul,
which they had conquered, and Germany, into which they
made frequent incurfions. According to modern accounts
of the courfe of the Rhine, it commences, as we have faid,
in the Alps of the Grifons in three branches, which after-
wards unite into one ftream. The principal branch defcends
from the mountain of St. Gothard, and runs into the lake
of Coniftance, near Rheineck ; traverfing the lake of Con-
ftance and Zell, it paffes near Stein, Schaffhaufen, Eglifau,
Keiferftuhl, Seckingen, Rheinfelden, Bale, Huningue, Straf-
burg, Spire, Worms, Oppenheim, Bingen, Mentz, St. Goar,
Coblentz, Bonne, Cologne, Zons, Nuys, Dufleldorp, Duyf-
berg, Rees, and Emeric, a little below which a large branch
feparates to the left, and takes the name of Wahal; it then
proceeds to Huiflen and Arnheim, near which another branch
breaks off to the right and joins the Iffel. ‘The ftream that
ftill maintains the name of Rhine pafles on to Wageningen,
and Wyck le Duerftede, where it is again divided. The
larger part to the left takes the name of the Leck and joins
the Meufe; the fmaller and lefs branch pafles by Utrecht,
Voerden, Leyden, &c. and lofes itfelf at lait in the fand, juft
before it reaches the German fea, a few miles after it has left
Leyden. By the treaty of Paris in 1814, the Rhine is to
remain as the boundary of France and Germany, and the
main ftream of this river conftitutes the frontier, provided
however that the changes that may hereafter take place in
the courfe of that river fhall not affeét the property of the
iflands. ;
Ruine is alfo a river of Brandenburg, which runs into
the Havel, ro miles above Havelburg.—Alfo, a river of
France, which runs into the Loire, near Roanne.
Rune, Circle of the Lower, a divifion of Germany,
bounded by the circles of Weiftphalia, Upper Rhine, Fran-
comia, and Swabia, and by the duchy of Luxemburg and
France. In conjunction with the circle of the Upper, it is
faidto contain 960 fquare German miles. The {tates of this
circle were the eleGtors of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, to-
gether with the Palatine, the duke of Aremberg, the prince
of Taxis, the Teutonic bailiwic of Coblentz, the prince of
Naffau-Dietz, on account of the feigniory of Beilftein, the
-eletor of Treves, on account of Lower Henburg, and the
count of Sinfendorf, on account of the burgraviate of
Rheineck. The claim of the town of Gelnhaufen was dif-
puted. The fummoning prince and direétor of the circle was
the eleor of Mentz. ‘The diets of the circle have ever
fince the middle of the 17th century been held at Francfort
on the Mayn. This circle was one of thofe called the
*¢ anterior circles,’? but which, in the years 1697 and 1702,
formed with each other a mutual compact for defence againft
the attacks of anenemy. This compact continued, and the
circle always appointed its quota of horfe and foot ; which
quota, as well as the contribution of the circle to the aid of
the empire, was generally equal to that of the circle of the
Upper Rhine. In regard to religion, this circle was rec-
koned among the mixed.
Rug, Circle of the Upper, was bounded by the circles
of the Lower Rhine, Weftphalia, Upper and Lower
Saxony, Swabia, and Franconia, and by thofe of France,
formerly called Alface and Lorraine, inthe latter of which
were fome lands belonging to this circle. The ftates be-
longing to this circle were the bifhoprics of Worms and
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Spire, with the provoftthip of Weiffenburg, Strafburg,
Bale, and Fulda, and the commandery of the order
of St. Jokn, and alfo the princely abbey of Prum,
with the proyoftfhip of Odenheim, and the eleGtorate pa-
latinate of Simmern, Lautern and Veldenz, the palatinate
of Deux-Ponts, Hefle-Caflel, Hefle-Darmftadt, Hersfeld
or Hirfchfeld, and Sponheim, the margraviates of Nomeny,
Salm with Wirburg, Naflau-Weilburg, Naflau-Ufingen,
Naflau-Idftein, Naflau-Saarbrucken, and Otweiler, together
with thofe of Waldeck, Hanau-Munzenberg, Hanau-Lich-
tenburg, Solms-Hohenfolms, Solms-Braunfels, Solms-Rudd-
heim, Solms-Laubach, and the eleftorate of Mentz on ac-
count of Konigflein, that of Stolberg on account of the
fame, thofe of Ifenburg-Birftein, [fenburg-Badingen, Wath-
terfbach, and Mucholz, Grewiler, Grunbach, Dhaun,
Lemengin-Hartenburg, Leinengin- Welterburg, and Grun-
ftadt, Munzfelden, Witgenftein of Witgenttein, Witgen- ”
ftein-Berleburg, Talkenitcin, Reipolzkirchen, Creange,
Wartenburg, Bretzeuheim, Dachituhl, and Ollbruck, and
the imperial cities of Worms, Spire, Francfort, Friedburg,
and Wetzlar. The bifhop of Worms, and the ele¢tor pa-
latinate for the duchy of Simmern, were {ummoning princes
of this circle. The diets of the circle of the Upper Rhine
were formerly held at Worms, but in the laft century at
Francfort ; but the chancery circle of the archives belonging
to it were kept at the direétory at Worms. This circle,
with regard to religion, was reckoned among the mixed,
and to the chamber judicatory a¢tually prefented two af-
feflors. :
Rune, Lower, one of the ten departments of the N.E,
region of France, bounded on the N. by the departments
of Mont Tonnerre and the Mofelle, on the E. by the
Rhine, on the S. by the department of the Upper Rhine,
and on the W. by the departments of the Vofges, the
Meurthe, and the Mofelle, dituated on the left bank of the
Rhine, in N. lat. 48° 45', containing 5695 kiliometres, or
288 {quare leagues, and 444,858 inhabitants, and divided
into four diftriéts, including 37 cantons, and 616 communes,
The four diftrifts or circles are, Wiflembourg, including
113,786 inhabitants, Saverne with 78,398, Strafbourg with
155,647, and Barr with 97,027 inhabitants. According
to M. Haflenfratz’s {tatement, its extent in French leagues
is 30 in length, and 15 in breadth. The number of circles is
5, and of cantons 30, and its population 415,080. Its
contributions to the land-tax, &c. in the 11th year of the
French era, amounted to 3,609,442 francs; and its ex-
pences, adminiftrative, judiciary, and for public inftruétion,
amounted to 359,740 fr. 33 cents. ‘The capital of this de-
partment is Strafbourg, and it comprehends that diftrict
which, before the revolution, was Lower Alface. As it
lies between mount Vofges and the Rhine, it is diverfified
with eminences and plains, producing grain, wine, fruits,
tobacco, faffron, and alfo with forefts and plains.
Rune, Upper, one of the ten departments of the N.E.
region of France, bounded on the N. by the department of
the Lower Rhine, on the S. by Switzerland, and on the W.
by the departments of the Upper Saone and Vofges, fituated
on the left hand of the Rhine, in N. lat. 47° 40!, contain-
ing 6030 kiliometres, or 280 {quare leagues, and 382,285
inhabitants, and divided into five diftri&ts, or circles, including
39 cantons, and 703 communes. The five diftri€ts are Col-
mar, comprehending 144,821 inhabitants; Altkirch, 83,5155
Delemont, 35,779; Porentruy, 34,9103 and Befort, 83,260.
According to the ftatement of M. Haflenfratz, its extent in
French leagues is 24 in length, and 14 in breadth : its circles
are 3, its cantons are 25, and its population confilts of
283,252 perfons. Its contributions to the land-tax, &c. in
the
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the 1ith year of the French era, amounted to 2,837,063 fr.
and its expences, adminiftrative, judiciary, and for public
inftruction, amounted to 354,279 fr. Its capital is Colmar,
and it is compofed of Upper Alface, Sundtgaut, Poren-
truy, and a part of the bifhopric of Bale. The foil is in
fome parts moderately fertile, and in others yields all forts
of grain, wine, and paftures. It has mines of filver, cop-
- per, lead, iron, and coal, with mineral {prings.
Rune, Confederation of the, now abolifhed, See Conre-
DERATION, &c.
Rune and Mo/felle, one of the thirteen departments of
that region of France called the Reun‘ted country, bounded
on the N. by the department of the Roer, on the E. by the
Rhine, on the S. by the departments of Mont Tonnerre
and the Saone, and on the W. by the departments of the
Sarre and the Roer ; fituated in N. lat. 50° 15’, and formed
of a part of the electorate of Treves, S. of Roer, and on
the left hand of the Rhine. Its territorial extent is 4860
kiliometres, or 290 fquare leagues, and the number of inha-
bitants is 203,290. It is divided into three circles or dif-
tricts, including 30 cantons, and 675 communes. The dif-
tris are Coblentz, containing 69,900 inhabitants; Boxn,
70,508 ; and Simmern, 62,882. According to Haflenfratz,
its extent in French leagues is 25 in length, and 12 in
breadth : it contains 3 circles, and 30 cantons, and a popu-
- lation of 372,000 perfons. Its contributions to the land-
tax, &c. in the year 11, amounted to 1,717,463 fr. ; and
its expences, adminiftrative, judiciary, and for public in-
ftru€tion, were 239,883 fr. 33 cents. The capital of this
department is Coblentz. Several traéts in it are hilly and
wooded; and others, though but indifferently fertile, pro-
duce confiderable crops of grain, flax, hemp, wine, fruits,
and paitures. lt has mines of iron, quarries of marble,
ftone, &c.
RuiveE, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ariftotle, Ap-
pian, and moft of the Greck writers, to that f{pecies of the
{qualus, which we ufually call the /guatina: the /guatus of
Ifidore and Pliny. Artedi has diftinguifhed this from all
the other fpecies of the fqualus, by the having no pinna
ani, and the mouth in the extremity of the fnout. See
Squatus.
RHINE-GRAVE, in Germany, a count palatine of the
Rhine. See Grave and Paratine.
RHINE-LAND Roop, in Fortification, &c. a meafure
of two fathom, or twelve feet, ufed by the Dutch and Ger-
man engineers, Kc. 4
RHINENCHYTES, in Surgery, a fyringe for the nofe.
RHINFELS, in Geography, a town and fortrefs of Ger-
many, in the county of Catzenelnbogen, near St. Goar.
RHINGAU, or Rueivcau, a tra&t of country along
the Rhine, in the eleG&orate of Mentz, extending from
Baccharach to Mentz, celebrated for its excellent wine.
Rurveau, in Ichthyology, the name given by fome authors
to the lavaretus, a {mall fifh caught in the German lakes,
and fent in pickle into many parts of the world.
RHINHEIM, in Geography. See Reinnem.
RHINIUM, in Botany, a name given by Schreber, in
his Genera, 701, to the Zigarea of Aublet, Lamarck Iuftr.
t. 826; but in his addenda, 833, referredto TETRACERA 3
fee that article hereafter.
RHINOBATOS, in Ichthyology, the name of a flat
cartilaginous fifh, of the fquatina or monk-fifh kind, but
differing from it in this, that the body is proportionably
longer, and the head is more pointed ; and the mouth is a
eat way below the end of the fnout, and placed under the
icy It is from three to four fect long, and is common in
the Mediterranean, aud brought to market in fome parts of
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Naples. This is a fpecies of ray inthe Linnzan fyftem.
See Rata.
RHINOCEROS, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs Mam-
malia and order Bruta, of which the generic charaéter is,
horn folid, perennial, conic, placed on the nofe, uot ad-
hering tothe bone. There are two
Species.
Unicornis ; One-horned Rhinoceros. The one horn of
this animal marks the fpecies. It inhabits marfhy places be-
tween the tropics ; lives on thorns and {pinous plants ; it
may be tamed, and becomes mild, but when enraged it will
overturn trees with its violence: its fight is weak, but its
hearing and fmell are very acute.
In the year 1739 we had a young rhinoceros with one horn
fhewn in England, of which Dr. Parfons has given a very
accurate account in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, N° 470.
p- 523, &c. or Abridg. vols ix. p.94, &c.
‘The creature fed on rice, fugar, and hay ; his keeper
ufed to mix the rice and fugar in the following manner :
feven pounds of rice and three pounds of fugar made the
provifion for one day; he eat this at three meals ; and befides
this he eat about a trufs of hay every week, and a large
quantity of greens that were brought to him at different
times, and of which he feemed more fond than of dried
food. He drank often, and always {walloweda large quan-
tity of water at a time.
He appeared very peaceable in his temper, and bore to be
handled on any part of his body with great patience, except
when he was hungry ; but he was then always outrageous,
as alfo when he was ftruck. His moft violent paflions,
even on the laft occafion, were however always immediately
appeafed by giving him victuals.
Notwithttanding the lumpifh afpe&t and heavy make of
this creature, he would jump about very nimbly in his fits
of paffion, and often leap to a great height ; and one com-
mon mark of his fury was the {triking his head againft the
walls, or any thing elfe that was in the way, and this he
would do with terrible violence. He was very apt to fall
into thefe paffions in a morning, before his rice and fugar
were given him, and from the whole he appeared quite un-
tractable, and feemed able, in his paflions, to have run fo
fait, as that a man on foot could not have efcaped him.
This creature was two years old, and did not exceed a
young heifer in height, but was remarkably broad and thick.
His head was very large ; and the hinder part of it, neat
the ears, remarkably elevated above the re{t of the face,
which was flat, and funk down in a remarkable manner in
the middle, rifing again towards the origin of the horn, but
in amuch {maller degree.
The horn in this young animal did not rife above an inch
high from its tough bafis (though in full grown animals it is
fometimes three feet and a half long), and was black and
{mooth at the top, but ragged downwards ; and the deter-
mination of its growth is backward, not ftraight up ; this
is very evidently feen in the horns of old rhinocerofes, which
are always curved ina confiderable degree that way. If we
confider the proportion of this animal’s fize to the length of
its horn, and thence carry the proportion to that between
the large horns we fee in the mufeums of the curious, we muft
fuppofe the animal of a very itupendous fize, when at its
full growth.
The fides of the under-jaw in this creature ftand very
wide afunder, flanting outward to the lower edge, and
backward to the ueck; the edges turn outwards from this
ftru€ture of the bones, and the head neceflarily looks very
large. The rhinoceros has four cutting teeth, one on each
corner
. RHINOCEROS.
corner of each jaw; and fix grinders in each; the firft re-
mote from the cutting teeth. That part of the head which
reaches from the fore-part of the horn to the upper lip,
may be called the nofe: this is very thick and bulky, and
has a kind of circular {weep down towards the nofirils ; on
all this part there is a great number of rugez or wrinkles. _
The noftrils are fituated very low, in the fame direction
with the opening of the mouth, and not more than an inch
from it; and, when viewed in a fore-view, the whole nofe,
from the top of the horn to the verge of the lower lip, is
fhaped like a bell. The under lip is like that of an ox, but
the upper more like that of a horfe, and he ufes it as that
creature does, to gather up hay from the rack, or grafs
from the ground; but with this fuperior. advantage, that
this creature has a power of extending this lip to nx or
feven inches in length from the nofe, and there drawing it
to a point: with this lip, thus extended, the creature is
able to grafp a ftick, or any {mall fubftance, and hold it
extremely fall; and this power of prolonging the lip ferves,
in many purpofes, to the fame end as the trunk of that
other unwieldy animal, the elephant.
The tongue of the rhinoceros is faid to be fo rough as to
be able to rub a man’s flefh off from the bones; but in this
voung fubjeé& it was fo foft, that it refembled that of a calf.
Tt may poffibly grow harder with age ; but the ftory of its
effeéts feems of a piece with the many other falfe marvels re-
ported of this animal. The eyes are dull and fleepy, much
like thofe of a hog in fhape; he feldom opens them entirely ;
and it is to be obferved, that they are fituated nearer the
nofe than thofe of any other known quadruped. ‘The ears
are broad and thin towards the top ; the neck is very fhort ;
the fhoulders are thick and heavy ; the body is thick, and
juts out at the fides, and has a hollow in the back; the belly
hangs low; the legs are fhort, thick, and flrong ; the hoofs
are divided into three parts, each pointing forward ; the tail
is flender, flatted at the end, and covered on the fides with
very ftiff thick black hairs; the fkin is naked, rough or tu-
berculated, lying about the neck in valt folds; there is
another fold from the fhoulders to the fore-legs, and another
from the hind part of the back to the thighs. The {kin is
thick, and feems almoft impenetrable, infomuch that it will
turn the edge of a f{cymitar, and refiit a mufket-ball ; it
feels like a piece of board of half an inch thick. It is co-
vered in all parts, more or lefs, with a fort of incruftations,
refembling {cales. Thefe are {mall on the neck, and largeit
of all on the fhoulders and hips; between the folds of this
thick fkin, the cuticle, which is left bare, is foft and eafily
enetrable. The fcabby incruftations of the fkin have been
called fcales by fome writers ; but this is a very wrong term,
for they have nothing of the nature of {cales, nor any thing
of regularity in them. ;
The creature is of the retromingent, and therefore pro-
bably of the retregenerative kind. Thofe animals that have
been brought to Europe have been young and finall; but,
according to Bontius, they equal the elephant in the bulk
of their bodies, though they are lower, on account of the
fhortnefs of their legs. They inhabit Bengal, Siam, Co-
chinchina, Quangfi in China, and the ifles of Java. and Su-
matra. ‘They are fond of thady forefts, the neighbourhood
of rivers, and marfhy places; and are fond of wallowing in
the mud like the hog. The rhinoceros is a folitary animal,
brings one young at atime; is quiet and inoffenfive, but
furious when provoked; very {wift-and dangerous; and,
though dull of fight, has a moft exquilité fmell. It grunts
like a hog. The flefh of this animal is eaten. The ‘kin,
fleth, hoofs, teeth, and dung itfelf, are ufed in India medi-
cinally. The horns are in great repute as an antidote
t
againft poifon, efpecially thofe of the virgin female, called
abbada ; cups of which are faid to communicate virtue to
the liquor poured into them. Redi, who has been very fa-
gacious in difcoyering the falfity of many of the pretended
medicines taken from animals, yet gives us, on the teftimony
of his own experience, an account of fome very remarkable
virtues in the parts of the rhinoceros. The blood, he affures
us, is excellent in colics and in dyfenteries. The decoétion
of the fkin, he affures us, is a grand ftomachic antidote ; and
the horns are very valuable and alexipharmic.
This animal is the unicorn of feripture, and the Indian
afs of Ariftotle, who fays it has but one horn.
Brcornis; Two-horned Rhinoceros. ‘This fpecies in-
habits Africa, but, according to Pallas, the bones of it are
found buried in the north of Ruffia. Its flefh refembles that
of a hog; the vifcera thofe of a horfe ; the fecond horn ts
fhorter, and placed over the firft; it has no gall-bladder,
and no fore-teeth; the fkin is without folds, granulated,
and of a deep afhen-grey ; between the lees it 1s fmooth,
and flefh-coloured; in other parts there are a‘few bnittles,
but they are moft numerous about the ears and end of the
tail. This animal inhabits Africa only ; and feems, in its
manners, to agree with the former. The miichief it does
is more the effeét of a fenfelefs impulfe than of rage; for,
though its fight is bad, its fenfes of heaving and {melling
are exquifite, fo that the leaft noife or {cent puts it in mo-
tion; and in running to the {pot from which the alarm pro-
ceeds, it overturns and tramples on animals, or any thing
elfe which it meets with in its way, but never ftays or re-
turns to renew the charge. There is a2 variety, but not
often feen, that has three horns; the third being an ex-
crefcence cn one of the others.
Mr. Bruce’s defcription of the manner of feeding, as
well as of fome other particulars relative to the two-horned
rhinoceros, feems highly worthy of notice. He informs us,
that ‘ befides the trees capable of moft refiftance, there
are, in the vaft forefts within the rains, trees of a fofter
confiftence, and of a very fucculent quality, which feem to
be deftined for his principal food. For the purpofe of gain-
ing the higheft branches of thefe, his upper lip is capable
of being lengthened out, fo as to increafe his power of lay-
ing hold with this, in the fame manner as the clephant does
with his trunk.. With this lip, and the affiltance of his
tongue, he pulls down the upper branches which have moft
leaves, and thefe he devours firft. Having ftript the tree
of its branches, he does not. therefore abandon it; but,
placing his fnout as low in the trunk as he finds his horns
will enter, he rips up the body of the tree, and reduces it
to thin pieces, like fo many laths; and when he has thus
prepared it, he embraces as much of it as he can in his
monftrous jaws, and twifts it round with as much eafe as
an ox would do a root of celery, or any fuch pot-herb or
garden-ftuff.
«« When purfued, and in fear, he pofleffes an aftonifhing
degree of fwiftnefs, confidering his fize, the apparent un-
wieldinefs of his body, his great weight before, and the
fhorinefs of his legs. He is long, and has a kind of trot,
which, after a few minutes, increafes in a great proportion,
and takes in a great diftance ; but this is to be underftood
with a degree of moderation. It is not true, that ina plain
he beats the horfe in {wiftnefs. I have paffed him with eafe,
and feen many worfe mounted do the fame; and though it
is certainly true that a horfe can very feldom come up “with
him, this is owing to his cunning, but not his fwiftnefs.
He makes conftantly from wood to wood, and forces him-
felf into the thickeit part of them. The trees that are dry
are broke down, like as with a cannon-fhot, and fall behind
s him,
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him, and on his fide, in all directions. Others that are more
pliable, greener, or fuller of fap, are bent back by his
weight, and the velocity of his motions; and, after he has
pafled, reitoring themfelves like a green branch to their na-
tural pofition, they fweep the incautious purfuer and his
horfe from the ground, and dafh them in pieces againit the
_ furrounding trees.
*¢ The eyes of the rhinoceros are very fmall, and he fel-
dom turns his head, and therefore fees nothing but what
is before him. ‘1'o this he owes his death, and never efcapes,
if there is fo much plain as to enable the horfe to get before
him. His pride and fury then make him lay afide all
thoughts of efeaping, but by victory over his enemy. He
itands for a moment at bay; then, at a ftart, runs ftraight
forward at the horfe, like the wild boar, whom, in his
manner of action, he very much refembles. The horfe
ealily avoids him, by turning fhort to a fide ; and this is the
fatal inftant: the naked man, with the fword, drops from
behind the principal horfeman, and, unfeen by the rhino-
ceros, who is feeking his enemy, the horfe, he gives him a
itroke acrofs the tendon of the heel, which renders him in-
capable of further flight or refiftance.
«In {peaking of the great quantity of food neceflary to
fupport this enormous mafs, we mutt likewife confider the
vaft quantity of water which he needs. No country but
that of the Shangalla, which he poffefles, deluged with fix
months’ rain, and full of large and deep bafons, made in the
living rock, and fhaded by dark woods from evaporation, or
watered by large and deep rivers, which never fall low or
to a ftate of drynefs, can fupply the vait draughts of this
monttrous creature. But it is not for drinking alone that
he frequents wet and marfhy places: lerge, fierce, and
ftrong as he is, he muft fubmit to prepare himfelf againit
the weakeft of all adverfaries. The great confumption he
conftantly makes of food and water neceflarily confine him
to certain limited {paces ; for it is not every place that can
maintain him. He cannot emigrate, or feek his defence
among the fands of Atbara.”’
The rhinoceros with two horns was the f{pecies defcribed
by Martial, under the name of rhinoceros cornu gemino, who
relates its combat with the bear.
«« Namque gravem gemino cornu fic extulit urfum,
Ja&tat ut impofitas taurus in aftra pilas.’’
Speét. Epig. 22.
The Romans, who procured their rhinocerofes from
Africa, reprefent them with double horns. That figured
in the Prenettine pavement, and that in a coi of Domitian,
have two horns; that which Paufanias defcribes (ix. g.)
under the name of Ethiopian bull, had one horn in the nofe,
and another lefler higher up; and Colmas /Egyptius
(tom. ii. 334.), who travelled into Aithiopia, in the reign
of Juftinian, alfo attributes to it the fame number. Au-
guftus introduced a rhinoceros (probably of this kind) into
the fhows, on occafion of his triumph over Cleopatra. Dion
Caffius, lib. ii, Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. ix, ubi fupra. Id.
yol. lvi. p. 32, &c.
M. Geoffroy of France thinks there are, or at lea{t have
been, no lefs than five different fpecies of the rhinoceros ;
viz. 1. The rhinoceros africanus, cornu gemino of Cam-
per, who has given a figure of the fkull in the Peterfburgh
Tranfaétions for 1777. 2. The fpecies found foffile in Si-
heria, which M. Geoffroy contends is different from the
common two-horned rhinoceros, though of that divifion of
the genus. 3. That of which the fkull is figured by Cam-
er, and defcribed by him in a letter to Dr. Pallas, in the
peterfburgh Tranfactions. This is a fingle-horned {pecies,
and has been often confounded with the common rhinoceros,
Vou. XXX.
Rit 4
4: The common fingle-horned Afiatic rhinoceros, And,
5+ The Sumatran rhinoceros, defcribed by Mr. Bell in the
Phil. Tranf. of the Royal Society of London.
Rurxoceros Avis, in Ornithology, the rhinoceros-bird, a
name given by authors to a f{pecies of Indian raven, called
by others coraus Indicus cornutus ; the beak of which is fre-
quently brought over into Europe. This, in the Linnean
fyltem, is a fpecies of Buceros ; which fee. .
It is a very ugly bird, and of a very rank fmell. It
much exceeds the European raven ia bignefs, and its head
and neck are very thick. Its eyes are very large, and its
beak of a very remarkable figure, having a large and thick
horn-like protuberance on its upper part. The whole beak
is bent like a bow, not hooked at the end like the beaks of
the hawk, &c. It is of a yellowifh-white below, and on
the upper part towards the head is of a fine gay red, and
the reft of a yellowifh-white; the upper chap is ferrated.
The horn grows out from the head with this, and runs
along it, and bends up at its extremity ; its upper and under
part are red, its middle yellow. The bird feeds on carrion.
Rurnocenos, in the Hiflory of Infeds, a {pecies of beetle,
fo called, becaufe it has a kind of horn upon its head.
RHINOCOLURA, or Rurnocorura, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Syria, 22 miles from Raphia, and which
formed a kind of boundary between Syria and Egypt.
Strabo attributes it to Phoenicia; and Pliny calls the fea, on
a ftrait of which this place is fituated, the « Sea of Phe-
nicia.’’ - Diodorus Siculus fays, that this town, fituated on
the confines of Egypt and Syria, near the fea, was deftitute
of all the conveniencies of life ; that its water was bitter and
noxious, and that it was furrounded with falt marfhes. It
was in the vicinity of this place that the Ifraelites were nou-
rifhed with quails.
RHINOMACER, in Entomology, a genus of infeéts of
the order Coleoptera. The generic charaéter is, antenne
fetaceous, feated on the fnout ; it has four feelers, growing
thicker towards the end; the laft joint is truncate. There
are three {pecies, none of which are found in this country.
Species.
Curcutiores. This is grey and downy; the antenne
and legs are black. It inhabits Italy. It refembles a cur-
culio. The antenne are fetaceous and black, and as long
as the thorax ; the lait joint is fharp; the fnout is flat, and
impreffed in the middle.
ATTELABOIDES. This is piceous-downy ; the antennz and
legs are teftaceous. It is found in divers parts of Sweden.
The {nout is elevated and projected; the body is cinereous.
Cru eus. This fpecies is of a blueifh colour, and it
is fubvillous ; the bafe of the antennz and legs are yellow,
It inhabits Calabria, and has been thought to be a f{pecies
of the Attelabus ; which fee.
RHINOPTES, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs a
perfon, who, from an ulcer in the great canthus of the eye, lay-
ing open the paflages to the nofe, can fee through his softril.
RHINOW, in Geography, a town of the Middle Mark
of Brandenburg, onthe Rhine ; 20 miles N. of Brandenburg.
RHINSBERG. See RetnsBene.
RHINSBERGERS, in Ecclefiaftical Hiflory. See Con-
LEGIANS.
RHIPAI Montes, in Ancient Geography. _ See Ri-
PHEAN Mountains. :
RHIPSALIS, in Botany, Gertn. t. 28. (See Cac-
tus, fp. 25.) It is curious to obferve how the reprefenta-
tion of the fructification of this plant, in Miller’s [luftration
of the Linnzan fy{tem, is made to an{wer to the generic cha-
racter of Caffytha, for which it had been erroneoufly taken.
RHIPTASMOS, a word ufed by the ancients to ex-
: 6 prefs
R Hi
RHI
prefs a reftleffnefs and frequent tofling about, a very com- titled ‘* De Britannica Hiftoria rete intelligenda.”” He
mon fymptom in fevers.
RHISOPHAGI, in Ancient Geogruphy, a people of
Ethiopia, in the vicinity of the ifle of Meroe, upon the
banks of the rivers Aftaboras and Aftapas, according to
Diodorus Siculus.
RHISPIA, atown of the Higher Pannonia, at a dif-
tance from the Danube, and fituated hetween Savaria and
Vincendria. Ptolemy.
_ RHISUS, a town of Greece, on the coaft of Theffaly,
according to Strabo and Steph. Byz. Pliny mentions a
town of this name in Magnefia.
RHITHYMNA, a town fituated on the northern coatt
of the ifle of Crete. Ptolemy.
RHITTIA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Czfarienfis ;
placed by Ptolemy in the interior of the country between
Arina and Vitoria.
RHITTIUM, a town of Lower Pannonia, upon the
banks of the Danube, between Acumincum Legio and
Taururum, according to Ptolemy.
RHIUM, a promontory on the N.E. part of Achaia:
it formed with Anti-Rhium, another promontory oppofite
to it, and more northerly, the ftrait by which the Ionian
fea communicated with the gulf of Corinth. Alfo, a town
of the Peloponnefus, in Meflenia, upon the gulf of Thuriates,
oppofite to the promontory Tanarus, according to Strabo.
—Alfo, a promontory on the E. fide of the ifland of Corfa,
between mount Rhetius and the town Urcipium. Ptolemy.
RHIUSIAVA, atown of Germany, on the banks of
the Danube, between Are Flavie and Alcimenis. Ptolemy.
RHIW-ABON, or Ruazon, in Geography, a market-
town in the cwmwd of Maelor Gymraeg, cantref of Uwck-
Nant, (now called the hundred of Bromfield,) county of
Denbigh, North Wales, is fituated on rifing ground, at
the diftance of four miles S.S.W. from the town of Wrex-
ham. ‘The market-day here is Monday, weekly ; befides
which, there are fairs on the lait Friday in February, the
22d of May, and the 2oth of November. The petty
feffions for the Ruabon divifion of the hundred are held in
this town. The church is an ancient ftructure, but is in
good repair, and contains feveral monumental ereétions.
One, to the memory of the firft fir Watkin Williams
Wynne, difplays a figure of the deceafed in a loofe robe.
On one fide is a figure of his fon, and on the other that of
his daughter, both in kneeling poftures. This monument
was erected by Ryfbrack. Near it ftand thofe of the late
fir Watkin Williams Wynne, bart., and his lady ; both of
them the workmanfhip of Nollekens, and worthy of his
chaite and claffic chiffel. The latter exhibits lady Wynne
in the charaéter of Hope, ftanding, and reclining her arm
on an urn; the whole being placed upon a pedeftal, made
in the fhape of a Roman altar. The other principal monu-
ments commemorate Henry Wynne, efq., tenth fon of fir
John Wynne of Gwidir, who died in 1671; fir John
Wynne of Wynftay, and his wife Jane ; and another fir John
Wynne, fon of the above, with his wife, the heirefs of
Watitay. Ina chapel, on the fouth fide of the communion
table, is likewife an altar tomb, fupporting the recumbent
figures of a man in armour, and a female habited in a
mantle. From an infcription round the edge of the entabla-
ture, it appears that thefe reprefent John ap Ehs Eyton,
efq-, who died in 1526, and Elizabeth Caflley, his wife,
who died in 1524.
Rhiw-Abon is noted as the birth-place of Dr. David
Powell, who tranflated into Englifh the Hiftory of Wales,
written by Caradoc of Llancarfan, with the Continuation
by Humphrey Llwyd; and who likewife firft edited the
works of Giraldus Cambrenfis, and publifhed a tre atife, en-
9
.’died in 1590.
This parifh is very extenfive, and contains |
five townfhips. The town confifts, according to the po- <
ulation returns of 1811, of 263 houfes, and 1137 inha-
itants. The parifh abounds with collieries, the produce
of which is conveyed to different parts of the country, by
means of the Ellefmere canal, which pafles near the town,
and forms a junétion with the canals that penetrate Wales
on the one fide, and communicate with the Grand Trunk
Navigation on the other. Adjoining Rhiw-Abon is Wynn-
{tay-hall, the feat of fir Watkin Williams Wynne, bart.
The houfe is large, but, owing to the heterogeneous and
patched character of its architecture, it poflefles little ele-
gance of external appearance. The apartments in the in-
terior, however, are grand and fpacious, and contain fe-
veral good portraits of the Wynnes, the Williamfes, and
the Seymours, painted by Vandyke, fir Godfrey Kneller,
and other eminent artifts. Clofe to the houfe is a building,
originally fitted up asa theatre, but now appropriated for
an annual agricultural meeting, auxiliary to the fociety at
Wrexham. <A fhow of cattle takes place on the occafion
of each meeting, at which premiums are adjudged for the
beft fpecimen of every f{pecies of ftock, and alfo for other
hufbandry improvements. This eftate was anciently the ree
fidence of Madoc ap Gryffydd Maelor, lord of Bromfield,
and founder of Valle-Crucis abbey. From the circumftance
of the ancient rampire, called Watt’s Dyke, running
through the park, it was long denominated Watitay-park,
in allufion thereto. It extends above eight miles in circum-
ference, and is ornamented with plantations, a fine lake,
and various buildings. Among the objeéts of the laft men-
tioned kind is a cai 100 feet high, built of free ftone,
from a defign by the late Mr. Wyatt. It was ereéted as a
tribute of maternal affection, in memory of fir Watkin Wil-
liams Wynne, father to the prefent baronet. In another
part of the grounds is a tower, or rotunda, intended to
commemorate the heroes of the Cambrian legion, who fell
in the caufe of loyalty, under fir Watkin, during the late
rebellion in Ireland. The {pot on which this tower is fitu-
ated commands an extenfive view of mountains, woods, and
the meanderings of the Dee. ‘The valley, watered by that
river here, difplays the moft piéturefque and romantic
fcenery, whofe beauties peculiarly excited the admiration of
the celebrated lord Lyttelton. The turnpike-road from
Rhiw-Abon to Ofwettry, which crofles this valley, is
formed for nearly two miles on the embankment of Offa’s
Dyke. It is here ten feet high, and broad enough for two
carriages to run abreaft. Near this road is a remarkable
tumulus, fuppofed to be the burying-place of fome chief-
tain flain in a battle, fought in this neighbourhood, about
the year 1161, between Owain Cyfeiliog, prince of Powys,
and the Englifh, and terminated in favour of the ancient
Britons. This viétorv gave rife to the beautiful poem,
called “ Hirlas Owain,’ or the Drinking-Horn of Owain,
compofed by the prince himfelf; which, according to Mr.
Pennant, ranks with the beft Pindaric ode of the Grecian
{chool. About three miles northward from Rhiw-Abon is
Erdigg, or Erddig, the feat of Simon Yorke, efq. The
houfe, which has been lately modernized, contains fome
valuable paintings; and the library is the depofitory of
many curious Welfh MSS., including the Seabright col-
leétion. The grounds are laid out with much taite, but
the efforts of art are too apparent. The continuation of
Watt’s Dyke extends acrofs thefe grounds, running along
one fide of a bank between the two vallies, by which the
domain is bounded. Not far from hence are the fragments
of a cemented wall, and various foundations of buildings,
furrounded by a triple intrenchment of a pentagonal form.
Thele
4 ‘
sd
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Thefe are fuppofed by fome to be of Reman origin, but
others conceive that they mark the fcite of a Saxon fort,
conftruéted by the Mercians to defend their line of demar+
cation, as fixed by the great Offa. This laft opinion is
rendered the more probable, by the fact of there being fome
veitiges of a fimilar fort more to the northward, and on the
fame line. Philip Yorke, efq., anceftor to the prefent pro-
~ prietor of Erddig, was author of “* The Hiitory of the
five royal Tribes of Wales ;” a work abounding with fo
much information, that it is greatly to be lamented that he
did not favour the world with his intended Stemmata, or
Fifteen Tribes.
The diitri& in the vicinity of Rhiw-Abon, particularly
towards Wrexham, abounds with valuable mines. The
iron ore, found in the adjacent mountains, is exceedingly
rich, and affords excellent iron. The principal works
carried on are thofe of Brymba and Berfham. The latter,
which are fituated at Pont-y-Penca, confift of forges,
flitting, rolling, and ftamping mills, &c. with an extentive
cannon fourdery, inferior only to that on the banks of the
Carron, in North Britain. Befides cannon, thefe works
produce wheels, cogs, bars, pipes, cylinders, rollers, co-
lumns, piftons, &c.; alfo furnace boilers, fteam caiffons,
and various other articles which were formerly made of
copper. Carlifle’s Topographical Di@ionary of Wales,
4to. 1813. A Tour round North Wales, by the Rev.
W. Bingley, B.A., F.L.S., 8vo. 2 vols. 1800.
RHIZAGRA, in Surgery, an inftrument for extraGing
the ftumps of the teeth.
RHIZANA, in Ancient Geography, a town placed. by
Ptolemy in the interior of Dalmatia. —Alfo, a town of A fia,
in Gedrofia, upon the fea-coait near Coiamba. Ptol.—Alfo,
a town placed by Ptolemy in Arachofia, between Alex-
andria and Arbaca.
RHIZINIUM, or Ruisinum, or Rhifon, a town of
Dalmatia, on a gulf to which it gave the name of Rhifo-
nicus Sinus. Ptol.
RHIZIUM, Ruizé, a town of Afia, in the Colchide,
on the coaft of the Euxine fea, and W. of the mouth of
the {mall river “ Rhizius.’’
RHIZOBOLUS, in Botany, a name of Geartner’s,
from pifx, a root, and Badrdw, to throw, or caff, becaufe the
plant is remarkable for throwing out a number of roots.
—Schreb. 369. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Gertn. t. 98.
(Caryocar ; Linn. Mant. 154. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1243.
Pekea; Aublet. Guian. v. 1. 594. Juff. 249. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 486.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Tetragynia.
Nat. Ord. Sapindi, Jufi.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flefhy,
cloven half way down into five, roundifh, concave fegments.
Cor. Petals five, ovate, rounded, concave, flefhy, inferted
below the fegments of the calyx, and much larger. Stam.
Filaments very numerous, thread-fhaped, longer than the
corolla, inferted into the receptacle ; anthers roundifh.
Pifi. Germen fuperior, fquare, inthe bottom of the calyx ;
ftyles four, thread-fhaped, longer than the corolla; ftigmas
obtufe. Peric. Drupas four, kidney-fhaped, comprefled,
inferted by their wedge-fhaped inner edge into the conical
receptacle, of one call, with a flefhy covering, and a foft
ulp like butter. Seed. Nuts folitary, kidney-fhaped ;
Lerels folitary, kidney-fhaped.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft half way down. Petals five.
Germen four-fided, fuperior. Nuts four, fingle-celled and
fingle-feeded.
1. R. butyrofus. Leffler Suwarrow Nut. (Caryocar
butyrofum ; Willd. n.1. Pekea butyrofa; Aubl. Guian.
t. 238.)—Fruit fmooth. Leaves digitate, {mooth on both
fides.—Native of woods in Guiana, and cultivated at Ca-
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yenne ; where it flowers in June and July, and bears fruit in
September. This lofty sree rifes to the height of eighty
feet, or more, and is much branched at the fummit ; the
inner branches ere&t; the outer horizontal or declining.
Trunk three feet in diameter, witha grey bark, and reddith,
compact wood. Leaves oppofite, digitate ; leaflets entire,
oval, pomted. Flowers white, in large bunches, at the
extremities of the branches. Fruit yellowith.
2. R. tuberculofts. Large, or Common, Suwarrow Nut.
(Caryocar tomentofum; Willd. n. 2. C. nuciferum ;
Linn, Mant. 247. Pekea tuberculofa; Aubl. Guian.
t. 239.)—Fruit tubercled. Leaves digitate, downy be-
neath.—Native of Guiana, producing fruit in July. This
tree differs from the preceding in having thicker /aves which
are downy beneath, and sfhecdegates Fruit larger and
tubercled, the pulp dry, not buttery. The nut is {weet
and palatable, containing a rich oil. Not unfrequent in our
fruiterers’ fhops, and known by the name of Suwarrow Nut.
It is figured in Cluf. Exot. 27. f. 1, by the name of Amyg-
dala guianenfis.
RHIZOMA, an appellation beftowed, by feveral late
authors, on the tuberous caudex, or body, of fome roots; as
that of [ris Germanica, and many other of the natural order
of Enfate of Linnezus and Gawler. See Roor.
RHIZOMORPHA, fo called from its refemblance to
the branching fibrous roots of various plants, is a genus of
fungi, eftablifhed by Perfoon, in his Synopfis, 704. One
of its fpecies, R. fubcorticalis, figured by Micheli, Nov.
Gen. t. 66. f. 3, is called by that author, p. 125, Agaricum
nigrum reticulatum compreflum, e mortuis arboribus inter
corticem et lignum, interdum in ipfo ligno innafcens, ac laté fe
diffundens. Ray, Vaillant, and others, have likewife confidered
this fubftance as a fungus. Perfoon’s generic charaCter is
«Creeping, rigid, {mooth, with a villous pith.””
He enumerates two fpecies befides the above ;_/ubterranea,
found among wet timber-work, in mines; and Setiformis, found
among dead leaves in woods. This laft is figured in Dill.
Mufc. t. 13. f. 11, b. They are all, tous, very obfcure,
and perhaps imperfe& produétions.
RHIZOPHORA, a Linnean genus, whofe name is
derived from ffx, a root, and ¢tew, to bear, or carry 3 the
feed germinating before it falls from the branches, and
fending down a remarkably long cylindrical root into the
earth.—Linn. Gen. 236. Schreb. 317. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 2.843. Mart. Mill. Dict. v.4. Juff. 213. Lamarck
Did. v. 6. 187. Illuftr. t. 396. Gertn. t. 45. | Lou-
reir. Cochinch. 296. (Mangles; Plum. Nov. Gen. t. 15.
Bruguiera; Lamarck Illuitr. t. 397.)—Clafs and order,
Dodecandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn. Ca-
prifolia, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, {preading,
cloven into four, or more, oblong, acuminate, permanent
fegments. Cor. Petals four or more, oblong, fomewhat
fhorter than the calyx. Stam. Filaments fearcely any, alter-
nately fhorter ; anthers from four to twelve, {mall, pointed.
Pift. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle awl-fhaped, cloven
half way down, grooved at each fide ; ftigmas acute. Peric.
flefhy, nearly ovate, including only the bafe of the feed.
Seed folitary, oblong-club-fhaped, pointed, flefhy at the bafe.
Obf. The number in the parts of the flower varies.
Eff. Ch. Calyx four or five-cleft. Corolla of four or
five petals. Seed folitary, very long, flefhy at the bafe.
1. R. conjugata. Linn. Sp. Pl. 634. Fl. Zeylan. 81.
—Leaves ovate-oblong, rather obtufe, entire. Calyx feffile.
Fruit cylindrical, awl-fhaped.—Native of India. All that
is known of this fpecies may be gathered from the Flora
Zeylanica, where it is defcribed as a tree whofe /eaves are
ftalked, fmooth. Calaestwin. Fruit very long, pendent.
Y2 2. R
RHO
2. R. gymnorhiza. Linn. Sp. Pl. 634. (Mangiam cel-
fum; Rumph. Ambon. v. 3. 102. t. 68.) — Leaves ovato-
lanceolate, entire. Root lying upon the ground.—Found
in many parts of the Eaft Indies, and in the iflands of the
South feas.—A middling-fized tree with a lofty, erect trunk,
covered with a thick brown-red barf. Leaves on ftalks,
{mooth, feattered, fometimes heaped together at the top.
lowers folitary, {cattered, red, having ufually from ten to
thirteen petals, and twice as many ftamens.
The bark of this tree is ufeful in dyeing a rufous or
chefnut colour, which may eafily be changed into a fine per-
manent black, as Loureiro informs us. °
3. R. Candel. Linn. Sp. Pl. 634. (Tsjerou-Candel ;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 6. 63. t. 35.)—Leaves obtufe.
Flower-ftalks in forked pairs, longer than the leaf. Fruit
awl-fhaped. Native of the Eaft Indies in fhallow falt water.
A tree about feven feet high. Leaves oppolite, on fhort
ftalks, rather long, with round edges. | #/owers compofed
of five or fix thick, reflexed, white, flightly fragrant petals.
Fruit very like that of the following f{pecies.
4. R. Mangle. Mangrove-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 684.
Jacq. Amer. 141. t. 89. Browne Jam. 211.—Leaves
pointed. Fruit flender-club-fhaped. Found in moilt fitua-
tions, both in the Eaft and Welt Indies. A tree about
fifty feet high; with white cwood, and a rufty-coloured dark.
Leaves ovate, ribbed, entire, {hining, coriaceous, dotted be-
neath. Sva/ks axillary, folitary, two or three-flowered, flightly
triangular. F/owers white, having moftly eight petals.
Jacquin and Browne each give an elaborate and curious
defcription of the fruit of this tree and the mode in which
the feed germinates. From it’s growing ufually near the
fea, the lower branches frequently become a fupport to the
American oyfter, and this cireumttance doubtlefs gave rife
to an ancient fabulous opinion, that fhell-fifh fometimes grew
on trees, like fruit.
5+ Recylindrica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 635. (Cari-Candel ;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 6. 59. t. 33.)—Fruit cylindrical,
obtufe.—Native of falt marfhes in Malabar. This f{pecies
is clofely allied to gymnorhiza, of which indeed Geertner
confiders it to be a variety. It is rather taller, and not fo
much branched. Leaves much {fmaller, and on fhorter
ftalks. Fruit green when young, but afterwards reddifh-blue.
R. corniculata. See Ai cicrras.
R. cafeolaris. See SonNERATIA.
We dare not venture to adopt R.« fevangula of Loureiro,
without further information than is furnifhed by that author
refpecting it.
RHIZUS, in Ancient Geography, a port of Cappadocia,
near Trebizond, between the town of Pitiufa and the pro-
montory of Athene. Ptolemy.
RHO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Olona; eight miles W. of Milan.
RHOARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Parthia, between Cafipraca and Semina. Ptolemy.
RHOAS, a river of the Colchide, according to Pliny.
RHOBASCTI, a people of Scythia, on this fide of the
Imaus, placed by Ptolemy near the moit eafterly fources of
the river Rha.
RHOBODUNUM, a town of Germany, upon the
banks of the Danube, between Phelicia and Andupedum.
Ptolemy.
RHOBOGDIUM, a promontory placed by Ptolemy in
the northern part of Hibernia.
RHOBONDA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania
‘Cefarienfis, between Tupufuptus and Aufum. Ptolemy.
RHOCAS, the watery eye. See Eprpnora.
RHODA, or Ruope, Ro/as, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Hifpania Anterior, belonging to the Indigetes, and
RHO
N. of a {mall gulf. It is faid to have been built by the
Rhodians on the banks of a {mall river which flowed from
the Pyrenées, and called by Pomponius Mela “ Thicis.’’
But Cellarius conjectures that it was founded by the in-
habitants of Emporiz, who came thither from the town of .
Rhodes, in the ifland of that name.—Alfo, a town of
Gallia Narbonnenfis, at the mouth and on the banks of the
Rhone, according to Pliny ; who adds, that it was built by
the Rhodians. St. Jerome intimates that the Rhone took
its name from this town.
RHODANNUS, or Ropannus, a fmall river which
had its fource in the palatinate of Pomerania, and difcharged
itfelf into the Viltula at Dantzick.
RHODANUS Frvvius. See Ruone.
RHODE, a river of the European Sarmatia, in the
vicinity of the Axiaces. Pliny.
Ruope J/land, in Geography, one of the United States
of America, fituated between 41° 17! and 42° N. lat. and
between 71° 6 and 71° 52! W. long. Its north line is 29
miles long and its weft line 49. The coait weft of the bay
meafures 22 miles, the mouth of the bay 16, and the coatt
eaft of the bay 5, in all 43; while the greateft width mea-
fured on a parallel is 37 miles. Rhode ifland contains about
1580 fquare miles ; of which about 190 are water, and
about go are included in the iflands. It is bounded N.
and E. by the Maffachufetts, S. by the Atlantic, and W.
by Conneéticut. It is divided, according to the following
itatement, into five counties and thirty-one townfhips.
Counties. No. sf pea Population: Chief Towns.
1790. 1800. 1810.
Providence - 10 24,391 25,854 30,769 Providence.
Newport = 7 14,300 14,845 16,294 Newport..
Wafhington- 7 18,075 16,135 14,968 S. Kingtton.
Kent - 4 8,848 8,487 9,834 Warwick.
Briftol - 3) 3,211. 3,801 55072 Driltol.
Totals - 31 68,825 69,122 76,937
This ftate fends two reprefentatives to congrefs. The
tribe of Indians who inhabited Rhode ifland at the time of
its fettlement, was the Narraganfetts, who were a brave
and powerful people. The firtt fettlement in this itate was
made by Roger Williams, ard a party of malecontents from
Maflachufetts, in 1635 ; and in 1643 a charter was obtained
for the whole colony by fir Henry Vane. The charter, on
which the prefent conititution is founded, was obtained of
Charles II. in 1663. In May 1789, Rhode ifland adopted
the federal conftitution. The inhabitants of this {tate are
chiefly of Englifh defcent. Agreeably to the charter juli
mentioned, the legiflature is compofed of a council of 12,
including the governor and deputy governor, all chofen
annually, and a houfe of reprefentatives, confifting of de-
puties from the feveral towns, chofen twice a-year. There
is one fupreme court, which fits twice a-year in each
county, and an inferior court of common pleas and general
feffions of the peace for each county, fitting alfo twice
a-year. The militia of this ftate amount to between 7000 and
8000 men, organized and difciplined in a manner fimilar to
the reft of the New England militia. The fettlement of
Rhode ifland is faid to have originated in a religious difpute ;
and fome of its firft fettlers were exiles from the Mafla-
chufetts, on account of their religious opinions. The pre-
judice and animofity thus excited were never thoroughly re-
moved; but they were long cherifhed by the defcendants
of the firft occupiers ; and even to this day, there has never
been a congregational minifter fettled on the weft fide of the
4 bay,
RHO
bay, except in Providence. The mafs of the people, it is
faid, on the weit fide of the bay, has generally been ignorant,
irreligious, and loofe in their morals. The tone of reli-
gious fentiment and of morals, in Providence, Newport,
and Briftol, and other towns adjoining thefe on the eatt of
the bay, has been much raifed by the emigrants from Mafla-
. chufetts and Conneéticut, and the eftablifhment of religious
in{titutions, The traveller fees few of the improvements in
agriculture, roads, manufaGtures, or mode of living, which
he finds in the neighbouring ftates; and meets with little
of that civility for which other parts of New England are
remarkable. The miffionary labours, however, have not
been without their good effeéts. With refpe& to the re-
ligious profeffion of this ftate, the Baptifts are the moft
numerous ; mo{t of whom are Calviniftic ; fome are Armi-
nians, and a few of them are feventh-day Baptiits. A {till
{maller number confifts of thofe who claim peculiar fanGtity,
and are denominated Separate Baptifts. The other deno-
minations are Congregationalifts, who have eight minifters ;
Epifcopolians, who have four, one of whom is the bifhop
of the eaftern diocefe ; Moravians, and Jews. In this ftate
religion is not fupported by law; but the clergy are main-
tained by the voluntary contributions of their people. The
number of clergy, as they have no {tated falary, enforced
by law, is extremely {mall; but the ftate of religion and
morals, in a great part of the ftate, is lamentably low.
Literature has of late been encouraged. Brown univerfity
at Providence, deriving its prefent name from Nicholas
Brown, efq., who gave the inftitution 5000 dollars, was
founded in 1764 at Warren, and removed to Providence in
1770. (See Cortece.) Academies are eftablifhed at
Providence, Newport, Briftol, Warren, Eaft-Greenwich,
and South-Kingfton. Schools are kept during the winter-
months in moft towns of the ftate, though not provided for
by the laws; and upon the whole the itate of fociety is
improving. In this ftate there are 13 banks. The chief
exports are flax-feed, lumber, horfes, cattle, beef, pork,
fith, poultry, onions, butter, cheefe, barley, grain, {pirits,
and cotton and linen goods. More than 600 veffels enter
and clear annually at the feveral ports. In 1804 the amount
of exports was 1,735,671 dollars, and in 1810, 1,331,576
dollars. The imports confift of European and Weit India
goods, and logwood from the bay of Honduras. The in-
habitants, particularly thofe of Newport and Briftol, were,
not long fince, largely concerned in the flave trade, even in
defiance of the laws of the ttate. A turnpike road pafles
from Providence, W.S.W., through Scituate and Coventry,
meeting a fimilar road in Lifbon, Conneéticut, which leads
through Windham to Hartford; its length is about 25
miles. Another road itrikes the Conneéticut line S. of
this, and paffes through Norwich, New London, to New
Haven and New York; this is the great fouthern road from
Bofton to New York ; but the roads in this dtate have been
much negle&ed. This ftate is reckoned as healthy as any
country in America. The winters in the maritime parts of
the itate are milder than in the inland country; and the
fummers are delightful: the extreme heats that occur in
ether parts of America, being allayed by cool and refreth-
ing breezes fromthe fea. The rivers and bays {warm with
various kinds cf fifh; and this itate produces corn, rye,
barley, oats, and in fome parts wheat, fufficient for home
confumption, and the various forts of grafles, fruits, and
culinary roots and/plants in great abundance and perfe¢tion.
Cyder is made for exportation. The north-weitern parts of
the ftate are rocky and barren, and of courfe thinly inha-
bited. The tra& of land lying between North and South
Kingfton jon the eait, and Connecticut on the weit, called
« Shannock” country, or * Purchafe,’’ is excellent grazing
R HO
land, and inhabited by a number of wealthy farmers, who
rear fome of the fineft neat cattle in New England; they
keep large dairies, and make butter and cheefe of the bett
quality, and in large quantities for exportation. Iron ore
is found in great plenty in feveral parts of the ftate ; fo that
the mot confiderable manufaGtures of this itate are thofe of
iron ; and alfo abundance of lime-ftone, which furnithes lime
for exportation. In this {tate are feveral mineral {prings ;
and one in particular near Providence, to which many people
refort for bathing, and for drinking the water.
Ruope J/land, is anifland from which the American ftate
takes its name, mear the coaft of Maflachufetts, about 40
miles S.W. from Bofton. It is about 15 miles from N. to
S., and on an average 34 miles wide, and is divided into
three townfhips, viz. Newport, Portfmouth, and Middle-
ton. This ifland is pleafant and falubrious, and is a noted
place of refort for invalids from fouthern climates.. Between
30,000 and 40,000 fheep are fed on the ifland, befides neat
cattle and horfes. N. lat. 41°25’. W. long. 71° 20’.
Ruore River, the weiternmoft water of the N.W.
branch of Cape Fear river, in North Carolina.
RHODEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Waldeck ; 24 miles N.N.W. of Waldeck.
RHODES, J/land of, in Ancient and Modern Geography,
an ifland of Afia, fituated in the Mediterranean, very near
the coalt of Caria or Natolia, and N.E~.of the ifland of
Crete, but much larger than this ifland. Pliny {tates its
circuit at 125 miles; but Ifidore makes it 103 miles. Ac-
cording to Sonnini, it is much longer than it is broad ; its
greatett length, in a diretion from N. to S., being about
1z leagues, and breadth 6; and its circuit is commonly eiti-
mated at 44 leagues. Its form is nearly triangular, whence
it obtained the name of “ Trinacria ;’” and it was alfo known
formerly by the names of Ophiufa, A teria, 4Ethrea, Ce-
rymbia, Poefla, Atabyria, Marcia, Oloeffa, Stadia, Tel-
chinis, Pelagia, and Rhodus. The latter appellation has pre-
vailed in later ages; and its etymology has been fought in
the Greek Rhodon, fignifying a rofe, with which flower the
ifland abounded. In confirmation of this etymology it has
been alleged that feveral Rhodian coins are {till extant, ex-
hibiting, on one fide, the fun, and on the reverfe.a rofe.
Diodorus Siculus deduces the origin of its name from
Rhoda, the daughter of Apollo by Venus. Others, how-
ever, have preferred the etymology of Bochart, who, avail-
ing himfelf of one of its ancient names, viz. Ophiufa or
Snake ifland, given to it on account of the numerous fnakes
with which it was infelted, when it was firft inhabited, fays
that the Pheenicians alfo called it Snake ifland, which, in
their language, fignified “ Gefirat Rhod,”’ the latter’ word
meauing afnake, whence the Greeks afterwards formed the
name of Rhodes, which the ifland has fince preferved.
Another name by which it was diltinguifhed, in common
with the ifland of Cyprus, was Macaria, or. fortunate,
referring to the nature of the climate and of the foil. But
it is faid to furpafs Cyprus, if not with refpeét to the fer-
tility of the land, at leait by its milder and more agreeable
temperature. In this ifland the heat is not exceflive, fo that
long droughts do not burn the plants, dry up the waters,
or caufe the inhabitants to fuffer. The fertility and pro-
ductivenefs of its foil gave occafion to the fable, embellifhed
by the poets, of thofe golden fhowers which they pretended
to have once fallen upon it. It formerly produced, in great
plenty, all forts of delicious fruits, and wines of fo exquifite
a flavour, that they were ufed by the Romans chiefly in
their facnfices, and thought. to be, as Virgil informs us,
(Georg. 1.11.) too good tor mortals. Although the heat
is not icorching, yet the air is fo ferene, that no day eyer
palfes without iun-fhine ; whence the poets feigned Phebus
to
RHODES.
to be in love with this ifland, which, as they fay, wasa
mere mavfh, altogether uninhabitable, till it was loved by
Pheebus and raifed out of the waters by his powerful in-
fluence. ‘To this purpofe Sonnini defcribes its temperate
climate, pure air, and fine {prings, which at all times fupply
the wants of its inhabitants, and render it agreeable; its
vallies of a rich and fertile foil, covered by plentiful
harvefts, and clothed with rich paftures, fhaded by trees
bearing precious fruits, fuch as the olive, the orange, and
the fig-tree, with flowers that embellifh with their luftre,
and perfume with their {weet emanations; floping hills on
which the vine is cultivated, or which prefent to numerous
flocks a luxuriant and odoriferous herbage; mountains on
which grow the moft beautiful trees, whofe verdure is
erennial ; all which would ftill render it one of the moft
delightful abodes in the world, did not the iron hand of the
Turks efface a part of the colours of this fmiling picture.
A gloomy nakednefs, fays the fame author, diffufes me-
lancholy over places formerly adorned by the riches of
nature and induftry ; and the men who are called thither by
an agreeable and truly happy country, are driven back by
the terror infpired by a herde of fpoilers. Happinefs no
longer inhabits an ifland formerly * fortunate,” and the
golden fhower, which the poets of antiquity caufed to fall
there, as an emblem of its riches and brilliant advantages, is
converted into a ftorm of defolation.
In the time of Homer the ifland of Rhodes had three
cities, viz. Lindus, now Lindo, Camirus or Camiro, and
Talyfus, the moft ancient city in the whole ifland; to which
in after ages was added a fourth, bearing the name of the
ifland. (See each refpeGively.) Thefe three cities were
built, according to Diodorus, by Tlepolemus, the fon of
Hercules, before the Trojan war. But Strabo and Cicero
inform us, that they were founded by the Heliades, or
grandfons of Phebus, lalyfus, Camirus, and Lindus,
who gave each of them his own name. Other writers
fay, that they were built by the Dorians not long after
their migration ; and hence Athenzus reckons them among
the Dorian colonies. Herodotus fays, they were founded
by the daughters of Danaus, who landed in this ifland,
after having put to death the fons of /Egyptus, their hul-
bands. In the city of Lindus was a magnificent temple,
built, according to Plutarch, in honour of the Lindian
Minerva, a ftatue of which, together with the mother of
Jupiter Dodonzus, both of exquifite workmanfhip, were
found in the rubbifh of the city, after it had been accie
dentally reduced to afhes, and removed to Conftantinople.
In this temple there were alfo feveral piCtures by Parrhafius,
Zeuxis, and other great mafters. Lindus and Ialyfus were
well fortified in the time of the Peloponnefian war, as we
learn from Thucydides; but Camirus was without walls.
The three cities now mentioned were, as Strabo informs
us, three different republics, independent of each other,
governed by their own laws, till the inhabitants abandoned
them, and removed to the city of Rhodes.
This ifland was firft peopled, according to Diodorus
Siculus, by the Telchine from Crete; but dreading a de-
luge, they abandoned their habitations, and made way for
the Heliades, or grand-children of Phebus, who took pof-
feflion of it, after Apollo had cleared it of the mud, with
which it had been covered by the deluge. The Heliades,
being infefted with ferpents, fent for Phorbas from Theflaly,
upon the fuggeftion of the oracle at Delos, who brought
with him a number of Theffalians, fettled on the ifland,
deftroyed the ferpents, and after his death was honoured
as ademi-god. A colony of Cretans afterwards fettled at
Camirus, 1n this ifland, under the condu&t of Althzmenes,
fon of Catreus, king of Crete ; and by direétion of the oracle,
he was honoured after his death as a hero or demi-god.
Not long before the Trojan war, Tlepolemus, the fon of
Hercules, in compliance with the inftru€tion of the oracle,
which he confulted, left Argos, and fettled in Rhodes. He
here planted a colony, which he governed as king of the
ifland with great equity. Diodcrus fays, thefe were the
firft inhabitants of Rhodes. After the Trojan war, the beft
part of the ifland was taken pofleffion of by the Dorians,
who expelled the ancient proprietors, and the Doric diale&
was commonly ufed throughout the whole ifland.
The Rhodians applied themfelves, at an early period, to
trade and navigation, and for many ages were fovereigns of
the fea: their laws being the ftandard by which all con-
troverfies relating to maritime affairs were decided. Thefe
laws and conftitutions were fo juft, that they were after-
wards incorporated into the Roman pandeéts, and followed
in all the provinces of the Roman empire.
The government of Rhodes was originally monarchical ;
and feveral kings are faid to have reigned there long before
the Trojan war; but of thefe we have no account. Among
the eminent writers of this ifland, we have an enumeration
of the following, whofe names we can only mention: viz.
Ariftophanes, Eudemus, Hieronymus, a Peripatetic philo-
fopher, Leonidas, Pifander, Panetius, Apollonius Molon,
Timocreon, Preciphanes, Antheas, &c. The authors of —
the Univerfal Hiitory (ubi infra) have given a brief ac-
count of fome of them, and referred for an ampler detail
to Meurfius’s learned treatife on the ifland of Rhodes,
printed at Amfterdam in 1675, and publifhed with thofe
on Crete and Cyprus by the fame author.
In the time of the Trojan war, and after that epoch, the
kings who reigned in this ifland were, Tlepolemus, Do-
rieus, Damagetus, Diagoras, Evagoras, Cleobulus, Eraf-
tides, Damagetus II., and Diagoras II. The lait of thefe
fovereigns proved conqueror in the Olympic, Ifthmian,
Nemzan, and Argian games, and on that account is cele-
brated by Pindar. His three fons were alfo vi€tors in the
Olympie fports. Upon the death of Diagoras I]. fome ex-
traordinary revolution muft have happened; as another
family had pofleffion of the throne. After the death or
expulfion of the lait king, the republican government pre-
vailed over the whole ifland; during which the Rhodians
engaged in trade and navigation, became very powerful by
fea, and planted feveral colonies in diftant countries; viz.
Rhodus in Spain, and Parthenope in the country of the
Opici. At this time they were matters of the Balearic
iflands, then called the Gymnafian iflands. During the
Peloponnefian war the Rhodians firft joined the Athenians,
revolted from them to the Lacedemonians, and afterwards
joined the former. At this time the republic of Rhodes
was rent into two factions, the people favouring the Athe-
nians, and the nobles the Lacedzemonians; but the latter
at laft prevailed ; democracy was abolifhed, and an arifto-
cracy introduced initsroom. Under this form of govern-
ment the ftate enjoyed a profound tranquillity, until the
third year of the 1o5th olympiad, which was the third
year of the reign of Philip the fon of Amyntas, when the
Social war broke out, which, after it had lafted five years,
was concluded by a treaty, very little to the honour of
Athens. By this treaty, Rhodes, Chios, Cos, and Byzan-
tium, were to enjoy full liberty, and be quite independent
of Athens. The Rhodians, however, did not remain long
unmolefted ;. but they were opprefled by Maufolus, king of
Caria, who had affifted them in throwing off the Athenian
yoke. After fuffering for fome time, they equipped a fleet,
invaded Caria, and regained their liberty. Artemifia, the
queen of Maufolus, by an a& of treachery, pofleffed her-
{elf of the city of Rhodes, and put to death the chief
citizens
RHODES.
citizens who had planned the Carian expedition. In this
ftate of diftrefs, the Rhodians recurred to the Athenians,
and either by their affiftance, or by exertions on their own
part, after the death of Artemifia, were reftored to their
ancient liberty. From this time till the reign of Alexander
the Great the Rhodians enjoyed undifturbed tranquillity ;
and as they delivered their cities and harbours to his cuftody,
’ they were on that account highly favoured by that prince.
Diodorus indeed tells us, that Alexander depofited his laft
will in the archives of the city of Rhodes, and fhewed, on
all occafions, a greater value for the Rhodians than for any
other of the Greek nations. But they no fooner had
heard of his death, than, taking up arms, they drove out
the Macedonian garrifons, and once more became a free
people. About this time Rhodes, the capital city, fuffered
very much from an inundation, accompanied by a tempett
and hailftones of an extraordinary fize, which demolifhed
many houfes, and killed a great number of the inhabitants.
The Rhodians foon repaired the damage which they had
fuftained, by a renewed and very fedulous application to
trade and navigation, the only feurces of their wealth and
power. Although they were in amity with the neighbouring
princes, and were defirous of obferving a ftri@ neutrality,
by which prudential caution they were become one of the
moft opulent {tates of Afia; yet their inclination, concur-
ring with their intereft, they fecretly attached themfelves to
Ptolemy : the moft advantageous branches of their commerce
{pringing from Egypt. When gern who had en-
gaged in a war with Ptolemy for the ifland of Cyprus, de-
manded fuccours of them, and they hefitated in declaring
againit their ancient friend and ally, his anger was excited,
and he immediately ordered one of his admirals to fail with
his fleet to Rhodes, and feize all the fhips that failed out
of the harbour for Egypt. The Rhodians, finding their
harbour blocked up by the fleet of Antigonus, equipped
a great number of gallies, attacked the enemy, and obliged
him, with the lofs of many fhips, to quit his ftation; An-
tigonus was incenfed, and threatened to befiege their capital
with his whole army. They remonitrated, but with little
effe&, and the only terms of accommodation they could
obtain, were, that they fhould declare war againit Ptolemy,
that they fhould admit Antigonus’s fleet into their harbour,
and that 100 of their chief citizens fhould be furrendered
as hoftages for the performance of thefe articles. The
Rhodians applied to their allies, and particularly to Pto-
lemy, for affiftance ; and after great preparations on both
fides, Demetrius put himfelf at the head of a large body
of troops, increafed | pirates and mercenaries, who wifhed
to plunder Rhodes of its riches, and having laid watte the
country round the city, approached the city itfelf with his
powerful forces, and fortified his camp with ftrong ram-
parts and a triple palifade. The Rhodians adopted every
poflible meafure for a vigorous defence. After repeated
aflaults on the part of Demetrius, which were repulled
with great laughter, he brought forward a newly invented
machine, called ‘ helepolis,’’ with a variety of other engines,
and he employed in the management of them about 30,000
men. The befieged, in the mean while, raifed a new wali,
within that which the enemy intended to batter with the
helepolis. The city was furioufly aflaulted on all fides, both
by fea and land; and an honourable capitulation on the part
of the Rhodians being refufed by Demetrius, the attack
was renewed, and a breach made in the wall; but the be-
fieged fought in the breach with fuch intrepidity, that the
enemy, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts, were forced to
abandon the enterprife and retire. A feafonable fupply of
provifions arriving fafe at Rhodes, the befieged gained new
courage, and determined to fet fire to the enemy’s engines.
In the execution of this project a great number of Deme-
trius’s troops fell vitims, and the conflagration was fo great,
that Demetrius thought it moft prudent to move off his
machines, left they fhould be utterly deftroyed. Whilft
the Rhodians were thus, with equal valour and perfeverance,
defending themfelves and annoying the enemy, an embafly
arrived at the camp of Demetrius from Athens, and the
other cities of Greece, foliciting him to make peace with
the Rhodians. A ceffation of arms was agreed upon, and
terms were offered by Demetrius, which were rejected by
the Rhodians. The aflault was renewed, and a breach
having been made, it was entered by a detachment of
Demetrius’s men; which occafioned great confufion in the
city: but the Rhodians fought like men in the utmoft de-
{pair, and animated by their leaders, who encouraged
one another, they propofed a laft effort for the defence of
their city and country, which was that of breaking into
the very centre of the enemy’s battalion, in the execution
of which meafure they killed both their commanders. Af-
ter their death, the reft were eafily thrown into diforder,
and all to a man were either killed, or taken prifoners. The
Rhodians alfo, on this occafion, loft many of their bravett
commanders. At length the helepolis was rendered ufelefs,
by the ftratagem of a Rhodian engineer, and this misfor-
tune, it is faid, induced Demetrius to conclude a peace.
Thus the fiege, after it had continued a whole year, was
raifed (B.C. 303) ; and the Rhodians amply rewarded all
thofe who had diftinguifhed themfelves in the defence of
their country. One inftance of laudable condu& on the
part of Demetrius during the fiege deferves to be recorded.
At this time Protogenes, a celebrated painter, who was a
native of Cannus, a city of Caria, refided at Rhodes. His
houfe was in the fuburbs; and he could not be prevailed
upon to quit it. The prince, furprifed at this refolution,
afked him why he did not, like the other inhabitants, fecure
himfelf within the walls ? Protogenes replied, that he was
under no apprehenfion, fince he was fenfible that Demetrius
had declared war againft the Rhodians, and not againft the
arts. The prince was fo pleafed, that he took the painter
under his proteétion, and placed a guard round his houfe,
to preferve him from the infults of the foldiery. The chef-
d’ceuvre of this Protogenes was the picture of Talyfus, fup-
pofed by the Rhodians to have founded their city, The
Rhodians having concluded a peace upon advantageous and
honourable terms, devoted themfelves again to trade and
navigation ; by which they not only became matters of the
fea, but the moft opulent and flourifhing ftate of all Greece.
Their next war was with the Byzantines; and about the
time of its termination the famous Coloflus of Rhodes was
overturned by an earthquake, which did other confiderable
damage. In the year B.C. 203, the Rhodians joined Attalus,
king of Pergamus, againit Philip, king of Macedon ; and a
triple alliance was formed between the Romans, Attalus,
and the Rhodians. In procefs of time, the fidelity of the
attachment of the Rhodians to the Romans, of which they
had once and again exhibited unequivocal evidence, was
fufpeéted ; and this fufpicion was confirmed when they en-
gaged with Perfes, the fon of Philip, to ttand neuter. The
Roman fenate was incenfed, and the Rhodians fent mef-
fengers to appeafe their wrath, but their efforts were unavail-
ing. At length, however, in the year BC. 166, they were
admitted to an alliance with Rome and favoured by the
fenate. From this period, to the breaking out of the Mi-
thridatic war, the Rhodians enjoyed their liberties, while all
the other {tates and colonies of Greece were brought under
the Roman yoke, and became provinces. of that republic.
In the civil war between Czefar and Pompey, they affiited the
latter with a numerous fleet ; but after the death of Pompey
they
RHODES.
they fided with Cafar, which drew upon them the difpleafure
of C. Caffius, who advanced to their ifland with a powerful
fleet, and demanded the furrender of their fleet, with which |
demand they refufed to comply. The confequence was a
fea-engagement, in which the Rhodians were defeated ; and
it has been obferved, that this was the firft time in which
they were fairly overcome in a fea-fight. Caffius proceeded
to take poffefiion of Rhodes and to plunder it. He alfo
ordered fifty of the chief citizens to be put to death, and
others were profcribed. He ftripped them of all their money,
and even the temples of all their valuable furniture, veffels
and ftatues. He announced, by a public cryer, that any per-
fon who fhould difcover any hidden treafures fhould receive
a tenth part by way ef recompence; and the refult was,
that he thus extorted from private perfons above 8000
talents. He then fined the city in 500 more, and leaving
L. Varus, with a ftrong garrifon to exa& the fine, without
any abatement, he returned tu the continent.
After the death of Caflius, Marc Antony reltored the
Rhodians to their ancient rights and privileges, beftowing
upon them the iflands of Andros, Naxos, Tenos, and the
city of Myndus. But thefe the Rhodians fo opprefled and
loaded with taxes, that Antony, though a great friend to
the Rhodian republic, was obliged to diveit her of the fove-
reignty over thofe places, which he had, a little before, fo
liberally beftowed upon her. From this time to the reign
of the emperor Claudius, we find no mention made of the
Rhodians. That prince deprived them of their liberty for
having crucified fome Roman citizens. However, he foon
reftored them to their former condition, as we read in Sue-
tonius and Tacitus. The latter adds, that they had been as
often deprived of, as reftored to, their liberty, by way of
punifhment or reward for their different behaviour, as they
had obliged the Romans with their affiftance in foreign wars,
or provoked them with their feditions at home. Pliny, who
wrote in the beginning of Vefpafian’s reign, ftyles Rhodes a
beautiful and free town. But this liberty they did not long
enjoy, the ifland being foon after reduced, by the fame
Vefpafian, to a Roman province, and obliged to pay a yearly
tribute to their new matters. This province was called the
province of the iflands. The Roman pretor, who go-
verned it, refided at Rhedes, as the chief city under his
jurifdiGtion ; and Rome, notwithftanding the eminent fer-
vices rendered her by this republic, thenceforth treated the
Rhodians not as allies but vaflals.
Under Conftantine this ifland remained part of the Eaftern
empire ; but the pufillanimity and vices of the princes who
fucceeded, fhook it to its foundation. In the twelfth year
of the reign of Conftans, Moawiah, Othman’s lieutenant,
made himielf mafter of Rhodes. At length the Greek em-
perors expelled the Mahometans, and kept poffeffion till the
time of Baldwin, who, having made himfelf fovereign of
Conttantinople, fent a prefe€&t to Rhodes. Some time after
it was conquered by Ducas. Then the brave warriors,
known by the name of the knights of St. John, attacked,
and, after a bloody battle, took it; in which heroifm
triumphed over numbers and valour. Mahomet II. tar-
nifhed the luftre of his laurels, by befieging this place, de-
fended by a {mall band of heroes. In the year 1523, Soli-
man faw a numerous army perifhing under its walls; and if
this redoubtable conqueror of Hungary and Perfia did at
length fubdue Rhodes, attacked on all fides by the forces
of the Turks, the greater was the fhame of the Chriftian
princes, who did not fend a fingle veffel to the aid of its
intrepid defenders. Deitroyed, rather than vanquifhed, they
were almoft buried under the ruin of their forts. Soliman
could not enter the town without wading through the blood
of his foldiers ; and in it he found nothing but heaps of
ruins, defended by a {mall company of knights, covered with
wounds, who afterwards removed to Malta. (See Matta).
The governor-general of this ifland is a pacha, who has
abfolute power. The Greeks and Jews have a chief, named
the Moutevali, who is their intendant-general, and has the
regulation of the tax, called carach,—a capitation tax im-
poled by the grand feignior on all his fubjeéts who are not
Mahometans, but is paid only by the men.
The foil of the ifland is dry and fandy, but watered by its
numerous {prings. It is very fertile: corn thrives well ;
and its yellow and heavy grain affords flour as white as {now,
which makes excellent bread. It needs only cultivation to
raife an ample fupply, not only for its own confumption, but
for a large exportation. The number of families in the
whole ifland is eftimated at 4700 Turks, 2500 Greeks, and
100 Jews, in all 7300, or about 36,ooo inhabitants. N, lat.
36° 26'. E. long. 27° 32!.
Ruopes, the capital city of the ifland aboye defcribed, as
well as the chief feat of its government, is fituated to the
N.E. of the ifland, at the foot of a hill of gentle afcent,
and in an agreeable plain, environed at fome diftance with
feveral hills tull of {prings, and covered with all kinds of fruit-
trees. This ftately city was built by the fame archite&
whom the Athenians had employed in building the Pireus,
or part of Athens; viz. Hippodamus, a native of Miletus,
and efteemed one of the beft architeéts Greece ever pro-
duced. It was built, according to Strabo and Ariftides, in
the form of an amphitheatre, furrounded with walls like
thofe of Munichia, embellifhed with moft ftately buildings,
{traight and broad ftreets, pleafant avenues, fine groves,
large {quares, &c. Dio Chryfoftom fays, that moft of the
Pagan deities had temples in this city ; among which that of
the Sun, called by the Dorians Halcium, was one of the
moft noble ftru€tures of antiquity. Strabo mestions the
temple of Bacchus, enriched with a great number of pic-
tures by Protogenes. Hefychius, Appian, and Suetonius,
{peak of the temples of Ifis, of Ocridian, and Diana, as
mafter-pieces of art. Each of thefe temples contained im-
menfe treafures, the offerings of votaries from all parts of
Greece, Afia, and Italy. In the Dionyfium, or temple of
Bacchus, was a ftatue of Pluto of mafly gold, and an incre-
dible number of other ftatues and pitures. Pliny informs
us, that, in his time, there were in the city of Rhodes above
3000 itatues, moft of them executed with great tafte; and
Ariftides fays, that there were more valuable itatues and
pictures in this fingle city than in all the other cities of
Greece. The pictures of Menander, king of Caria, and of
Anezus, the fon of Neptune, by Apelles, and thofe of Per-
feus, Hercules, and Meleager, by Xeuxis, are highly ex-
tolled by Pliny, and cther ancient writers. That of Melea-
ger was there fcorched by lightning, as Pliny tells us, but
that accident did not in the lealt deaden the luftre and
brightnefs of its colour.
In the Roman times this city was famous for the ftudy of
all {ciences, and reforted to by fuch of the Romans as were
defirous of improving themfelves in literature ; fome of the
ancients reprefenting it as equal to Athens itfelf It hada
very convenient harbour, at the entrance of which were two
rocks ; and on thefe rocks, though 50 feet afunder, the famous
coloffus is fuppofed tu have ftood. See Coxossus.
The city of Rhodes is {till a place of confiderable note ;
being pleafantly fituated on the fide of a hill, three miles in
compafs, and fortified with a treble wall ; but its ramparts
partake of the fame negleét and decay of every thing that
is in the pofleffion of the Turks. The ftreets are wide,
ftraight, and well paved; and the houfes built after the
Italian tafte. The chief haven is now very different from
what it is faid to have been in its ancient itate. It is no
longer
RHO
jonger that bafin, whofe deep waters afforded a commodious
fhelter to fhips of every fize ; nor are the quays enlivened by
the aGivity of a flourifhing trade. It is now little fre-
quented except by Greek boats, and by a few merchant
veffels which put in there ; it is half choked up, and fhips
of war are obliged to caft anchor without, where they are
but indifferently protected from the winds and waves by
fome points of land and fome fhoals. The entrance of the
harbour is defended, on the one fide, by a {quare tower, con-
ftruéted by a grand matter of the order ; infcriptions and
other marks recall to mind the period of its foundation.
The Turks {till call it St. John’s tower, although the
Greeks have changed this name into that of St. Nicholas,
more generally adopted in the Levant. On the other fide
is a tower, not fo high, nor fo itrong, which is named
St. Angelo’s or St. Michacl’s tower. ‘Vhe harbour is as if
diyided into two by a {mall mole, which projets within it,
and forms an inclofure, into which boats alone canenter, and
which, on that account, is called Boat harbour. Inde-
pendently of the large harbour, there was another on each
fide ; the one was the harbour for gallies, where they can no
longer enter at this day ; the other 1s choked up, and almott
entirely dry. Every thing, fays Sonnini, 1s deltroyed ; every
thing is annihilated under a government, which knows only
to enjoy, or rather to abufe the prefent, and to which the
moft fimple calculations of forefight are unknown. Yards
for fhipbuilding, which might, with fo much reafon, be
called workfhops of dilapidation, are eftablifhed at Rhodes
for the Ottoman navy ; the timber is brought from the fine
and valt forefts of Caramania, and even from thofe of the
ifland. But the conftruétion of fhips is fo flow, and the
timber fo injudicioufly feleGed, that they are fometimes half-
rotten before they are entirely finifhed.
In feveral places of the city of Rhodes are {till to be feen
marks of the ancient pofleffion of the order of St. John of
Jerufalem ; a long {treet preferves the name of Rue des
Chevaliers; it is perfectly ftraight, and formed of old
houfes, in which remain the armorial bearings of the members
of the order. The ancient church of St. John is become
the principal mofque ; the hofpital has been transformed into
public granaries ; and the palace of the grand matter, fall-
ing into ruins, is almolt entirely deferted. N. lat. 36° 25’.
E. long. 27° 45’.
' Ruopes, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Tunis,
fituated on an eminence, between the lake of Tunis and the
fea, at a diftance from fome hills, where Hanno was defeated
by Regulus. é
Ruopes, Colefus of. See Corossus.
Ruopes, Straits of. See Matra.
RHODEZ. See Ropks.
oc; in Botany. See Ruopiora. :
HODIGINUS, Caius, in Biography, a learned
Italian, whofe proper name was Ludovico Celio Richeri,
was born at Rovigo about the year 1450. He ftudied at
Verrara and Padua, and then travelled into France, in which
country he refided 2 confiderable time. On returning to
Italy, he filled the office of public profeffor in his native
place from 1491 to 1497, and again obtained the fame ap-
‘pointment in 1503; after this he opened a {chool at Vi-
_cenza, where he continued till 1508, when he was invited to
Ferrara by duke Alfonzo I, In the year 1515, Francis I.
nominated him to the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence
in Milan, as fucceflor to Demetrius Chalcondylas. He re-
turned in 1521 to Padua, and in 1523 he was re-admitted
to the council of his natiye city, and deputed from it to
Venice, to congratulate the new doge. So rat was his
loyalty, or his gratitude, that, in 1525, he died of grief, on
account of the defeat and capture of Francis at the battle
Vor. XXX.
RHO
of Pavia, He was author. of various works; of thefe, the
principal is entitled « Antique Leétiones,’? of which he
publifhed fixteen books, and fourteen more were added. aftet
his death, .It was printed at Bafil in 1566, and again at
Franckfort in 1666. It has been charaéterifed as a mifcel-
lany of profound erudition, in which abftrufe wordsin Greek
and Latin are explained, ob{cure paflages in the beft au-
thors are elucidated, and corrupt ones reétified ; recondite
hiftories and ancient rites are narrated, and many arcana of
the deepelt philofophy, efpecially of the Platonic fchool, are
brpught to light; ‘* whence,”’ fays the learned Voffius, « I
am often moved with wonder, and indeed with indignation,
in obferving that the precious labours’ of fuch aman are fo
little in the hands of the youth of the prefent time.” By
Julius Scaliger he was denominated “ the Varro of the age.”’
Gen, Biog.
RHODIOLA, in Botany, from foto, a rafe, becaufe. the
root of this plant, when dried, has a rofe-like {mell. Ruo-
DIOLA Is literally the diminutive of Ruopra, a name. ap-
plied by ancient writers to the wood or root of fome plant
(fufpected by Linneus to be a Convolvulus) pollefing a
fimilar fragrant property.—Rofe-Root.—Linn. Gen. 526.
Schreb. 693. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 807. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1082. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.5-
397. Jull. 307. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 819.—Clafs and
order, Dicecta O@andria. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn.
Sempervive, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Male, 'Ca/. Perianth inferior, four-cleft, con-
cave, erect, obtufe, permanent. Cor. Petals four, oblong,
obtufe, erect, fpreading, twice as long as the calyx, deci-
duous. Neétaries four, ereét, emarginate, fhorter than the
calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, awl-thaped, longer than the
corolla ; anthers fimple. Pift. Germens four, fuperior,
oblong, acuminate; ftyles and itigmas obfolete. Peria
abortive. Seeds none.
Female, Ca/. Perianthas in the male. Cor. Petals four,
generally imperfeét, of a coarfe texture, ereét, obtufe, equal
with the calyx, permanent. Neétaries as in the male. Pift.
Germens four, fuperior, oblong, acuminate, ending ia
fimple, {traight ftyles ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Capfules four,
corniculate, opening inwardly. Seeds numerous, roundith.
Obf. Schreber fays (in his Appendix, 839), that pro-
feflor Dahl having feen fpecimens of Ruopiora with perfeé
flowers, viz. with ten itamens and five pittils, the genus
fhould properly be united to Sepum. Linneus, however,
in his Flora Lapponica, mentions a {pecimen found ia Lap-
Jand with perfect flowers; but, at the fame time, he tells
us, that fuch flowers are barren, none being fertile, except
thofe true female flowers, on a feparate plant, which have
no itamens, and but imperfeé petals. Hence it appears,
that the prefent plant is truly dioecious in habit, although
it may occafionally incline to the perfe& ftructure of
SEpuM.
Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx in four parts. Petals four. Nec-
taries four, notched. —Female, Calyx and neétaries like the
male, but fomewhat {maller. Petals of a coarfe texture.
Captules four, many-feeded.
1. R. rofea. Rofe-root. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1465. Engl.
Bot. t. 508. Fl. Dan. t. 183.—Found in the clefts of Al-
pine rocks, and fometimes on rocks by the fea-fhore, in dif-
ferent parts of Great Britain ; flowering in May and June.
—Root perennial, flefhy, white or greyifh, when dried
emitting a fragrance like that of rofe-water. Stems per-
fectly fimple, ere&, a {pan high, thickly befet with leaves.
Leaves imbricated, feffile, obovate, acute, flethy, glaucous,
{mooth, toothed towards the top, in.the male tipped with
red. Cyme terminal, feffile, much branched, compofed of
numerous yellow flowers, the female ones dotted with red.
—lIt
RHO
Yt fhould be remarked, that the odour of the root is
greatly impaired by cultuve.
Miller cultivated a variety of this plant for many years at
Chelfea, which was {maller in all its parts, and had purplith
flowers. :
We can’by no means admit Rhodiola biternata, Loureir.
Cochinch. 627, becaufe that author had never feen the
female flowers ; and his defcription of its twining ftem, and
doubly-compound leaves, renders it in habit fo totally unlike
the original Rhodiola.
Ruopiota, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the low
herbaceous, odoriferous, fucculent, perennial kind, of which
the fpecies cultivated is the common, or yellow rofewort
(R. rofea).
Of which there isa variety, in which the roots are fmaller ;
the ftalks fmall, and not above five inches long ; the leaves
fmall, ending with a purple point ; the petals are purplifh,
and the ftamens little longer than the petals. It flowers
later than the common fort.
Method of Culture —This plant may be increafed by
‘planting cuttings of the ftalks in the beginning of April,
foon after they come out fromthe head, in a fhady border ;
‘covering them clofe down with a glafs, and keeping them
dry, when they moftly put out roots in about fix weeks ;
but the cuttings fhould be laid in a dry room at leaft a week
before they are planted out, otherwife they are apt*to rot
and be deftroyed. They may alfo be raifed by parting the
roots in the beginning of autumn, when the {talks begin to
decay ; and. when the flefhy parts are cut or broken, they
fhould be laid to dry a few days before they are planted.
They require a fhady fituation, and a dry undunged foil, in
which they will continue many years. hey afford variety
in the borders, clumps, &c.
RHODITES Lapis, the Rofe-/fone, in Natural Hiftory,
the name given by authors to a kind of aitroites, or ftar-{tone,
in which the figures more reprefent rofes than ftars ; they are
in both owing to coralloide bodies immerfed in the {tone 5
which, according to their various fpecies, afford a different
figure, when cut tranfverfely, in cutting the {tone into
lates for ufe.
RHODIUM, in Chemiftrry, a new metal, found in crude
platina, fo called from the rofe-colour of a dilute folution
of the falts containing it, by Dr. Wollaiton, to whofe in-
quiries we are indebted for proof of its exi{tence, and an
account of its properties. [his metal is thus procured :
fome crude platina being digefted in moderately dilute nitro-
muriatic acid, a brownifh-red folution is obtained ; from this
the platina is to be feparated, for the moft part, by muriate
of ammonia, and the refidual liquor is to be heated with zinc ;
by this treatment a black powder will be obtained, and the
fupernatant fluid will confift of the muriates of zinc and iron.
‘This black powder, by digettion in very dilute mitric acid,
will be freed from the copper and lead which it ufually con-
tains, and the refidue is to be digefted in dilute nitro-muri-
atic acid, till every thing foluble is taken up. To this folu-
tion a little common falt is to be added, and the whole eva-
porated to drynefs ; after which, by repeatedly wafhing with
warm alcohol, the foda-muriates of platina and palladium will
be diffolved, leaving behind a pure foda-muriate of rhodium.
This falt is readily foluble in hot water, and depofits on
cooling rhomboidal cryftals of a bright rofe-colour. Sal
ammoniac occafions no turbidnefs in the folution; but if a
few drops of muriate of platina are added to the mixture,
an immediate yellow precipitate is thrown down. Neither
pruffiat of potafh, nor hydro-fulphuret of ammonia, nor the
carbonated alkalies, produce any precipitate ; but the pure
alkalies throw down a yellow oxyd, foluble either in alka-
lies or acids. The muriate of this metal is an uncryttallizable
RHO
falt of a rofe-colour, and foluble in alcohol; with nitre, o7
the muriates of ammonia or foda, are formed cryftallizable
triple falts infoluble in alcohol.
Nitrate of rhodium is alfo uncryftallizable. It appears
not to be decompofable by filver, but is fo by copper, mer-
cury, and moft of the other metals.
The foda-muriate of this metal affords a black powder by
digeftion with zinc; which, when heated with borax, ac-
quires a white metallic luftre, but is infufible by any heat
that has hitherto been applied. It is, however, fufible,
either with arfenic or fulphur, and may be again fepa-
rated from thofe fubftances by heat, but it does not ac-
quire by this treatment any degree of malleability. It com-
bines with moft metals, and with filver and gold forms very
malleable alloys, which are unaltered by a high heat, but
become encrufted with a black oxyd when flowly cooled; an
alloy of fix parts of gold and one of rhodium differs but little
in colour from fine gold, but is much more difficultly fufible.
The fpecific gravity of rhodium appears to be fomewhat
more than 11. That of an alloy confifting of one part rho-
dium and about two parts lead, was 11.3 3 which is fo nearly
that of lead itfelf, that each part of this compound may be
confidered as having about the fame fpecific gravity. Phil.
Tranf. for 1804, vol. xciv. pt. 2. See PaLrtaprum and
PLATINA. -
Ruopium Lignum. See ASPALATH.
Ruopium MMarmor, a name given by the ancients to a
marble brought from Rhodes; it was a good white, but in-
ferior to the Parian, and was ufed by the Romans in their
ublic buildings, and fometimes in itatuary.
RHODIUS, in Geography, ariver of European Turkey,
which takes its fource N.E. of mount Ida; and after re-
ceiving fome rivulets which flow from the neighbouring
mountains, and traverfing a {pace of twelve or fifteen miles,
difcharges itfelf into the Hellefpont, by the fide of the
caftle of Dardanelles. Its waters, which are far from
being abundant in fummer, are kept back and employed in
the irrigation of the lands; but in winter, fwelled by
the rains which are frequent in that feafon, it occupies a bed
fufficiently large to deferve the name of river. ‘The inha-
bitants of the Dardanelles, built on its banks, have con-
ftru€ted a wooden bridge, at fome dillance from its mouth,
in order to be able to crofs at all times to the left bank, and
repair to the fields which they cultivate beyond it. Behind
the caftle, between the town and the river, is a tolerably ex-
tenfive walk, naturally turfed, and fhaded by very tall plane-
trees. This river waters an extremely fertile valley, formed
by a plain to the eaft of the town. In this town are
reckoned {carcely 4000 inhabitants, Greeks, Muflulmans, and
Jews. Its pofition is agreeable, its territory is fertile, and
its produétions are very diverfified. To the N.E. isa rifing
ground, covered with vines; and at the extremity of the
fore-mentioned valley are found indications of a volcano;
among others are to be feen confiderable blocks of granite,
the quartzofe part of which is almoft converted into glafs.
A little farther on isa fertile and circular bottom of jimall
extent, furrounded by mountains covered with wood.
In the territory of the Dardanelles are cultivated cotton,
fefamum, various kitchen-garden plants, the vine, the olive-
tree, and feveral fpecies of fruit-trees, The orange-trees
begin to grow here in the open air; and a tolerable large
quantity of grain is collected here. The neighbouring
mountain furnifh the ‘“ velanida,” (fee Quercus A gilops, )
and gall-nut ufed in trade. Olivier.
Ruoptus, in Ichthyology, the Actprnser Sturio. See
STURGEON.
RHODODENDRA, in Botany, a natural order of
plants, named after its princtpal genus, (fee the next article, )
and
RHO
and conftituting the fiftieth in Juffieu’s feries, or the fecond
of his ninth clafs; for the chara¢ters of which clafs fee
Erice and Guatacanz. The following are the marks of
the order in queftion.
Calyx divided, permanent. Corolla inferted into the bot-
tom of the calyx ; fometimes of one petal, and lobed;
fometimes almoit polypetalous, the limb being fo very
-deeply divided. Stamens definite, diftin@ ; in the monope-
talous genera inferted into the corolla; in the reft into the
bafe of the calyx. Germen fuperior; ftyle one; ftigma
fimple, often capitate. Cap/ule fuperior, of feveral cells,
and feveral valves, both margins of each valve inflexed, and
conne¢ted with the central axis, (or co/umella,) fo that each
forms a cell, containing numerous minute feeds. Stem
fhrubby, more or lefs lofty. eaves alternate, or more
rarely oppofite ; the young ones, in many inftances, revo-
lute at the margin.
Seétion 1. Corolla monopetalous.
Kalmia, Rhododendrum, and Azalea; all Linnean genera ;
to which is to be added Menzresia ; fee that article.
Se&.2. Corolla imperfeély polypetalous.
Rhodora, Ledum, Befaria, (now more correétly written
Bejaria, by Ventenat and others; the Spaniards having
pointed out the error, which originated in a miftake of Lin-
nus, in reading Mutis’s manufcript,) and /¢ea ; all likewife
Linnzan genera. :
Juffieu confiders the Rhododendra as effentially diftin-
cuifhed from his Zrice, by the want of horns to the anthers,
and efpecially by the inflexed margins of the valves of the
capfule. It doesnot appearto us that thefe characters are,
either of them, ftri@tly abfolute. Mr. Salifbury has long
ago obferved, that the leaves of the Rhododendra have
always a remarkable glandular tip.
RHODODENDRUM, from fodory a rofe, and Jevdpov, a
tree, aname adopted by Linnzus from Diofcorides, whofe
fod-d=4gov however is but a fynonym to his »xpicvy our Nerium,
or Rofe-bay ; the fodo2'$om of the modern Greeks.—Linn.
Gen. 218. Schreb. 294. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.603. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.49. Purthv. 1.
297- Jull.158. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 364. Gaertn. t. 63.
—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Bi-
cornes, Linn. Rhododendra, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep fegments,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, widely funnel-fhaped ;
its limb fpreading, with five rounded unequal fegments.
Stam. Filaments ten, thread-fhaped, about the length of
the corolla, declining; anthers incumbent, oval, abrupt,
of two cells, opening by two terminal pores. Pi/.
Germen with five angles, abrupt; ftyle thread-fhaped,
the length of the corolla; ftigma obtufe. Peric. Capfule
ovate, fomewhat angular, of five or ten cells, formed by
the inflexed margins of the valves, which finally feparate
from the five or ten-angled central column. Seeds nu-
merous, minute.
Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five divifions. Corolla of one
petal, fomewhat funnel-fhaped, irregular. Stamens declining.
Capfule of five or ten cells; partitions from the iaflexed
margins of the valves.
1. R. ferrugineum. Rufty-leaved Rhododendrum. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 562. Willd. n.1. Ait.n.1. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 1.
26.t. 16. Auftr. t. 255.—Leaves {mooths rufty beneath.
Clufters terminal. Corolla with a cylindrical leprous tube.
Calyx fringed.—Native of heathy plains on the alps of
Switzerland, Savoy, Auftria, Siberia, and the Pyrenees,
flowering in Auguft. It is not difficult of culture with us,
in bog earth, on an open border, and is one of the moft ele-
gant of fhrubs. The /fem is about two feet high, very
bufhy. Leaves evergreen, italked, alternate, elliptic-ob-
RHO
long, an inch or an inch and a half in length; coavex;
{mooth, and dark fhining green above ; rufty beneath, but
deftitute of all pubefcence. Flowers above half an inch
long, in terminal roundifh clufters ; their corolla of a pecu-
liarly rich and beautiful crimfon, externally dotted with
white. Haller fays there is a rare white-flowered variety.
The plain of mount Cenis glows with the rich bloffoms of
this plant in July and Auguit, exhibiting one of the molt
lovely {cenes in nature. See Smith’s Tour on the Con-
tinent.
2. R. Airjacum. Hairy Rhadodendrum. Linn. Sp. Pl.
562. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Auftr. t. 98. (Le-
dum alpinum; Cluf. Hift. vy. 1. 82. Ger. Em. r2go.
Balfamum alpinum Gefneri ; Lob. Ic. 367.)—Leaves ellip-
tic-obovate, fharpifh, fringed; dotted beneath. Corolla
with a cylindrical leprous tube. —Native of the Swiis and
Aultrian alps. Cultivated, like the former, in this country ;
flowering rather earlier. This is moft nearly related to R.
ferrugineum, next to which therefore we prefer placing it.
The chief diftinction confiits in the aves being fringed with
rigid hairs ; their form more obovate and flat, and their un-
der fide lefs rufty. We tiever could perceive much difference
in the flowers, except perhaps thofe of hir/utum being ra-
ther paler, and more of a pink hue.
- R. dauricum. Daurian Rhododendrum. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 562. Willd.n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Pall. Roffv. 1. t. 32.
Curt. Mag. t. 636. Andr. Repof.t. 4. (Chamerhodo-
dendros folio glabro majufculo, amplo flore rofeo ; Amm.
Ruth, 181. t. 27.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, dotted, naked.
Corolla nearly wheel-fhaped.—Native of Siberia, in moun-
tainous fituations. It fucceeds in our gardens with the fame
treatment as the two foregoing, but flowers much earlier,
and though evergreen in its own country, is lefs perfe&tly fo
with us ;. requiring moreover fome fhelter for its bloffoms,
during the feverity or uncertainty of our winter or early
{pring. The eaves are dotted on both fides with minute
fcales, and their midrib is, when young, a little downy.
Flowers rofe-coloured, nearly feffile ; their corolla widely ex-
panded, with fcarccly any tube, its outiide flightly hairy, not
leprous. Mr. Andrews feems to have printed ‘¢ petiolis lon-
Sifimis,”” by mittake for “ breviffimis,” as the footfalks are
in faé very fhort.
4. R. camt/chaticum. Barberry-leaved Rhododendrum.
Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1. 48. t. 33. Willd. n. 3. . (Chamz-
rhododendros berberis folio, flore amplo rofeo ; Gmel. Sib.
v. 4. 126.)— Leaves obovate, fringed, fmooth, reticulated
with veins. Corolla wheel-fhaped. Found by Steller, in
mountainous {pots in Beering’s ifland, and the north-eaft
part of Kamtfchatka, flowering in July and Auguit. The
fhrubby /fems are procumbent, branched, about a foot long.
Leaves ttalked, obovate, an inch or more in length, blunt;
with a very {mall point, fringed at the margin, but fmooth
on both fides, deftitute of dots or feales, of a thin texture,
ftrongly and copioulfly reticulated with interbranching ribs
and veins. /owers rofe-coloured, larger than the lait, being
nearly two inches wide, each on along, {olitary, hairy, ter-
minal ftalk. Segments of the calyx flat, rnb obtufe,
ribbed and veiny, fometimes very hairy externally, fome-
times only fringed at the edges. This very fhowy plant is
mentioned in Mr. Aiton’s Epitome of Hort. Kew. 373, as
having come into the hands of our cultivators in 1799, but
we have never met with it in any garden.
5. R. Chameciflus. Thyme-leaved Rhododendrum. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 562. Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 4. Jacq. Auftr. t. 217.
Curt. Mag. t. 488. (Ledum foliis ferpilli, ad margines
cilii inftar pilofis, flore purpureo ; Mich. Gen. 225. t. 106.
Ciftus humilis auftriaca Clufii ; Ger. Em. 1278.) —Leaves
obovate, acute, fringed, polifhed, almoft veinlefs, Corolla
Zz wheel-
RHODODENDRUM.
wheel-fhaped.— Native of the alps of Auftria, Carniola, and
the north of Italy. Firftraifed from feed in England, in
1786, by the fkiltul Mr. Loddiges of Hackney. A
fhrubby nearly procumbent plant, much f{maller than the
laft, and differing effentially in the more thick and coriaceous
texture of its eaves, which are of a dark green, and highly
polifhed, with {carcely any vifible veins. ‘The elegant pur-
plith flowers are not above an inch broad. Their calyx has
hairy, convex, not flat, fegments. Anthers deep purple.
6. R. caucafeum. Caucafian Rhododendrum, Pall. Rofl.
veI. pi. 46.t. 31. Willd. n.6. Ait. n.5. Curt. Mag.
t. 1145.—Stemdecumbent. Leaves rugged above ; downy
andrufty beneath. Umbels terminal. Corolla nearly wheel-
fhaped.— Native of the loftieft fummits of mount Caucafus,
near perpetual {now, where, according to Pallas, nothing
elfe, befides Whortle-berries and Juniper, grow. Introduced
at Kew, by fir Jofeph Banks, in 1803. Mr. Loddiges
finds it flower more freely under his care than the follow-
ing. A low fhrub, {preading on the ground, but of a
ftouter habit, with larger more coriaceous foliage, than any
of the foregoing. The /eaves are elliptical, {talked, three
or four inches long; convex and of 2 dark fhining green, with
a-rugofe furface, above; concave, veiny, and covered with
fine rufty down, underneath. ootfalks alfo downy.
Flowers large, moderately concave ; white or pale fleth-
coloured within, their upper fegments dotted about the bate
with green; the outfide crimfon. They form terminal wm-
bels, with large, oblong, concave, permanent braGeas at the
bale.
7. R. chryfanthum. Yellow Rhododendrum. Linn.
Suppl. 237. Willd. n.7. Ait. n. 6. Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1.
44. t. 30. (R. officinale; Salif. Parad. t. 80. Andromeda,
ng; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 121. t. 54.)—Stem decumbent.
Leaves reticulated, fmooth on both fides; paler beneath.
Umbels terminal.
the mountains of Siberia, Kamtfchatka, and Beering’s
ifland. Introduced by Mr. Jofeph Bufh, in 1796, into our
gardens, where it flowers, though rarely in the middle of
fummer, like the laft. Some-have imagined thefe two
fpecies. to be varieties of each other; but the prefent
differs effentially in having the /eaves quite {mooth and naked
beneath, not to mention the uniformly yellow colour of the
owers. An infufion of the young leaves is much cele-
brated in Ruffia.as a cure for the rheumatifm. This medi-
cine is taken internally, to promote perfpiration. Some
have recommended it for venereal complaints. Willdenow
juttly obferves, that this fhrub is altogether different from
R. dauricum,to which the younger Linnzus, by fome {trange
miftake,- compares it. ;
8. R. ponticum. Purple Rhododendrum. Linn. Sp. PI.
562. Willd.n.8. Ait-n.7. Jacq. Ic. Rar.t. 78. Pall.
Rofl. v. 1. p. 1. 43. t-29. Curt. Mag. t. 650. Andr.
Repof. t. 379. (Chamerhododendros pontica maxima, folio
laurocerafi, flore ceruleo-purpurafcente ; Tourn. Voyage,
v.2.-99.)—Leaves oblong, fmooth and even on both fides.
Corymbs: terminal. Segments of the calyx oval, obtufe.
Corolla: bell-fhaped, {preading.—Native of the Levant, in
moift: fhady places. Common in the European gardens,
wheré-it blooms magnificently in’ the open ground in June,
and, by forcing in a pot, may be had much earlier, as
almoft every window and-balcony in London evinces. This
fhrub is ufually five or fix feet high, with brown f{pread-
ing’ branchesi "The leaves-are evergreen, a’ {pan in length,
elliptic-lanceolate) or oblong; more or lefs: acute; fhining,
dark: green, even aiid fmooth above; equally {mooth, but
paler ‘beneath, contrary to’ Willdenow’s definition. ‘The
large purple fowers'grew, many together, in large, terminal,
corymbofe cluftgrsy The gardeners: obtain mule varieties;
Corolla nearly wheel-fhaped. Native of”
fome of them with deciduous leaves, between this plant and
the Azaleas. Tournefort thought the poifonous quality of
the honey about Pontus, mentioned by ancient authors,
might be partly owing to this plant ; at leaft this feems to be
what produced a fort of honey called Moenomenon, becaufe,
as Pliny relates, it took away the reafon of thofe who ate
it. Whatis generally reported of the honey of Pontus
appears, however, by what Tournefort has colle@ed, to
belong to that yielded by Azalea pontica, our beautiful yel-
low Azalea; and this is confirmed by what the Turks told
him of the dangerous effuvia of the flowers of this laft men-
tioned plant.
9g. R. arboreum. Indian Tree Rhododendrum. Sm.
Iexot. Bot. v. 1. g. t. 6.— Leaves’ elliptic-lanceolate ;
{mooth and fhining above; downy beneath. Corymbs ter-
minal. Capfule of ten cells. Stem arboreous.—Found by
lieutenant-colonel Hardwicke, in the Sewalic chain of
mountains, which feparates the plains of Hindooftan, from
the Himmaleh mountains. Tt generally grows in foretfts of
oak, in elevated fituations, where the foil is black vegetable
mould, on aftony bed. The flowers appear in March and
April; the feeds are ripened in May or June. The natives ~
know this tree by the name of Boorans, and ufe the wood
for the {tocks of mufquets. The /lem is truly arboreous,
rifing in a columnar form to the height of twenty feet ; its
diameter being from fixteen to twenty-four inches. The dark
is light as cork, flaking off in large portions. Branches
afcending, crooked and brittle, leaty at their extremities.
Leaves {haped much like the lait, but diftinguifhed by the
denfe, white, filky downinefs of their,under furface.
Flowers in large terminal clufters, of a rich deep crimfon,
of little fragrance and fhort duration, their corolla fhaped
much like the lait, but we do not find it fpotted within.
Segments of the calyx fhallow. Germen elliptical, white and
downy, with ten furrows. Cap/ule of the fame fhape, with
ten cells, an unique inftance, as far as we know, in the pre-
fent genus; but'certainly, all things confidered, not authori-
fing any generic feparation of this fpecies from the reft.
We know not whether the feeds of this noble tree have ve-
getated in England. It would probably fucceed in the mo-
derate warmth of a confervatory.
10. R. maximum. Laurel-leaved Rhododendrum. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 563. Willd.n.g. Ait. n. 8. Purfhn.1. Curt.
Mag. t.gg1. (R. foliis nitidis ovalibus, &c.; Trew Ehret.
t. 66. Kalmia foltis lanceolato-ovatis, &c.; Mill. Ic.
t. 228.)—Leaves oblong ; convex and reticulated above ;
{mooth and pale beneath. Corymbs furmounted by the
branches. Segments of the calyx oval, obtufe. Corolla
bell-fhaped, fpreading.—Native of mountainous fituation3
in North America, near rivulets and lakes, flowering from
June to Auguit. Pur/b. Though, according to Mr. Aiton,
introduced by Peter Collinfon in 1736, twenty-feven years
before the pouticum, it is beyond comparifon le{s common in
our gardens. Botanifts have not very clearly defined the
fpecific difference between thefe two fpecies. The caves
of the prefent are moft convex, and more fenfibly reticu-
lated with minute funk veins,- on their upper fide, while the
under is till more pale, than in ponticum. The flowers of
the maximum are more delicately coloured, having the red
and white tints of an apple-bloflom, while the green and
yellow dots on their upper fegment: are ftrikingly confpi-
cuous. All their fegments are more elliptical, concave,
and far lefs dilated and wavy than in ponticum. The inflore/-
cence moreover 1s almoft umbellate, and more denfe, handing
between two branches of the prefent year, which always rife
contiderably above it. There are mule varieties in the gardens
between thefe fpecies. Mr. Purfh mentions two American
varieties; or perhaps fpecies: one with flatter daves, and
fmaller
R HO
fmaller whitifh flowers: the other much taller, even twenty
feet high, with large purple fowers, and much larger /eavesy
whofe two fides are more alike in colour than the common
maximum. This laft variety, which we too have feen in Mr.
Vere’s curious garden at Kenfington Gore, merits further
examination, having certainly more refemblance to ponticum
than to maximum, except its gigantic ftature, which far
exceeds both.
11. R. punGatum. Carolina Dotted-leaved Rhododen-
drum. Willd. n. ros) Ait. n.g. Purfh n.2. Andr.
Repof. t. 36. Venten. Jard. de Cels, t. 15.—Leaves ellip-
tic-oblong, acute; fmooth above; fprinkled with minute
refinous dots beneath. -Umbels furmounted by the branches.
Segments of the calyx rounded, very fhort. Corolla funnel-
fhaped, leprous externally.—Native of the mountains of
South Carolina, from whence it was brought to England
by the late Mr. John Frafer, in 1791. It fucceeds well in
our gardens on a peat border, flowering early in the fummer.
This is a much humbler fhrub than any of the varieties of the
maximum, though its mode of inflorefcence accords with
that fpecies. The corolla is rofe-coloured, dilated and wavy
as in R. ponticum, but {maller; its outfide rough or glandu-
lar, as in the ferrugineum. The leaves are elliptical, coria-
ceous, acute at bothends; dark green and very {mooth
above; paler, fomewhat ruity, and very thickly befprinkled
with glandular refinous dots, beneath.
12. R. catawbien/z. Catawba Rhododendrum. Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 258. Purfhn. 3 Ait. Hort. Kew.
Epit. 373. Curt. Mag. t. 1671.—Leaves oval, rounded at
each end, {mooth, paler beneath. Umbels furmounted by
the branches. Segments of the calyx elongated. Corolla
bell-fhaped.—Native of the high mountains of Virginia and
Carolina, particularly on the head waters of the Catawba
river, flowering in May and June. Purfh. Mr. Frafer
introduced it here in 180g, and brought a report of the
flowers being fcarlet ; but they have fince proved of a pale
purplith rofe-colour, with very flight traces of thofe green
dots within, which make fo great a part of the beauty of
R. maximum. The /brub is of avery humble fize, hardly
three feet high, and flowering before it attains even that
height ; but all its parts are large. ‘The /eaves are broad,
coriaceous, rounded and blunt at bothends; paler beneath,
and very obf{curely dotted on the veins. The fegments of
the calyx are faid to be remarkably elongated, an effential
mark of diftinétion, which ought to have been’ fhewn in
the, otherwife excellent, figure. We cannot help withing
alfo that the uncouth name, given by Michaux, had not
been retained ; but who fhall cleanfe the Augean ftable of
modern botanical nomenclature?
RHODODENDRUM, in Gardening, contains plants of the
hardy, deciduous, and evergreen, flowering, fhrubby
kinds, the dwarf rofe-bay, of which the {pecies cultivated
are, the rufty-leaved rhododendrum (R. ferrugineum) ; the
hairy rhododendrum (R. hirfutum) ; the dwarf rhododen-
drum, or rofe-bay (R. chameciftus).; the purple rhododen-
drum (R. ponticum) ; and the broad-leaved rhododendrum
(R. maximum).
Method of Culture.—Theie plants may be increafed by
fowing the feeds, which are very fmall, as foon as poflible
after they are procured, either ina fhady border, or in pots
filled with frefh loam, having them very lightly covered with
alittle fine mould, and plunging the pots up to their rims in
afhady border, and in hard: froft covering them with bell
or hand-glafles; taking them: off in mild weather.. When
they are fown early in autumn, the plants come up the fol-
lowing fpring, when they matt be kept fhaded from’ the
fun, efpecially the firft fummer, and duly refrefhed with
water; in the autumn following removing them to a'fhady
RHO
fituation, on a loamy foil, covering’ the: ground about’ the
roots with mofs, to guard them from the froft in winter
and keep the ground moift in the fummer feafon. They
may alfo be increafed from fuckers or offsets, which they
produce plentifully where they grow naturally, but feldom
in this climate.
And they are very ornamental in the border, clumps, and
other parts of fhrubberies.
RxHopovENDRUM Cryfanthemum, golden-flowered rhodo-
dendrum, inthe Materia Medica. The leaves of this {pecies
are ufed in medicine. They are inodorous, and have an
auftere, aftringent, bitterifh talte. Water extras their
virtue either by infufion or decoétion. Thefe leaves are
reckoned {timulant, narcotic, and diaphoretic. Upon being
taken, they firft increafe the arterial aGtion and heat. of the
body, producing diaphorefis, which effects, according to Dr.
Home, are followed by a proportional diminution of excites
ment: the pulfe in one cafe having been reduced 38 beats.
In large dofes, they produce naufea, vomiting, purging,
delirium, and all the fymptoms of violent intoxication. ‘The
plant and its effects were firft defcribed by Gmelin and
Steller in 1747, a8 a Siberian remedy for rheumatifm ; but
it was not much noticed till after 1779, when Keelpin {trongly
.recommended it in this difeafe, and alfo in gout and lues
venerea. It has not been much ufed in this country; but
from the refult of fome trials of it in Scotland, it obtained
a place in the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia. It has been given
in the form of deco¢tion, made by boiling Ziv of the leaves
in £3x of water, in a clofe veffel, over a flow fire, for
12 hours. The dofe of the ftrained liquor is from f 3] to
f3ij given twice a day, and generally increafed. Woody.
Med. Bot. Thomfon’s Lond. Dif.
RHODOLANA, in Botany, from jodo, @ rofé, and
xAzwa, a cloak, or outer covering; a genus fo named b
Aubert du Petit-Thouars, in his Plantes des Lfles d' Afrique,
fafe. 3, becaufe of the fine rofe colour of the flowers, which
are faid to be very large and {plendid. De Theis.
RHODOMAN, Lawrence, in Biography, a learned
German, was born, in 1546, at Saffowerf, in Upper Saxony.
He ftudied at the college of Ilfield, and acquired fuch a
knowledge of claffical literature, that he became an able
inftruétor both in public and private. He taught in feveral
feminaries of learning, and was profeflor of Greek at Jena
feven years, and of hiitory at Wittemberg for four years.
He died in 1606, at the age of 60. He was deeply learned
in the Greek language ; but his chief fervice to literature
was by his Latin verfion of Diodorus Siculus: he was
author of a hiftory of Martin Luther, in Greek verfe, ‘and
many other pieces. Bayle.
RHODOMELON, a name given by the aticients'to'a
confection made of rofes, quinces, and honey, ufed as a
grateful aftringent and detergent in many cafes.
RHODON, in Pharmacy, from jobov, rofa, a name ap-
plied to fome compofitions, where rofes are the chief ingre.
dient, as diarrhodon, Fc. Hence alfo rhodofaccharum, 3. ¢.
Sugar of rofes. See Rose.
RHODOPE, in Biography, a famous courtezan arid
player on the flute, in antiquity, was born in Thrace. She was
at firft a flave in the fame houfe as AEfop. Charaxus, the
brother of Sappho, was violently enamoured of her, and
having purchafed her, gave her her'liberty. She eltablithed
herfelf at Mucrates, where fhe became a‘ courtezan, and
amafled immenfe riches. Pliny fays that fhe built, at’ her
own expence, the moft beautiful of the Egyptian pyramids ;
but Herodotus, and Bayle from his authority, reject this:
prea nor do they give any more credit to the following
ory.
One day, when fhe was’ bathing, and her attefidants
watching
RH @&
watching her clothes, an eagle pounced upon one of her
fhoes, and carrying it away, flew with it to Memphis, where
he let it fall near king Pfammiticus. This prince, admiring
the beauty of the fhoe, ordered the officers of his houfehold
to feek, throughout all Egypt, the perfon to whom the
fhoe appertained. She was found and brought to him ;
and he efpoufed her. But how are we to reconcile this
fa& with her being married to Aifop? It is, however,
certain, fay the Encyclopeditts, that this fabulift, notwith-
{tanding his deformity and uglinefs, had the art to make
himfelf beloved by her.
RHODOPUS Gatuinutra, in Ornithology, a name given
by fome authors to the bird more ufually known by the
name ?ringa.
RHODORA, in Botany, fo called by Linnzus, from
jodev, a ro/e, in allufion to the colour of its flowers, and pro-
bably, at the fame time, to preferve an analogy with its near
relation Rhododendrum.—Linn. Gen. 218. Schreb. 294.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 603. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 3.49. Purfh v. 1. 298. Juff. 159. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 364. Clafs and order, Decandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Bicorues, Linn. Rhododendra, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, of one leaf,
with five teeth, permanent. -Cor. Petals three, unequal ;
the two lowermoft lanceolate, equal; the upper ene
wedge-fhaped, afcending, three-lobed, the middle lobe
rather longeit. Stam. Filaments ten, thread-fhaped, de-
clining, the length of the corolla; anthers rounded, two-
lobed. Pi. Germen ovate, furrowed, fuperior; ftyle
thread-fhaped, declining, rather longer than the ftamens ;
ftigma thickeft, abrupt, convex. eric. Captule ovate-
oblong, with five furrows, of five cells and five valves, the
partitions from the inflexed margins of the valves. Seeds
numerous, minute.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla of three petals,
unequal. Stamens declining. Capfule fuperior, of five
cells; the partitions from the inflexed margins of the
valves.
1. R. canadenfis. Canadian Rofe-bloffom.
Pl. 561. Willd. n. r. Ait. n. 1. L’Herit. Stirp. v. 1.
141. t. 68. Curt. Mag. t. 474. (Chamzrhododendros ;
Duham. Sem. Append. to. t. 27. £ 2, 3.)—Native of
Canada and Newfoundland ; very hardy in our gardens,
except that, flowering in April and May, its blofloms are
often injured. Curtis fays it bears gentle forcing remark-
ably well. Sir Jofeph Banks brought this fhrub to Eng-
land in 1767; but it flowered at Paris, for the firft time, in
March i756. Duhamel fuggetted the propriety of efta-
blifhing it as a new genus, which Linneus adopted and
named; but afterwards, having never feen the plant, he
ftruck it out, nor did he affign any reaton for this meafure.
The accuracy of Duhamel is, at length, confirmed, and the
Rhodora re-eltablithed. The fem is buthy, erect, two or
three feet high, with round, fmooth, grey or reddifh branches,
never quite ftraight. Leaves deciduous, alternate, {talked,
elliptical, acute, entire, veiny, hairy, flightly glaucous,
about an inch and half long, and half an inch wide.
Flowers appearing before the leaves, in terminal folitary
umbels, four or five in each umbel, of a bright elegant
rofe colour, with violet anthers, inodorous. Petals {pread-
ing, each an inch long, Cap/ule clothed with rufty down.
RHOE, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia Minor, in
Bithynia.
RHGADE, in Botany, the 27th natural order,
among the fragmenta of Linneus; of which there is no ex-
planation in his Prelediones, publifhed by Gifeke. The
genera referred hither, at the end of the Gen. Pl., are
Argemone, Chelidonium, Papaver, Podophyllum, Sanguinariay
8
Linn. Sp.
RHO
Bocconia. We place them according to the manufcript
corrections of the author, who has fubjoined Cytinus, Ari/-
tolochia, and Afarum.
This order, without the additions, which certainly do
not belong to it, is equivalent to the firft fection of Juffien’s
PapAVERACEX. (See that article.) Its name is taken
from the Greek appellation of the field poppy, fom:, Pa-
paver Rheas of Linneus; which was fo called from jew, to
fall off, becaufe of the fhort duration of its petals,
RHGEAS, in Surgery, a diminution of the caruncula
lachrymalis from difeafe.
RHCETICO, in Geography, a mountain of Germany,
in the county of Pludentz ; 6 miles S. of Pludentz.
RHEETUM, or Ruq@rivm, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia Minor, in the Troade, on the coatft of the
Hellefpont. According to Strabo, it was built on an
eminence near the tomb of Ajax. The promontory called
«© Rhoetium’’ was four miles diftant from that of Sigeum.
RHGEXUS, a port of Afia, on the coalt of Cilicia, at
the mouth of the river Sarus. Steph. Byz.
RHGEZIA, in Geography, a city of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Mingrelia, fituated on the Hippus, the ufual re-
fidence of the princes of Mingrelia, but which they changed
in fummer for Taqueri, a very pleafant fpot, feven vertts
S. of Ghoni. In Rheezia much filk is cultivated ; and all
that is prepared in the other parts of Mingrelia is alfo car-
ried thither, to be fold or manufactured. The manufacture,
however, of that commodity is not well underftood, as they
only make a poor fort of handkerchiefs, or common taf-
feties.
RHOGE, in Ancient Geography, an ifland on the coaft
of Lycia, placed by Pliny in the vicinity of that of Cyprus.
Steph. Byz.
RHOGME, in Surgery, a rupture or fracture.
RHOGMOI, in dncient Geography, a port of Afia, on
the coaft of Cilicia. Steph. Byz.
RHOGOMANIS, or Ruogonis, a river of Afia, in the
Perfide. Ptolemy places the mouth of this river in the
fouthern part of the Perfide, on the Perfian gulf. Accord-
ing to Nearchus, it was a {mall river, 200 ftadia from the
river Granis.
RHOITES, the name of a medicine among the ancients,
which is a fort of rob of the juice of pomegranates. Diof-
corides defcribes it as the fimple juice of the fruit, evapo-
rated over the fire to the confiftence of an extract; but
Paulus /Egineta gives the receipt to be three parts juice of
pomegranate, and one part honey, boiled to the evaporation
of athird part. So that the rhoites of Diofcorides was a
true rob of pomegranates; the other rather honey of pome-
granates, like our honey of rofes.
RHOMB. See Ruomsus.
RHOMBITES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afiatic
Sarmatia. Ptolemy.
RHOMBO, in J/chthyology, the name of a peculiar fifh
of the rhombus, or turbot kind, called r4ombus aculeatus by
Aldrovand, Gefner, and other writers. It is a large fifh,
of an afh-coloured green on the back, and white on the
belly. It has no fcales; but the {kin of its back is divided
by lines, fomething in the manner of the {kins of {nakes.
The mouth is very large, and is well furnifhed with teeth;
and the palate has a number of tubercles, armed alfo with
a fort of teeth. It feeds on fifh, and its flefh is very deli-
cate. It is very common in the markets at Venice, and is
caught in the neighbouring feas, and in many other places.
See Pleuronectes Maximus.
RHOMBOIDAEUS Major and Minor, in Anatomy,
names given by Albinus to what he makes two mufcles,
though Winflow and others account it only one. What
Winflow
RHO
Winflow calls the inferior portion of the rhomboidalis, Al-
binus calls rhomboideus major ; and what he calls the upper
portion of that mufcle, ‘Albinas calls rhomboidzus minor.
See RnoMBoIpeus.
RHOMBOIDALIS. See Ruomsoinzus.
RHOMBOIDES, in Geometry, a quadrilateral figure,
whofe oppofite fides and angles are equal, but which is
néither equilateral nor equiangular ; or, it is an oblique-
angled parallelogram.
Such is the figure NO PQ, Plate XII. Geometry, fig. 1.
For the method of finding the area of a rhomboides, fee
Ruomebus.
Ruomporves, in Ichthyology. See Cuxropvon Argus,
Striatus, (Sc.
RHOMBOIDEUS, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the
fhoulder, fo called-on account of its fhape ; dorfo-{capulien
of Chauffier.
It is a broad, flattened, quadrilateral mufcle, placed ob-
liquely at the lower part of the neck and upper part of the
back, and extending from the lower portion of the liga-
mentum nuche, and the fuperior {pinous procefles of the
back, to the bafis of the fcapula. The whole of its fibres
go obliquely from the fpine downwards and outwards to
the fcapula; thus as it is regularly quadrilateral, it has a
corre& rhomboid figure. Its pofterior furface is chiefly co-
vered by the trapezius ; the latiflimus dorfi lies on a {mall
portion of it below; and between thefe two mufcles its
fibres are covered by the fkin only. The ferratus fuperior
potticus, {plenius, longiflimus dorfi, facrolumbalis, the ribs,
and the external intercoftal mufcles, are covered by its an-
terior furface. Its upper edge goes from the lewer part
of the ligamentum nuchz, obliquely outwards and down-
wards, to the bafis of the fcapula oppofite to the commence-
ment of the fpine of the bone. In great part of its extent
this edge is in contact with the levator feapule. The lower
margin reaches from the {pinous procefs of the fourth or
fifth dorfal vertebra to the inferior angle of the fcapula.
Lhe two edges are nearly of equal length, and parallel to
each other. The internal edge is attached to the lower
portion of the ligamentum nuche, to the laft cervical
fpinous procefs, to the four or five fuperior dorfal {pines,
and to the interfpinal ligaments of thofe bones. The outer
edge is fixed to the bafis of the fcapula, from its inferior
angle to above the origin of the fpine, between the fupra
and infra {pinatus behind, and the ferratus magnus in front.
The rhomboideus is partly mufcular, partly aponeurotic.
Its inner edge is attached by aponeurotic fibres, having the
fame direétion as the flefhy one, fhort above, and longer
below. It is fixed to the upper part of the fcapula by
fhort aponeurofes ; its infertien in the remainder of the
bafis is by an aponeurofis attached only at its upper and
lower extremities, leaving a paflage between thefe points
for branches of the tran{verfalis colli artery. The mufcular
fibres are all directed obliquely from within outwards, and
from above downwards.
The mufcle is generally divided into two portions, united
by cellular tiffue to a fuperior fmaller, and an inferior larger
one: thefe are called the rhomboideus minor and major.
By drawing the bafis of the feapula obliquely upwards
and backwards, the rhomboideus carries the inferior angle
towards thie {pine, and makes the anterior angle of the bone,
conttituting the fhoulder, roll forwards and downwards.
Thus it reftores the fcapula to its fituation after the
fhoulder has been raifed. It concurs in this aétion with
the levator fcapule.
RHOMBOIDIA, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a
genus of fpars, given them from their being of a rhomboidal
RH O
form. They owe this figure to an admixture of particles
of iron, and confift of fix planes.
OF this genus there are only two known fpecies, viz. a
white thin one with very thin crufts, and a whitifh-brown
thick one with thicker crufts. They are both found in the
foreft of Dean in Gloucetterfhire, and in other places, where
there are iron-ores. Hill.
RHOMBUS, ‘Poulo:, is formed of foes, of pouGsiy, to
encompajs or turn round, in Geometry, an equilateral rhom-
boid; or a quadrilateral figure, whofe fides are equal and
parallel, but the angles unequal; two of the oppolite ones
being obtufe, and the other two acute. Such is the figure
ABCD, Plate X. fg. EX.
To jind the'Area of a Rhombus, or Rhomboides.—Upon
CD, which is here aflumed as a bafe, let fall a perpen-
dicular A E, which will be the altitude of the parallelogram:
multiply the bafe by the altitude, the produ& is the area.
Thus, if CD be = 456, and AE = 234, the area will be
found 106704.
For it is demontftrated, that an oblique-angular parallelo-
gram is equal to a rectangle upon the fame bafe C D, and
of the fame altitude AE (fee PARALLELOGRAM). But
the area of a rectangle is equal to the faGtum of the bafe
into the altitude ; therefore the area of an oblique-angular
parallelogram is equal to the fame. See Recrancie.
The area of a parallelogram, rhombus or rhomboides, may
be found by means of the following proportion: As radius,
i.e. fine of go° or tangent of 45°, is to the fine of any
angle of a parallelogram, fo is the produét of the fides in-
cluding the angle to the area of a parallelogram: that is,
AD x DC x nat. fine of the angle D = the area. For
having drawn the perpendicular A E, the area, by the firft
rule, is A E x DC; but as rad. 1 (fin. < E): fin. << D::
AD:AE= fin. < D x AD; therefore AE x DC =
DC x fin. < D x ADisthearea; or, 1: fin. << D:: AD
x DC: fin. << D x AD x DC & the area of the paral-
lelogram.
N.B. As the angles of a fquare and reétangle are each
90°, whofe fine is 1, this rule is the fame as the former.
£.G. 1. What is the area of a rhomboides, whofe length
is 36 feet, flope-height 25.5 feet, and one of the lefs angles
58°? Here rad. or 1: .8480481 (nat. fine of 58°) :: 918
(= 25.5 x 36): 778.5081558, the area. Or, by ufing the
logarithms, rad. (10.0000000) : fin. 58° (9.9284205) :: log.
of 918 (2.9628427) ; 778.5081, the number correfponding
to the log. (2.8912632).
2. What is the area of a parallelogram whofe angle is go°,
and the including fides 20 and 12.25 chains? Anf. 245
acres.
3. What is the area of a rhombus, each of whofe fides is
21 feet 3 inches, and each of the lefs angles 53° 20'? Anf.
362.208757 feet.
4. How many acres are in a rhomboides whofe lefs angle
is 30°, and the including fides 25.35 and 10.4 chains? Anf.
13 acres 29.12 perches.
The area of either of the forementioned figures may alfo
be had by the following rule, which is common to all qua-
drilaterals. Avs radius is to the fine of the angle which the
interfeéting diagonals of a parallelogram make with each
other, fo is the produé of the diagonals to double the area:
. ACx BD x nat. fine of the angle R
that is, ————— : ==
N.B. Becaufe the diagonals of a {quare and rhombus in-
terfect at a right angle, whofe fine is 1, half the produé of
their diagonals is the area; that is, $ A C* in the fquare and
ZAC x BD inthe rhombus is the area.
= the area.
E.G.
RHO
E.G. 01. How many acres are in a piece of land, in the
form of a rhombus, whofe diagonals are 30 and 20 chains ?
Anf. 30 acres. :
2. How many yards of painting are in a reCtangle, whofe
diagonals, interfeGing in an angle of 30°, are each 32
feet? Anf. 282.
3. What is the area of arhomboides, whofe diagonals,
making an angle of 60°, are 30 and 25 feet? Anf. 324.7595
feet. Hutton’s Menfuration.
Ruomsus, Solid, two equal and right cones joined toge-
ther at their bafes.
Ruomsus, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of the Pleureneées ;
which fee. See alfo PLeunonectEs Maximus and Turgor,
and P. Pafer.
Ruomsus, in Conchology, the name given by the generality
of authors to a genus of the fhell-fith, much more properly
called by fome cylindrus. _
Ruomsus, among Surgeons, denotes a fort of bandage of
a rhomboidal figure.
RHON, in Ancient Geography, a river of India, among
the people called Gandarii. Steph. Byz.
RHONDE, in Geography. See Ronpr.
RHONE, a river of France, formed by the union of
three {prings, which rife in mount Sufberg, a part of the
Grimfell, at the eaftern extremity of the Valais. It patfes
through the lake of Geneva to Seiflel, &c. and thence to
Lyons, where it joins the Saone, and after watering Vienne,
Valence, Viziers, Avignon, Arles, &c. difcharges itfelf by
feveral mouths into the Mediterranean.
Ruone, Mouths of the, Bouches de Rhéne, one of the
twelve departments of the S.E. region of France, bounded
on the N. by the county of Venaiflin, on the N.E. by the
department of the Lower Alps, on the E. by the depart-
ment of the Var, on the S. by the Mediterranean, and on
the W. by the department of the Gard: 5315 kiliometres
in extent, or 269 fquare leagues, and containing a popula-
tion of 320,072 perfons. It is divided into three circles or
diftri&s, including 26 cantons and 108 communes. The
circles are, Marfeilles, having 142,058 inhabitants ; Aix,
97,938; and Tarafcon, 80,076. According to M. Haiflen-
fratz, its extent in French leagues is 30 in length and 20 in
breadth ; its circles are 5, its cantons are 40, and its po-
pulation confifts of 446,643 perfons. It is a portion of
Lower Provence, and liesin N. lat. 43° 4o!. Its capital is
Aix. Its contributions to the land-tax, &c. amounted, in
the 11th year of the French era, to 3,612,199 fr. ; and its
expences, admintitrative, judiciary, and for public inftruc-
tion, to 354,531 fr. 33 cents. Many of the hills in the
northern ditriێts are bare rocks, deititute of foil and ver-
dure. The chief productions of the department are grain,
wine, :filks, olives, fruits, and paftures. It has mines of
iron, alum, vitriol, with quarries of marble, &c. Pools
and marfhes are difperfed near the coaft.
Ruons, or Rhone and Loire, one of the eleven departments
of the E. region of France, bounded on the N. by the de-
partment of theSaone and Loire, on the E. by the depart-
ments of the Ain and the Ifere, on the S. by the departments
of the Ardéche and the Upper Loire, and on the W. by the
departments of the Puy de Dome and the Allier: to the E.
it is bounded by the river Rhine, and the Loire pailes nearly
through its centre from N.to S. Its extent 1s 2935 kilio-
metres, or 147 fquare leagues, and its population confifts of
345,644 perfons. It is divided into 2 circles, 25 cantons,
and 261 communes. Its circles are Villefranche, including
£06,262 inhabitants, and Lyons, having 239,382. Accord-
ing to Haflenfratz, its extent in French leagues is 20 in
length, and g in breadth; its circles are 2, its cantons
6
RHO
32, and its population is 323,177. It lies in N. lat. 46°
between Ain and Loire, and comprehends the provinces for-
merly. called Juyonnais.and Beaujolais. Its capital is Lyons.
The plains yield fcanty crops of gram and paiture; the
gentle eminences are covered with vineyards, and the fummits
of the mountains are clothed with pines. This department
has mines of copper, lead, coal, quarries of marble, free-
jtone, &c. :
RHOPALA, in Botany, 2 name altered by Schreber
from the Roupala of Aublet, which, being of barbarous
origin, and unexplained by the publifher, he contrived, by
the above alteration, to derive from forxro, a club, or ftake.
This may very well apply to the fize and nature of the
woody ftem, which rifes to the height of three or four feet,
before it fends off any branches. Vahl and Willdenow have
contrived to retain the barbarifm, without adding any thing
to the fenfe.—Schreb. 62. Brown. Tr. of Linn. Soe. v. 10.
1go. (Roupala; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.83. Juff. 79. La-
marck Iluttr. t.55. Gertn. fuppl.t. 217. Rupala; “Vahl
Symb. v. 3. 20.”? Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 536.)—Clafs and
order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Proteacee, Jufl.
Brown.
Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals four, f{patulate, re-
gular, concave, recurved at the extremity. Nectary of four
glands, feparate or combined, at the bafe of the germen.
Stam. Filaments four, fhort, inferted above half way up the
petals; anthers oblong, two-lobed, projeéting beyond their
recurved extremities. -Pi/t. Germen fuperior, ovate, with
rudiments of but two feeds; ftyle awl-fhaped, permanent,
the length of the corolla; ftigma vertical, club-fhaped, un-
divided. Peric. Follicle ovate, fomewhat woody, of one cell.
Seeds two, bordered, winged at each end, the kernel central.
Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Petals four, regular, recurved.
Stamens inferted into the middle of each petal. Nedtary of
four glands. Stigma vertical, club-fhaped. Follicle of one
cell. Seeds two, bordered, winged at each end.
The habit of the genusisarborefcent. Leaves alternate,
rarely whorled; fimple, entire or toothed, rarely pinnate,
or ternate, on the fame branch. Spfes axillary, fometimes
terminal, racemofe, the fowers in pairs with a fingle draéea
to each pair.
1. R. montana. (Roupala montana; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.
83. t. 32. Lamarck t. 55. Rupala montana; Willd. n. 3.)
—Leaves alternate, entire, ovate, folded, fhort-pointed, re-
ticulated with veins. Spikes axillary, folitary, longer than
the leaves. Flower-ftalks, petals and germen clothed with
rufty down.—Native of the Serpent Mountain in Guiana,
flowering in Auguit. dublet. A {mall tree, feven or eight
feet high; its trunk three or four feet. Baré wrinkled and
cracked, whitifh, as well as the wood. Both exhale, when
cut, a ftrong fetid fcent, like that of the ferpents of the
fame country. eaves {mooth, of a firm dry texture, about
three inches long. soiffalks an inch long, inflated at the
bafe. Flowers about eight or ten alternate feffile pairs, in
each lax /pike.
2. R. media. Brown n. 2z.—Leaves alternate, entire,
ovate, flat, pointed, running down the footftalk, with de-
prefled veins. Clufters axillary, folitary, longer than the
leaves. Partial flower-ftalks and petals fomewhat hairy.
Germen downy.—Gathered in the fame country by Von
Rohr, who fent fpecimens to fir Jofeph Banks. his feems
very nearly related to the foregoing.
3. R. nitida. Br. n.3. (Repala nitida; Rudge Guian.
v. I. 26. t. 39.)—Leaves alternate, entire, elliptical, fhort-
pointed, flat. Cluiters axillary, folitary, about the length
of the leaves. Partial flower-ftalks, petals and germen
fmooth.——Gathered by Jofeph Martin in Guiana.
Browz.
4a R.
RHO
4. R. moluccana Br. n. 4.—Leaves alternate, entire, el -- RHOPE,
liptical, flat, finely veined, fomewhat reticulated, longer than
the clufters. Partial flower-ftalks and petals {mooth. —Ga-
thered in the Molucca iflands, by the late Mr. Chriltopher
Smith. Herb. Banks.
5. R. cochinchinenfis. Br. n. 5. (Helicia cochinchinenfis ;
Lour. Cochinch. 83, on the authority of a fpecimen feen
by Mr. Brown, in fir Jofeph Banks’s colleétion, from -the
author.)— Leaves alternate, elliptic-ovate, fhort-pointed, flat,
fomewhat ferrated above half way down. Clutters axillary,
folitary, about the length of the leaves. Partial flower-
{talks, petals and germen {mooth.—Native of woods in Co-
chinchina. (See Hericra.) Mr. Brown obferves, that what
Loureiro defcribes as a four-cleft calyx, are really the nec-
tariferous glands, united at their baie, and remaining after
the petals are fallen. Such a miftake might well render his
defcription unintelligible, without a fight of the plant.
6. R. ferrata. Br. n. 6.—Leaves alternate, broadly el-
liptical, fearcely pointed, ferrated; fomewhat contracted
and entire at the bafe; paler beneath. Clutters axillary,
folitary, fhorter than the leaves. Partial flower-ftalks, petals
and germen downy.—Gathered by Mr. Chriltopher Smith
in the Molucca ifles.
4. R. dentata. Br. n. 7.—Leaves alternate, ovato-lan-
ceolate, folded, toothed, tapering at each end; with a linear
oint. Clufters axillary, folitary, rather longer than the
esl Petals and germen downy.—Gathered by Mr. Alex-
ander Anderfon in Guiana. Herb. Banks.
8. R. peruviana. Br. n.8. (‘¢ Embothrium monofper-
mum; Fl. Peruv. et Chil. v. 1. 63. t. g8.”’?) — Leaves alter-
nate, ovate, ferrated, woolly ; rufty beneath. Ciufters axil-
lary, folitary, longer than the leaves.—Native of the colder
mountains of Peru.
9. R. diverfifolia. Br. n.g. (‘ Embothrium pinnatum ;
Fl. Peruv. et Chil. v. 1. 63. t. gg.’?)—Leaves alternate,
fimple or pinnate, very veiny; downy beneath. Clufters
axillary, folitary, longer than the leaves. Follicles cimeter-
fhaped, downy.—Native of wafte ground, and the borders
of fields, in Peru.
io. R. /efilifolia. Br.n.10. (Roupala feffilifolia; Ri-
chard A&t. Soc. Hift. Nat. Par. v. 1. 106. Poiret in La-
marck Di. v. 6. 316. Rupala feffilifolia; Willd. n. 2.
Ropala hameliefolia; Rudge Guian. v. 1. 22. t. 31.)—
Leaves four in each whorl, nearly feffile, oblong, fomewhat
wedge-fhaped, flightly pointed, entire. Clufters terminal,
umbellate. Flowers whorled.—Native of Guiana. The
leaves are, in the figure, precifely obovate, tapering at the
bafe, afpan long. Clu/lers about the fame length, ereé,
ftalked, forming an umbel at the top of the branch or
ftem ; their partial ftalks hairy, imperte€tly whorled, very
numerous.
RHOPALIC Verses, among the Ancients, a kind of
verfes which began with monofyllables, and were continued
in words growing gradually longer and longer to the laft,
which was the longeit of all.
They had their name from the Greek jorao, a club,
which, like them, begins with a flender tip, and grows
bigger and bigger to the head. Such is that verfe of
Homer :
DQ pone Arpedn HOLENYV/EVESy OAC iodasawye
And this Latin one of Aufonius :
«« Spes deus zternz {tationis conciliator.”’
RHOPALOSIS, a diltemper of the hair defcribed be
the ancients, and feeming to be the fame with what we call
the Plica Polonica; being a fort of matting together of the
hair into long and thick trefles.
Vor. XXX.
RHO
formed of jerw, to preponderate, a word ufed
by the Greek writers to exprefs a violent tendency of the
humours to any particular part of the body.
RHOPIUM, in Botany, from ‘Paria, a flender fhoot,
the flower-ftalks of this plant having adelicate, twiggy ap-
pearanee.—Schreb. 608. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 150. (Me.
borea; Aubl. Guian. 826. Juff. 437. Lamarck Lluftrz
t. 731.)—Clafs and order, Gynandria Triandria. Nat. Ord.
Euphorbie, Juil. See Mrenorea. 7
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent;
cloven into fix, lanceolate, acute fegments, each having a
little bordered cavity at the bafe. Cor. none. Stam. Fila-
ments none; anthers three, cloven, each adhering to a fingle
{tyle under the ftigma, with diftant cells, buriting tranf-
verfely. Pi. Germen fuperior, roundifh or triangular ;
ityles three, ereét, approximated ; ftigmas flat, acute, bent
down over the anthers. © Peric. Capfule compofed of three
obtufe-angled lobes, with fix cells, and fix valves: partitions
from the middle of the valves. Seeds two, one adhering to
each fide of the partition, ovate.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fix-cleft. Corolla none. Anthers three,
with remote cells, and placed in the middle of the ityles.
Styles three. Capfule three-lobed, of three cells, each
with two feeds.
t. R. citrifolium. Willd. (Meborea guianenfis; Aubl.
Guian. t. 323.)—Native of woods in Guiana, where it
flowers and bears fruit in January. The /lem of this fhrub
is from three to four feet in height, branched towards the
fummit. Leaves alternate, ovate, acute, fmooth, entire,
nearly feflile. Stipulas twin, f{mall, deciduous. Flowers
corymbofe, axillary and terminal, of a yellowifh-green co-
lour, each itanding on a long, flender italk, which is fur-
nifhed with a fcale at its bafe.
RHOPOGRAPHI, ‘Poroyexdo, formed of foros, toys
or odd ware, and yexGw, J paint, in Antiquity, an appella-
tioa given to certain painters, who confined themfelves to
low fubjeéts, fuch as animals, plants, landfcapes, &c.
The fame appellation has been alfo given to fuch as cut
figures of men, &c. in box, phillyrea, yew, &c. in gar~
dens..
RHOSOLOGIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Galatia, in the country of the Teitfages, between
Venzala and Sarmalia. Ptolemy.
RHOSOS, a town fituated on the gulf of Iffus, at the
eaftern extremity of the Mediterranean fea, between two de-
files, one of which led to Syria, and was called the « gates
of Syria ;’’ and the other formed by mount Amanus and
the fea-coaft, communicating with Cilicia, and called the
«« Amanic gates.’? Ptolemy places this town in Syria, and
Strabo places it in ‘Cilicia. After the death of Seleucus
Nicator, Demetrius caufed the ftatue of Fortune to be con-
veyed hither. It was famous for the manufaCture of earthen
veflels, mentioned by Cicero, when he was governor of Ci-
licia, in a letter to Atticus. Sapor, king of Perfia, burnt
this city, after he had taken prifoner the emperor Valerian,
A.D. 260. It was pillaged under the reign of Arcadius,
in the year 404, by the Ifaurians, a favage people, who in-
habited the mountains. Jupiter was worfhipped in this
town; and the ftatue of this deity was engraven on the
medals of Rhofos.
RHOSSICUS Scorutus, a promontory of Afia, in
Syria, near the gulf of Ifficus.
RHOT, in Geography, a river of Switzerland, which
runs into the Aar, 5 miles W. of Zoflingen.
RHOTANUM, in Ancient Geography, a river of Corfica,
the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the eaftern
fide, between Valeria Colonia and the port of Diana: ~
Aa RHOX,
.
, RHU
RHOX, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs the
tunica uvea of the eye.
RHUBARB, RuaAsBarsaruM, See
RueumM.
Ruvupars, Rheum Palmatum, in the Materia Medica.
The rhubarb, called the rhabarbarum officinale, was fup-
pofed, in the year 1732, to be fupplied by fome plants fent
from Ruffia, to Juffieu of Paris, Rand at Chelfea, and Lin-
neus at Upfal. Accordingly thefe plants were adopted by
Linneus, in his firft edition of the Species Plantarum, un-
der the name of rheum rhabarbarum. This, however, was
not very generally received as the genuine rhubarb plant.
But in order to aicertain this matter more completely, Kauw
Boerhaave procured, from a Tartarian rhubarb merchant,
the feeds of thofe plants, which he annually fold, and which
were admitted at Peterfburgh to be the true rhubarb.
Thefe feeds were foon difcovered by de Gorter to produce
two diftin& fpecies; viz. the R. rhabarbarum of Linneus,
er R. undulatum, as it has been fince called; and another
{pecies, declared by Linneus to be a new one, and firft
mentioned in the fecond edition of the Species Plantarum,
in 1762, under the name of R. palmatum. But before this
time, de Gorter had repeatedly fent its feeds to Linnezus,
and the young plants conftantly perifhed: at length he ob-
tained the frefh root, which fucceeded very well at Upfal,
and enabled the younger Linnzus to defcribe this plant in
the year 1767. However, two years antecedent to this, Dr.
Hope’s account of the rheum palmatum, as it grew in the
Botanic garden near Edinburgh, had been read before the
Royal Society at London; and of the great eftimation in
which this plant was held by him we have the following
proof. “ From the perfeé fimilarity of this roo® with the
beft foreign rhubarb in tafte, {mell, colour, and purgative
qualities, we cannot doubt our being at laft poflefled of the
plant which produces the true rhubarb, and may reafonably
entertain the agreeable expetations of its proving a very im-
portant acquifition to Britain.”? (See Phil. Tranf. for the
year 1765.) But from the relation above given, it appears
that the feeds of both R. undulatum and R. palmatum were
tran{mitted to Peterfburgh as thofe of the true rhubarb:
we are therefore to conclude, that the former fpecies has an
equal claim to this importance with the latter; and from
further inquiries made in Ruffia, there is the beft authority for
believing that the R. compaétum alfo affords this very ufeful
drug. Bergius fays, “ Rheum palmatum producit rhabar-
Zarum in officinis Sibiricum appellatum: certe e feminibus a
Bucharis e montofis Tibeti in Ruffiam apportatis, et pottea
fatis hocce rheum palmatum enatum elt.’? (Vide Pallas
Reife, &c. vol. iii. p.157.) “ Rhabarbarum vero Chinenfé
ex alia fpecie rhei defumptum effe videtur.”? (Vide Georgi
Reife, &c. vol. i. p. 211.) The feeds of the rheum pal-
matum were firft introduced into Britain in 1762, by Dr.
Mounfey, who fent them from Ruffia, and were fuppofed
to be a part of thofe already mentioned; and fince their
profperous cultivation by the late profeflor of botany at
Edinburgh, the propagation of this plant has been gradually
extended to moft of our Englifh gardens, and with a degree
of fuccefs which promifes in time to fuperfede the importa-
tion of the foreign root. The R. rhaponticum is a different
fpecies from either of thefe. This is fuppofed to be the
rhabarbarum of the ancients. It is well known that the an-
cient rhubarb had net the purgative virtues of the modern.
Two forts of rhubarb are ufually imported into this country
for medical ufe, viz. the Chinefe and the Tartary rhubarb.
Mr. Bell informs us, in his travels, that the beft rhubarb
grows in that part of the Eaftern Tartary called Mongallia,
which ferves as a boundary between Ruflia and China; or,
in Botany.
RHU
on the chain of mountains in Tartary, which ftretches from
the Chinefe town Selin to the lake Kokonor, near T'nbet.
This plant, he fays, does not run and fpread itfelf like
docks, but grows in tufts at uncertain diltances, as if the
feed had been dropped with defign. As the Mongalls do
not think it worth cultivating, the marmots, which burrow
under the fhade of its fpreading leaves, and probably feed
on its leaves and roots, contribute to its increafe, partly by
the manure which their dung affords it, and principally by
cafting up and loofening the earth, into which the ripe
feeds, blown by the wind, fall, and where they immediately
take root. After digging and gathering the rhubarb, the
Mongalls cut the large roots into {mall pieces, in order to
make them dry the more readily. The roots are taken up
in autumn, according to Mr. Bell’s account ; but according
to Pallas, in April and May : and after being cleaned, and
cut tranfverfely into pieces of a moderate fize, thefe pieces
are placed on tables, and turned three or four times a day
for five or fix days. In the middle of every piece they
{coop a hole, through which a cord is drawn, in order to
fufpend them in a convenient place, but fheltered from the
fun, and expofed to the air and wind; and by this pra¢tice
they dettroy fome of the beft part of the root.
The proper exficcation of this reot is certainly attended
with great difficulty, and the cultivators of rhubarb in this
country have not yet agreed as to the beft mode of accom-
plifhing it. The recent root, in this procefs, according to
the experiment of fir William Fordyce, lofes nearly nine-
tenths of its weight ; and as others fay, feven-eighths. In
China the roots are not dug up till winter; and the culti-
vators, after cleaning, fcrape off the bark, and cutting
them, dry the flices by frequently turning them on ftone
flabs, heated by a fire underneath ; after which, the drying
is completed by hanging them up in the air, expoled to the
greatelt heat of the fun. Part of the Tartarian rhubarb is
carried to Turkey through Natolia ; but the greateit part is
conveyed by the Bucharians to Kiachta, on the Ruffian
frontier, where it is examined by a Ruffian apothecary, and
the beft pieces only are felected and fent to Peterfburgh.
The Chinefe is conveyed to Canton, and there purchafed by
the agents of the Eait India Company.
Of the two forts of rhubarb above mentioned, the Chinefe
is chiefly obtained in the province of Xenfi or Shenfee, un-
der the name “ Taihoung.’? It comes immediately from
the Eaft Indies, in oblong pieces, flattifh on one fide, and
convex on the other; compaét, hard, heavy, internally of a
dull red colour, variegated with yellow and white; and
when recently powdered, appears yellow; but on being
kept, becomes gradually redder. he fecond is the moit
valuable, and is brought to us from Turkey and Ruffia, in
roundifh pieces, with a large hole through the middle of
each; it is more foft and friable than the former fort, and
exhibits, when broken, many ftreaks of a bright red colour.
This fort, unlefs kept very dry, is apt to grow mouldy and
worm-eaten ; the other is lefs fubje& to thefe inconveniences.
Some of the more induftrious artifts are faid to fill up the
worm-holes with certain mixtures, and to colour the outfide
of the damaged pieces with powder of the finer forts of rhu-
barb, and fometimes with cheaper materials. The marks
of the goodnefs of rhubarb are, the livelinefs of its colour
when cut, its being firm and folid, but not flinty or hard;
its being eafily pulverable, and appearing, when powdered,
of a fine bright yellow colour ; its imparting to the fpittle,
on being chewed, a deep faffron tinge, and not proving
flimy or mucilaginous in the mouth. Its tafte is fubacrid,
bitterifh, and fomewhat ityptic; the fmell is flightly aro-
matic.
Turkey
RHUBARB.
Turkey rhubarb is generally preferred to the Eaft India
fort, though the latter is more aitringent, but has fome-
thing lefs of an aromatic flavour. Tinéures made from
both, with equal quantities of reGtified fpirit, have nearly
the fame taite; on drawing off the menftrua, the extrac
left by the tin€ture of the Eaft India rhubarb proves in
tafte confiderably ftronger than the other. They feem
both, fays Dr. Lewis, to be the produce of the fame cli-
mate, and roots of the fame {pecies of plant, taken up pro-
bably at different feafons, or cured in a different manner.
Lewis’s Mat. Med.
The Ruffian rhubarb and Turkey rhubarb, fometimes
diftinguifhed in the fhops, feem to be the root of the fame
{pecies of plant, grown in the fame place, and prepared in
the fame manner ; but Mr. A. T. Thomfon (Lond. Difp.)
inclines to believe, that the Eaft Indian is the root of a dif-
ferent {pecies, very probably of the undulatum ;’’ and the
mode of preparation appears to be evidently different, from
the afpeét of the pieces.
Good Ruffian or Turkey rhubarb, fays Mr. Thomfon,
has a peculiar, fomewhat aromatic odour, and a bitter,
flightly aftringent, fubacrid tafte ; feels gritty between the
teeth when chewed, and tinges the faliva of a bright yellow
colour. It breaks with a rough hackly fra@ture, is eafily pul-
verized, and affords a powder of a bright buff yellow colour.
Water at 212° takes up 24 parts in 60; the infufion is of a
brown colour, nearly clear, and reddens litmus paper. Al-
cohol extraéts 2.7 from 10 parts, and gives a tincture of a
rich golden colour, which reddens tinGure of litmus ; is not
altered in its tranfparency by the addition of water; and
itrikes a blackifh olive hue with {olution of fulphate of iron,
but no immediate precipitate falls. Sulphuric ether takes
up 1.5 in 10 parts of this rhubarb; the tin@ure is of a
golden yellow hue, and when evaporated on water, leaves
a thin pellicle of yellow refin, and abundance of extrative
diffolved in the water, combined, however, with tannin.
Eaft Indian or Chinefe rhubarb has a ftronger odour, and
is more naufeous to the tafte than the Turkey ; breaks with
a more compa and {moother fra@ture ; and affords a pow-
der of aredder fhade. Water takes up 30 parts in 60; the
infufion is not fo deep coloured as that of Ruffian rhubarb,
more turbid, and reddens alfo litmus paper. Alcohol ex-
tracts 4 parts in 10; the tin@ture is of a much deeper co-
lour, and brownifh ; gives a deeper red to litmus tinéture ;
is rendered flightly turbid by the addition of water; and
ftrikes a green, not black, olive with fulphate of iron, which
it alfo quickly and copioufly precipitates. Ether takes up
2 parts in 10; the tinéture is deeper coloured, and wher
evaporated on water, affords the fame refults as the former
kind, except that the compound of tannin and extra¢tive is
more foluble.
The infufion of Chinefe rhubarb is more copioufly pre-
cipitated by folution of ifinglafs than that of the Ruffian.
Infufion of yellow cinchona throws down a copious nifh
precipitate from infufion of Ruffian rhubarb, and a lefs
copious, but more denfe, bright yellow precipitate from
that of Chinefe rhubarb.
The following tables fhew the effets of re-agents on the
aqueous infufion of the two varieties of rhubarb.
Taste I.—Precipitates formed by Acids, Alkalies, and Neutral Salts.
] |
|
}
Solution of
|
Jari Sulphuric |... ¢ ae au muriatic lation of Lime Muriate of Silicated
previ Acid, | Nitric Acid. | Muriatie Acid.| canes os Subcarbonate | Water, Bioryies:, | Potake
of Potafs. i
copious, \fcanty, floc-, {canty, | flowly | none, but | none, but | fcanty, icanty, none, but
Ruff greenifh- culent, pale very flowly formed, | ftrikesa | ftrikesa | flowly | mgt eo itrikes a
* | yellow. | yellow. | formed, | pale olive. | deep lake | reddifh- | formed, | deep brown.
| yellow. | colour. | brown. | brown.
Soe eee ee eee _——
more | lefsfcanty,| feanty, flowly | none, | none, but | copious, lefs fcanty, | none, but
copious, | pale yellow. quickly | formed, | adeeper | renders it | quickly | orange- esa
Chinefe. | brownith- ormed, | orange- | lake. turbid, and | formed, | yellow. (deep brown.
| yellow. brownifh- | yellow. \deep reddifh- brown.
yellow. | | brown. |
Tas e I].—Precipitates formed by Solutions of Metallic Salts.
Solation of
Nitrate of
Mercury.
Solution of
Oxyfalphate
of Troa.
Solution of
Nitrate of Silver.
{canty, pale
greentih-
yellow.
copious,
| olive-yellow. |
|
| copious,
nearly black.
|
copious,
copious,
heavy,
_ copious, deep
i orange-yellow.
} © ve-green.
Niwate of Lead.
{canty, flowly fcanty, flowly
{eanty, flowly |
bright yellow. | deeper yellow.
Soluzion of
Muriate of
Mercury.
Solution of | Solution of
Solution of
Acetate of Lead. | Tartarized
Antimony.
\fcanty, lo
plete
whitifh.
lowly | | {canty,
greenifh-
yellow.
formed,
pale olive.
|
copious,
yellow.
formed,
yellow.
| fcanty, ftill
* more flowly
formed.
copious,
quickly
formed, |
heavy yellow. |
formed,
Wher
RHUBARB.
When the refidue, after the a€tion of water, is digetted
in muriatic acid, and folution of ammonia added in excefs,
the liquid becomes milky, and depofits oxalate of lime.
What remains confifts of woody matter, a fmall portion of
alumen, and filex. Of the fpecimens which we examined,
one drachm of the Ruffian rhubarb yielded twenty-fix grains
of the oxalate, while the fame weight of Eaft Indian yielded
only eighteen grains.
Trom the refults of the above experiments, rhubarb ap-
pears to contain a large portion of extra€tive matter, a {mall
portion of refin, mucus, tannin, gallic acid, a colouring
matter, oxalate of lime, and minute proportions of alumen
and filex. They fhew that the two varieties differ from
each other in feveral re{peéts. The Ruffian contains more
tannin, oxalate of lime, and refin; the Chinefe more ex-
trative and gallic acid. But the purgative principle is {till
unafcertained, although it appears to be combined with the
extra€tive, and hence is foluble in water.
The yellow colour of rhubarb, it is faid, is much lefs
deftruétible than many other vegetable yellows. Aqua
fortis, and other acids which deftroy the colour of faffron,
turmeric, &c. make no change in that of rhubarb, or at
moft render it only turbid. Volatile fpirits heighten the
colour, and incline it tored. Fixed alkaline falts have this
effeét in a greater degree. Mr. Model affirms that.a con-
fiderable quantity of felenites is contained in rhubarb. In
one experiment he obtained fix ounces of felenites from four
pounds of rhubarb ; and in the other, no lefs than an ounce
of felenites from two ounces and five drachms of old rhu-
barb. Rozier’s Journal for July, 1775.
Rhubarb is a mild eathartic, and commonly confidered
as one of the fafeft and moft innocent of the fubftances of
this clafs. Befides its purgative virtue, it has a mild aftrin-
gent one, difcoverable by the tafte, and by its ftriking an
inky blacknefs with chalybeate folutions: hence it is found
to ftrengthen the tone of the {tomach and inteftines, to leave
the belly coftive, and to be one of the moift ufeful purga-
tives in diarrhceas, dyfenteries, and all diforders proceeding
from a debility and laxity of the fibres: it is frequently
given with a view to this ftomachic and corroborating virtue,
rather than to its producing any confiderable evacuations.
It tinges the urine of a high yellow colour. Rhubarb in
fubftance purges more effectually than any preparation of
it: the dofe is froma feruple toadrachm. From 9j to 3%
of the powdered root opens the bowels freely ; and from
grs. vi to grs. x may be given for a dofe, when its {to-
machic properties only are required. By roafting it, with a
gentle heat, till it becomes eafily friable, its cathartic power
is diminifhed, and its aftringency fuppofed to be increafed.
The purgative virtue of rhubarb is extracted more perfe¢tly
by water than by re¢tified fpirit; the root remaining after
the ation of water is almoft, if not wholly, inactive;
whereas, after repeated digeftion in fpirit, it proves {full
very confiderably purgative: when the rhubarb has given
-out to f{pirit all that this menftruum can extract, it fill im-
parts a deep colour, as well as a purgative impregnation, to
water. A drachm of the extract; formed by infpiffating
the watery infufion, is not more efficacious than a feruple
a
sum
of the reot in fubftance; but half a drachm of the extrac,
formed from the fpirituous tinture, proves moderately pur-
gative, though {carcely more fo than an equal quantity of
the powder. The {pirituousextraét diflolves almolt wholly
in water; and hence the tincture, like the fpirituous infu-
fions. of moft other vegetables, does not turn milky on being
mixed with aqueous liquors: of the watery extracts fcarce
above one-fourth is diflolved by re€tified [pirit, and the part
that does not diflolve proves more purgative than that which
does. Hence it appears, that rhubarb contains much more
gummy or mucilaginous than refinous matter ; and its pur-
gative quality feems to refide chiefly in a combination of
gummy and faline matter.
«© The qualities of this root,” fays Dr. Cullen (Mat.
Med. vol. u.), ‘are that of a gentle purgative, and fo
gentle that it is often inconvenient by reafon of the bulk of
the dofe required, which in adults muft be from half a
drachm to a drachm. When given in a large dofe, it will
occafion fome griping, as other purgatives do; but it is
hardly ever heating to the fyftem, or fhews the other effects
of the more draftic purgatives. "The purgative quality 1s
accompanied with a bitternefs, which is often ufeful in re-
ftoring the tone of the flomach, when it has been loft ; and
for the moft part, its bitternefs makes it fit better on the
ftomach than many other purgatives do. Its operation
joins well with that of neutral laxatives; and both together
operate in a lefler dofe than either of them would do fingly.
& Some degree of ftipticity is always evident in this medi-
cine; and as this quality acts when that of the purgative
has ceafed, fo in cafes of diarrhcea, when any evacuation is
proper, rhubarb has been confidered as the moit proper
means to be employed. I muft, however, remark here,
that in many cafes of diarrhcea, no further evacuation than
what is occafioned by the difeafe’ is neceflary or, proper.
The ufe of rhubarb in fubltance for keeping the belly re-
gular, for which it is frequently employed, is by no means
proper, as the aftringent quality is ready to undo what the
purgative had done; but I have found that the purpofe
mentioned may be obtained by it, if the rhubarb is chewed
in the mouth, and no more is {wallowed than what the faliva
has diffolved. And I muft remark, in this way employed it
is very ufeful to dyf{peptic perfons. Analogous to this is the
ufe of rhubarb ina folution, in which it appears to me that
the aftringent quality is not fo largely extra¢ted as to
operate fo powerfully, as when the rhubarb was employed
in fubftance.”’ ;
The operation of rhubarb is quickened by the addition of
neutral falts and calomel, the purgative powers of which it
alfo reciprocally augments ; fo that a compound, formed of
{mall portions of rhubarb and a neutral falt or calomel, a&s
with more certainty, and quicker, than large dofes of either
feparately taken. . Rhubarb is particularly adapted for the
greater number of cafes of diarrhoea, as it evacuates any
acrid matter that may be offending the bowels, before it
acts as an altringent. As a ftomachic and aftringent, it is
ufefully given in dyfpepfia, hypochondriafis, and in a
weakened relaxed ftate of the bowels, combined with ginger,
nutmeg, foda, or bitters. Externally its powder is fome-
times {prinkled over ulcers, to affift their granulation and
healing.
Its officinal preparations are as follow: viz. Infu/um
rheity Lond. Pharm., infufion of rhubarb, prepared by ma-
cerating for two hours a drachm of rhubarb root, {liced,
with half a pint of boiling water, in a lightly covered veflel,
and {training it.
Infufum rhei palmati, Edinb. Pharm., infufion of rhubarb,
prepared by macerating half an ounce of bruifed rhubarb
root with eight ounces of boiling water, in a covered veflel,
for twelve hours, and then adding one ounce of {pirit of
cinnamon, and {training it. Thefe infufions differ chiefly
in their ftrength ; but that of the Edinburgh difpenfatory is
rendered pleafanter by the addition of the fpirit. The co-
lour of both is a reddifh-brown, much deepened by the ad-
dition of alkalies, The following fubftances either occafion
precipitation,
RHUBARB.
precipitation, or alter the properties of this infufion, and
are therefore incompatible in fermule with it: viz. the
itrong acids and lime-water, folution of fulphate of iron,
fulphate of zinc, nitrate of filver, oxymuriate of mercury,
fuperacetate of lead, and tartarized antimony ; infufions of
catechu, cirtchona, and cufparia.
Thefe infufions are the beft form in which rhubarb can
be given, when they are intended for a@ting on the bowels.
The dofe of the former may be from £3] to f Ziv, and of
the latter half the quantity, united with neutral falts or aro-
matics, as circumftances may direct.
ExtraGum rhei, Lond. Pharm., extraét of rhubarb, is
obtained by macerating for four days, in a gentle heat, a
pound of bruifed rhubarb root, with a pint of proof {pirit,
and feven pints of water; then ftraining the folution, and
fetting it apart that the feculencies may fubfide. Pour off
the i De liquor, and evaporate it to a proper confiftence.
The virtues of rhubarb are impaired during this procefs of
infpiflation, and the fimple infufion is preferable. The dofe
is from grs. x to 3/5, given in the form of pills, or diffolved
in peppermint water.
Tin@ura rhei, Lond., tiné&ture of rhubarb, is prepared by
macerating for fourteen days two ounces of rhubarb root
fliced, half an ounce of cardamom feeds bruifed, two
drachms of faffron, in two pints of proof fpirit, and filter-
ing. The Dublin pharmacopeia direéts to take of rhubarb
root fliced, two ounces ; lefler cardamom feeds hufked and
bruifed, and liquorice bruifed, of each half an ounce ; faf-
fron, two drachms; and proof fpirit, two pints: to digeft
for feven days, and then filter.
Tin@ure rhei palmati, Edinb., tin@ure of rhubarb, is pre-
pared by digetting for feven days three ounces of rhubarb
root fliced, half an ounce of lefler cardamom feeds bruifed,
in two pounds and a half of proof fpirit, and filtering through
paper.
Tin@ura rhei compofita, Lond., compound tin&ture of
rhubarb, is prepared by macerating for fourteen days two
ounces of rhubarb root fliced, half an ounce of liquorice
root bruifed, ginger root fliced, and faffron, of each two
drachms, in a pint of water, and twelve fluid ounces of proof
fpirit, and then filtering.
Tin@ura rhei et aloes, tinGture of rhubarb and aloes, for-
merly elixir facrum, or facred elixir, Edinb., is prepared by
digetting for feven days ten drachms of rhubarb root fliced,
fix drachms of foccotorine aloes powdered, half an ounce of
leffer cardamom feeds bruifed, in two pounds and a half of
* proof fpirit, and filtering through paper.
Tin@ura rhei et gentiane, tin€ture of rhubarb and gentian,
Edinb., formerly tin@ura rhei amara, or bitter tinéture of
rhubarb, is obtained by digefting for feven days two ounces
of rhubarb root fliced, half an ounce of gentian root fliced,
in two pounds and a half of proof fpirit, and filtering
through paper.
All thefe tinétures of rhubarb are purgative and fto-
machic ; but they are not generally ufed in the firft inten-
tion, on account of the ftrength of the menftruum, and are
therefore more ufually employed as adjunéts to faline pur-
gatives, for giving them warmth, and to ftomachic infudions
in dyfpepfia, flatulent colic, diarrhoea, the cottivenefs of
old people, and of cold phlegmatic habits. The dofe for
operating as a purgative is f3 vj, and from £3j to f3iij
for producing their itomachic effects.
Pilule rhei compofite, Edinb., compound rhubarb pills.
See Pitts. .
* Vinum rhei palmati, Edinb., wine of rhubarb, is prepared
by macerating for feven days two ounces of rhubarb root
fliced, adrachm of canella bark bruifed, in two ounces of
aici fpirit, and fifteen ounces of Spanith white wine, and
Itering through paper. This wine, when newly prepared,
has the fame properties, and may be applied to the fame
ufes, as the tin@ture ; but it is liable to undergo decompofi-
tion. The dofe is from £36 to £3], or more. Rhubarb
is alfo an ingredient in a variety of compofitions. Woody.
Med. Bot. Thomfon’s Lond. Difp.
The Indian rhubarb fown 1m our gardens has this peculiar
property, that it yields a fine and clear gum. This is per-
feétly white and pellucid, and in the months of June and
July is fo plentiful, that an ounce may fometimes be gathered
at a time from one plant of it. It exudates of itfelf from
all parts of the ftalks and ribs of the leaves, and fometimes
from the under part of the leaves themfelves. It ftands in
fome places in large drops, and in others the ftalks, &c. feem
only to be covered with a thin layer-of it; andthe under
part of the leaves in fome have it in form of twifted wires or
long icicles. The plant may always be feen wounded bya
fort of cauitic in the places where the germen makes its way
out, and thefe may be followed with any pointed inftrument
through the fkin. In fome parts of the plant this juice is
found to be turned gummy within it, and looks like clear
ice. As this is the only known herbaceous plant that
yields atrue gum like that of trees, it would be worthy of
obfervation, whether or not fome of our own plants have fome
tendency of nature to forma juice of the fame kind. It
would be moft proper to look for this in the plants of the
fame genus, and as nearly related to the rhubarb as we can.
The docks, fo common about our fields, are of the fame
genus; and the forrel fhews, by its tafte, that it is particu-
larly allied to the plant ; for both are alike of the dock kind,
and both alike four. It would be proper to look carefully
about the leaves of forrel a little before it flowers, to fee
whether any thing like the fame gum appears on it.
There is yet this farther analogy between this rhubarb and
our common forrel; that the hufks of our forrel, boiled in
water, with a little alum, turn it to a fine red colour; and
the hufks of rhubarb do the fame, and both the one and the
other often turn red in decaying.
The juice of the roots of this rhubarb, extra&ed by
bruifing and fteeping it in common water, when the liquor
is {trained and evaporated, becomes only a clear uninflam-
mable gum, and melts in the flame of acandle. This gum,
as well as that of the ftalks and leaves, is of an infipid
tafte ; and it is obfervable, that though the plant naturally
yields it in fo large a quantity, yet it will not flow from
wounds made by art in any part of the plant. Upon the
confideratien of the infipid tafte of this gum, and its folu-
bility in water, we may found fome probable conjeéture, ia
regard to the different virtues of this plant in purging and
binding.
The woody fibres have a ftrong tafte; and, in all proba-
bility, are alone endued with the aitringent quality. An in-
fuficn of rhubarb is faid to purge, and a powder of it to
bind: the reafon is eafily feen on this confideration. The
water in infufion takes up all this gummy juice, and its
other juices, but leaves the fibrofe part behind, in confe-
quence of which, it ought to purge without binding ; but
in cafe of giving the powder, the juices are in great part
evaporated in the drying, and the woody part left almoft
alone ; it therefore purges but little, and proves powerfully
aftringent. Phil. Trani. N° 224.
Ruvusars, in Agriculture, a plant of the thick, flefhy,
tap-rooted, perennial kind, that may in fome cafes be pro-
bably cultivated in the field with advantage. There are two
forts, the common, and the pa/mated or true kind. Inthe firft
the root {trikes to a great depth, and is thick and branching,
having
RHU
having roundifh {mooth heart-fhaped leaves, and an upright
ftrong ftem, three feet in height ; while, in the latter, the
root isthick and flefhy, and the leaves large and palmated,
having the ftem five, fix, or more feet in height. Befides
the ufe of the roots as a. drug, parts of the young ttalks of
the plants, as well as of the leaves, may be made ufe of, when
cut, peeled, and prepared in the {pring feafon, as an article
of food.
This plant is ufually raifed by fowing the well ripened
feed in the autumn or early {pring feafons, as about Septem-
ber, or in February, on beds of rich, deep, well-manured
earth, either in the drill or broadcaft manner: the plants
being afterwards kept clean from weeds, and properly
thinned. But the autumn is faid to be the better, as the
plants are more {trong for planting inthe {pring. When the
plants have attained four or five inches in growth, they fhould
be planted out on hills, made at the diftance of four feet, by
digging out the earth to the depth of three feet, and filling
in with well-rotten manure, and the mould taken out, fo as
to raife the plants a little above the natural furface of the
land. Some, however, direct that a deep, rich, well prepared
foil, that is neither too moift nor too dry, fhould be chofen
for this fort of culture, the feeds being fown upon it inthe
early autumn, fo as to remain without tranfplanting, as by
this means the plants fuffer no check in their growth, and
the roots become larger and more fair. The plants, in both
modes, muft be conftantly kept clean and free from all forts of
weeds, and in the latter they fhould be fet out in the different
hoeings to the diftance of fix or eight inches at firft, and
afterwards totwo or three feet, or more. When the leaves
and ftems decay in the autumn, the ground fhould be well
cleaned; and in the f{pring, on the plants protruding,
be dug well, or hoed between them. In the third year
the roots will, in moft cafes, be in a ftate to be taken up
for ufe.
Another method has been fuggefted for raifing thefe
plants, as being more eafy, fecure, and expeditious, which
is by planting the off-fets, eyes, or buds, feparated from
the upper parts of the roots, with a {mall proportion of the
old root, having fome root fibres to them; thefe may be
taken from the old roots of three or four years’ growth. In
this way a year is faved, and the plants lefs expofed to dan-
ger from flugs, as well as more certain in growing, lefs ten-
der, and the fize of the roots equal. In Mr. Hayward’s
practice in this mode, the off-fets were flipped from the heads
of large plants in the fpring, and fet, by means of a dibble,
at the diltanceof about afoot. Andon further experience,
when he took up his roots in the {pring or autumn, he divided
the head into many parts, which he planted direétly at two
feet diftance, where intended for further removal, but if to
remain for a crop, at four feet and a half.
It may be noticed, that in the culture of this root, a
gentle declivity is the beft fituation ; it fhould not be too
much fhaded, either on the fouth or weit. But it is eflen-
tial that there be a great depth and richnefs of foil, which
is beft when of the light loamy kind, and perfectly free
from any ftagnation of moifture. Where the fituation is
flat, the land is beft raifed into ridges or beds, with deep
furrows or trenches between them.
And when the feed-ftems are removed in the autumn, the
crowns of the plants fhould be well covered over with
mould, fo as to form a fort of hillock, as by this means
the moifture will be more effectually kept from the plants.
But where the tran{planting method is praétifed, it is ad-
vifed that great care fhould be taken that the nurfery beds
are well watered, and protected from infeéts, as the ftronger
the plants are here, the better they fucceed afterwards. [n
kR HU
forming plantations, and filling up vacancies in them, the
fineft and moft healthy plants are always to be made ufe of.
Where the chief bud is deftroyed, they uever an{wer well.
The particular injuries to which thefe young plants are
expofed, are theattacks of flugs and infeéts, and too much
expofure to fro{t in their more early growth ; but afterwards
they are fufficiently hardy. roma
In general the roots are proper for being taken up about
the third or fourth year, or as foon as the plants have
flowered perfectly. And the autumn is the beft feafon for
the purpofe, when the ftems decay, when they fhould be
well dried, cleaned, and cut into thin pieces, ftringing them
upon packthread, and hanging them up to dry ina gradual
manner.
It has been obferved by the writer of the Perthfhire
Agricultural Report, that it is furprifing the culture of
rhubarb has not claimed more attention, and been adopted on
a more extenfive fcale, as it is calculated to bring large
profits.
The palmated rhubarb has been cultivated in Suffex by
the earl of Egremont, for medicinal purpofes, who has it
dried and cured in as good order and prefervation as any im-
ported from abroad. It is taken out of the ground in au-
tumn, after ftanding feven or eight years, and then wafhed
clean, and dried, either in the fun, or-on the flue of a hot-
houfe, after being cut intothin pieces. In ufing it, no dif.
ference is found between it and the foreign, and great faving
might be made in this way in the importation of the
article.
Ruvusars, AMonk’s, is a {peciesof dock. See Rumex.
The root of this plant is more aftringent than rhubarb,
but is much inferior in its purgative virtue, though given, as
ufually direéted, in double its dofe; naufeating the ftu-
mach, without producing any confiderable evacuation. It
communicates a deep yellow tinéture, both to water and
fpirit. Lewis.
Ruusare, White. See MEcHOACAN.
RHUBRA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated on
the fouthern coaft of the ifland of Corfica, between the
port of Syracufe and the promontory Graniacum. Pto-
lemy.
RHUBRICATA, a town of Hifpania, in the Tarra-
onefe, in the country of the Lacetanians. Ptolemy.
RHUBUNA, a town of Africa, on the northern bank
of the river Gira, between Artagira and Lynxama. Pto-
lemy.
RHUDA, a town of Afia, in Parthia, between Pafa-
cartaand Simpfimida. Ptolemy.
RHUDDLAN, or Ruyppian, in Geography, a bo-
rough town in the cwmwd of Rhuddlan, cantref of Tegein
(now called the hundred of Rhuddlan), county of Flint,
North Wales, is fituated on the. eaftern bank of the river
Clwyd, at the diftance of five miles N. from the city of St.
Afaph, and 215 miles N.W. from London. It isa town of
great antiquity, and, as appears from tradition, and like-
wife from the remains of its caftle, was a place of confi-
derable importance in early times. A large common in the
immediate vicinity was the theatre of a dreadful battle
fought between the Welfh, under prince Caradoc, and the
Saxons, commanded by Offa, king of Mercia. In this ac-
tion the Welfh were defeated, and their leader flain; and to
add to their misfortunes, Offa put to death all the men and
children who fell into his hands, but {pared the women.
The memory of the above tragical occurrence is commemo-
rated in a ballad called “* Morfa Rhuddlan,” the air of which
is characterifed by Pennant as being ¢ mott tenderly _plain-
tive.’ This town was conttituted a free borough by king
I Edward
REED
Edward I., who held a parliament here in 1284, when the
itatute of Rhuddlan was paffed. At a private houfe is ftill
fhewn a * Gothic window,” which is faid to have been part of
the building ufed on the oceafion of thefe parliamentary
meetings. Another houfe isalfo pointed out as having been
honoured by the refidence of the monarch himfelf during
his ftay at Rhuddlan, but it is more likely that he occupied
the caftle ; and certain it is, that queen Eleanor’s accouch-
ment of a daughter occurred there in 1283. A eopy of the
roll of the king’s expences, while at Rhuddlan, is printed in
the Archzologia, and exhibits feveral interefting and curious
particulars relative to the prices of provifions and labour at
that early period. Rhuddlan cattle is built of a reddith
free-ftone, and is nearly fquare in form. Attwo of the op-
pofing corners were formerly two towers, though the other
corners had only one each. Of thefe, the three on the north-
weit fide of the fortrefs are tolerably entire, but the remain-
der is much dilapidated. By whom this caitle was ori-
ginally built is uncertain ; fome writers attributing it to
Llewellin-ap-Sitfyllt, about the commencement of the 11th
century, and others to Robert de Rodelent, who lived to-
wards the clofe of the fame century. Be this as it may,
however, it was deftroyed by Gruffydd-ap-Crinan in the
reign of Henry II., and was fubfequently re-erected and for-
tified by that monarch. In 1399 it was feized and garri-
foned by the earl of Northumberland, previous to the de-
pofition of the unfortunate king Richard II., who dined
here on his way to Fliat caftle. During the civil wars between
king Charles I. and his parliament, Rhuddlan cattle was at
firft occupied by the royalifts, but, after a fhort fiege, the
garrifon were forced to furrender to the parliamentary troops,
commanded by general Mytton. ‘This event happened in
July 1646, and in the following December, the fortrefs was
difmantled by order of parliament. It was furrounded by a
deep ditch, and had an additional one on the north fide : both
of thefe ditches are {till remaining. The walls are very ftrong,
and well calculated for defence. South from the caftle is a
fortification, commonly fuppofed to have been conftruéted
by the parliamentary troops as a battery during the fiege
above-mentioned ; but though it may have been ufed for that
purpofe, it is doubtlefs of much higher antiquity. Near this
{pot formerly ftood a houfe of Black friars, which mutt
have been founded previous to 1268, as it is recorded, that
in that year, Anian de Schonan, one of its priors, was
made bifhop of St. Afaph. It fuffered greatly in the wars
between king Edward I., and prince Llewellin ab Gruffydd ;
but it recovered and fubfifted till the reign of Henry VIII.
when it was diffolved, and its buildings granted to Henry
ap Harry. Tanner ftates that there was another religious
houfe in the immediate vicinity of Rhuddlan, as old as the
year 1281, but no traces of its fcite can now be difco-
vered. .
Edward I., in his charter conftituting Rhuddlan a bo-
rough, appointed the cont{table of the caftle mayor, and or-
dered that two bailiffs fhould be chofen annually, as his af-
fiftants, from among the burgeffes. Since the time of
Oliver Cromwell, there having been no conitable, there
has confequently been no mayor, fo that the bailiffs are now
the chief officers of the town. The burgeffes contribute
towards the new election of a reprefentative in parliament
for the borough of Flint. The voters muft either inhabit
the town itfelf, or that part of the parifh called Rhuddlan
Franchife, which extends to the diftance of a mile. At
prefent no regular market is held here, but there are fairs
for cattle on the 2d of February, 25th of March, and
the 8th of September. The parifh, according to the par-
R HU
liamentary returns of 1811, contains 131 houfes, and 831
inhabitants.
The river Clwyd, upon which Rhuddlan is fituated, is
only navigable for veflels of about twenty tons burden as
high up as the town ; but about two. miles below it is a
port, into which veflels of confiderable magnitude can enter
and remain with fecurity. Carlifle’s Topographical Dic-
tionary of Wales, gto. 1813. Pennant’s Tour in Wales,
1770, Lond. 2 vols. 4to. 1778.
RHUDEN, or Ruruen, a town of Germany, in the
duchy of Weftphalia ; 64 miles E. of Duffeldorp.
RHUDIANA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in Carmania. Ptolemy.
RHULA, in Geography, atown of Saxony, in the prin-
cipality of Eifenach, famous for its manufature of knives ;
four miles S.S.E. of Eifenach.
RHUMB, Rump, or Rum, in Navigation, a vertical cir-
cle of any given place ; or the interfection of a part of fuch
a circle with the horizon.
Rhumbs, therefore, coincide with points of the world, or
of the horizon.
And hence the mariners diftinguifh the rhumbs by the
{ame names as the points and winds. But we may obferve,
that the rhumbs are denominated from the points of the
compafs in a different manner from the winds: thus, at fea,
the north-eaft wind is that which blows from the north-eaft
point of the horizon towards the fhip in which we are; but
we are faid to fail upon the north-eaft rhumb, when we go
towards the north-eait.
They ufually reckon 32 rhumbs, which are reprefented
by the 32 lines in the rofe, or card, of the compais.
Aubin defines arhumb to be a line on the terreftrial globe,
fea-compafs, or fea-chart, reprefenting one of the 32 winds
which ferve to condu& a veffel. So that the rhumb a veflel
purfues is conceived as its route, or courfe.
Rhumbs are divided and fubdivided like points. Thus,
the whole rhumb anfwers to the cardinal point. The half
rhumb to a collateral point, or makes an angle of 45° with
the former. The quarter rhumb makes an angle of 22° 30!
with it. And the half-quarter rhumb makes an angle of
TICLES
Sometimes navigators divide the 32 points into four quar-
ters, and call the rhumb next the eaft the firft rhumb, the
next to that the fecond rhumb, &c.
For a table of the rhumbs, or points, and their diftances
from the meridian, fee Wixp.
Ruums-Line, Loxodromia, is a line prolonged from any
point of the compafs in a nautical chart, except the four
cardinal points ; or it is the line which a fhip, keeping in
the fame collateral point, or rhumb, defcribes throughout
its whole courfe. See Loxopromy.
The great property of the rhumb-line, or loxodromia,
and that from which {ome authors define it, is, that it cuts
all the meridians under the fame angle.
This angle is called the angle of the rhumb, or the loxo-
dromic angle.
The angle which the rhumb-line makes with any parallel
to the equator, is called the complement of the rhumb.
An idea of the origin and properties of the rhumb-line,
the great foundation i navigation, may be conceived thus:
a veel beginning its courfe, the wind with which it is driven
makes a certain angle with the meridian of the place; and
asit is fuppofed, the veflel runs exaétly in the direction of
the wind, it makes the fame angle with the meridian which
the wind makes.
Suppofing then the wind to continue the fame, as each
point
RHU
point or inftant of the progrefs may be efteemed the be-
ginning, the veflel always makes the fame angle with the
meridian of the place where it is each moment, or in each
point of its courfe, which the wind makes.
Now a wind, e. gr. that is north-eaft, and which, of con-
fequence, makes an angle of 45° with the meridian, is
equally north-eaft, wherever it blows, and makes the fame
angle of 45° with all the meridians it meets. A veflel, there-
fore, driven by the fame wind, always makes the fame angle
with all the meridians it meets with on the furface of the
earth.
If the veffel fail north and fouth, it makes an angle infi-
nitely acute with the meridian, 3. e. it is parallel to it; or
rather fails in it. If it run eaft and welt, it cuts all the
meridians at right angles.
In the firft cafe, it defcribes a great circle ; in the fecond,
either a great circle, viz. the equator, or parallel to it. If
its courfe be between the two, it does not then defcribe a
circle ; fince a circle, drawn in fuch a manner, would cut
all the meridians at unequal angles, which the veffel can-
not do.
It defcribes, therefore, another curve, the effential pro-
perty of which is, that it cuts all the meridians under the
fame angle. This curve is what we call the loxodromic curve,
rhumb-line, or loxodromy.
It is a kind of fpiral, which, like the logarithmic {piral,
makes an infinity of circumvolutions without ever arriving
at a certain point, to which it yet ftill tends, and towards
which it approaches at every ftep.
This afymptotic point of the rhumb-line is the pole: at
which, were it poffible for it to arrive, it would find all the
meridians conjoined, and be loft in them.
The courfe of a veffel then, except in the two firft cafes,
is always a rhumb-line ; which line is the hypothenufe of
a right-an led-triangle, whofe two other fides are the fhip’s
way or diftanes run in longitude and latitude. Now, the
latitude is ufually had by obfervation, and the angle of the
rhumb, with one or other of the two fides, by the compafs.
See LatirupE, and Compass.
All, therefore, that is required by calculation in failing,
is the value of the length of the rhumb-line, or the diftance
run.
But as fuch curve line would prove very perplexing in the
calculation, it was neceflary to have the fhip’s way in a right
line ; which right line; however, muft have the effential por-
perty of the curve line, viz. to cut all the meridians at
right angles. See CuArr.
IfPA, PF, PG, &c. (PlateII. Navigation, fig. 5-)
be fuppofed meridians, AI the equator, and EB, KL,
MN, parallels; AO will reprefent a rhumb-line, which
makes equal angles with the meridians, and confequently
different from thofe made by a great circle, which cuts the
meridians at unequal angles; whence it follows that the
rhumb is not a great circle of the fphere. If a fhip, there-
fore, be at firft direGted towards E, and conftantly perfift
in the fame rhumb, it will never arrive at the place E, but
at the place O, which is farther from the equator A I.
Hence, as on the furface of a fphere the fhorteft way
between A and O is an arc of a great circle between A
and O; the rhumb-line is not the fhorteft way, or leaft
diftance from one place to another.
Ruumps-Lines, Ufe of the. 1. If the meridians PA,
PB, PC,PD, &e. (fy. 6.) be not very far apart, the
rhumb-line AT HG is divided by the equidiftant parallels
LE, MF, NG, &c. into equal parts.
Hence, 1. The parts of the rhumb A I and A G are as
RHU
the latitudes A L and AN of the places A and G.
2. Since the ares AB, I K, HF, are equal in magnitude,
and therefore unequal in number of degrees ; the fum of the
arcs, called the datus mecodynamicum, or miles of longitude, is
not equal to the difference of longitude A D of the places
A and G.
2. The length of the rhumb-line A G is to the change or
difference of latitude G D, in the fame ratio as the whole fine
to the cc-fine of the angle of the rhumb.
Hence, 1. The rhumb failed on being given, together
with the difference or change of latitude, turned into miles,
the length of the rhumb-line, or the di‘tance from the place
A to the place G upon the fame rhumb, is had by the rule
of three. 2. The rhumb being given, together with the
quantity of the fhip’s way on the fame rhumb, 7. e. the length
of the rhumb A G;; the difference of latitude D G is had,
by the rule of three, in miles, to be converted into degrees
of agreat circle. 3. The difference of latitude DG being
given in miles, as alfo the length of the rhumb-line AG,
the angle of the rhumb, and confequently the rhumb failed
on, is had by the rule of three. 4. Since the co-fine of an
angle is to the whole fine, as the whole fine to the fecant of
the fame angle; the difference of latitude G D is to the
length of the rhumb-line A G, as the whole fine to the
fecant of the angle of the rhumb.
3. The length of the rhumb-line, or of the fhip’s way in
the fame rhumb, A G, is to the latus mecodynamicum or
mecodymanic fide A B +1K + HF, as the whole fine to
the fine of the loxodromic angle GA P. -
Hence, 1. The rhumb, or angle of the rhumb, being
given; as alfo the fhip’s way in the fame rhumb-line A G,
the mecodynamic fide 1s had, by the rule of three, in miles,
z. e. in the fame meafure in which the length of the rhumb
is given. 2. In lixe manner, the mecodynamic fide AB
+ 1K + HF being given, as alfo the rhumb-line or fhip’s
way AG, the rhumb failed is found by the rule of three.
4. The change of latitude G D is to the mecodynamic
fide AB + IK + HF; as the whole fine to the tangent
of the loxodromic angle PA G or AI B.
Hence the rhumb or loxodromic angle P A G, and the
change of latitude G D being given, the mecodynamic fide
is found by the rule of three.
5- The mecodynamic fide AB + IK + HF isa mean
proportional between the aggregate of the rhumb A G, and
the change of latitude G D, and their difference.
Hence the change of latitude G D, and the rhumb-line
A G being given in miles, the mecodynamic fide is found
in the fame meafure.
6. The mecodynamic fide A B + IK + H F being given,
to find the longitude A D. :
Multiply the change or difference of latitude G D by fix,
which reduces it into parts of ten minutes each; divide the
mecodynamic fide by this product, and the quotient gives
the miles of longitude, anfwering to the difference of
latitude in ten minutes; reduce hele miles of longitude in
each parallel into differences of longitude from a loxodromic
table, and the fum of thefe is the longitude required.
7. If a fhip fail on a north or afouth rhumb, it defcribes
a meridian ; if on an eaft or weft rhumb, it defcribes either
the equinoGtial, or a parallel to it. Wolfi Elem. Math.
tom, iv. cap. II.
1. To find the rhumb between two places by calculation, or
geometrically, we have two canons, or proportions: the firft,
as the radius is to the co-fine of the middle latitude, fo
is the difference of longitude to the whole departure from
the meridian, in the courfe between the two places propofed.
7 The
R UU
The fecond, as the radius is to the half fum of the co-
fines of both latitudes, or (rather for geometrical fchemes)
as the diameter is to the fum of the co-fines of both latitudes,
fo is the difference of longitude to the departure from the
meridian. For the application of thefe principles, fee
SaILine.
RHUN, Puro, in Geography. See Pootaron.
RHUNE, a river which rifes in the New Foreft, and
runs into the Seine ; two miles N.W. of Nordheim.
RHUS, in Botany, an ancient name, {o2:, or fous, of the
Greeks, generally {uppofed of doubtful etymology. De
Theis deduces this, and many fimilar words, which have
a reference to a red colour, from the Celtic rhudd or
rub, red. Hence, according to him, we have not only
Rubia, but Rofa. The fruit of the original gov; of Diof-
corides, Rhus Coriaria, well juitifies this explanation. —
Linn. Gen. 146. Schreb. 197. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1477.
Mart. Mill. Di&t. v. 4. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree Sibth. v. 1.
206. Purfh 204. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.161. Jul. 360.
Lamarck Illuttr. t. 207. Gertn. t. 44.—Clafs and order,
Pentandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe? Linn. Terebin-
tacee, Juli.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, erect, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, ovate,
moderately fpreading. Stam. Filaments five, very fhort;
anthers {mall, fhorter than the corolla. Pf. Germen fu-
perior, roundifh, as large asthe corolla; ftyles fcarcely any ;
{tigmas three, heart-fhaped, fmall. Peric. Berry roundith,
of one cell. Seed folitary, roundifh, bony.
Obf Some fpecies have dioecicus flowers.
Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments.
Berry fuperior, with one feed.
An extenfive fhrubby or arborefcent genus, whofe {pecies
are found in North America, Japan, China, the Cape of
Good Hope, and a few in the fouth of Europe. Their
qualities are of a caultic nature, in certain inftances highly
virulent, whence fome fpecies have acquired the name of
Poifon-trees. Others are celebrated for producing valuable
refins for varnifh, Willdenow has colleéted together the
characters of thirty-three fpecies ; but many of them he had
not feen, particularly thofe found by Thunberg at the Cape.
The genus is divided into three fections, by the ftructure of
the leaves, of which we fhall give a few examples. Purth
has two fpecies not in Willdenow. Twenty-one are culti-
yated in the Englifh gardens. djiton.
Se&tion 1. Leaves pinnate. Thirteen {pecies, to which
the two defcribed by Purfh are to be added; fee here-
after.
R. Coriaria. Elm-leaved Sumach. Linn. Sp. Pl. 379.
Willd, n. 1, Ait.n.1. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 290, un-
publifhed. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 261. Ger. Em. 1474.
(Rhus; Matth. Valgr, v. 1. 195.)—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
oval, bluntly ferrated, downy beneath ; their common ftalk
winged in the upper part.—Native of the Levant. Fre-
quent in our gardens and fhrubberies, ever fince the days of
Gerarde, (though lefs common than the American R. typ)i-
num,) flowering in July, and retaining its denfe, branched,
ample, upright clu/lers, of deep-red, rough, coriaceous Jer-
ries, even till winter, after the leaves are fallen. The tree
is of a dwarf bufhy habit, with fpreading, afcending, round,
downy branches, of a foft fpongy texture. Leaves from
eight inches to a foot long, of about five pair of leaflets,
with an odd one; paler, downy, and veiny beneath. Flowers
greenifh, each witha large hoary germen, which becomes a
globular, crimfon, hairy berry, the fize of an Elder-berry.
The tafte of this fruit is very acid and aftringent. It has
Vor. XXX.
Petals five.
R HU
been ufed in Greece, from the mott remote antiquity, tor
tanning leather ; as have alfo the leaves, to the prefent day.
Both have likewife been employed in medicine, either for
their tonic or cooling qualities, nor do they appear to poffefs
any of the dangerous qualities for which {ome {pecies of this
genus are remarkable. Dr, Woodville’s figure of this plant
ought to have been quoted in Hort. Kew. as not cited by
Willdenow, and being moreover an Englifh publication.
R. javanicum. Java Sumach. Linn. Sp. Pl. 380.
Willd. n. 3. Ait.n. 3. Thunb. Jap. 121.— Leaves pinnate,
ovate, pointed, ferrated ; very downy and foft beneath.—
Native of Japan, flowering in September. Introduced into
the ftoves at Kew, by fir Jofeph Banks, in 1799. The
branches, and all the fla/ks, as well as the backs of the aves,
are clothed with extremely foft, denfe, velvet-like pubef-
cence, as is the upper fide of the foliage in fome degree.
Each /eaf bas three pair, with an odd one, of ftalked, ovate,
taper-pointed leaflets, ftrongly ferrated, and about an inch
and a half long. Flowers very {mall, in long, flender; lax,
fimple, axillary cluiters.
R. glabrum. Smooth Sumach. Linn. Sp. Pl. 380.
Willd.n. 4. Ait.n.4. Purfhn.2. Kalm’s Travels, v. 1.
66. 75. (R. virginicum, panicula {parfa, ramis patulis gla-
bris; Dill. Elth. 323. t. 243. f. 314.)— Leaves numeroufly
pinnate, lanceolate, ferrated, f{mooth on both fides ; glau-
cous beneath. —Common in North America, flowering in
July and Auguit, nor is it rare in our fhrubberies. Kalm
fays that negleéted corn-fields are foon overrun with this tree,
whofe roots fubfequently render ploughing the ground very
difficult. The daves confift of from eight to twelve pair of
longifh taper-pointed leaflets, {mooth and naked on both
fides. he fruit much refembles the firft {pecies in colour
and mode of growth, but is lefs hifpid. According to Mr.
Purfh, the R. elegans, Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 5. Willd. n. 5,
is only a variety of this, with dioecious fowers, and a more
{carlet-coloured /ruit.
R. viridiflorum. Green-flowered Sumach. | Lamarck
Did. v. 7.504. Purfhn.3. (R. canadenfe; Mill. Dic.
ed. 8. n. 5.)—Leayes numeroufly pinnate, ovato-lanceolate,
ferrated ; glaucous, and fomewhat downy beneath. Clui-
ters ereét.—On the edges of woods in dry funny fituations,
in Pennfylvania and Virginia, flowering in July and Auguit.
This is one of the fpecies added by Mr. Purfh, after Poiret
in Lamarck, but not without a doxbt of its being diftin&
from the la{t. We can find no important difference ina
{pecimen from the French gardens, except that the /eaffets
are rather more ovate. The flowers are yellowifh-green,
Leaves not always downy.
R. pumilum. Dwarf Poifon Sumach. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. 1. 182. Purfh n. 4.—Leaves numerouifly pin-
nate, oval, {carcely pointed, deeply topthed; downy be-
neath. Branches and footitalks downy. Fruit clothed with
velvet down.—Native of Upper Carolina, flowering in
July. The fem is not above a foot high. This fpecies is
unknown in our gardens. Mr. J. Lyon, who gathered it,
afflured Mr. Purth, that it was the moft poifonous of the ge-
nus, he having been ¢ poifoned all over his body, and lamed
for a confiderable time,’? in confequence of collecting the
feed.
R. Vernic. Varnifh Sumach. Linn. Sp. Pl. 380. Willd.
n. 6. Ait. n. 6. Purfhn. 5. Kalm’s Travels, v. 1. 68. 77.
(Toxicodendron, foliis alatis, fructu thomboide; Dill.
Elth. 390. t. 292. f. 377.)—Leaves pinnate, very {mooth,
as well as the branches ; leaflets elliptical, entire, fomewhat
abrupt, pointed. Clufters compound, lax. Flowers dioe-
cious. Fruit polifhed.—Found in low copfes, from Cana-
da to Carolina, fowering in July, Purfb, It has been in
Bb our
RHUS.
our gardens for acentury paft, but is notcommon. Kalm
{peaks of its dangerous effeéts, to various perfons, whofe
fin, and whole body, in fome cafes, are affected with inflam-
mation, {welling and pain, in confequence of their touching
any part of this tree, or expofing themfelves to its efluvia ;
whilft others, even of the fame family, can cut or handle it
with impunity. Kalm himfelf was generally unhurt by this
poifon, but on one occafion he did not entirely efcape its ef-
fects. The whole éree is very fmooth. Leaflets about fix
pair with an odd one. Berries the fize of a pea, white and
remarkably polifhed, both in a frefh and dry itate. Miller
contended that this was the fame with the true Varnifh-tree
of Japan, defcribed in Kempfer’s Am. Exot. 791. t. 792 5
which opinion was combatted by Ellis, inthe Philofophical
Tranfa€tions, n. 112. We believe the latter to be in the
right. The two trees, indeed, feem very nearly akin, but
the /eaflets in Keempfer’s plate are broader than thofe of the
American plant, nor does his defcription of the fruit exa€tly
anfwer. Yet Thunberg calls the Japanefe plant Rhus Ver-
nix. Nothing feems to be known in America, as to the
tree in queftion affording any varnifh, though that point is
certainly worth enquiry, confidering its near relationfhip, at
leaft, to one whofe produce is fo valuable. Kzempfer {peaks
of the poifonous effects of the effluvia of his varnifli-tree,
like what we have related of the other.
Sedtion 2. Leaves ternate or quinate. Eighteen {pecies.
R. Toxicodendron. Trailing Poifon-oak, or Sumach.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 381. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n.11. Purfh n. 7.
(Edera trifolia canadenfis ; Cornut. Canad. 96. t. 97. Bar-
rel. Ic. t. 228.) @. R. radicans; Linn. Sp. Pl. 381.
Willd. n. 16. Ait.n. 10. Kalm’s Travels, v. 1. 67.177.
(Toxicodendron triphyllim glabrum ; Duham. Arb. v. 2.
341. t. 98.)—Leaves ternate; leaflets ftalked, ovate, angu-
lar, cut, or crenate. Stem creeping. —Common in woods,
fields, and hedges, from Canada to Georgia, flowering in
June and July. Pur/h. We readily concur with Mr. Purth,
in confidering thefe two Linnican {pecies as mere varieties.
The /eaves when young are more downy beneath, in fome
inftances than in others; but that charaéter, as well as their
notches, is certainly variable. We fpeak with confidence on
this fubje&t, having been at no {mall trouble formerly, to de-
termine which was the plant recommended in paralytic and
rheumatic complaints, by fome eminent phyficians in Eng-
tand and France ; and after much examination, finding no
certain or permanent difference between the two.
{peaks of the poifonous qualities of the prefent {pecies, as
‘like thofe of R. Vernix; but it had no effe& on him, even
when he made the rafh experiment of dropping the juice into
his eye. The fem never grows ereét, but when it meets with
fupport, will climb, like ivy, to the tops of the loftieft trees.
The /eaflets ave of a broad, ovate, or rhomboidal form,
pointed, always more or lefs downy, at leaft about the ribs,
and fometimes quite covered with foft down at the back ;
their margin occafionally almoft entire, but moft generally,
in the downy variety, ftrongly crenate, cut, or lobed.
lowers in compound axillary clufters, greenifh, dioecious.
Berries white. Both varieties have long been known in our
gardens, but have nothing to recommend them to general
culture, even were they unexceptionable as to danger.
R. tomentofum. Woolly-leaved Cape Sumach. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 382. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 15. (Vitex trifolia
minor indica ferrata; Commel. Hort. v. 1.179. t. 92-)—
Leaves ternate; leaflets ftalked, rhomboid, fomewhat angu-
lar ; white and very downy beneath.—Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. It was introduced very early by the Dutch,
into the European gardens, but we know not whether it has
been preferved, or noticed, though an extremely handfome
5
Kalm |
evergreen fhrub, the backs of whofe aves are elegantly
white and downy, with reddifh veins. We know nothing of
the Mowers or fruit. Commelin miltook this plant for the
Eatt Indian Vitex trifolia.
Several other three-leaved fpecies of Réus, from the
Cape, elegant-evergreen fhining-leaved fhrubs, are cultivated
in our more curious colleétions, as may be feen in Aiton.
We fubjoin one fpecies to this fection, which Willdenow has
not admitted here.
R. pentaphyllum. Five-leaved Morocco Sumach. Def-
font. Atlant. v. 1. 267. t.77. (Rhamnus pentaphyllus ;
Jacq. Obf. fafe. 2.17. Linn. Syift. Veg. ed. 14. 233.
R. ficulus; Syit. Nat.ed. 12. v. 3. 229. R. ficulus penta-
phyllos ; Bocce. Sic. 43. t. 21.)}— Leaves ternate or quinate ;
leaflets Jinear-lanceolate, dilated upwards, obtufe, nearly
fmooth ; cut .or undivided. Stem thorny.—Native of un-
cultivated hills in Morocco and Sicily. A thorny /hrub, or
fmall free, with numerous, round, fmooth, grey branches.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, digitate, of from three to five
narrow-wedge-fhaped, obtufe /eaflets, above an inch long ;
fomewhat downy when young; either quite entire, or un-
equally toothed, fometimes pinnatifid. //owers pale yellow,
in axillary compound clutters, dioecious. Berry red, re-
fembling hawthorn, but with three tubercles at the top ; its
flavour fhghtly acid, not unpleafant.. The dark is ufed for
tanning, and for dyeing red. Desfont.
Section 3. Leaves fimple. Two f{pecies.
R. Cotinus. Venice Sumach, or Coccygria. Linn. Sp,
PL 383... Walld..n.32.4¢;Ast. n. 24.4 Jacq. Auitr. t.210,
Coggygria Theophraiti, and Cotinus coriarius Plinii ;
Ger. Em. 1476. Cotinus; Duham. Arb. vy. 1. t. 78.) —
Leaves fimple, obovate, or orbicular.—Native of Auftria,
Switzerland, Italy, and Grecce, in hilly fituations. Com-
mon with usin plantations, for the fake of the very fingular
and ornamental appearance of its elongated feathery fruit-
ftalks. The flem is bufhy, the height of aman. Leaves
fmooth, orbicular, entire. //owers greenifh, fmall, in ter-
minal compound panicles. Fruit gibbous. The /eaves and
Jralks, when bruifed, have ai: aromatic but pungent and
acid fcent. ‘The whole plant is ufed for tanning in Italy,
and called Scotino ; fee Smith’s Tour. The wood is much
ufed by the modern Athenians, according to Dr. Sibthorp,
for dyeing wocl of amolt beautiful and rich yellow.
R. atrum. Black Sumach. Forft. Prodr. 23. Willd.
n. 33.—‘ Leaves fimple, ovate-oblong. Flowers polyga-
mous.’’?—Found by Forfter in New Caledonia. A_/brub or
tree. We know nothing more of this fpecies, the only one,
except Cotinus, with fimple ‘eaves.
Ruus, in Gardening, contains plants of the tree and
fhrub kinds, fumach and toxicodendron ; of which the fpe-
cies cultivated are, the elm-leaved fumach (R. coriaria) ;
tke ftag’s-horn Virginian fumach ‘R. typhinum) ; the fearlet
fumach (R. glabrum) ; the Carolina fumach (R. elegans) ;
the lentifcus-leaved fumach (R. copallinum) ; the Venice
fumach (R. cotinus); the trailing poifon-oak, or fumach
(R. toxicodendron) ; the varnifhfumach (R. vernix) 5 the
rooting poifon-oak, or fumach (R. radicans) ; the woolly-
leaved fumach (R. tomentofum) ; the narrow-leaved fumach
(R. anguftifolium) ; and the fhining-leaved fumach (R. lu-
cidum).
The branches in the firft fort are ufed inftead of oak bark
for tanning leather, and it is faid that Turkey leather is all
tanned with this fhrub.
In the third fort there are feveral varieties 3 as the New
England fumach, in which the ftem is ftronger, and sifes
higher than that of the fecond fort ; the branches {pread
more horizontally, they are not quite fo downy, and the
down
RHUS.
down is of a brownifh colour; the leaves are compofed of
many more pairs of leaflets, and are fmooth on both fides :
the flowers are difpofed in loofe panicles, and are of an her-
baceous colour. The Canada fmooth red fumach, which
has fmooth branches of a purple colour, covered with a
grey pounce ; the leaves are compofed of feven or eight
pairs of leaflets, which are four inches and a half long, and
one inch broad in the middle, terminating in acute points,
and a little ferrate, of a lucid green on their upper furface,
but hoary on their under, and {mooth: panicle large, com-
pofed of feveral {maller, each on feparate footftalks, the
whole covered with a grey pounce ; the flowers are of a deep
red colour.
In the fixth fort the root is ufed for dyeing: the leaves
and young branches dye black; and the bark is ufed for
tanning leather.
In the eighth fpecies Martyn fays, that the milky juice
{tains linen a dark brown. The whole fhrub is, in a high
degree, poifonous ; and the poifon is communicated by touch-
ing or {melling any part of it.
The ninth {pecies having, in common with ivy, the qua-
lity of not rifing without the fupport of a wall, tree, or
hedge, itis calledin fome parts of America creeping ivy. It
will climb to the top of high trees in woods, the branches
every where throwing out fibres that penetrate the trunk.
When the ftem is cut, it emits a pale brown fap of a dif-
agreeable {cent, and fo fharp, that letters or marks made upon
linen with it cannot be got out again, but grow blacker the
moreitis wafhed. Like rhus vernix it is poifonous to fome
perfons, but in a lefs degree. alm relates, that of two
lifters, one could manage the tree without being affeéted by
its venom, whilft the other felt its exhalations as foon as fhe
came within a yard of it, or even when fhe ftood to leeward
of it, at a greater diftance ; that it had not the leaft effe@
upon him, though he had made many experiments upon him-
felf, and once the juice fquirted into his eye; but that on
another perfon’s hand, which he had covered very thick with
it, the fkin, a few hours after, became as hard as a piece of
tanned leather, and peeled off afterwards in f{cales.
There is a variety with a ftraight and {tout trunk, having
a brownifh afh-coloured bark : the leaves {mooth, veined,
bright green above, fomewhat paler underneath, pendulous,
and fomewhat bent back: in the male plant the leaves are
rather wider and longer, and are drawn more to a point ; in
the female they are fhorter and blunter, and the petioles are
reddifh, whereas in the others they are green: the flowers
axillary, in racemes; the males larger, whitifh-yellow ; the
females {maller, herbaceous, on the germ inftead of the ftyle
there are two, fometimes three black dots: fruits round,
the fize and form of coriander feeds, ftreaked with five
lines, remaining on the tree till new flowers come out ; when
the outer rind comes off, and a cretaceous fubftance comes
into view, in which an afh-coloured, hard, horny feed is in-
volved, flightly divided on the upper part, and fomewhat
kidney-fhaped.
Method of Culture.—The firlt nine forts of thefe plants
are capable of being raifed by feeds and layers, and fome of
them alfo by fuckers, or their rooting branches. In the
firft method fuch of them as do not fend up fuckers fhould
have the feed procured from abroad, and fown in pots of a
large fize, or in beds of light mould, being covered in about
the depth of half an inch in the autumn. Thofe in pots
fhould be proteéted from the frofts anni the winter, and if
plunged in a moderate hot-bed in the early pring, they will
be rendered more forward, letting the plants have a free air
when they appear. Thofe in the open ground often remain
long before they vegetate; they fhould be kept free from
weeds, be well watered in fummer, and have the proteétion
of mats the firft winter. When the plants have had the
growth of a year or two, they may be planted out in nur-
fery-rows till fit to be fet out in the places where they are to
remain. The potted plants fhould have the protection of
the frame the fecond winter, air being freely admitted in mild
weather ; and in the {pring following they may be fhaken out
of the pots without injuring the roots, and be fet out in nur-
fery-rows, three feet apart, and a foot diftant in the rows,
where they may remain two years, and then be planted out
where they are to remain.
Such forts as have young branches fufficiently low, may
have them laid down in the flit method ; when they will
mottly have ftricken root in the courfe of a year, and may
be taken off and planted out where they are to remain, or in
the nurfery.
And all thofe forts that fend up fuckers from the roots
fhould have them taken up during the winter, and planted
out in nurfery rows, in the manner of the feedlings, till of a
proper growth to be planted out.
The feventh and ninth forts may likewife be increafed by
their trailing branches, which have ftricken root as they
reft on the ground, which fhould be taken up with their
roots entire in the autumn, winter, or in early {pring, and
be planted out, either where they are to remain, or in nur-
fery rows, till of fufficient growth for the purpofe they are
intended.
The firft and fourth forts, being the moft tender, require
the moft fheltered fituations.
Moft of thefe plants afford a milky juice, which is ex-
tremely acrid and corrofive.
The three laft forts may be raifed by cuttings and layers
with great facility. In the firft method, the cuttings of
the young fhoots fhould be planted out in pots of light
frefh mould, in the {pring aud early fummer months, plung-
ing them in a moderate hot-bed, where they readily ftrike
root, being occafionallly watered and fhaded: and when
they have formed good roots, they may be potted off into
feparate pots. And in the latter mode, any of the young
wood may be laid down in the ufual manner, in the early
fpring, when by the autumn they will moitly have ftricken
good root, and may be taken off, and be potted out the
fame way as the cuttings.
All the firft nine forts have a fine effe& in mixture with
other deciduous fhrubby plants, in the borders, clumps, and
other parts of pleafure grounds, and the three laft afford va-
riety among other potted greenhoufe plants of the lefs ten-
der kinds.
Ruus Cobbe, in Botany. See ScuMIDELtIA.
Ruus, in the Materia Medica. 'This genus comprehends
a variety of fpecies, which are known to be poifonous ; but
the rhus coriaria, or elm-leaved fumach, is perfeétly inno-
cent, and its leaves have been ufed occafionally for culinary
purpofes. Its medicinal qualities are owing to its ftypticity
or aftringency, which property renders it ufeful in dyeing,
and alfo in tanning of leather, to which purpofe it was ap-
plied in the time of Diofcorides. The leaves and berries
have been ufed in medicine ; but the leaves are more aftrin-
gent and tonic, and have been commonly employed in com-
plaints which indicate remedies of this clafs. The berries,
which are of a red and comprefled figure, contain a pulpy
matter, in which is lodged a brown, hard, oval feed, mani-
felting a confiderable degree of aftringency. The pulp,
even when dry, is gratefully acid, and has been found to
contain an eflential {alt fimilar to that of wood-forrel, or
erhaps more nearly allied to cryftals of tartar. An infu-
fion’ of the dry fruit is not blackened by a folution of ion,
Bb 2 fe
RHU
{o that it appears to be deftitute of aflringency ; but its
acidity is very grateful, and hence the French have called it
« Je vinaigrier.”’ Like many other acid fruits, thefe berries,
which in eaftern countries are ufed as a pickle, may be ad-
vantageoufly taken to allay febrile heat, and to correct
bilious putrefcency. The rhus towicodendron and radicans
have of late been recommended in paralytic affections; the
latter by M. Frefnoi, and the former by Dr. Alderfon of
Hull: but the cafes in which thefe virulent plants were em-
_ployed are but few and indecifive. They excite, however,
a fenfe of heat and pricking, and irregular twitches in the
affeGted limbs. It is fuggeited that fome advantage has
been derived from their ufe in herpetic eruptions. The
dofe of the powdered leaves may be gr. fs, given twice or
thrice a day, and gradually increafed to grs. iv, in the form
ofa bolus. The ftems of the toxicodendron, when cut or
broken, exude a milky juice, which inflames the fkin where-
ever it touckes, and becomes black when it is expofed for a
fhort time to the aétion of atmofpheric air. This juice
forms an indelible black ftain on linen cloth, and is ufed in
Japan, where it is a native, as a varnifh. (Phil. Tranf.
vol. xlix. p. 158. See Varnisu.) ‘The leaves are in-
odorous, and their tafte is mawkifh and fubacrid. Their
virtues are completely extraéted by water, and partially by
alcohol. The aqueous infufion reddens litmus paper ; pre-
cipitates the folution of iron black, that of nitrate of filver
brown, and throws down a precipitate with gelatine. Hence
it contains gallic acid and tannin; but its effects chiefly de-
pend on anarcotic principle. Woodv. Med. Bot. Thom-
fon’s Lond. Difp. See Sumacu and ToxicopENDRON.
RHUSELNIUM, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the ranunculus.
RHUSTICANA, or Rusticana, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Hifpania, in the interior of Lufitania, between
Talebriga and Mendeculia. Ptolemy.
RHUSUNCORA, or Rusucurnrvum, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Cefarienfis. Ptolemy. It had the title of a
Roman colony.
RHUTHYN, or Ruruiy, in Geography, a borough
and market-town in the cwmwd of Llannerch, cantref of
Dyffryn-Clwyd, (now called the hundred of Rhuthyn,)
county of Denbigh, North Wales, is fituated on the flope
of a confiderable hill, which rifes near the centre of the de-
lightful vale of the Clwyd, at the diftance of 205 miles
N.W. from London. This town, from the etymology of
its name, appears to have derived its origin from a caitle,
called Rhyddin, or the red fortrefs, in allufion to the colour
of the ftone of which it is conftruéted. Although there
was probably a walled fortrefs here anterior to the reign of
king Edward I., yet the laft caftle erefted here was moft
probably by this monarch. ‘Camden, however, afligns its
origin, as well as the town, to a baron named Roger Gray.
Sts hiftory affords only a few events worthy of notice. In
the year 1400 Owen Glyndwr attempted to take it by af-
faalt, but was unfuccefstul ; fo that after pillaging the in-
habitants, and fetting fire to the town, he retreated pre-
cipitately to the mountains. In the reign of king Charles I.
it was garrifoned in the royal caufe, till about the middle
of April, A.D. 1646, when it was compelled to furrender,
after having fuftained a fiege of two months. Not long
fubfequent to that period, it was difmantled by order of
parliament, and has fince gradually fallen into its prefent
ruinous ftate; only a few fragments of walls remaining to
mark its {cite and charaCter.
Rhuthyn is defcribed as having been formerly a populous
town, and as pofleffing the beft market of any in the vale.
‘This pre-eminence, however, is now loft; though it is yet
Ro U
a refpectable and flourithing place, containing, according te
the parliamentary reports of 1811, 271 houfes, and a po-
pulation of 1292 perfons. The government is velted in two
aldermen and fixteen common council-men, chofen annually
in the lord’s court. The number of burgefles is unlimited.
Rhuthyn is a borough both by prefcription and by charter,
and joins with Denbigh in returning a reprefentative to the
national fenate. It has two markets, weekly ; one on Satur-
day for provifions, and another on Monday for corn, &c. ;
befides which, there are fix annual fairs. The lordfhip of
Rhuthyn, a manorial right belonging to the Middleton
family of Chirk-Caftle, comprifes three comots, viz. Co-
leigon, Dogfeilyn, and Llannerch; and is diftin& with
re{pe&t to government from the hundred, the lord appoint-
ing a fteward to it. Here is a free-fchool of equal, if not
greater, celebrity than any other in North Wales. It was
founded and endowed by Gabriel Goodman, D.D., who
was dean of Weftmintfter in the reign of queen Elizabeth.
His defcendant, Godfrey Goodman, was likewife a bene-
factor to the town. From this fchool young men are fome-
times admitted into orders, without having graduated at
any univerfity. It has two matterfhips, the head one of
which is in the gift of Jefus college, Oxford. The town-
hall-is fituated near the market-place, and is fitted up with
apartments for holding the hundred courts, the county
affizes, and the quarter feffions ; which laft are held altes-
nately here and at Denbigh. The new gaol is a handfome
and commodious building, ereéted according to defigns fur-
nifhed by Mr. Jofeph Turner. The debtors’ apartments
and thofe of the felons are divided by a lofty wall ; and both
have f{pacious yards, with baths, attached to them. The
church is a large ftru€ture of confiderable antiquity. It
was originally conventual, having been attached to a re-
ligious houfe of the order of monks denominated Bon-
hommes. In the year 1310, however, it was made col-
legiate by John de Gray, who placed in it a chapter of
feven regular canons, and conferred upon them confiderable
landed poffefflions, and numerous privileges. The apart-
ments for the canons were connected with the church by a
cloifter, of which a portion is {till remaining, converted into
a refidence for the warden of an hofpital, which was founded
and endowed-by Gabriel Goodman, the founder of the free-
{chool, as an afylum for twelve decayed houfekeepers, viz.
ten men andtwo women. The warden is ew officio rector of
the parifh of Rhuthyn, and has, befides, the government of
the free-{chool. The interior of the church is much ad-
mired, and particularly its roof, which is a very curious
piece of workmanfhip, confifting of {mall {quares, adorned
with various fculptures, and bearing the names of the dif-
ferent workmen employed in their formation. The col-
legiate eftablifhment here was diffolved at the period of the
general fuppreflion, when its lands were granted to William
Winlove and Richard Fyld. ‘There are no remarkable
monuments in this church, excepting that of Dr. Gabriel
Goodman, which difplays a buit of the deceafed, in marble.
The doétor was a native of Rhuthyn, where he was born
in 1583. He was fucceffively advanced to be canon of
Windfor, dean of Rochetfter, and bifhop of Gloucefter.
See Fuller’s Church Hiftory, book xi. Worthies, and
Chalmer’s General Biographical Ditionary.
The vicinity of Rhuthyn prefents fome objects worthy of
notice. At a fhort diftance from the town is the neat vil-
lage of Llanrhydd, which is noted for the fine {culptural
monuments and decorations in its church. Near this village
is the Bathafarn, anciently a feat belonging -to the lord
Gray; and more to the fouth-weft lie Pool-Park and
Bachymbyd, both feats of the lord Bagot. Stretching to-
wards
RU Y
wards the north is the vale of Clwyd, which is defervedly
celebrated by all travellers. Commencing at Rhuthyn, it
extends not lefs than twenty-four miles in length, and from
fix to eight in breadth, exhibiting a rich fcene cf cultivation,
happily blended with many of thofe objeéts which conttitute
the picturefque. On a imall eminence in this vale ftands
. the village of Llan-Rhaiadar ; and near it is a well, called
Ffynnon Ddyfnog, which is much efteemed by the inha-
bitants for its medicinal quality in the cure of rheumatifm.
The church here is an elegant ftructure in the pointed ityle,
and has a beautiful eaft window, ornamented with ftained
glafs. The fubject is the root of Jefle, who is reprefented
as extended upon his back, with the genealogical tree iffuing
from his loins, comprifing all the kings of Ifrael and Judah,
down to the birth of Chrift. Above is an outline rofe, in-
cluding an eye furrounded with a radiance, and another rofe
of Lancafter to correfpond ; which laft emblem indicates
that the work was executed after the acceffion of Henry VII.
to the throne. Here is a fplendid but taftelefs monument
to the memory of Maurice Jones, efq., who founded an
alms-houfe in this parifh, A.D. 1720; and in the church-
yard is a ftriking inftance of genealogical vanity, in an in-
fe to the memory of John ap Robert, whofe pedigree
is traced up to Cadel, king of Powis. Carlifle’s Topo-
graphical Dictionary of Wales, gto. 1813. A Tour in
South Wales, by the Rev. W. Bingley, Svo. 1801. Pen-
nant’s Tour through Wales, 1770, 2 vols. 4to.
RHYAS, from js», to flow, in Surgery. See Rucas.
RHYDDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleltine,
belonging to the Arabs, according to Jofephus.
RHYME, Rue, Ryme, or Rime, in Poetry, the fimilar
found or cadence and termination of two words which end
two verfes, &c.
Or, rhyme is a fimilitude of found between the laft
fyllable or fyllables of one verfe, and the laft fyllable or
fyllables of a verfe fucceeding either immediately, or at a
diftance of two or three lines.
Rhyme is a modern invention, and the produ& of a
Gothic age: Milton calls it the modern bondage. Yet fome
authors will have it, that the Englifh, French, &c. borrow
their rhyme from the Greeks and Latins. The Greek
orators, they fay, who endeavoured to tickle the ears of
the people, affected a certain cadence of periods, which
ended alike, and called them opsozrsAw7x. The Latins,
who imitated them, called thefe chiming terminations, /imi-
liter dsfinentia.
This affectation increafed as the Latin tongue declined ;
fo that, in the later Latin writers, fcarcely any thing is more
common than rhyming periods.
The French, and from them the Englith, &c. adopted
this cadence of rhyme, which feemed to them more pretty
and agreeable than the metrical verfes of the Greek and
Roman poets.
This kind of Latin poetry in rhyme was much in vogue
in the twelfth century ; and the verfes thus running were
called nine verfes, for what reafon Camden owns he
does not know (for a lion’s tail, fays he, does not anfwer
to the middle parts, as thefe verfes do); but, doubtlefs,
they had their name from a French monk of St. Victor at
Marfeilles, about the year 1135, called Leoninus, who firft
compofed them with fuccefs, and of whom we have feveral
pieces in them remaining, addreffed to pope Adrian IV.
and Alexander III. It is certain, however, (fays Dr.
T. Warton, Hift. of Englifh Poetry, vol. i.) that rhymed
Latin verfes were in ufe at a much earlier period. Pellou-
tier (Mem. fur la Lang. Celt. part i. vol. i. ch. 12.) has
given a very early fpecimen of Latin rhymes, occurring in
“and almoft only Latin poet of his time in France.
Ru Y
the beginning of the feventh century. Latin rhymes feem
to have lseen firft ufed in the church hymns, but Leonine
verfes are properly the Roman hexameters or pentameters
rhymed, and it is not improbable, that they had their name
from the above-mentioned monk, who was the mot popular,
He
wrote many Latin pieces not in rhyme, and in a good ftyle
of Latin verfification. The early French troubadours men-
tion a fort of rhyme in their vernacular poetry partly diftin-
guifhed from the common fpecies, which they call Leonine
or Leonime.
Camden has given us a colleGtion ef Latin rhymes of
our ancient Englifh writers ; among whom, Walter de
Mapes, archdeacon of Oxford, in the time of king
Henry II. makes a principal figure, efpecially for two
pieces, the one in praife of wine beginning,
«© Mihi eft propofitum in taberna mori,
Vinum fit appofitum morientis ori ;
Ut dicant, cum venerint, angelorum chori,
Deus {it propitius huic potatori.”
The other againft the pope, for forbidding the clergy to
have wives, beginning,
«* Prifciani regula penitus caflatur,
Sacerdos per hic et Aec olim declinatur ;
Sed per dic folummodo nunc articulatur,
Cum per noitrum prefulum sec amoveatur.”’
Since the reltoration of learning in the fixteenth century,
attempts have been made to banifh rhyme out of the
modern poetry, and to fettle the Englifh and French
verfes on the footing of the ancient Greek and Latin ones,
by fixing the quantities of the fyllables, and trufting wholly
to thofe, and to the numbers or meafure.
This Milton has done, with great fuccefs, in his Paradife
Loft, and other pieces; and after him Philips, Addifon,
and fome others. Verfes of this kind we call blank verfes.
See VERSE.
The French have attempted the fame, but not with the
fame fuccefs. Jodelet made the firft effay, and after him
Pafquier ; but they both failed. Pafferat and Rapin fol-
lowed them, and failed, like them. Their hexameter and
Sapphic verfes were neither imitated nor approved; and the
cadence of rhyme was generally preferred to quantity, or
the ufe of long and fhort fyllables. Des Portes, likewife,
made fome eflays of verfes, conitruéted of long and fhort
lines, without rhyme, but the attempt only ferved to con-
vince the world, that this kind of meafure is inconfiitent
with the genius of the French tongue.
To fucceed in fuch kind of verfes, there muft be a
liberty of varying the order of the words, or of changing
their fituation, as may beft fuit the occafions of the poet ;
of making the fubftantive either go before or follow after
the verb, as the verfe requires, &c. Now none of the
modern tongues will admit of fuch an arbitrary fituation
of the words, equally with the ancients; yet none will
allow this more than the Englith, nor any lefs than the
French.
The principal defe& in rhyme is the full clofe which it
forces upon the ear at the end of every couplet ; and in
this refpe@ it is far inferior to blank verfe ; (which fee.)
Befides, the conitraint and ftri€t regularity of rhyme are
unfavourable to the fublime, or to the highly pathetic
ftrain.
An epic poem, or a tragedy, would be fettered and de-
graded by it. It is beft adapted to compofitions of a tem-
perate ftrain, where no particular vehemence is required m
3 the
RHY
the fentiments, nor great fublimity in the ftyle; fuch as
pattorals, elegies, epiltles, fatires, &e. To thefe it com-
municates that degree of elevation, which is proper for them,
and, without any other affiftance, fufficiently diftinguifhes
the ftyle from profe. He who fhould write fuch poems
in blank verfe, would render his work harfh and unpleafing.
In order to fupport a poetical ftyle, he would be obliged to
affe&t a pomp of language unfuitable to the fubje&t. Dr.
Blair farther obferves, that though he coincides in opinion
with thofe, who think that rhyme finds its proper place in
the middle, but not in the higher regions, of poetry, can
by no means join in the invectives which fome have poured
out againft it, as if it were a mere jingling of founds, fit
only for children, and owing to nothing but the corruption
of tafte in the monkifh ages. Rhyme might indeed be
barbarous in Latin or Greek verfe, becaufe thefe languages,
by the fonoroufnefs of their words, by their liberty of tran{-
pofition and inverfion, by their fixed quantities and mufical
pronunciation, could earry on the melody of verfe without
its aid. But it does not follow, that it muft, therefore, be
barbarous in the Englifh language, which is deftitute of
thefe advantages. Rhyme was barbarous in Latin; and
an attempt to conftruct Englifh verfes, after the form of
hexameters and pentameters, and Sapphics, is as barbarous
among us. It is not true, that rhyme is merely a monkifh
invention. On the contrary, it has obtained under different
forms in the ‘verfification of moft known nations. It is
found in the ancient poetry of the northern nations of
Europe; and it is faid to be found among the Arabs,
the Perfians, the Indians, and the Americans. This fhews,
that there is fomething in the return of fimilar founds,
which is grateful to the ears of the greateft part of mankind.
And if any one, after reading Mr. Pope’s Rape of the
Lock, or Eloifa to Abelard, fhall not admit our rhyme,
with all its varieties of paufes, to carry both elegance and
fweetnefs of found, his ear muft be pronounced to be of a
very peculiar kind. ; ‘
The prefent form of our Englifh heroic rhyme in
couplets is a modern fpecies of verfification. The meafure
generally ufed in the days of queen Elizabeth, king James,
and king Charles I., was the {tanza of eight lines, fuch as
Spencer employs, borrowed from the Italian; a meafure
very conftrained and artificial. Waller was the firft who
brought couplets into vogue; and Dryden afterwards
eftablithed the ufage. Waller firft fmoothed our verfe ;
Dryden perfected it. Mr. Pope’s verfification has a pecu-
liar charaGter. It is flowing and {mooth in the higheit de-
gree; far more laboured and correct than that of any who
went before him. He introduced one confiderable change
into heroic verfe, by totally throwing afide the triplets,
or three lines rhyming together, in which Mr. Dryden
abounded. Dryden’s vertification, however, has great
merit ; and, like all his productions, has much fpirit mixed
with careleflnefs. If not fo {mooth and correét as Pope’s,
it is however more varied and eafy. He fubjecis himfelf
lefs to the rule of clofing the fenfe with the couplet, and
frequently takes the liberty of making his couplets run
into one another, with fomewhat of the freedom of blank
verfe. Blair’s Le@. vol. ii. See VERsE.
Rhymes are eitheir fingle, or double, or triple, though the
two laft are now much difufed.
RuyMes, Single, are divided into perfeét or whole rhymes,
and imperfe& or half rhymes. 4 whole or perfect rhyme is
where there is a fimilitude of found without any difference ;
or where a thorough identity of found appears in the pro-
nunciation of the two fyllables, notwithitanding that there
aay be fome difference in the orthography. 4 half or im-
R HY
perfed rhyme is where there is a fimilitude, with a differ-
ence either in refpe€t of the pronunciation, or the ortho-
graphy, but chiefly the former.
Ruyme, the feminine, is that where the laft fyllable of
the rhyme ends with an e mute, or quiefcent, as in dove,
belle, &c.
Ruynes, Mafculine, are thofe of all other words.
Menage obferves, that the mafculine rhymes clofe the
periods better; but the feminines, being the fofter and
more languifhing, end more agreeably, efpecially in mourn-
ful fubjects.
Ruymes, Double, by the French called rich rhymes, are
thofe where the two words terminate: alike through the
whole two laft fyllables, as /guabble and rabble, &c.
Ruymes, Plain, are thofe where the two rhyming verfes
fucceed immediately to each other.
Ruymrs, Cro/s, are thofe where the verfes are fo dif-
pofed, as that the firft rhymes with the third, and the
fecond with the fourth, &c.
Ruymes, Affonant. See Assonant.
RHYMNICI Montzs, in Ancient Geography, moun-
tains of Scythia, on this fide of Imaus, in which the river
Rhymnus had its fource. The mouth of this river was in
the Cafpian fea, between that of the river Rha and that of
the river Dais.
RHYNBECK, or Rutyseck, in Geography, a pott-
town of America, in Dutchefs county, New York, on the
E. fide of Hudfon’s river, oppofite to Kingfton ; 103 miles
N. of New York. The townfhip is bounded S. by Clinton,
and N. by Beckman. A curious cavern has been dif-
covered, in 1792, at a place in this town, called by the
Indians Sepafcot.
RHYNCHA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Greece, in the ifle of Eubcea. Steph. Byz.
RHYNCHOSPORA, in Botany, fo called from juyxo-,
a beak, and cropx, feed; becaufe the permanent bafe of the
ftyle forms a beak to the feed.—Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 229.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 229. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. I. 127.—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Calamaria, Linn. —Cyperacee, Brown.
Eff. Ch. Glumes chaffy ; the lower ones empty. Co-
rolla none. Seed one, crowned with the hardened perma-
nent ftyle, whofe bafe is as broad as the feed.
Vahl, the founder of this genus, defcribes nineteen fpecies,
among which are Schoenus albus and fufews of Linneus, and
Sm. Fl. Brit. Mr. Brown adopts it, adding to the cha-
racter, that “the feed is accompanied at its bafe by toothed
briftles, fhorter than the glumes.’? He remarks, that it
differs from Dicuromena, (fee that article,) in having
thefe briftles. This writer defines three New Holland
{pecies, one the R. aurea of Vahl, and other two non-~
‘defcripts. The inflorefcence is faid to be very various,
fome {pecies having the flowers panicled, whilft in others
they are either corymbofe, or capitate. We do not fee
the neceflity of eftablifhing this genus; at leaft, as it con-
cerns the Britifh Flora, we beg leave to fufpend our
opinion. See ScHOENUS.
RHYNCOSIA, from juyxor, a beak, becaufe the keel
terminates in a long fharp point.—Loureir. Cochin. 460.
Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord. Papi-
lionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jul.
Eff. Ch. Corolla papilicnaceous. Keel rhomboid, beaked.
Legume membranous, with two feeds.
1. R. voludilis.—Found wild near Canton in China.
Stem herbaceous, round, twining. Leaves ternate, roundifh,
downy. Floqwer-flalks axillary, in pairs, many-flowered.
Calyx two-lipped. Corolla yellow. Seeds black and thining.
Tn
he H.Y
Tn fo difficult a tribe, we dare not anfwer for the per-
manency of this genus, not having feen a {pecimen. ‘The
plant may poflibly be known to botanifts, under fome other
name and genus.
RHYNCOTHECA, from juyxoc, @ beak, and Snxn a
capfule, on account of its beaked or pointed feed-veffel. De
Théis Gloflaire de Botanique, 402. Fl. Peruv. 71.
RHYNDACUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of
-\fiatic Myfia, according to Pomponius Mela, who places
its fource in mount Olympus. According to Pliny it had
been denominated Lycus.—Alfo, a town of Afia, between
Phrygia and the Hellefpont. Steph. Byz.
RHYNE, in Bofany, a name uled by fome authors for
the camphor tree.
RHYP, Ripz, or Rhypes, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Peloponnefus, in Achaia, the territory of which was
denominated Rhypidis. According to Strabo it was N. of
Helice, and at fome diftance from the coatts of the gulf of
Corinth. Paufanias fays that in his time they could only
perceive the ruins of Rhypz, 30 miles from Agium.
Homer calls this town Répe.
RHYPARA, an ifland fituated near that of Samos.
Pliny.
RHYPTICS, Ruterics, ‘Purse, in Medicine, deter-
gent remedies, or cleanfers. See DETERGENT.
RHYSSADIUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Africa, in Lybia interior, in which Ptolemy places the
fource ofthe river Stachir.
RHYSTROM, in Geography, a river of Holftein,
which runs into the Elbe at Gluckitadt.
RHYTHM, Ruyrumus, ‘Pu9uc:, in Mufic, the va-
riety in the movement, as to the quicknefs or flownefs, and
length and fhortnefs, of the notes.
Or the rhythmus may be defined, more generally, the
proportion which the parts of a motion bear to each other.
In ancient poetry rhyth or rhythm denotes the meafure
of the feet, or the number and combination of long and
fhort fyllables, called alfo metre and quantity.
A continued motion in every organized body that is ca-
pable of rhythm, is fufceptible of fome kind of meatfure.
This meafure marks the feveral parts of motion, and enables
us to judge of their proportions. It is to point out thefe
proportions that the Greeks, among many other terms, have
made ufe of jv90;, rhythm, which they have applied to
different purpofes. They have not only exprefled by it the
kind of cadence, or vibration of the wings, in the flight of
birds ; the movement of the feet in the progreflive motion of
animals; and the geitures, figures, and fteps of dancers ;
but every {pecies oF regular motion, fuch as is obfervable in
the beating of the pulfe, and in refpiration. They have
even abufed the original import of the word fo far-as to
apply it to things abfolutely motionlefs and inanimate ; fuch
as works in painting and fculpture, in which they have
called that fymmetry and jut proportion which reigns in all
the parts by the name of rhythm.
But the moft common application of this term has been
to exprefs the /ime or duration of many founds heard in
fucceffion ; whether thefe founds are mufical, and fuch as
are produced by voices and inftruments, or without any de-
terminate tone, as in the ftrokes of a hammer upon an anvil ;
in the beating of a drum; and in ‘the articulations of the
voice in common fpeech, in repeating poetry, or pro-
nouncing an oration. ’
But our enquiries here fhall be confined to that fpecies of
rhythm, which more particularly concerns melody, and
which merits difcuflion the more, on account of its great
Rae cy.
importance in mufic, and of the darknefs in which it is
ufually involved by writers on the fubjeét.
From the ftri& union of poetry and mufic among the
ancients, which feem to have been almott infeparable, an
offence againft time or rhythm was unpardonable, as it not
only deftroyed the beauty of the poetry, but fometimes
even the meaning of the words of which it was compofed.
To way wpm. jeourixoss 6 puBp.ac, fay the Greeks; it was the
principal point in their mufic, without which they regarded
melody as wholly unmeaning and lifelefs. Hence Plato re-
fuled the title of mufician to every one who was not per-
feily verfed in rhythm, as we fhould now to a bad timeift.
It is of fuch importance, that, without it, mufic can have
no power over the human paffions. Pythagoras, according
to Martianus Capella, ufed to call rhythm, in mufic, the
male, and Melos the female ; and Doni has compared rhythm
with defign, in painting, and Melos to colouring. It is
certain that an ordinary melody, in which the time is ftron ly
marked, and the accents are well placed, has more effeé&
than one that is deficient in thofe particulars, though more
refined and uncommon, and fet off with all the richnefs of
harmony, and learning of modulation.
If{aac Voffius, in his Differtation « De Poematum Cantu,
et viribus Rhythmi,’’ has attributed to rhythm all the
miraculous powers of ancient mufic.
As vocal mufic was chiefly cultivated among the ancient
Greeks, the firit part of thefe rhythmical obfervations fhall
be confined to lyric poetry.
Ariftides Quintilianus defines mufical rhythm cusnucx ix
Xeovwy xara tx tadw cuynetusvwv 3 the affemblage of many
parts of time, which preferve a certain proportion with
each other ;”” which, fince the ufe of bars in mufic, may
be called aliquot parts of a meafure, or a given portion of
time. For the better underftanding cf this definition, it is
neceflary to remember that the mufic in queftion was con-
ftantly fung to verfes, the words of which were all compofed
of long and fort fyllables ; that the fhort fyllable was pro-
nounced as quick again as the long, and the fhort fyllable
being regarded as one part or portion of this meafure, the
long was equal to two; fo that, confequently, the found
which was applied to the long fyllable, was equal in duration
to two fuch founds as were fung to fhort fyllables, or, in
other words, that one note was equal to two portions of
time, and the other to one. It mutt likewife be remem-
bered that the verfes thus fung, were compofed of a certain
number of feet, formed by thefe long and fhort fyllables
differently combined, and that the rhythm of the melody
was regulated by thefe feet ; as, whatever was their length,
they were always divided into two parts, equal or unequal,
the firft of which was called ¢ecs:, elevation, and the fecond
S:cszy depreffion. A foot in poetry feems to anfwer to a dar
in mufic. A time, among the ancients, was a proportion
of that foot or bar ; as, with us, a bar is divided into ac-
cented and unaccented parts. In like manner the rhythm
of the melody, correfponding with thefe feet, was divided
into two parts, equal or unequal, which we now call the dowa
and up parts of a bar, expreiled by deating down the hand or
foot, and Uifting it up. Thus far concerns vocal rhythm ;
what follows belongs to in/lrumental. .
As the notes of the ancient mufic were conftantly written
over each fyllable of the verfes which were to be fung ; as
the quantity of each of thefe fyllables was perfe€tly known
to muficians; and as the duration of each found was_re-
gulated by the fyilables ; it did not feem neceflary that the
time fhould be marked by any particular fign or charaéter.
However, for the eafe and convenience of the mufician, a
canon,
RHYTHM.
canon, or rule, was given of the rhythm at the beginning
of a lyric poen. This canon confifted of nothing but the
numbers 1 and 2, that is, the alpha and beta of the Greek
alphabet, difpofed according to the order of the breves and
longs which compofed each verfe, and divided according to
the number of its feet. The alpha, or unit, marked a breve,
becaufe it contained only one portion of time ; and the beta,
or binary, marked a long, being equal to two portions.
Some of thefe poetical, or rhythmical canons, are {till to be
found in the Manual of Hephettion.
Rhythm in Latin was called numerus ; and this term, in
procefs of time, was extended to the melody itfelf, fubjeGted”
to certain numbers or rhythms, as appears from this line of
Virgil ;
« Numeros memini, fi verba tenerem :”’
«If E-knew the words, I could remember the tune well
enough.”
The Romans had figns for rhythm, as well as the Greeks ;
and thefe figns were: not only called numerus, but era, that
is, number, or the mark for time. Tumera nota, {ays Nonius
Marcellus. Inthis fenfe we find the word ufed in a verfe of
Lucilius:
“ Hec eft ratio? perverfa era? fumma fubduéta improbe ?”?
* Do you call that fettling accounts? fuch a confufion of
figures? and the fum falfely caft up ?”’
Though the word era was at firft only applied by mu-
ficians to the time, or meafure of the melody, they aifter-
wards made the fame ufe of it as of numerus, to exprefs the
tune or melody itfelf; and it has been thought that the
word air, or, as the Italians call it, aria, which includes a
certain piece of mufic of a peculiar rhythm, or cadence, is
derived from éra.
Such:was the manner in which the ancients marked the
meafure in their written mufic; but to make it {till more
fenfible in the execution, they beat time in feveral different.
ways. The moft common was by the motion of the foot,
which was lifted up and- beat down alternately, according
to what we call common, or triple time. To regulate the
time was generally the office of the mufic matter or director,
called pesoxopos and xogugeuoc, corypheus, becaufe he was
placed in the middle of the orcheftra, among the muficians,
and in an exalted and confpicuous fituation, in order to be
feen and heard the more eafily by the whole band.
The direétors of the time were likewnfe called in Greek
moooxtuTos and modo) of 0b from the noife of their feet. In
Latin they were called pedarii, podarii, and pedicularii, for
the fame reafon. Their feet were generally furnifhed with
wooden or iron fandals, in order to mark the time in a more
diltinét manner ; thefe implements the Greeks called xgew:dizy
xeeTAa, “eset 3 and the Latins pedicula, fcabella, or fea-
bila, becaufe they refembled little pattens, or clogs.
But it was not only with the feet that the ancients beat
the time, but with all the fingers of the right hand upon the
hollow part of the left; and he who marked the time or
rhythm in this manner, was called manu-dudor. For this
purpofe they fometimes ufed oyfter-fhells, and the fhells of
other fifi, as well asthe bones of animals, in beating time,
as we do of caitanets, tabors, &c. Both Hefychius, and the
ichohatt of Ariftophanes, furnifh paflages to confirm this
aflertion, What a noify and barbarous mufic! Allrhythm,
and no found. ‘The drums and fyitrums of the Idei Daétyli
could not have been more favage.
Many ancient inftruments were monotonous, and of little
ufe; but to mark the meafure ; fuch were the cymbalum and
fyftrum; and it was for this reafon, perhaps, that the cym-
bal was called gra, by Petronius. But it would afford us
no very favourable idea of the abilities of modern muficians,
who fhould require fo much parade and noife in keeping to-
gether. ‘The more time is beat, fays M. Rouffean, the lefs
it is kept; and, in general, bad mufic, and bad muficians,
ftand mott in need of fuch noify affiftance.
However, if any thing like the power which ancitnt
mufic is faid to have had over the paffions can be credited, it
mutt have derived this power chiefly from the energy and
accentuation of therhythm. Ariftides Quintilianus gives a
long lift of different metres, with their feveral properties of
calming or agitating the mind, according to the nature of
the fyllables, or feet of the verfes, as well as the fentiments
which they were intended to exprefs; and as it will afford
the reader an opportunity of feeing how much ftrefs was
laid on this part of mufic, and how fanciful and ideal many
of the diftinGtions feem to have been, we fhall give the whole
paflage in Englifh.
“ Meafure, which begins by a dowm part of the metrical
divifion, is calm and gentle; whereas that which begins by
an up part, exprefles trouble and agitation. Full time, that
is, always accompanied with melody, is noble in its effeét ;
and that arifing from cataleétic verfes, deficient in a fyllable
or note, if it be fupplied by a reft or paufe, has more fim-
plicity. Time of equal proportions, is graceful; and that
of odd numbers, or fe{quialterate proportion, is more proper
to excite commotion. Double time is a kind of mean
betwixt the graceful and the turbulent. Among the moves
ments of two even notes, if they are fhort, their effect is
lively, impetuous, and proper for military dances, called
Pyrrhics, 1 which the dancers are armed; and time, of
which the movement is regulated by poetic feet compofed of
long fyllables, is more grave, ferious, and fit for hymns
which are fung in honour of the gods, at feftivals, and in’
facrifices ; the meafure compofed of a mixture of long and
fhort notes, participates of the qualities ‘of both thete laft
mentioned.
«« Among the duplicate proportions, the Iambic and Tro-
chaic have the moit vivacity and fire, and are peculiarly
proper for dancing. Thofe called oeSics and cxnpevto, of
which the arfis anfwers to two long fyllables, are full of dig-
nity.. Compound meafures are more pathetic than fimple;
and fuch as are confined to one genus, move the paffions
much lefs than thofe which pafs from one genus to another.”
After giving thefe charaCteriftics of time, Ariftides pro-
ceeds to prove their reality and foundation in nature, by
drawing a parallel between fome particular {pecies of rhythm,
and the gait and actions of man. He pretends, for in-
{tance, “that the motion which anfwers to the Spondaic
meafure, is a fign of moderation and fortitude; that Tro-
chaics, or Pans, indicate a greater degree of fire and vie
vacity ; that the Pyrrhic has fomething lew and ignoble in
it; that an irregular velocity implies diflolutenefs and dif-
order ; and finally, that a movement refulting from all
thefe, is wild and extravagant.’?
With refpeé&t to the excellence and effets of ancient
mufic, it is very difficult to fteer between the extremes of
credulity and fcepticifm. Such enthufiafts as Ariftides
Quintilianus, by allerting too much, have thrown a ridicule
upon the fubjeét, and inclined us, perhaps, to belicve too
little. The fimplicity of ancient melody, and its flavifh
dependence upon poetry, may probably have given birth to
fome of thefe fancies.
in addition to the account already given of the poetic feet
under their refpective articles, we thall here introduce a
short
RHYTHM.
fhort. defcription of each as they more immediately relate
to mufic, at the fame time rendering our differtation on
rhythm more complete. J
A poetical foot confifts of a certain number of fyllables,
which contlitutes a diftin@ part of a verfe, as a bar does of
an air in mufic. An hexameter verfe confiits of fix of
thefe feet, a pentameter of five.
The Spondee, Iambus, Trochee, and Pyrrhic or Peri-
ambus, are diflyllabic feet, or of two fyllables each.
===
Gas:5
The Spondee confifts of two long fyl-
lables, as wertunt. ~~
An Iambic foot has one. fhort and one
long fyllable. O:2, Asya. potens, amas. ~
return.
~ The Trochee has one long and one fhort
fyllable, as gratus, mufa. ~~ kp———
‘ ; filent.
The Pyrrhic, or Periambius, two fhort =
fyllables, as mare, probus. ~~ A -é--g—
quiver.
The Da&yl, Anapeft, Moloflus, Tribrach, Bacchius,
Antibacchius, Amphibrachys, and Creticus, are trifyl-
labics, or of three fyllables. To fome of thefe we have no
equivalents ; however, the Dattyl, confifting of one long
and two fhort fyllables ~~~ eae is very com-
mon in our language, as tenderly, haffily ; and we have
verfes compofed of daétyls as well as the Greeks and
Romans :
My | banks théy wére | furnifh’d with | beés,
Whole | mirmirs in- | vite Gne té | fleép.
Thefe may be compared with the following celebrated
pafflages in Homer and Virgil, where the found is mani-
feftly, and intentionally, an echo to the fenfe. Homer
(Odyfley, book xi.) after he has defcribed in labouring
Spondees the flow and painful manner in which Syfiphus
rolled the ftone up hill, makes ufe of nimble Daétyls in
defcribing its {wift defcent :
= 3 oe ~ os
Addis Emtized wba ve xd AWtad Aciz’s evatdyc.
And Virgil, lib. viii. v. 596, defcribes, in pure Dagyls,
the galloping of the horfe :
66 ee
It clamér, &t agminé fa&o
Quadrtipédanté ptitrém foniti quatit ungiila campim.”
The Anapeft has two fhort and one long fyllable; as
Sapiens, recubans, ~~~ Saree Ifaac Voffius,
“ De Viribus Rhythmi,”” p. 56, has faid, that the French
have no Daétyls, nor the Englifh a perfe&t Anapzft in
their language. Let the French {peak for themfelves; but
as to our own part of the charge, it is-eafily confuted by
the mere mention of the words recommend and difappoint.
We fhall enumerate the reft of the poetic feet of the
VoL. XXX.
ancients, merely to fhew-what refources they had in varying
their melody by different combinations of two kinds of
notes.
The Moloffus has three long fyl-
lables, “"" =
—
The Tribrach, three fhort, ~~”
The Bacchius, which is the reverfe
of the Daétyl, has one fhort, and two
long fyllables, ~~~
The Antibacchius, two long and
one fhort, ~~~
Amphibrachys, one fhort, one long,
and one fhort, or, one long between
two fhort, ~~~ iS
Creticus, cne fhort between two —
long, ~~~ =
The quadrifyllabics are compounded of feet already
mentioned.
Epitrite; of this foot there are four fpecies: 1. The
Iambus and Spondee~~~~: 2. The Trochee and Spondee
~~~": 3. The Spondee and lambus “~~~: and 4. The
Spondee and Trochee ~~ ~~ 2
The Proceleufmaticus is compofed
of four fhort fyllables, or of two Pyr-
Thies;
The Choriambus, two fhort between
two long, or the junétion of the Tro-
chzus and Iambus, “~~~
- st ere
eyeoren Rh Ei htt
a
—
VE Se ye es Ss
5 2424 0 eS et See ee
>
?
vweuru ever
s 4
Servius reckons more than a hundred different kinds of
verfe among the Latins; and, according to Hephettion,
the number was itill more confiderable among the Greeks ;
confequently their melody might have been varied in as many
different ways. There is not, however, the leaft appear-
ance of the ancients having had in their vocal mufic that kind
of meafure which we call pointed; nor did they admit refts
in the middle of a verfe, though at the end of cataleétic,
or broken verfes, the finger was allowed to make up the
deficiency by a filence, equivalent toa reft in modern mufic ;
and though they had fo great a variety: of feet in their
poetry, many of thofe already inftanced are unfit for modern
melody.
«« After all the refearches,”” fays Dr. Burney, “which I
have been able to make, it muft be acknowledged that the
fubject of ancient mufic, in general, {till remains, and pro-
bably ever will remain involved in much difficulty and un-
certainty. Itis fortunate, however, for thofe who with to
view as near as poffible this dark angle of antiquity, that
the profpe& happens to be the cleareft juft in that part
where all its admirers affure us it is beft worth examining ;
Ce for
RHYTHM.
for however ignorant we may be of the melody of ancient
mufic, the rhythm, or time of that melody, being regulated
entirely, as has been already obferved, by the metrical feet,
mutt always be as well known to us as the profody and con-
ftru@tion of the verle; fo that we have nothing to do but
to apply to the long and fhort fyllables any two notes, one
of which is double the length of the other, in order to know
as exaétly as if we heard, in what manner. any particular
kind of metre was fet by the ancients with refpect to time
and cadence, that boafted rhythm, which we are fo often
told was every thing in their mufic. It may, therefore,
afford fome gratification to the curiofity of thofe who have
never confidered the poetry of the ancients in this point of
view, if I produce afew examples, which will, perhaps,
ift Foot. 2 3
“Alois
This meafure, when pure and unmixt, confifted of fx
Iambic feet, as,
équés | fOnan|té vér|béra[bit tn} gtla.
Such verfes, however, feldom occur. The laws of this
metre only required that the fecond, fourth, and laft feet
fhould be Iambics; in the other places, Spondees, Ana-
peits, and Dactyls, were admitted. This metre anfwers to
our Alexandrine, or verfe of twelve fyllables ; but more ex-
actly in the number and kind of feet, than in its cadence, or
eneral effe€t upon the ear. The paufe after the third foot,
fo effential to a melodious Alexandrine, has no place but by
accident, in the Iambic, which runs more fwiftly, and has
a more profaic effect. This, undoubtedly, led the ancients
to meafure it per dipodiam, or by double feet (fee Hor. Att.
Poet. v. 252. pes citus : unde, &c.), which anfwer to double
bars in modern mufic. Ariofto wrote fome comedies in
this Iambic meafure. One of his lines will, perhaps, be as
exaét a reprefentation of the ancient Iambic as can be pro-
duced, in point of cadence.
Per dio fon qua|fi in penfier di | tornarmene.
The following Alexandrine of Spenfer may alfo ferve for
the fame purpofe.
“ So in his angry courage fairly pacified.’”
The above Greek lines are the beginning of the Hecuba of
_ Euripides, and were fung by the ghoft of Pelydorus. The
bars inthe verfe are only to fhew how the ancients divided it
into three portions of two feet in each; but the bars of
time, the thefis, or beat, muft always fall in the middle of
the foot: ~ |7P |. For the fake of diftinguifhing the
feet more clearly, Dr. Burney barred them fingly ; though
it would have been more conformable to the ancient manner
avow
this contagion
Exmo - «
From the reach of
Tas
4
BOATHT OCIS
help to throw a little light upen the dramatic mulic of the
Greeks, and give fome idea of the rhythmical refources of
the poet-muficianin one of the mott interefting provinces of his
art.
“The firft example fhall be of the Iambic verfe, which
chiefly prevails in the Greek tragedies, and in which the
dialogue and foliloquy, indeed all but the’ chorus and ode,
were generally written. I fhall content myfelf with apply-
ing notes of correfpondent lengths to the fyliables, and
marking the time ; leaving the melody to the imagination of
the reader. Should I prefume to fupply it, I might expect
to be reproached as another Salmoneus for my temerity.
“* Demens! qui nimbos et non imitabile fulmen, &c.”’
LEG RNINE ENS
5 6
of fcarning this kind of verfe, and probably more expreflive
of its cadence and effec, to have made but three bars in each
line. The Iambics of Greek comedy differ from thefe only
in a little more liberty of conftruétion ; thofe of the Roman,
in Plautus and Terence, are fo licentious, as often not to
differ perceptibly from profe, even in the judgment. of
Cicero himfelf: propter fimilitudinem fermonis, fic fepe
funt abjeéti, ut nonnunquam vix in his numerus et verfus
fentiri pofflit.’” Orator, cap. 55.
Befides this metre, the, dialogue admitted, occafionally,
Trochaic verfes. They are generally introduced in fcenes
of hurry and diforder; being, as Ariftotle has defcribed
them, and as their name implies, a voluble and dancing mea-
fure. A character which the reader will not be inclined to
difpute, when he compares the ancient Trochaic with a mea-
ture exactly correfponding to it in our own language, but
which we have not yet admitted into cur tragedy.
This is a pure Trochaic, and is precifely in the meafure
of our
« Jolly mortals fill yotir glaftés,
Noblé deéds are done by wine.”’
The whole difference is, that the ancient Trochaics were
written in one line; but this is merely to the eye; for they
really confift of two verfes; the laft fyllable of the fourth
foot being, as Dr. Burney believes, conftantly, the end of a
word.
Mr. Weft, in his tranflation of the “ Iphigenia m Tauris’”
of Euripides, has given a whole fcene of T'rochaics in the
correfpondent Englifh meafure. A fingle line of the
original, with his tranflation, will be a fufficient example of
Trochaic rhythm.
Fx - ty pl = dopa =
1 warn you all to fly!
0
RHYTHM.
Such were the metres appropriated to the dialogue of the
ancient tragedy, and fuch muft have been the rhythms or
times of the mufic to which they were fet.
We fhall clofe thefe obfervations with one example
more, taken from the choral part of the drama, that
part which was more particularly mujfical, and the circle
‘marked out for the mutician, where all the magic of
his art, with all the wonders of rhythm, were to be dif-
played. Of the metre of this part, we fhall only ob-
ferve, in general, that it feems to have admitted of fuch
an unbounded variety in the mixture and arrangement of
feet, and to have been fettered by fo few rettraints, that, to
a modern ear, itis frequently not tobe diftinguifhed from a
fmooth and elegant profe. We can therefore be certain of
nothing, concerning the mufic applied to the ancient chorus,
except the relative lengths of the notes as they are deter-
mined by the profody: in what manner the ancients divided
them by beats, we do not even prefume to guefs; and we
believe it may be propofed to the mufical reader as a problem,
worthy, for its difficulty at leaft, if not for its importance,
to exercife his fagacity, how the following fpecimen fhould
be Jarred, in order to render it as little tormenting to the
ear as poflible.
——
OES Eee
ae 2 = CAR Sy sai aR
Q y= = ve - at Bora, “acy “Upas “Y= cu-xat TO poe
——. —— — —
- oN
-1@ WAE = oy
=F 325 dts,
Tas “evdets = gd = ¥ = cs DE pity
+ 2 as Shine
H to-cesov “0 - cov doxeiy
v ay z
& TOK AE = ¥aES
The mott ftriking circumftance in all thefe examples, is the
perpetual change of time, eccafioned by the mixture of
unequal feet. ‘T’o the eye, indeed, the recitative of the old
French opera prefents a fimilar appearance; but where no
itri&t time is obferved, the changes are lefs perceptible to
the ear. No circumftance relative to ancient mufic has been
more frequently and triumphantly oppofed to the modern,
in proof of {uperiority, than its inviolable adherence to the
Jixed quantity of fyllables. It is, perhaps, equally difficult
to difprove this, and to conceive how fuch a mufic could be
rigoroufly executed, without throwing both the hearers and
performers into convulfions. If, however, this was the cafe,
we need no longer wonder at the noify expedients, to whicle
the ancients had recourfe in beating time ; for we believe the
beit modern band would find it difficult, if not impoflible, to
keep exactly together in the executton of a Greek chorus,
though affifted by all the clatter of an ancient corypheus. *
Upon the whole, perhaps, even the imperfeét view which
we have here attempted to give of the rhythmical refources
of ancient mufic, may be fuflicient to warrant fomething
more than a doubt, whether, after all that Ifaac Voffius, and
many others, have faid, a jrved profody, and the rigorous,
unaccommodating length of fyllables, be any recom-
mendation of a language for mujfic; that is, whether a
mufic formed and moulded clofely upon fuch a language,
mult not neceflarily be cramped and poor, in conan
of that free, unfhackled variety ; that independent range of
rhythmical phrafe, which conttitutes fo confiderable a part
of the riches of modern mufic. Let the moft inventive com-
pofer try to fet half adozen Hexameters, pure Iambics, or
any other verfes that will fall into regular common or triple
time, and he will foon find that no refources of melody are
fufficient to difguife or palliate the infipid and.tirefome uni-
formity of the meafure ; and as for any thing like expreflion,
we may as well expect to be affected by the mechanical ftrut
of a foldier upon the parade. In other metres, fuch as
thofe already given in the preceding examples, where feet
of different times are intermixed. /eme variety is indeed ac-
quired; but it is a mifplaced variety, which, without ob-
viating the tirefome effe¢t of a confinement to no more than
two lengths of notes, adds to it that of an aukward and
uncouth arrangement ; the ear is ftill fatigued with uni-
formity where it requires change, and diltraéted by change
where it requires uniformity.
Modern mufic, on the contrary, by its divifion into equal
’ bars, and its uzegual fubdivifion of thefe bars by notes of
various lengths, unites to the pleafure which the ear is by
nature formed to receive from a regular and even meafure, all
the variety and expreffion which the ancients feem to have
aimed at by fudden and convulfive changes of time, and 2
continual conflict of jarring and irreconcileable rhythms.
Nothing feems more eflential to mufical pleafure, than
the divifion of melody into equal portions of time, or bars,
Quintilian attributed to this natural menfuration of the ear,
the firft production of poetry; ‘ Poema—aurium menfura,
et fimiliter decurrentium fpatiorum obfervatione effe gene-
ratum.’* Hexameters and Iambics appear to have been
the moft ancient Greek metres; and the latter, if we may
credit Horace, Art. Poet. 253, were at firlt pure and un-
compounded. ‘The mixture ot unequal feet, and the Dithy-
rambic licence of lyric poetry, were later refinements. The
progrefs of mufical rhythm was, of courfe, the fame.
Plutarch exprefsly {ays, in the dialogue de Mufica, that the
compoiitions of ‘Terpander, and other old maiters, were fet
to Hexameters, chiefly of Homer ; that is, they were in re-
gular common time. The change and intermixture of
rhythms is fpoken of as the innovation of modern artifts.
Plato rejeéts thefe complicated meafures from the mufic of
his republic ; and even [faac Voffius, the great champion of
ancient rhythm, who afferts that ‘no man can bea good
mufician, that is not a good drummer,?? owns, p. 11, that
*¢ vitiofum et incompofitum imprimis, fiet carmen, fi duorum,
trium, quatuor, pluriumve temporum pedes, veluti Pyrni-
chii, Tambi, Daé¢tyli, Pzones, Ionici, fimul copulentur ;’’
though this is done continually, not only in the lyric part,
but even in the dialogue of the ancient drama.
It is evident, from the proofs already given, that the
Greeks and Romans had but two different degrees of long
and fhort notes; and even the old lozenge and {quare cha-
Cica raéters
RHYTHM.
«
racters {till ufed in the canto fermo of the Romifh church,
under the denomination of Gregorian notes, are but of two
kinds; the time of thefe may, indeed, have been acce-
lerated or retarded, but ftill the fame proportion mult have
been preferved between them; and all their variety mutt
have arifen from different combinations of thefe two kinds
of notes, fuch as any two of ours could afford ; as femi-
breves and minims, minims and crotchets, or crotchets and
quavers.
This accounts for the facility with which even the common
people of Greece could difcover the miftakes, if any were
committed, in the length and fhortnefs of the fyllables, both
with refpect to the poetry, and the mufic, a point of hif-
tory in which all writers agree; for befides the intervals
peculiar to the melody, rhythm, or time, muft have ccn-
tributed to characterize the modes, though it has no
kind of connection with our flat and fharp keys; and
this gives an idea quite different from what our modern
modes, taken as keys, and our mufic, in general, furnifh.
Tartini, upon this fubject, fays, that we make the profody
fubfervient to the mufic, rot the mufic to the profody ; and
adds, ‘that as by the laws prefcribed to the ancient mufi-
cians, they were obliged to preferve rigoroufly in their
mufic the quantity of fyllables, it was impoflible to protra&
a vowel, in finging, beyond the time which belonged to a
fyllable ; we, onthe contrary, prolong the vowels through
many bars, though in reading they are oftentimes fhort.”’
Tartini, however, in pure courtefy, allows to the an-
cients a difcretionary power of making fyllables longer or
fhorter than rigorous time would admit, in order to diverfify
expreffion, and to enforce the paflion implied by the words ;
but if time was rigoroufly beaten, in the manner the ancients
have related, it is not very eafy to fubfcribe to this opinion.
Having explained the nature, difference, and properties
of ancient rhythm, Dr. Burney beftows a few words on an
examination of the modern, and endeavours to fhew what it
has, in common with the ancient, and what peculiar to
itfelf,
Weno longer know rhythm now under its ancient name ;
however, it has been continued, with a fmall change of
pronunciation, merely to exprefs the final cadence of verfes,
or the agreement and fimilarity of found in the latt fyllables
of two or more lines in poetry ; being at prefent what we
call rhyme ; whereas the proportion fublifting between the
different parts of a melody are called time, mea/ure, move-
ment.
And when we come to examine this proportion, we find
that it only confitts of two kinds, differently modified ; and
thefe two are known by the names of common time, confilting
of equal numbers, and #riple time, of unequal.
TYartini has deduced all meafure from the proportions of
the oGave and its fifth. ‘Common time, or meafure,”’
fays he, ‘arifes from the otave, which is as 1: 25 triple
time arifes from the fifth, which is as 2:3. Thefe,’’ adds
he, “are the utmoft limits within which we can hope to find
any practicable proportions for melody. Indeed many have
attempted to introduce other kinds of meafure, which, in-
ltead of good effeéts, have produced nothing but the
greateft confufion ; and this mult always be the cafe. Mufic
has been compofed of five equal notes in a bar, but no
mufician has yet been found that is able to execute it.”’
By the improvement of inftrumental mufic, and indeed
by the liberties which we have taken with poetry in finging,
we have multiplied notes, and accelerated the meafure. In-
ftead of one found to one fyllable, or one portion of time
for a fhort fyllable, and two for a long one, we frequently
divide and fubdivide the time of thefe feveral portions into
7
all their aliquot parts, and fometimes into incommenfurable
quantities.
After the invention of mufical characters for time, different
from thofe in poetry, the {tudy of their relations became
one of the moft laborious and perplexed parts of a mufician’s
bufinefs. Thefe characters were of different value and ve-
locity, according to other characters placed at the beginning
of a mufical compofition, and likewile frequently occurring
inthe courfe of a piece, to announce a change of meafure ;
as from common time to triple, from quick ‘to flow, or the
contrary. Thefe chara¢ters were called moods, but they
were fo extremely embarraffing and ill underftood, till the
invention of bars, by which mufical notes were divided into
equal portions, that no two theorifts agreed in the definition
of them.
Thefe modes, by which the kind of movement, with
refpeét to quick and flow, as well as the proportions of the
notes, ufed to be known, fince the ufe of technical terms,
chiefly taken from the Italian language and mufic, has
been adopted, ferye no other purpofe than to mark the num-
ber and kind of notes in éach bar.
But by this invention of mufical charaGers for time, and
the ufe of bars, we have certainly advanced in the per-
formance of inftrumental mufic, by giving to it more energy
and accentuation ; it has now a cadence and feet of its own,
more marked and fenfible than thofe of poetry, by which
it ufed to move.
We have alfo, in our airs, a diftinét fpecies of mufic for
poetry, wholly different from recitative and chanting; for
in thefe we are no more ticd down to {tated meafure than the
ancients, but are governed by the accent and cadence of the
words. However, our Horid-fong, it cannot be diffembled,
is not always fufficiently fubfervient to poetry ; for in apply-
ing mufic to words, it frequently happens that the fineft
fentiments and moft polifhed verfes of modern languages are
injured and rendered unintelligible, by an inattention to pro-
fody. Even the fimple and plain rules of giving a fhort
nete to a fhort fyllable, a long to a long; and of ac-
centuating the mufic by the meafure and natural cadence of
the verfe, which the mere reading would point out to a good
ear and underftanding, are but too frequently negleéted.
Modern melody requires, perhaps, more than a fingle
found to a fingle fyllable ; and a fine voice deferves, now and
then, along note to difplay its fweetnefs; but this fhould
be done upon long fyllables, and to open vowels, and, per-
haps, in general, after the words have been once fimply and
articulately fung, for the hearer to know what paflion
is intended to be expreffed, or fentiment enforced, by future
divifions. ;
Expletives, particles, and words of {mail importance,
are forced into notice by carelefs or ignorant compofers,
who, only intent upon mere mufic, pay no regard to her
fitter, poetry. But then, poetry, in revenge, is_as little
folicitous about mufical effeéts; for fymmetry of air, or
fimplicity of defign, are generally fo little thought of, that
every heterogeneous idea, which can be hitched into rhyme,
is indifcriminately crowded into the fame fong. Indeed
mufic and poetry, like man and wife, or other affociates,
are beft afunder, if they cannot agree ; and on many.oc-
cafions, it were to be wifhed, that the partnerfhip were
amicably diffolved.
Salinas tells us, from St. Auguiftine, that poets and
muficians have ever been at ftrife concerning long and fhort
fyllables, accents, and quantity, fince they have ceafed to
be united in one and the fame perfon, and have fet up dif-
ferent interefts.
There is fome poetry fo replete with meaning, fo philo-
fophical,
8 Hey
fophical, inftruGtive, and fublime, that it becomes wholly
enervated by being drawled out to a tune, which affeéts no
part of the head, but the ear. ;
And there is, again, fome kind even of inftrumental
mufic, fo divinely compofed, and fo expreffively performed,
that it wants no words to explain its meaning ; it is itfelf
the language of the heart and of paffion, and {peaks more
to both in a few notes, than any other language compofed
of clafhing confonants, and infipid vowels, can do in as
many thoufand.
And, upon the whole, it feems as if poetry were more
immediately the language of the head, and mufic that of
the heart; or, in other words, as if poetry were the
propereft vehicle of inftru@ion, and modulated found that
of joy, forrow, and innocent pleafure. ‘ Let the mufician,”’
fays M. Rouffeau, “have as many images or fentiments to
exprefs as you pleafe, with few fimple ideas ; for the pa/fions
only fing, the underflanding /peaks.””
But, notwithftanding both poetry and profody are fo
frequently injured ‘by injudicious compofers, it mutt not
be imagined that in our fimple airs of the gavot and minuet
kind, we have no mufical rhythm, or that it always clafhes
with the poetical. Innumerable irftances may be given
from well-known Englith fongs, where the cadence of the
verfe, and even the pronunciation of each fyllable, is care-
fully preferved by the air. For though our time-table fur-
nifhes fix different degrees of long and fhort notes, without
points, yet, if the divifions in fongs defigned to difplay
a particular talent for difficult execution be excepted, we
feldom ufe more than qo kinds of notes in the fame air.
«¢ Mirth, admit me of thy crew,’’ by Handel, as well as
feveral popular fongs by Dr. Arne, Mr. Jackfon, and
others, are fufficiently conformable to poetical numbers and
rhythm, to fatisfy the greateft admirers of ancient fimplicity,
or even fuch as love poetry better than mufic, from whom
complaints of non-conformity generally proceed.
Haac Voflius fays it is now above a thoufand years fince
muficians have loft that great power over the affections,
which arofe only from the true fcience and ufe of rhythm ;
and he accufes modern mufic of fuch a want of time and
accent, as to beall of one ftyle and colour. We will not
defend the age in which Voflius wrote from the charge, nor
the mufic of the prefent ferious opera in France; but the
compofitions of Italy and Germany are certainly free from
the cenfure, as mufic is now more divided into phrafes, and
fentences, than it was; time is more marked, and ‘more
eafily felt than it has ever been fince the days of Guido.
What it was before, is not very well known; but to confefs
the truth, it is our opinion, that whatever it has compa-
ratively loft in fome particulars, it has gained in others.
RHYTHMICA, Ruyrumice, ‘Pytus«n, in the Ancient
Mufic, that branch of raufic which regulated the rhythmus.
See the preceding article.
RHYTHMOPGEIA, one of the mufical faculties, as
they are called, which prefcribes rules for the motions, or
rhythm.
The ancient rhythmopeeia is very defective. We find no-
thing of it in the books of the ancients, but fome general
hints, which can fcarcely be called rules. In their explica-
tions there appears nothing but what belongs to the words
and verfes of their fongs, which is a {trong prefumption
they had no ether. See Ruyrum.
RHYTIDOSIS, formed of :i:3ow, to wrinkle, the name
of a diftemper of the eye, in which it waftes and wrinkles up.
RHYTIS, in Botany, from jut, a channel, or furrow,
fo named by Loureiro, becaufe it has a furrowed berry.
RIA
—Loureir. Cochinch. 660.—Clafs and order, Polygamia
Dioecia. Nat. Ord. . . .
Gen. Ch. Perfect Flowers, Ca/. Perianth inferior, cloven
into from three to fix, obtufe, fpreading fegments. Cor.
none- Stam. Filaments three, thread-fhaped, ereét, longer
than the calyx, attached to the receptacle; anthers two-
lobed. Pi. Germen fuperior, rather long ; ftyle none ;
{tigmas three, cloven, reflexed. Peric. Berry flatly ovate,
rugofe, flaccid, with one cell, and three, ovate, fmall*/eeds.
Female Flowers on a feparate plant, Ca/. Perianth in-
ferior, cloven into numerous, lanceolate, hairy, {preading
fegments. Cor. none.” Stam none. iff. and Peric. as in
the perfe& flowers.
Eff. Ch. Calyx from three to fix-cleft. Corolla none.
Stamens three. Stigmas three. Berry three-feeded.
Female, Calyx cloven into many fegments.
1. R. fruticofa. Shrubby Rhytis. Loureir. Cochinch.
660.—Native of woods in Cochinchina.—A /hrub about fix
feet high. Stem nearly ereét, branched in a fpreading
manner. eaves alternate, ovate-oblong, flightly pointed,
f{mooth, entire. F/owers in long, flender, crowded, terminal
Spikes. Berry channelled.
RHYTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifland
of Crete.
RHYZELIUS, Awnprew, in Biography, a learned
Swedith bifhop, was born in Weft Gothland in 1677, and
ftudied at Upfal. In 1711 he was appointed profeflor of
theology at Abo, from thence he proceeded to Upfal,
where he was ordained, and appointed under paftor of the
congregation of St. Nicholas at Stockholm. In 1713 he
was nominated by Charles XII. to be one of his chaplains,
whom he afterwards accompanied to Norway. He obtained
other high offices, and at length, in 1743, he was raifed to
the epifcopal bench. He died in the year 1761, leaving be-
hind him a high charaéter for deep learning and accurate
judgment. His works are numerous, fome of which are,
1. Svio-Gothica munita,’”? or an hiftorical defcription of
the towns, fortreffes, caitles, and royal palaces in the king-
doms of Sweden and Gothland. 2. “* Monafteriologia Svio-
Gothica,”’ or a defcription of monatteries. 3. ** Mnemonica
Hittorte Svio-Gothica Epitome.” 4. “ Epifcopofcopia
Svio-Gothica,”’ or a chronicle of the Swedifh bifhops. Gen.
Biog.
RIACA, or Rraza, in Geography, a riversof Spain,
which rifes in the mountains which feparate Old and New
Caftile, and runs into the Duero near Roa.
RIADHIAT, in Modern Hiftory, a fuperititious praGtice
among the Mahometans, and chiefly among thofe of Hin-
dooitan, which confilts in fhutting themfelves up for fifteen
days, without any other nourifhment than bread and water,
in a place where there is no light ; during which time, the
devout Muffulman inceflantly repeats the word hou, which
denotes one of the attributes of God.
RIAITTE’, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
artment of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&t of Ancenis; 12 miles N. of Ancenis. The
place contains 613, and the canton 5555 inhabitants, ona
territory of 150 kiliometres, in 5 communes.
RIAL, in Commerce. See REAL.
Rrat, or Royal, is alfo the name of a piece of gold an-
ciently current among us for ten fhillings.
In 1 Henry VI. by indenture of the mint, a pound
weight of gold of the old ftandard was coined into 45 rials,
pafling for ten fhillings a-piece, ora proportional number of
half rials, pafling at five thillings a-piece ; or rial farthings,
which went at two fhillings and two-pence.
In
RIA
In 1 Henry VIII. the gold rial was ordered to pafs at
eleven fhillings and three-pence. In 2 Elizabeth, gold rials
were coined at fifteen fhillings a-piece, when a pound weight
of old ftandard gold was to be coined into 48 rials. {n
3 James I. rofe-rials of gold were coined at thirty fhillings
a-piece, and {pur-rials at fifteen shillings.
RIALEJO, in Geography, a town on the W. coatt of
the ifland of Teneriffe.
Riabeso, or Ria Leva. See REALEIO.
RIALP, a town of Spain, in the province of Catalonia.
RIANA, in Botany, a genus of Aublet’s; but that au-
thor gives no account, or reafon, why it is fo called. We
prefume this may be its common name in Gutana.—Aubl.
Guian. 237. Juff. 287. Lamarck Illuttr. t. 135.—Clafs
_and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Berberidesy
Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven
into five, roundifh, acute fegments. Cor. Petals five, ovate,
acute, joined at the bafe. Neary of five fcales. Stam.
Filaments five, very fhort, inferted at the bafe of the nec-
tary ; anthers ovate-oblong, nearly feffile, two-celled. Pi/?.
Germen fuperior, ovate, villous, with five flreaks ; ftyle
flefhy ; ftigma capitate, obtufe. Peric. Capfule oblong, of
one cell, and three valves, comprefed in the middle. | Seeds
three.
Obf. Aublet defcribes the five-fealed nectary, as five
inner petals.
Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft. Petals five. Nedtary
compofed of five feales. Anthers nearly {eflile. Capfule
of one cell aud three valves. Seeds three.
1. R. guianenfis. Aubl. Guian. t. 94.— Native of woods
in Aroura, where it flowers in Auguit. This /brub i8
ten feet high, and has a branched trunk. Branches erect,
knobbed. Leaves oppolite, ftalked, ovate-oblong, acute,
toothed, {mooth, rigid. ee fhort, twin, oppofite,
acute, deciduous. Floqwers white, arranged in an alternate
manner, forming a terminal /pike ; each flower on a fhort
fialk, which has four fcales or bra¢teas at the bafe.
Juffien fufpects that this plant may be akin to Paffaura,
Aubl. Guian. t. 380.
RIANANTLA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Tlafcala; 60 miles 5S. of Puebla: de los
Angelos.
RIANJO, a town of Spain, in Galicia, at the mouth
of the Ulla; 23 miles S.W. of Compottella.
RIANO, a town of Italy, in the Patrimonio; 13 miles
N. of Rome.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra ;
‘8. miles W. of ‘Teramo,
RIANS, a town of France, in the department of the
Var; 10 miles N.W. of St. Maximin.
RIAO, an ifland in the Faft Indian fea, about 25 miles
im circumference, near the W. coaft of Morty. N. lat. 2°
25’. E. long. 128° 2!.
RIAPA Crerk, a river of Welt Florida, which runs
into the Miffifippi, N. lat. 31° 2. W. long. 91° 17’.
RIAVIA, a mountain of Africa; 60 miles W. of
Tripoli.
RIAZAN, atown of Ruffia, and capital of a govern-
ment, on the Oka; 80 miles S.S.E. of Mofcow. N. lat.
34° 45’. E. long. 38° 54!.
RIAZANSKOE, a government of Ruffia, bounded on
the N. by Vladimirfkoi, on the E. and S. by Tambovikoi,
and.on the W. by Mofkovikaia and Talfkoe ; 108 miles from
N. to S. and roo from E. to W. N. lat. 54° 40! to 55° 20!
E. long. 38° to 41°.
RIAZSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
\
RIB
Riazan ; 56 miles S.£. of Riazan.
40° 4!.
RIB, in Rural Economy, the {mall arched bones forming
the chefts of animals. Cattle and moft other animals fhould
be full in the rib.
In horfes the cheft or barrel formed by the ribs fhould be
full and circular, taking their fullnefs quite from the back.
bone. See Horse.
Ris-Furrowing, in Agriculture, a mode of ploughing
fomewhat fimilar to that of ribbling. :
Ris-Gra/s, a fort of grals much cultivated’ in fome dif-
triéts, and which is faid to afford an herbage of which cattle
are very fond. It is alfo aflerted to be ufeful as a grafs for
milch cows, and alfo for fattening any fort of ttock. It is
an indigenous plant in this country, which frequently
abounds in pafture or meadow lands where the foil is rather
inclined to moifture. See PLANTAGo. .
In the mode of cultivating it as a grafs for cattle food
under the modern fy{ltem of hufbandry, from four to fix
pounds of feed are {tated by Mr. Donaldfon to be fown
upon the acre. It is a coarfe fort of grafs, however, that
requires to be kept well fed down, in order to render it va-
luable and prevent its running to feed.
In Chefhire fome farmers are fond of it, while others
think that its place would be better fupplied by fome of the
other graffes. In fome places, fome fields are fown with it,
nearly without any admixture of grafs feeds; and where
plentiful crops of it have been produced no animal would
eat it, which is fuppofed probable from its nature. And in
the Staffordfhire agricultural report, it is faid that there is
authority for afferting that cattle will not eat its leaves,
but it is believed to be grateful in admixture with other
herbage.
RIBA, or Risas, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
New Cattile, on the Xaramo, founded by William de Ribas
of Segovia, a celebrated commander, in the year 1100; 9
miles front Madrid.
Ripa de Sella, a {mall fea-port of Spain, in Afturia, on
the coaft of the Atlantic; 36 miles E.N.E. of Oviedo. N.
lat. 43° 28’. W. long. 5° 18’.
RIBADAVIA, a town of Spain, in Galicia, famous
for its vineyards, which are faid to produce fome of the beft
wine in Spain; 15 miles S.W. of Orenfe.
RIBADENEIRA, Perer, in Biography, a Spanith
Jefuit, was a native of Toledo. He ftudied at Paris and
at Padua, after which he taught rhetoric with reputation at
Palermo. He died at Madrid in 1611, aged 81. His
works are “ Lives of the Saints,”’ folio, 1616; the ‘¢ Lives
of St. Ignatius Loyola, St. Francis de Borgia, and of the
Father Lainez and Solmeron ;”? «“ A Treatife of the Schifm
of England ;” another entitled « The Prince,” which is
full of bad political maxims; and the ‘* Library of Writers
among the Jefutts,’? 8vo.
RIBADEO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in
Galicia, at the mouth of the Eo, with a good harbour de-
fended by two caftles ; 15 miles N.E. of Mondonedo. N.
lat. 43° 33! W. long. 7° 5’.
RIBAGNAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Dordogne; 5 miles S. of Bergerac.
RIBAGORZA, a diftri& of Spain, bordering on the
E. part of Aragon, and W. part of Catalonia; watered by
the river Noguera de Ribagorza, about 40 miles long and
18 wide, N. of Balaguers. Fr
RIBAN, an ifland in the Red fea, near the coaft of
Arabia. N. lat. 17° 12!.
N. lat. 54°.
E. Jong.
RIBAT-
RIB
RIBATTUTA, Ital. in Mujic, is iterating, ftriking,
or founding the fame note again.
Risarrura di Gola is one of the graces ufed in fing-
RIB
ing; it is performed by beating or ftriking two diatonic
notes, the one flow and the other quick, in the following
manner. :
It differs from the fhake and the beat.
RIBAUDEQUEM, in Ancient Artillery, a projectile
machine ufed in the 11th and 12th centuries, which was a
large kind of crofs-bow: the crofs-bow was called in Latin
balitta, and fometimes manubalifta.
RIBAUVILLE,, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftridt of Colmar; 6 miles N. of Colmar.
The place contains 4950, and the canton 14,219 inhabitants,
on a territory of 85 kiliometres, in g communes.
RIBBAND, or Riszonp, a narrow fort of filk, chiefly
ufed for head ornaments, badges of chivalry, &c.
The knights of the Garter wear a blue ribband ; thofe of
the Thiftle, a green ribband, &c. {carfwife. See CoLiar,
Garter, &c.
Ripsanps, Figured. See Frcurep.
Rissanp, or Ribbon, in Heraldry, is the cighth part of
a bend. (See the article Benn.) It is borne a little cut off
from the outlines of the efcutcheon: thus; he beareth or,
a ribband, gules. ’
Rissanps, from rid and band, in Ship Building, are long
pieces of fir timber from four to eight inches fquare, ac-
cording to the fize of the fhip ; thefe are nailed on at certain
heights to the frame timbers of the fquare body, as the
harpins, which are oak of the fame fize, are nailed to the
frames of the cant-bodies; but the latter are fhaped ‘to the
form of the body by moulds and bevelling. The ends of the
harpins forward are faftened againit the ftem, and thofe abaft
againft the ftern-poft or tranfoms; the ribbands then uniting
with the harpins, envelop the fhip lengthways, and being
judicioufly arranged, with regard to their diftance from each
other, they not only fupport the filling-timbers, but by
being fhored at every frame, the whole fhip is f{upported, and
kept to her true fhape, until the plank 1s brought on, as they
are in that cafe removed one at the time, the bottom being
fhored againft the planks above. The difference between
cant-ribbands and horizontal or fquare ribbands is, that the
latter are only ideal, and ufed in the laying-off.
RIBBING Nats. See Nar. ‘
RIBBLE, in Geography, a river of Lancafhire, England,
has its fource in the high moors of Craven, Yorkfhire, and
pafling the lofty mountains of Ingleborough and Pennigaut,
enters the county of Lancafter near the town of Clitherhoe,
where it forms a boundary to the county. Taking a fouth-
weitern courfe, and receiving, in its progrefs through Lan-
cafhire, feveral fmaller ftreams, and the tributary rivers of
the Hodder, Calder, and Darwent, it pafles by Ribchetter
and Prefton. Soon after leaving the latter town it gradually
expands its ftream, and in a few miles prefents a broad
eftuary, and unites its waters with the Irifh fea. At this
place, the ferry from North Theols to Lytham, it is about
five miles acrofs at high water. This river is navigable, for
« mall coafters, as high as Prefton, and was formerly capable
of conveying vefiels much higher up the country. At
Prefton it is crofled by an aqueduét, for the Lancatter canal.
See Aiton’s Lancafhire Gazetteer, Beauties of England,
vol. ix. and Whitaker’s Hiltory, &c. of Whalley, gto.
RIBBLING, in Agriculture, a term ufed in fome diftris
tofignify a mode of ploughing fimilar to that of flob-fur-
*
-
rowing. It is praétifed in fome northern counties as well as
thofe of the fouth, andin the former appears to be the onlv
kind of winter fallow which is beneficial to lands of loofe
texture. Every furrow that is turned’ over on a foot of
folid ground, from the beginning to the end of the ridge,
that is every alternate furrow, is left untouched, and the
ploughed furrow is turned over above it, fo that the greateft
{urface poffible is expofed to the ameliorating influence of
the atmofphere, while, at the fame time, the loofe foil is out
of the reach of any little rills which may run down in the
different ruts. If the ftubble has been, in fome meafure,
luxuriant, and the nibbling done foon after the crop was taken
from the ground, the two ftrata of {tubbles meeting and fer-
menting under cover of the rid furrow, form, it is fuppofed,
an aid to the fubfequent manure, while the weeds are no lefs
{mothered than when the whole land is turned over by acom-
plete ploughing. Neverthelefs, it is believed, that when the
ufe of green crops becomes general, and the planting and
hoeing of them are neatly performed by the plough, this
will {tir the earth more perfeétly, and pulverize and clean
the foil more completely than any winter fallow or ribbling
can poffibly effet. See Tirnace.
RIBCHESTER, in Geography, a village and parifh in
the hundred of Blackburn, and county palatine of Lan-
cafter, England, is fituated at the diftance of five miles and
ahalf N.N.W. from the town of Blackburn, and eight miles
N.E. from Prefton. _Though now comparatively an infigni-
ficant place, it was in Roman times an important and flourifh-
ing town. Much difpute has taken place among antiqua-
ries with refpect to the original name of this ftation. Horfle
calls it the Coccium of Antoninus, and Camden the Rigo-
dunum of Ptolemy, the identity of which places is clearly
proved by the reafonings of Dr. Whitaker, in his Hiftory
of Whalley. (See Coccrum, in which arcicle for Rilchefter
read Ribchefler.) Mr. Whitaker, the author of the Hiftory of
Manchetter, however, contends that Ribchefter mutt have
been the Rerigonium of Richard of Cirencefter, and places
Coccium at Blackrode. But whatever was the name of this
place, it was indubitably among the number of Agricola’y
ftations, and appears to have been not merely a military poft
but the feat of manufaéturing and commercial profperity.
At that ‘period the river Ribble was navigable as high as
Coccium to veffels of no inconfiderable burden. OF this
fact, tradition, the veltiges of a dock, and numerous nautical
relics, afford inconteftible proof. To the filling up of the
river, by the gradual accumulation of fand, is to be attri-
buted, in part at leaft, the decay of this place after its
abandonment by the Romans. Many votive ftones, and
others with inferiptions, have been found here. Of thele
Dr. Whitaker has printed nine, but they do not furnith any
thing interefting either with refpe@ to the place or the people.
Various {maller antiquities have likewife been dug up here at
different periods; fuch as filver and brafs coins, an intaglio in
a ruby, gold rings, &c. “ But,”? to ufe the words of the
hiftorian of Whalley, “the noblett difcovery ever made
here, or perhaps in Britain, was in the year 1796, when the
{helving bank of the Ribble expofed the following remains
which feemed to have been depofited in an excavation of the
earth, filled up with foil of a different quality. Thefe
were,
RIB
were, 1. A large flat earthen veflel, extremely thick, with
the potter’s ftamp very diftinét, “ Boriedof, Boriedi officina.”’
2. An entire patera of copper, about fix inches diameter,
with a handle. 3. The imperfe€t remains of a fimiar
veflel. 4. A column, or colander of the fame fize and me-
tal. 5. Several concave and ‘circular plates of copper, with
loops behind, which had evidently been intended to faften
them perpendicularly againft a fhaft, in order to form a
Roman vexillum ; fuch are frequent upon ancient monuments;
but for a particular illuftration, the reader is referred to a
monument of Lucius Duccius, fignifer of the ninth legion,
in Horfley, pl. 63: 6. Avery fine helmet, of which the
ereft was a {phinx, afterwards unfortunately loft, the head-
piece enriched with baffo relievos of armed men fkigmifhing
with {words, and a vifor, confifting of an entire and beautiful
female face, with orifices at the eyes, mouth, and noftrils.”’
Thefe remains were depofited in the mufeum of Charles
Townley, efq. The helmet particularly merits attention.
From the f{tyle of the head-piece, it is conje€tured by the beft
judges not to be prior to the age of Severus 5 but the vifor
is amuch more delicate and exquifite piece of workmanship,
and is fuppofed not only to be Grecian, but, from the bold-
nefs of its lines, to belong to a period fomewhat anterior to
the laft perfection of the arts in that wonderful country.
For engraving of this helmet, with fome obfervations there-
on, fee « Vetufta Monumenta,’’ vol. iv.
The chief remains of this ftation, now vifible, are a muti-
lated rampart and foffe, furrounding a {mall eminence near
the church, which is called Anchor-hill, from the cir-
cumftance of feveral anchors having been dug up at its bafe.
In the fame place, fome years ago, an entire veflel was
difcovered at a great depth beneath the furface of the ground.
From this place the Roman road, called Watling-{treet,
ftretches itfelf in a northern dire€tion over Long Ridge
Fell, marked by ‘a long ftripe of green interfe¢ting the
brown heath of the mountain.’”? Hence it is denominated
Green Lane. It enters Yorkfhire a little below Dowford
bridge, and proceeds by Newton and Bentham to the cele-
brated ftation at Overborough.
The parifh of Ribchefter formerly conftituted a portion
of the original parifh of Whalley, but was fevered from it at
the fame time with that of Chipping. According to the
parliamentary returns of 1811, it contained 649 houfes, and
3544 inhabitants, including the townfhips of Ribchetter,
Dilworth, Dutton, Alfton, and Hotherfal.
‘At Stede, in the vicinity of Ribchefter, is a parochial
chapel, which Dr. Whitaker ftates to be the oldeft building
within the boundaries of ancient Whalley. It appears to
have formerly belonged to a guild, or hofpital, and, from the
ftyle of its architeCture, was probably ere¢ted in the reign
of king Stephen. The arches are flightly pointed, and are de-
corated with zigzag, and other Saxon ornaments. In the in-
terior is a ‘¢ coffin tomb”? of high antiquity, placed in front of
the pulpit, which is elevated upon an antique flone pediment.
The floor is covered with ancient grave ftones, fome of
which are inferibed with Longobardic or Norman chara¢ters.
An Hiltory of the origirial Parifh of Whalley and Honor
of Clitheroe, in the Counties of Lancatter and York, by
Thomas Dunham Whitaker, L. L. D., F.S. A. 2d edit.
ato. Lond. 1806. A Defcription of the Country, from
thirty to forty Miles round Manchetter, by J. Aikin, M.D.
ato. Lond. 1795. Hiftory of Manchefter, by John Whita-
ker, B. D., F.S. A. 2. vols. gto. 1771. Antiquitates Bre-
metonacenfes ; or the Roman Antiquities of Overborough,
&c. Lond. 4to. 1746. t
RIBECOURT, atown of France, in the department
of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
2
RIB
Compiegne. ‘The place contains 520, and the canton 8805
inhabitants, on a territory of 1824 kiliometres, in 21 com-
munes.
RIBEMONT, a town of France, inthe department of
the Aifne, on the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of St. Quentin; fix miles S.E. of St. Quentin.
The place contains 2345, and the canton 12,497 inhabitants,
on a territory of 1825 kiliometres, in 17 communes.
RIBENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, on the Tungufka ;
72 miles E.S.E. of Enifeiflc.
RIBERA, Francis pg, in Biography, a learned Spanifh
Jefuit in the fixteenth century, was born in the year 1527.
He purfued his academical ftudies at the univertity of Sa-
lamanca, and acquired a high reputation for his intimate ac-
quaintance, not only with the Latin, but with the learned
languages alfo. Having been ordained prielt, he retired to
his native place, that he might profecute his theological
ftudies in uninterrupted privacy, at the fame time he was
able to affift his brethren in the neighbouring country
churches. In the year 1570, when he was thirty-three
years of age, he was perluaded to unite himfelf with the
difciples of Loyola, and become a member of their fociety.
He now {pent moft of his time in interpreting the {criptures,
and filling the chair of profeflor of divinity, in their feminary
at Salamanca, till his death, which happened in the year
1591. He was author of numerous works, which are {till
in eftimation with the Catholics ; among thefe may be men-
tioned “¢ Commentarii in XII. Prophetas minores, fenfum
eorundem Prophetarum hiftoricum et moralem, {pe etiam
Allegoricum compleéientes,” 4to. “ Commentarii Hittorici
feleQi in XII. Prophetas minores,”? 8vo. ‘* De Templo,
et lis que ad Templum pertinent Lib. V.”? 8vo. And “ The
Life of St. Therefa, Foundrefs of the reformed Order of
the barefooted Carmelites,’”’ written in the Spanifh lan-
guage.
Rizera, Giuserre. See SPAGNOLETTO.
Rivera, in Geegraphy. See St. Jaco.
Risera de Muria, a town of Portugal, in Eftramadura ;
fix miles N. of Thomar.
RIBERAC, atown of France, and chief place of a dif-
trict, in the department of the Dordogne; 17 miles E. of
Perigueux. The place contains 2985, and the canton 11,194
inhabitants, on a territory of 85 kiliometres, in 13 com-
munes. N. lat. 45° 14’. E. long. 6° 25'.
RIBERAIRY, atownof Abyffinia; 25 miles E.N.E.
of Axum.
RIBES, in Botany, an Arabian name, properly belong-
ing to an acid-leaved f{pecies of Runum, fee that article ;
but which botanifts, for about 200 years pait, have, by
miftake, applied to the currant and goofeberry family, and
with thefe it now remains. They conftitute a natural and
very important genus.—Linn. Gen. 111. Schreb. 154. |
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1153. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 263. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 160. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v.2. go. Purfh 163. Juff. 310. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 146. (Groffularia; Tourn. t. 409. Gertn. t. 28.)
—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Pomacea, Linn. Cadi, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular, or
bell-fhaped ; the limb cut, about half way down, into five
oblong, concave, coloured, reflexed, permanent fegments.
Cor. Petals five, {mall, obtufe, erect, inferted into the rim
of the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, ere&,
inferted into the rim of the calyx ; anthers incumbent, com:
prefled, burfting at the edges. Pi. Germen roundifh, in-
ferior; ftyle cloven; ftigmas obtule. Peric. Berry globofe,
umbilicated, of one cell, with two lateral, oppofite, longi-
tudinal
RIBES.
tudinal receptacles. Seeds numerous, roundifh, flightly
comprefled.
- Eff, Ch.
inferted, with the ftamens, into the calyx.
Berry with many feeds. :
The whole genus is fhrubby. Leaves deciduous, alter-
nate, ftalked, fimple, lobed and notched. Flowers ftalked,
generally pale, greenifh or yellow, rarely reddifh. F'ruit
eatable.
Seétion r.
Calyx fuperior, tubular, five-cleft.
Style cloven.
Currants. Stem without prickles.
t. R. rubrum. Common Currant. Linn. Sp. Pl. 2go.
Willd. n. 1. Fl. Brit.n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1289. Woodv.
Med. Bot. t.74. Fl. Dan. t.967. (R. vulgaris, frudtu
rubro; Ger. Em. 1593.)—Cluiters fmooth, pendulous.
Flowers flattifh. Petals inverfely heart-fhaped. Leaves
obtufely five-lobed. Stem ereét.—Native of woods and
thickets, efpecially about the banks of rivers, in the north
of Europe. Undoubtedly wild on the banks of the Tees,
Durham. Mr. Rebfon. Commonly cultivated throughout
the cooler parts of Europe, for the fake of its gratefully
acid and wholefome berries, of which the white or blufh
variety is the fweeteit and mildeft. It flowers in May ; the
fruit is fearcely ripe before Auguft. The fem is bufhy,
three or four feet high, or more, if trained to a wall, with
fmooth blackifh bark. Leaves on long talks, fpreading,
doubly ferrated, veiny, bright green, fomewhat downy.
Flowers in ftalked, fimple, pale green, drooping clutters.
Petals yellowith-green. Bradeas ovate, minute, folitary
at the bafe of each partial flower-ttalk. Fruit quite pen-
dulous.
2. R. petreum. Rock Currant. Wulf. in Jacq. Mifc.
v. 2.36. Jacq. Ie. Rar.t. 49. Willd. n. 2. Fl. Brit.
n.4. Engl. Bot. t. os. (R. n. 818; Hall. Hitt. v. 1.
364. R. vulgaris rubro flore; Cluf. Hilt. v. 1. 119.)—
Clufters ereét, fomewhat hairy; pendulous when in fruit.
Flowers flattifh. Petals obtufe. Leaves acutely lobed.
Braéteas fhorter than the flower-ftalks. Stem ere&.—
Native of Germany, Switzerland, and the north of Eng-
land. This was confounded, even by Haller, with the
former. The aves are more downy, efpecially about the
veils ; more acutely lobed and notched. Cluflers ere& when
in bloffom ; their ftalks lefs elongated in the lower part.
Flowers often ftained with red. Berries bright red, very
acid.
3. R. fpicatum. Acid Mountain Currant.
* of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 240. t. 21. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Ait. n. 6.
Engl. Bot. t. 1290.—Spikes ereét. Flowers nearly {effile.
Petals oblong. Bra€teas fhorter than the calyx. Stem
ereét.—Native of the mountainous parts of Yorkfhire and
Durham, flowering in May. Differs from the lait in having
the inflore/cence {piked, not racemofe ; upright both in flower
and fruit. The derries are red and acid. Z
4. R. procumbens. Trailing Currant. Pall. Roff. v. 1.
p- 2.35. t.65. Willd.n.3. Ait n. 3.—Clutters ere&.
Flowers flattifh. Leaves bluntly lobed. Berries {mooth.
Stem procumbent. Plentiful, according to Pallas, on the
moffy fides of hills in Dauria, where its fruit is much in re-
queft. The proftrate fems are concealed among the mofs.
Leaves not bigger than thofe of a goofeberry-bufh, while
thefhrub is in bloffom, but afterwards attaining the fize and
fhape of the three foregoing. fpecies. Floqwers like R.
rubrum, but {maller, in ere& cluflers, which become droop-
ing as the fruit ripens. The derries are full as large as a
common Black Currant, but of a greenith-yellow, or, when
quite ripe, reddifh.
5. R. glandulofum. Glandulous Currant. Ait. n. 4.
Willd. n. 4. (R. proftratum ; L’Herit. Stirp.'v. 1. 3. t. 2,
Von. XXX.
Petals
Robfon Berti
Purh n. 4.)—Clufters erect, rough with glandular hairs.
Flowers flattifh. L.eaves acutely lobed, toothed, Bra@teas
minute. Berries hifpid. Stem creeping, with afcendin
branches. — Native of rocky moift places, in Newfoundland
Canada, and Pennfylvania, flowering in April and May.
Purfh. Habit and eaves not unlike the laft.. The flowers
are yellow, tinged with red. Berries red.
6. R.rigens. Stiff-branched Currant. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. 1. 110. Purfh n. 3.—Clutters lax, ere&t. Leaves
acutely lobed and toothed, reticulated, rugofe ; downy be-
neath. Berries roughifh. Branches ftraight.—On the
banks of lake Miftaffins, in Canada. Micdaux. In the
Penafylyanian mountains, &c. flowering in May and June.
Berries red, erect, as well as the flowers. Purfa.
7. R. trifidum. Notched-flowered Currant. Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 110, Purth n. 2. —Clutters lax, downy.
Leaves lobed, fmooth; downy beneath. Flowers flattith.
Segments of the calyx flightly three-cleft. Petals {patulate.
Berries hairy.—Found by Michaux neat Quebec, and at
Hudfon’s Bay ; by Purfh on the Pennfylvanian mountains,
&e. flowering in April and May. Flowers like R. rubrum,
but {maller. Calyx pale green. Petals purple, roundéd,
and blunt at the end. Berries réd.
8. R. albinerve. White-veined Currant. Michaux Boreal-
Amer, v. 1.110. Purihn. 1.—Clufters recurved. Berries
fmooth. Leaves fhort, acutely lobed, {moothifh, with pale
ribs.—Found by Michaux, about lake Mittaffins, Canada ;
by Purfh, on the Catfkill mountains, about New York, &c.
flowering in April and May. Flowers {mall, greenifh-yel-
low. Berries red.
9. R. alpinum. Taftelefs Mountain Cutrant. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 291. Willd. n.5. Fl. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t. 704
Jacq. Auftr. t. 47. Fl. Dan. t. 968.—Clufters ereé.
Bracteas longer than the flowers. Leaves fmooth 3 fhining»
at the back. Stem ereét. Berries fmooth.—Native of
mountainous woods and thickets, in Germany, Switzerland,
Sweden, Siberia, and the north of England, flowering in
April and May. The aves are rounder, and fearcely half
fo large as thofe of our common Currants, befides being
quite {mooth on both fides, and remarkably polifhed beneath.
BraGeas very long, acute, ere&t. Flowers {aid to be often
dioecious, from which caufe perhaps the fruit is feldom per-
fected in our fhrubberies, where this {pecies often occurs,
The berries are fomewhat elliptical, of a beautiful red,
but infipid and mucilaginous like a folution of gum
arabic.
to. R. refinofum. Refinous Currant. Puri n. 5. Curt.
Mag. t. 1583.—Whole plant vifcid, with glandular hairs,
Leaves with roundifh, notched lobes. Clufters ere&.
Flowers flattifh, Bracteas tongue-fhaped, concave, as
long as the flowers. Berries hairy. — Gathered on the
mountains of North America, by Mr. Frafer, from whofe
garden we obtained flowering {pecimens, in May 1810.
This has more the afpeét of a goofeberry-buhh, efpecially
in the fize and form of the aves, but the whole herbage is
clothed with downy, vifcid, feetid pubefcence. Clufters mot
like thofe of R. alpinum, but the partial flower -flalks are
extremely fhort, and the dra@eas more obtufe, and elliptical.
Flowers apparently dioecious, green, with fhort, rounded,
yellowith petals.
11. R. vifeofifimum. Glutinous Currant. Purfh n. 6.
—Whole plant very glutinous, with vifcid hairs. Leaves
heart-fhaped, bluntly three-lobed, ferrated. Clutters fhort,
erect. Calyx tubular. Petals oblong. Braéteas linear-
{patulate, fhorter than the pawial flower-ftalks. Germen
hairy.—Found by the late governor Lewis, on rocky
mountains in the interior of North America, flowering in
Dd June.
RIBES.
June. Whole plant covered with vifcous hair. F/owers
large, yellow. This approaches near to R. glandulofum,
Fl. Peruv. ‘v. 3. 13. t. 233. £6. It differs principally in
the /eaves beiag equally lobed, not having the middle lobe
projecting ; its long flender partial fower—lalks, and its petals.
urfh.
12. R. fanguineum.- Crimfon-flowered Currant. Purfh
n. 7.— Leaves heart-fhaped, three-lobed, ferrated, veiny ;
fmooth above; finely downy and hoary beneath. Clufters
lax, downy, twice the lensth of the leaves. Calyx tubular.
Petals oblong; ‘equal to the limb... Bra€teas obovate-{patu-
late, the dength-of the partial ftalks. Germen hairy.—
Gathered by governor Lewis, on the Columbia river, flower-
ing in March.’ Branches purple. Flowers beautiful, blood-
redor purple. It nearly approaches R. albinerviim, ¥ 1.
Peruv. 'v. 3.12. t. 232. f..5.. Pur/b.
13: R. malvaceum. Mallow-leaved Currant. — Leaves
heart-fhaped, flightly five-lobed, ferrated, veiny ; hifpid on
bothifides; denfely downy beneath. Clufters hairy, longer
than the leaves. Calyx tubular, hairy. Petals rounded,
not half fo. long as the limb. Braéteas ovate, acute, jagged,
half the length of the .calyx.—Gathered in California, by
Mr. Menzies. Branches. dark purple, downy, like every
part of the plant. Leaves an inch, or inch:and half, long ;
dark green above; white, and. denfely downy, beneath;
hifpid on both fides with glandular briftles. — Szipu/as beau-
tifully fringed. Cluflers denfe; on’ long, rough, glandular
fralks. Calyx red, about half an inch long, hairy, efpecially
its bafe, and. the germen. . Petals wedge-fhaped, rounded,
fomewhat cloven, fearcely one-third fo long as the fegments
of the limb, which are elliptical. Stamens the length of the
petals.’ . BraGeas elegantly jagged and fringed. This fine
{pecies feems nearly allied to the laft. We have not at hand
the Flora ‘Peruviana, to afcertain how far it refembles any
in'that work.
14.° R.vaureum.
—Very {mooth.
Golden-flowered Currant. -Purfhin. 8.
Leaves with three, obtufe, {paringly
notched lobes. Footitalks fringed at the-bafe: Clufters
denfe. Calyx tubular, flender. “Petals linear, half the
length of the limb. Braéteas linear, equal to the partial
ftalks. _ Berry fmooth.— Found by governor Lewis on the
banks of the Miffouri and Columbia, flowering in April.
We received wild {pecimens from Mr. John Bradbury, three
years ago. The /eaves have the afpe&t of Hawthorn.
Flowers in denfe cluiters. Calyx of a beautiful golden
yellow, about three-fourths of an inch long, not unlike the
flower of a Jonquill in miniature, and reported to have a
fimilar feent; its fegments oblong, obtufe. Peta/s purple.
Berries red or brown, confiderably larger than any garden
currants, and peculiarly delicious in favour. This very de-
firable plant is introduced into the gardens about London,
but we have not yet heard of its bloffoming.
15. R. recervatum. Recurve-brianched Currant. Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. v.13. 109. Purfh n. 9.—** Branches
recurved. Leaves dilated, downy, dotted with minute
glands; acutely lobed. Clufters reflexed. Calyx tubular,
{mooth.??——Found near Hudfon’s Bay. Michaux. Berries
black... We know nothing more of this {pecies.
16..R. fragrans. Fragrant Siberian Currant. ‘¢ Pallas
Nov. Ad. Acad. Petrop. v. ro. 377. t. 9.7? Willd. n. 6.
—Stem afcending. Leaves bluntly three-lobed, glandular
bereath.— Flowers bell-fhaped. Clufters erect.—Native of
Siberia, on mountains bordering on the country of the
Mongols, where no woods grow. The /fems are partly
procumbent, a foot and a half long; ther young branches
befprinkled with yellow, prominent, glandular dots. Leaves
on long ftalks, fmooth, ferrated, flightly five-angled, with
three or five lobes; very veiny, and moft glaucous beneath,
where alfo they are covered with minute crowded drops of a
yellow fragrant exudation, haying a fcent ftronger than
balm, approaching that of R. nigrum, n. 18, to which
fpecies indeed the prefent bears altogether a confiderable
refemblance. Clufers when in flower fhort, ereé, rigid,
denfe, of about ten white, highly fragrant, flowers. Calyx
bell-fhaped, deeply five-cleft. Petals lanceolate, acute,
{fpreading. Braédéeas deciduous, {maller. than in R. pro-
cumbens, n. 4. Clufters elongated in fruit, itill ere, ex-
cept when bent down by its weight. Berries reddifh, ex-
tremely fweet, the full fize of R. rubrum. « PaHas.
17. R. trifle.» Dark-coloured Siberian Currant. « Pallas
Nov. Ac. Acad. Petrop. v. 10.378.’ Willd. n. 7.—
Root. creeping. Stems erect, leafy in the upper part.
Leaves five-lobed. Clufters fmooth, pendulous. Flowers
flattifh. Petals revolute.—Native of lofty mountains in Si-
beria, towards artary. The creeping root throws up
many erect /fems, two or three feet high, bearing at their
fummits a few {cattered /eaves, refembling thofle of R.
rubrum. Cluffers always pendulous. Flowers reddifh with-
out, yellowifh within.» | Berries {mall, black, infipid ; their
deep-red juice very ufeful for colouring wines. Pallas.
18. R. xigrum.(Common Blaek Currant. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 291.) Willd. n- 8.) Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 1291.
Woody. Med. Bot. .t.75. Fl. Dan. t. 556. Lob. Ic.
v. 2. 202.—=Stem ere&t. Leaves five-lobed, acute. Cluiters
pendulous, downy;, witha feparate flower-italk at their bafe.
Calyx tubular-bell-fhaped. Berries {mooth.—Native of wet
bufhy iflands, and banks of rivers, in Sweden, Germany,
Switzerland, and England; flowering in May. In gardens it is
well known, and valued for the fruit, whofe flavour indeed,
ina recent itate, is not acceptable to every body; but its
jelly.is both»agreeable, and. ufeful for.colds, fore-throats,
&c.; whence this currant has been named Squinancy-berry
or Quinfy-berry. The buh is of a more humble ftature than
R. rubrum; the aves have a {trong fcent, if bruifed, re-
fembling Savine, and are fomewhat glutinous when young.
The tube of the ca/yx is more elongated than in any other
Britifh fpecies.- Berries large, black, each bunch always
accompanied at the bafe by a folitary ftalk, whofe fruit is
larger and earlier than the reft. Dr. Withering made the
truly curious obfervation, that the petals are {fometimes
changed into /amens, of which we know no other in-
itance.
19. R. foridum. Penfylvanian Black Currant. L’Herit.
Stirp..v. 1. 4. Willd. n.9. Ait._n. 8. - Purfh n. 10.
(Ribefium nigrum penfylvanicum, floribus oblongis; Dill.
Elth. 324. t. 244. f. 315.)— Leaves three-lobed, cut ;
dotted with glands on both fides.. Clufters pendulous,
downy. Calyx fomewhat cylindrical. . Bra¢teas about as
long as the germen.—Found in hedges and woods, from
Canada to Virginia; flowering in Apriland May. Flowers
pale yellow. Berries black. Pur/h. The refinous dots
on both fides of the /eaves diltinguith this fpecies, and its
“flowers are more oblong than thofe of nigrum, with much
larger bra@eas.
Se&t. 2. Goofeberries. Stem prickly.
20. R. Diacantha. Two-thorned Cluiter Goofeberry.
Pallas: Reife-v. 3.7722. ts I.:f. 2.4 Rofl. v. 1. p. 2.136.
t. 66. Linn. Suppl. 157. Willd. n. ro. Ait. n. 9.—
Prickles in pairs, in the place of ftipulas. Leaves wedge-
fhaped, deeply three-cleft, bluntly notched. Clufters nearly
ere@t. Berries fmooth.—Native of gravelly, ftony, faline
foils in Dauria. Introduced into England by Mr. Bufh, in
1781. Hardy, flowering in May and June. dit. Lin-
nzus fays it flowered every year at Upfal, without bearing
fruit.
RIBES.
fruit. Poflibly the flowers may be in fome meafure dioe-
cious, like thofe of R. alpinum, a {pecies which this nearly
refembles, except the prickles.
21. R. fawatile. Rock Siberian Goofeberry. “ Pallas
Noy. AG. Acad. Petrop. v. 10. 376.” Willd. n. 11.—
Prickles feattered, fetaceous. Leaves wedge-fhaped, bluntly
three-lobed. Clufters ereét.—Native of granite mountains
in Siberia. Allied to R. fs and R. Diacantha.
Berries red, fourith, fcarcely fo big as our red currant.
Pallas.
22. R. reclinatum. Procumbent Goofeberry. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 291. Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 10.—Prickles folitary or
three together. Branches reclining. Stalks fingle-flowered,
with a three-leaved braétea. Germen hairy.—Native of
Germany and Switzerland. Said to have been long known
in our gardens. It much refembles the following.
23. R. Grofularia. Rough Goofeberry. Linn. Sp. Pl.
291. Willd. n.13. Ait. n. 11. Fi. Brit. n.6. Engl.
Bot. t. 1292. (R. Uva crifpa; Fl. Dan. t. 546.)—
Prickles folitary or three together. Branches fpreading.
Footftalks hairy. Stalks fingle-flowered, with a two-leaved
braGtea. Fruit hairy.—Common throughout Europe, but
fo generally cultivated, that we can hardly fay when we
meet with it truly wild. The /brub is buthy, of humble
growth, armed, as every body knows, with fmooth awl-
fhaped prickles, either folitary or ternate, in the place of
Sfipulas.. Leaves bluntly three-lobed and cut, flightly
downy. Flowers drooping, folitary, green, on downy
{talks, with two feparate braéeas. Calyx cup-fhaped. Ger-
men and fruit rough with prominent briftly hairs. The
berries are either green, yellow, or red.
24. R. Uva crifpa. Smooth Goofeberry. Linn. Sp.
Pl..292. Willd. ne a4. Ait. n. 12. Fl. Brit. n. 7
Engl. Bot. t. 2057. Schmidel Ic. 5. t. 1. (Uva crifpa;
Fuchf. Hift. 187. Ger. Em. 1324.)—Prickles ufually
three together. Branches f{preadmg. Footftalks hairy.
Stalks fingle-flowered. Braéteas united into atube. Fruit
{mooth.—Native of Europe, and as commonly cultivated
as the laft, of which we believe it a mere variety. The
number and conneétion of the Jdraéeas are certainly va-
riable.
25. R. aciculare. Needle Siberian Goofeberry.—Prickles
{cattered, -fetaceous; thofe under the buds five together,
combined. Leaves bluntly five-lobed and cut. Stalks
fingle-flowered. Bra¢teas united. Fruit fmooth.—Ga-
thered by Laxmann in Siberia. We find two fpecimens in
the Linnean herbarium of this, which feems a very diftin&
fpecies, hitherto negle€ted by every author. The habit is
like the three laft, but the dranches are copioufly armed all
over with fine, itraight, prominent, needle-like, brown
prickles, befides the larger ones, five together, and-com-
bined by a broad bafe, which ftand, like thofe of common
Goofeberries, under the buds. Flowers folitary, drooping,
on longifh fimple ftalks, with two or three braéieas, ufually
combined, about the middle. Calyx bell-fhaped, fmooth,
red. Petals white, obovate, one-third the length of the
limb. Germen {mooth.
26. R. ferox. Strong-thorned Californian Goofeberry.
—Frickles feattered, fetaceous, very flender; thofe under
the buds three together, combined, awl-fhaped. Leaves
five-lobed, rugofe, downy beneath. Stalks fingle-flowered.
Segments of the calyx lanceolate, twice the length of. its
tube, Germen and fruit prickly.—Gathered by Mr.
Menzies, near Port Trinidad, in California. . A very fine
remarkable {pecies, whofe branches are thickly covered with
tawny, fetaceous, prominent prickles, about ‘a quarter of
an jnch in length, and armed under each bud, with three
-very ftrong and purigent awl-fhaped ‘ones, an’ inch ‘long,
having fometimes leffer reflexed prickles at their bafe. *'The
leaves ate not unlike our common’ Goofeberries, but more
rugofe; and denfely downy at the back.’ Flower-falts
folitary, fimple, longer than the leaves. Braéteas feattered.
Flowers drooping, a and handfome. ~@a/yx three quar-
ters of an ineh long, funnel-fhaped, downy and briftly ; as
far as we can judge’ from the dried fpecimens ‘it feems of a
fine crimfon; its fegments lanceolate, ribbed, ereét, ‘full
twice as long as the tube. Petals half the length of thefe
fegments, ereét, pale, obtufe. Stamens the length of the
calyx. Anihers large, oblong-heart-fhaped;’ pointed. > Ger-
men covered with prominent, glandular briftles, which
harden, as the fruit advances; into {tiff, fharp fpines, fo
that whatever its flavour may be, it feems’perfeétly inaccef-
fible, in the common way of eating goofeberries. - f
27. R. rotundifolium. Round-leayed’ Carolina Goofe-
berry. Michaux Boreal-Amer, v. 1. 110. ° Purfh n/11.—
« Prickles folitary under the buds. Leaves nearly orbi-
cular, flightly downy; lobes roundifh, obtufe. Stalks
fingle-flowered. Limb of the calyx tubular. « Fruit
f{mooth.’? Native of the high mountains of Carolina.» 47-
chaux. wae
28. R. hirtellum. Small-leaved Canada Goofeberry:
Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 111. | Purfh n.'12.—Prickles
folitary under the buds, {mall. Branches fomewhat hifpid.
Leaves three-cleft half way down, flightly notched. Stalks
fingle-flowered. Fruit fmooth.—Found amon rocks, on
the Allegany mountains ; from Canada to Virginia, flower-
ing in May and June. Purfh. Leaves {mall. Berries red.
29. R. gracile. Slender-italked Blue Goofeberry. Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. vy. 1. 111. Purfh n. 13.—Prickles
folitary under the buds, very fhort. Leaves acutely lobed
and cut, downy on both fides. Footftalks lender. Flower-
ftalks capillary, erect, moftly two-flowered. Calyx bell-
fhaped. Fruit {mooth.—On rocks, and in mountain mea-
dows, from New York to Carolina, flowering from April
to June. Calyx {mooth. Berries purple or blue, of an
excellent tafte. Purfh.
30. R. flamineum. Scarlet-flowered Californian Goofe-
berry. — Branches finely hifpid. Prickles feveral under
each bud, unequal. Leaves rounded, flightly three-lobed,
{mooth. Stalks two-flowered. Calyx hemifpherical ; limb
in very long parallel fegments. Petals equal to the limb.
Stamens thrice as long.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies in Cali-
fornia. Branches brown, clothed with copious, extremely
fine, prominent, capillary briftles. Prick/e under each bud
rigid and fhasp, about one-third of an inch long, with fe-
veral fmaller deflexed ones at the bafe. Leaves not an inch
long, quite fmooth, veiny; paler beneath ; orbicular and
entire, except three very flight, fearcely notched, obtufe
lobes, at the extremity. Foesiffalks fhort, {mooth. Flower-
Jfialks longer than the leaves, hifpid, glandular, two-flowered,
with a fingle roundifh dradéea. Flowers {carlet. Calyx
with a very fhort hemifpherical tube, hifpid like the germen ;
its limb five times as long, in five oblong, parallel, fmooth
fegments. Petals of the fame length, but rather paler and
more obtufe. Stamens capillary, {traight, parallel, pro-
jeGting (four of them at leaft) with the /y/e, full an inch
out of the flower; the fifth is perhaps abortive. We know
nothing of the fruit of this beautiful {pecies, whofe flowers
have the afpect of a Fuch/ia.
31. R. triflorum. 'Three-flowered Mountain Goofeberry
Willd. Hort. Berol. v. 1. 61. t. 61. Purfh n. 14.—
Prickles folitary under each bud. Leaves fmooth} three or
five-lobed, notched. Stalks about three-flowered.- Petals
{patulate, undulated. Style “prominent, “hairy, divided!
Dd2 Fruit
RIBES.
Fruit fmooth.—On the Blue mountains; from Pennfyl-
vania to Virginia, flowering in May and June. Purfh. The
partial flower-flalts ace very long. Bradeas very fhort.
Flowers. yellowifh-green, with white petals. Berries pale
red, fmall.
32. R. oxyacanthoides. Tawthorn-leaved Goofeberry.
Linn, Sp. Pl. 294. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n.13. Purfh
n. 15. (Groffularia oxyacanthe foliis amplioribus, e finu
Hudfonio; Dill, Elth: 166. t. 139.)—Branches clothed
with briftly. prickles ; thofe under the buds larger, moftly
folitary. . Leaves {mooth, three-lobed, notched. Stalks
one or two-flowered, fhorter than the footftalks. Fruit
fmooth.—Native of rocky places at Hudfon’s. Bay, Canada,
New, York, &c. flowering in April and May. It is faidto
have been cultivated in England in 1705, and was certainly
in the Eltham garden near thirty years after. This re-
fembles the common goofeberry in habit, but the branches
are covered with innumerable, fine, briftly, not very rigid
prickles, befides the larger ones, proper to this fection of
the genus, which are moftly folitary under each bud. Leaves
larger, more deeply cut than in our goofeberries, {mooth.
Flowers drooping, one or two oneach italk. Fruit globofe,
the fize of a black currant, purple, or almoft black, with
a cerulean bloom on the furface ; flightly'acid.
33. R. lacufiris. Swamp Clutter.Goofeberry. « Perf.
Syn. v. 1.252.” Purfhn. 16. (R. oxyacanthoides; Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 111.)—Branches clothed with
briitly prickles; thofe under the buds numerous, aggregate,
pungent.—Leaves deeply lobed, doubly notched. Cluiters
downy, drooping, many-flowered, Fruit hifpid.—Found
in fwamps, on the mountains, from Canada to Virginia,
flowering from April to June. Purfb. Many perfons have
confounded this with the laft, aud we are not fure that the
two are diftinguithed by our leading gardeners. We received
{pecimens of the prefent from the Edinburgh garden, fo long
ago.as 17.82, with the name.of R.oxyacanthoides. Another,
in the herbarium of the younger Linneus, is marked ar-
matum ; an excellent name, given, we believe, by fir J. Banks
or Dr. Solander, who could not overlook the characters
which fo clearly diftinguifh this from the true oxyacanthoides.
Thefe are not only the deeply divided vine-like /eaves, but
the numerous, combined, afcending prickles, almoft palmate
at their bafe, which ftand under each leaf or bud; and alfo
the long hairy glandular cluiters of flowers, with a prickly
germen and fruit. The branches are befet with abundance of
rigid prickly briftles, rather ftronger than thofe of omya-
canthoides. Vhe flowers are of a dull, tawny, yellowifh-
green. “ Berries amber-coloured, or brown.”? Pur/h.
34. R. cynofbati. Thorny-fruited Clutter, Goofeberry.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 292. Willd. n. 16. Ait. a. 14... Purth
n. 17. Jacq. Hort. Vind. y. 2. t. 123.—Branches {mooth.
Prickles one or two under each bud, fimple. Leaves five-
lobed, downy beneath. Clufters drooping, of few flowers.
Fruit. armed with flrong thorns.—On the fides of hills and
rocks, in the Allegany mountains, and in Canada, flowering
from Aprilto June. Flowers green. Berries dark brown, and
covered with thorns. Pur/b. Miller cultivated this {pecies
at Chelfea, where we believe it {till remains. The eaves
are-downy.on both fides, but efpecially beneath. Prickles
mottly folitary, variable in fize ; thofe on the large globular
fruit are peculiarly ftrong.
We have thus more than doubled. Willdenow’s catalogue
of fpecies, in this genus. Some of the newly difcovered
ones, from North America, arelikely to prove great acqui-
fitions, to our kitchen gardens, provided they bear fruit in
this climate; of which, till the experiment is fairly made,
there muft always be fome uncertainty.
Rises, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, deci-
duous, fhrubby kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are; the
common currant (R.rubrum); the common black currant
(R. nigrum); the rough-fruited goofeberry (R. groffu-
laria) ; the {mooth-fruited goofeberry (R. uva crifpa) ; the
procumbent goofeberry (R. reclinatum) ; the hawthorn-
leaved currant (R. oxyacanthoides) ; and the prickly-fruited
currant (R. cynofbati).
Tt is obferved by Martyn, that the firft fort is very apt
to be infefted with the aphis ribes, in which cafe the green
leaves become red, pitted, and puckered. It has been long
cultivated in the garden, and greatly improved. There are
feveral varieties ; as the common fort, with {mall red fruit ;
with white fruit; with pale fruit, commonly called the
Champaign currant, differmg only in being a pale red or
flefh-colour. But fince the white and red Dutch currants
have been introduced and become common, the old forts
have been almoft banifhed, and are now rarely to be found.
And Mr. Forfyth mentions the fine new white Dutch, long-
branched red, {triped-leaved red-white currant, and large
pale and red Dutch. 2
There are alfo the fweet currant, the {mall-fruited cur-
rant, and a variety with blotched leaves, which is kept in
fome plantations ;. but as the variegation is apt to go off
ue the plant is vigorous, it f{earcely deferves a place in
them.
Of the fecond there is a fort often termed the American.
black currant. The berries have a very peculiar flavour,
which many perfons diflike ; but are commonly eaten in
puddings in fome parts, and make a tart little inferior to the
cranberry. he juice of which is alfo frequently boiled
down to an extraét, with the addition of a fmall proportion
of {ugar ; in this {tate it is called rob, and ufed in fore throats
and other difeafes.
. Currants in general are by fome fuppofed the moft ufeful
of all the {mall fruits, as ferving either for table or culinary
ufes, as well as for wine, and continuing long in fucceflion
with due. management. The black fort is feldom fent to
table as a fruit for that purpofe. But it is a fort which
may be infufed in f{pirit of any kind, in which way they
make a good liquor.
The third, or rough-fruited, fort is a low branching fhrub,
which has the berries pendulous and hairy. And it is ob-
ferved by the editor of Miller’s Dictionary, that if the
bracteas do not diftinguifh this from the following, the
roughnefs or fmoothnefs of the berries will hardly do it, as
Mr. Robfon has found that feeds from the fame plant will
produce both rough and fmooth fruit. He cannot regard
them as different {pecies. _
The fourth, or {mooth-fruited, fort has the berry pulpy;
fubdiaphanous, pale, amber-coloured, red or purple, fmooth,
andthe pulp watery and fweet. And Martyn remarks, that
the goofeberry feems to have been formerly a fruit in very
little efteem, but has received fo much improvement, that it
is now become valuable, not only for tarts, pies, and fauces,
both frefh and preferved in bottles, but as an early defert fruit,
and preferved in fugar for winter ufe to anfwer the fame
purpofe.
It may be noticed, that the moft important varieties of the
red kind are, the hairy, {mooth, deep red, damfon or dark
red, blucith, red rafpberry, early black-red, Champaigne,
&c. » Of the green kind; the hairy, {mooth, Gafcoigne,
ra{pberry, &c. Ofthe yellow kind; the great oval, great
amber, hairy. amber, early amber, large tawny or great mo-
gul, &e. And of the white kind; the common, white-veined,
and large cry{tal. But befides thefe, there is the rumbul-
lion, large ironmonger, {mooth ironmonger, hairy globe, and
innumerable
RIBES.
innumerable others, fome of very large fize, annually raifed
from feed, weighing from ten to fifteen pennyweights ; how-
ever, there are {mall ones better tafted. There are faid to
be upwards of two hundred, at leaft in name.
And Mr. Forfyth has given the following lift from the
catalogue of Metis. Kirk, nurferymen, at Brompton, near
London.
The fupreme red, perfe€tion red, high theriff of Lanca-
fhire, royal George, unicorn, rough amber, white walnut,
Ackerley’s double bearer, royal oak, Mifs Bold’s, fparkler,
Ackerley’s Rodney, Hampfon’s Czfar, Monk’s Charles
Fox, St. John, pigeon egg, Worthinglowe’s conqueror,
golden eagle, Royder’s triumph, Williamion’s yellow hornet,
Swingham, Jackfon’s golden orange, Goliah champion,
hairy amber, Nixon’s golden eagle, Worthington’s white
lily, Laylord’s feedling, Nixon’s white heart, Riding’s old
England, Bakeley’s Swingham, Tillotfon’s St. John.
The fame writer alfo adds another litt of the largeft new
forts which were fhewn in Lancafhire, in the fummer of 1800,
with their colour and weight, as communicated by Mefirs.
MsNiven, nurferymen, Manchetter.
Red Sorts of Goofeberries,
a dwt. gr.
Alcock’s king 2 - - - 16 15
—— duke of York - - - 16. jo
Boardman’s royal oak + - - 1514.
Brundrit’s atlas - - - - Lz 1
Chapman’s peerlefs - - - 15 21
Dien’s glory of England - - - 16 2
Fairlow’s lord Hood - - - 14 5
Fifher’s conqueror - 2 a > 17 19
Fox’s jolly f{moker - - - 15 8
Hall’s porcupine - - - - 13 20
Lomax’s victory - = - - 16 11
Mafon’s Hercules - - - - 13 16
Taylor’s volunteer - : - - 16 17
Worthington’s glory of Eccles - - Ig: ho
Yellow Sorts of Goofeberries,
Brundrit’s fir Sidney " a L TF 22
Davenport’s defender - - g 15 12
creeping Ceres - - 16 0
Hamnet’s Kilton- - = 538 3 ¥5\ 9
Hill’s golden gourd - - - 13°17
- royal fovereign = i a 17 10
Leigh’s prince of Orange - - - rg oO
Parkinfon’s goldtinder - - - 14-5
Robinfon’s crudus - - e 13-17
Withington’s fceptre = - a 13> 7
Green Sorts of Goofeberries.
Blakeley’s chiffel - - : - 17 yO
Boardman’s green oak -* - - 14 1
Brundrit’s tickle Toby - - . 14 6
Chadwick’s hero - 2 = a 13, 10
Dean’s lord Hood - e “ 5 15 10
Mill’s Langley-green = - - 16 2
Read’s fatisfaétion - - - B54
Robinfon’s ftump - - = : 13.21
gig maik - - - 13 20
¥ates’s duke of Bedford - - - 14 11
White Sorts of Goofeberries.
Adam’s fnow-ball - - - - 12 22
Ackinfon’s white hall - - - 14 8
Chapman’s Highland white- 9 - sg
Davenport’s lady - - é 2 15 0
Gibfon’s Apollo - L re “ 14 20
Holding’s white muflin 4 S 9 %3 00
Kenyon’s white noble - a zi 13 6
Moor’s white bear - x J 4 14 12
Woodward’s white fmith - 7 y 7 2
It is obferved, that in favourable feafons, many of the
above forts have been known to weigh more by feveral
pennyweights.
In all the fouth-eaftern parts of Lancafhire there are a
great number of little focieties held by the labourins and
manufa@turing’ workmen, and the gardeners ; where thefe
forts of fruits are annually exhibited, under many different
arbitrary names and defignations, as Goliahs, golden drops;
&c. and their merits and capabilities of improvement
finally fettled and decided upon.
The fifth fort has the fruit when ripe commonly. dark
purple, but fometimes red or even yellow. B
In the fixth kind the fruit is fmall and round, the fize and
fhape of a currant ; the colour at firlt purple, but avhen
ripe, dark purple with a blue bloom ; it is fmooth, on a fhort
flender ftalk.
Method of Culture in the Currant Kind.—In general thefe
may be raifed with great facility from layers, feed, cuttings,
and in other ways. In the firft of thefe modes, when the
trees are cut low, Mr. Forfyth advifes the laying down fome
of the branches either in the winter or {pring feafons, when
the ground in the quarters or rows is dug, which fhould al-
ways be done annually. In the autumn following, thefe
layers will have made fine roots; then they may be taken,
off, and planted out where they are to ftand, and they will
mottly bear fine fruit in the following fummer.
But in the fecond method, the cuttings fhould be chofen
of the ftrongeft and {traighteft fhoots, which fhould be cut
fix or eight inches in length, and be planted out on an eat
or north border, in the early autumn, at the diftance of 4
foot from row to row, leaving only a few inches out of the
ground. In this way they may be kept perfe@tly free from
weeds. In dry weather, during the fpriug, they fhould be
often refrefhed with water. Some alfo raife thef plants
from fuckers ; but this is a method that fliould be avoided
as much as poffible, as they never growgliandfome, aud are
apt to throw out fuckers afterwards. ;
With refpeé& to the feed, it fhould be fown on a border
where the mould is fine, either in the autumn or early in the
{pring ; and the young plants, when they appear, be kept.
free from weeds. When they have attained fufficient
growth, they may either be planted out where they are to
remain, or be fet out in nurfery-rows. However, Mr.
Forfyth obferves, that under the bufhes that have been
covered for late fruit, plenty of felf-fown plants may con-
ttantly be found, which he advifes to be planted out by
themfelves. And thofe who make currant-wine may, he
thinks, fave the feed, after the fruit is fqueezed, and dry it :
it may then be fown in the manner directed above; by which,
moft probably, fome fine varieties may be obtained. As in
many gardens there ftill remains, the fame writer remarks,
a finall fort ofsred and white currant not worth cultivating,
he would advife thofe who have any of them to root them
up, and plant in their room the large red and white Dutch,
the long-bunched yed, and Champaigne large pale rec.
Thefe kinds of plants may be planted out, itas fuggefted,
either in the quarters, or‘fingle rows round the edges of the
quarters, in the gardens or other places. And he would
particularly
RIBES.
\
particularly recommend planting a few againit a fouth or
weit wall, or paling, which will produce fruit much earlier
than in the quarters, &c.: -alfo to -plant fome between
other fruit-trees, on north walls, or palings, for later crops.
Thefe may be covered with double nets, to preferve them
from birds ; tucking in afew fern branches between the two
nets, which will prevent the heat of the fun and drying
winds from fhrivelling the fruit. In the quarters they
fhould be covered with mats, for the fame purpofe ; at the
{ame time permitting all the leaves to remain on the bufhes,
to fhade the fruit, and make it keep the longer in a proper
tate.
In what refpeéts the pruning of the bufhes, the work
may, according to the above author, be begun in the month
of November, and continued till March, as it fuits the
planter’s convenience. And they fhould never be left too
thick of wood; but a great deal depends on the manage-
ment of them in fummer, to have {trong and fine wood -for
the following feafon. If they have been negleéted for fome
years, and fuffered to run up to long naked wood, they
mult, in his opinion, be cut down near the ground: they
will then fend forth fine ftrong fhoots. In this cafe, he
would recommend heading down every other tree, and cut-
ting the others partially, by taking out every other branch
as near as can be to the ground, unlefs they are trained up
with fingle tems ; in which cafe, it will be neceflary to cut
them as near as poflible to where the branches begin to break
out and form the head. And in the winter pruning, the
itrongeft and fineft fhoots fhould be preferved, leaving them
from nine to eighteen inches long, according to their
{trength, and from eight to ten inches apart, and as regular
as poflible from top to bottom of the tree; taking care to
cut out all the dead and weak fhoots. And particular at-
tention fhould be paid in fummer, keeping the middle of
the bufh open to admit the fun and air; preferving the
fineft and ftrongeft fhoots that are neareft the ftem. Some,
he remarks, are fond of training them up with fingle ftems,
to a confiderable height, to form fine round heads, which
are very ornamental, if not fuffered to run up too high; as,
in that cafe, they are liable to be broken by the wind, if
not well fupported by ftakes. Care muft be taken not to
let the fhoots run to more than fix inches long, becaufe fuch
fhort fhoots will not be fo liable to be damaged by the wind
as long and weak ones are, efpecially when loaded with
fruit. He prefers dwarfs from three to four feet high.
Further it is added, that the fame manner of pruning, &c.
will do for black currants; but as they grow itronger than
the red or white, the fhoots fhould be left thinner, and laid
in longer, which will make them produce larger and finer
fruit. And thofe againft walls and palings fhould have the
fhoots laid in thinner than thofe in the quarters, and trained
as horizontally as poffible; fhortening them, in the winter
pruning, to a foot or eighteen inches, according to the
ftrength of the fhoots.
As this fort of fruit is very liable to be devoured by ear-
wigs, which take fhelter under their leaves and branches,
bundles of bean-{talks fhould, he fuggelts, be hung up
fome time before the bufhes are covered with mats or nets.
If proper attention be not paid to this, the fruit will gene-
rally fuffer very much from thefe infeéts. After the bufhes
are coyered,. take the mats off once in three.or four days,
and kill the earwigs that have got in the bean-ftalks, which
it. will be neceffary ftill to keep hung up. Ass there is a
fweetnefs in the infide of bean-ftalks, which attraéts the ear-
wigs, they very readily take fhelter in them from rain. By
proper attention to thefe direCtions, thefe deitructive infects
may be kept under, and the greater part of the fruit be
preferved. It is alfo neceflary to carefully ftock up ali
fuckers at the roots of the trees, and keep them as clean as
poflible ; otherwife they will prevent the fun and air from
penetrating to the roots, and greatly weaken and injure the
trees.
Thefe plants are very liable to be infefted with aphides,
and other infeéts, from which they fhould be freed as foon
as poflible, by proper picking, wafhing, and liming.
Culture.in the Goofeberry Kind.— All thefe are capable of
being raifed by cuttings and layers, as well as feeds for new
varieties. They are likewife fometimes increafed by fuckers 5
but this laft is not an advifeable method, as the plants raifed
in this way are more apt to throw ont fuckers than thofe
from cuttings or feed. The cuttings fhould be made from
the f{trongett and cleaneft fhoots, and have the length of
feven or eight inches, being planted out in the early autumn,
in a border which has an eaftern or northern afpe¢t, at the
diftance of about a foot from row to row, and having only
about three or four inches of each cutting above the ground ;
as by this means they may be kept clean by hoeing. They
require to be frequently watered in the {pring feafon, when
the weather is dry.
Alfo the layers may be laid down any time in the autumn
or {pring feafon, in the common way, when they readily
{trike root ; and in the following autumn, may be taken
off, and planted out where they are to remain, or in nur-
fery-rows, to get ftrength to be finally planted out.
And the feed obtained from the ripened berries fhould
be fown in the autumn, or very early {pring, in a bed
of fine light mould. -The plants come up readily, and
fhould be kept perfeétly clear from weeds; and when they
have had one or two years’ growth, may be removed into
nurfery-rows, in the fame manner as the currants, to remain
till they become fit fer being planted out. In this way
good new varieties may be procured. Mr. Forfyth re-
marks, that the gardeners in the vicinity of Manchelter
have made great additions to the varieties of this fruit ; and
by mixing up a rich foil to plant them in, carefully water-
ing, fhading, and thinning the fruit, have brought the berries
to a fize much larger than had been before met with in this
country ; but that thofe of fome of the layers are muck
thicker in the {kin, and not fo well flavoured as many of the
old forts. 2
In moft parts of Lancafhire, this isindeed a kind of fruit
which is uncommonly fine, and of a very large fize, in both
the red and white kinds; and in many of the fouthern and
fouth-eallern parts, very great attention, in numerous. In-
ftances, is beftowed in the cultivation and improvement of
it, fo as to render it of an unufual magnitude and fine ap-
pearance. ‘This is chiefly effeGted by much more pruning
and thinning than that which is generally had recourfe to
with thefe forts of plants, frequent digging about them, and
a very liberal ufe of well rotted {table dung incorporated
with the mould which is applied near their roots.
As to the methods of planting out this fort of plants,
they are extremely various. According to Mr. Forfyth,
the market gardeners in the vicinity of the metropolis fet
them out in rows from eight to ten feet apart, and fix from
plant to plant. In cafes of this fort, he recommends that
they fhould be pruned in the autumn, as about the begin-
ning of Oétober, when the ground between them may be
planted with coleworts, or beans for a {pring crop; and by
{fo doing, there will be no occafion to tread over the ground,
and hurt the coleworts, in pruning the bufhes; as, before
the goofeberries begin to fhoot, the coleworts will be all
cleared off the ground.
if you find it convenient, ) a good coat of rotten dung fhould
9 be
And after this time, (or before,”
RIBES.
be laid on the ground ; then dig it, and plant early potatoes,
but not fo near as to hurt the goofeberries by their growth,
He likewife advifes that the roots of goofeberries fhould be
kept clear to admit the fun and air. In {mall gardens, he
would recommend planting them ina quarter by themfelves,
at the diftance of fix feet between the rows, and four feet
from:plant to plant: they may be planted round the edges
of the quarters, about three feet from the path; in which
eafe, the ground will be clear for cropping, and a man, b
fetting one foot on the border, an gather the goofeberries,
without injuring the crop that may be on the border. Alfo
that, as they like a rich foil, they fhonld be dunged every
year, or at leaft have a good coat of dung oice in two years.
They fhould never be planted under the fhade of other trees,
as it injures the flavour of the fruit. oni
And in refpeét to the pruning of the bufhes, it is a prac-
tice too common, Mr, Forfyth thinks, to let them branch
out with great naked ftems, fuffering them to remain in that
ftate for years. When that is the cafe, they fhould be cut
down near to the ground in the winter pruning, as it will
make them throw out fine {trong healthy {hoets,. which will
bear fruit the fecond year; and as goofeberry bufhes, in
general, bear their fruit on the fecond year’s wood, great
care fhould be taken in f{ummer to keep the middle of the
buth clear, to admit a free» air, leaving the fineft and
ftrongelt fhoots from fix to ten inches diftant from each
other. This will, he conceives, help to ripen and harden
the wood. It is a practice with fome to fhorten the fhoots
in the autumn or winter pruning, which fhould be always
near to a wood-bud; which may be known by its being
fingle, whereas fruit-buds are in cluiters. The fhoots may,
he thinks, be fhortened to eight or ten inches, according to
their itrength. Some leave them at full length for three or
four years, thinning out thofe that are fuperfluous. He
advifes always to leave a proper number to be trained up
between the full length fhoots, to fucceed them when they
are tired of bearing ; and then to cut the old ones down to
the young ones that are to fucceed them. By thefe means,
the bufhes may always be kept in a conftant ftate of bearing.
Thofe branches which were cut the firft year will, in the
fecond, throw out fhort dugs, or fpurs, which produce the
fruit ; and thefe fhould by no means be cut off, unlefs the
branches are in a fickly ftate, and réquire to be cut clofe
down, when the bufhes are overloaded with fruit. It will
then, in his opinion, be neceflary to cut out a good deal of
the old wood, to affiit nature to recover herfelf, after pro-
ducing fo great a quantity of fruit. .
He likewife advifes that great attention be paid to the
cultivation of the early and late forts. In fome old gardens,
in particular, there are, he obferyes, very valuable forts that
have been of late too much negleéted ; he would therefore
recommend to thofe who live in the neighbourhood-of fuch
gardens, to obferve their time of ripening, and to cultivate
thofe efpecially which are early and late. And he. adds,
that.it is a practice with fome to clip the tops of goofeber-
ries with a pair of garden fhears, as they would clip a thorn
bedge; this he by no means approves of, as the fruit will not
be half the fize, nor of fo fine a flavour, as when the bufhes
are kept clear of fuch wood as is unneceflary.
Farther it is recommended that great care fhould be taken
in {pring and fummer to ftock, or grub up, all the fuckers
from the roots of the bufhes, leaving their {tems clear and
unencumbered. -And as many of the Lancafhire forts are apt
to grow horizontally, and the branches frequently trail on the
ground, which renders them liable to be broken by high
winds, efpecially when they are loaded with fruit, he would
recommend two or three hoops to be put round them, to
which the branches may be tied, to fupport them, - and
prevent their being broken by the wind, or any other
means. .
In cafes where it is wifhed to have them late, they fhould
be planted on north walls and palings, between the other
trees, when they may be removed as the trees begin to meet.
If,laid in thin, they will bear very fine and handfome fruit.
He would advife to plant the fineft late fort; as by this
method the table will be fupplied much longer than by the
common cuitom of planting in quarters of the garden.
Alfo immediately after pruning, he always applies the
platter compofition to the ends of the fhoots and cuttings ;
and he finds it of great ufe in preventing the exhalation of
the fap, and preferving the cuttings till they, take root, and
become eftablifhed.
It may be obferved that thefe forts, of plants are very
much infefted with a {mall green caterpillar, which frequently
devour both leaves and fruit: great attention, is of courle
neceflary to obferve their firft appearance on the bufhes ; as,
if not deftroyed early, they increafe fo fait, that they foon
devour all the leaves, and the fruit is good fornothing. Itis
noticed, that they firlt appear generally on the edges and
under-fides of the leaves. In order to deftroy them, he
advifes to take fome fifted quick-lime and lay it under the
bufhes; but not at firltto let any of it touch the branches
or leaves; then fhake each bufh fuddenly and {martly,
and the caterpillars will fall into the lime; if the buh be
not fhaken fuddenly, the caterpillars, on being a little dif-
turbed, will take fo firm a hold as not eafily to be fhaken off.
After this is done, fome of the lime fhould be fifted over
the bufhes ; this will drive down thofe which have lodged
on the branches. The caterpillars ought, in his opinion,
to be {wept up next day, and the bufhes well wafhed with
clear lime-water mixed with urine; this will deftroy any
caterpillars that may {till remain, and alfo the aphides, if
there are any on the bufhes at the time. ,
Forcing.—It may be itated, that fometimes trees of the
goofeberry and currant kinds are forced for early, fruiting,
by means of artificial heat in fruit-forcing-houfes, hot-walls,
or forcing-frames, &c. For this purpofe, fome young trees
fhould be planted}in largifh pots, one plant in each, and
being advanced to a full itate of growth for plentiful bear-
ing, fhould be introduced in any of the above forcing de-
partments that are in work by fire, or hot-bed heat, or both,
in forwarding any principal forts of fruit-trees, plants, or
flowers, at the proper feafon, as about January or February,
in which the fame culture, in regard to the degree of heat,
and «ther requifites, neceflary for the other trees, &c. is
{uitable for thefe. Water fhould be given occafionally to
the earth in the pots, and fometimes after the fruit is fet,
throwing it lightly over the branches on a warm funny
day ; and they will thus produce ripe fruit in April or the
following month.
However, the forcing of this fort of fruit is now feldom
much attended to, in confequence of other finer forts being
fo common.
Rises, in the Materia Medica. The ribes rubrum or
rutilum, i.e, the red currant, and the ribes album, or white
currant, are varieties of the fame fpecies, and therefore the
fruit of both, confidered in both a botanical and medical
fenfe, is perfectly analogous. The red currant is abundantly
cultrvated in our gardens, from which we are fupplied with
the fruit ; and this, on account of its grateful acidity, is
univerfally acceptzble, both in its natural ftate, and as vari-
oufly prepared by art with the addition of fugar. The juice
is a moft agreeable acid in punch. If equal weights of
picked currants and pure fugar are put over the fire, the
liquor
RIB
liquor that fepavates fpontaneoufly is a moft agreeable jelly.
The juice of red currants, with fugar, is a common bever-
age at Paris, where it is generally preferred to orgeat or
lemonade. Dr. Cullen claffes this fruit with the alimentary
plants, and being generally and exclufively confidered as
uch, it was not received in the Britifh catalogues of the
Materia Medica till that publifhed in a late colle¢tion of the
London Pharmacopeia: but it is omitted in the laft edition-
The medicinal qualities of red currants appear to be fimilar
to thofe of the other fubacrid fruits, which are efteemed to
be moderately refrigerant, antifeptic, attenuant, and aperient.
Hoffman and Boerhaave had great confidence inthe efficacy
of thefe fruits in obftinate vifceral ob{tru€tions. They may
be ufed with confiderable advantage to allay thirft in mott
febrile complaints; to leffen an increafed fecretion of bile ;
and to correct a putrid and fcorbutic ftate of the fluids, efpe-
cially in fanguine temperaments ; but in conttitutions of a
contrary kind they are apt to occafion flatulency and in-
digeftion,
The ribes nigrum, or black currant, has berries larger than
thofe of the red; and befides poffeffing the properties in
common with the “fruétus-acido-dulces,”? they are alfo
faid to be peculiarly ufeful in fore throats ; and to manifeft
a diuretic power in a very confiderable degree. In cafes of
inflammatory angina, they may be advantageoufly employed
to anfwer the fame intentions as gargles, and from their
efficacy in this refpe@t they have acquired the name of
« Squinancy berries,” but the proofs of their diuretic powers
feem to want confirmation. With refpe& to their former
application and utility we may obferve, that the black cur-
vant jelly im common domettic ufe is rendered lefs efficacious
by having too much fugar in its preparation. ‘The fruit
botlyof this, and of the red currant, afford a pleafant wine ;
and that made of the former is mentioned by Haller, “ ex eo
optimum vinum fieri non deterius vinis verioribus viteis,
quando annuum eit.?? The leaves of the black currant are
extremely fragrant, and have been recommended for their
medicinal virtue, which Bergius {tates to be ‘¢ mundificans,
pellens, diuretica.” An infufion of thefe leaves is faid to
have the tafte of green ‘tea, and when prepared from the
young leaves, is tofome people very agre le. The offici-
nalipreparations of the black currant berries in the late
London Pharmacopeia (but omitted in the laft edition) were
the «“ Syrupus ribis nigri,’? and the “ Succus ribis nigri
infpiflatus.’? Woodv. Med: Bot. See Currants.
RIBIERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri@ of Gap; four miles N.W. of Sifteron. , The
place contains 1301, and the canton 3939 inhabitants, ona
territory of 180 kiliometres, in nine communes.
RIBNA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Ko-
livan, on a river of the fame name; 112 miles S.E. of
Krafnoiarflc. ;
RIBNIK, a town of Silefia, m the principality of
Ratibor ; 13 miles E. of Ratibor. N. lat. 50° 3! E. long.
18° 30'.—Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Walachia,
on the Alaut; 44 miles S.of Hermanitadt. N. lat. 45°
19!.. E. long. 24° 8. Alo, a town of European Turkey,
in Walachia, on the Ribnik, otherwife Rymnick, as it is
called by the Ruffians ; the fee of a ‘Greek bifhop. From
a fevere battle fought here m 1789, between the Auftrians
and Ruffians againtt the Turks, Suwarrow, who commanded
the Rufians, and defeated them, was created by the emperor
Leopold, a count of the empire, invelted with the order of
St. Andrew, and honoured with the title of Rymnifki by
the emprefs Catharine ; 100 miles S. of Jafli. N. lat. 45°
36'. E. long. 27° 4!.—Alfo, a river of Walachia, which
RIB
runs into the Siret, near Dubravitza, on the borders of
Moldavia.
RIBNITZ, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg,
fituated on a large lake, near the mouth of the Reckenitz ;
tamiles N.N.E. of Roftock. ‘N. lat. 54° 17’. E. long.
12 3
RIBNITZY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 64 miles S. of Braclaw.
RIBNO, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Oberland ;
15 miles N.N.E. of Ortelfburg.
RIBNOJI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Jaroflavl; 40 miles W.N.W of Jaroflavl. N. lat. 57° 45!.
E. long. 39° 14!. :
RIBS, in .4natomy, the bones forming the fides of the
chett, attached to the {pine behind, and terminating in front
in portions of cartilage, fome of which are fixed to the
fternum, the others not. The former are called true, the
latter falfe ribs. They are defcribed in the article Lune
of this Cyclopzdia. }
Riss, Fraétures of the, in Surgery. See FRACTURE.
Riss of Fifh. There is a very great variety in the thape
and other peculiarities of the ribs of fifh. They are in fome
{mooth, and flattened fideways, asin the cyprini; in others
they are rounded, as in the cotti and gadi. In the cyprini
the feveral fpecies have from thirteen to nineteen ribs on a fide,
and the vertebre are from thirty-feyen to forty-nine in number,
differing greatly in number in the feveral {pecies of the fame
genus. The ribs in many fifh adhere to the vertebrz, by
means of cartilages, and feem only continued parts of them ;
but in others they are free and loofe, and do not fo much as
touch the vertebre. We find inftances of the firft fort of
ftruéture in the cyprini, falmons, &c. and of the other in
the perch, the gadi, and the pleurone€tz. In the {pinofe
fithes, the laft vertebra always is terminated by a pair of
broad apophyfes placed perpendicularly, and touching one
another, and by means of cartilages thefe are fixed to the
bene of the tail. Artedi Ichthyolog. See Anatomy of
ISH.
Rigs, a figurative expreffion for the timbers or frames of
a fkip, arifing from the comparifon of it with the human
body, as the keel with its keelfon, to the back-bone, and
the timbers to the ribs ; for the former unite and fupport the
whole fabric, fince the ftem and ftern-frame, which are
raifed on the ends of the keel, may be faid to be a continu-
ation of it, and ferve to conne& and inclofe the extremities
by the hawfe-pieces forward, and the tranfoms abaft, as the
keel forms and unites the bottom by the floor-timbers.
The idea, if carried further, may in a manner reprefent the
mufcular parts of the human fabric ; for the wales, clamps,
and thickftuff, at the different heads of the timbers, are as fo
many mufcles or {trong ligaments to conneét the ribs together,
while the planking of the bottom and top-fides, which is
thinner, may be compared to the fkin or covering of the
pe and hence planking is often termed, /£imming the
ip.
Riss of a Parrel, fhort flat pieces of wood hollowed on
the back, having a hole near each end, through which the
parrel rope is reeved. See PARREL.
Riss, among Jewellers, the lines or ridges which=2dif-
ae the feveral parts of the work, both of brilliants and
rofes.
RIB-WORT, in Botany. See PLANTAIN.
RICA, among the Romans, a veil with which the ladies
covered their heads.
RICA, fix0:, furgical bandages for the head.
RICARD, Dominic, in Biography, was born at Tou-
loufe in 1741, and-entered into the congregation of the
5 Chriftian -
- Plutarch.
RIC
Chriftian doGtrine, and became a diftinguifhed profeflor in
it. He quitted the fociety after fome years, and took up
his refidence at Paris, where he employed himielf in in-
itru€ting youth, and in literary purfuits. He was cele-
brated for his deep knowledge in the Greek re pres and
engaged in the great tafk of tranflating the whole works of
Between the years 1783 and 1795 he-publifhed
his verfion of that philofopher’s moral works, in 17 vols.
12mo.: of the Lives he only publifhed 4 vols. 12mo. He
publifhed likewife a poem, entitled « La Sphere,”’ in eight
cantos, 8vo. 1796, which contains a fyftem of altronomy
and geography, enriched with notes, and notices of Greek,
Latin, and French poems, treating on a{tronomical fub-
jets. Ricard died in 1803. He was diftinguifhed by
modeft merit, and the practice of all the focial virtues.
RICAUT, Sir Paur, was the youngett fon of fir Peter
Ricaut, knight, fuppofed to be a merchant in London.
The time and place of the birth and education of the fubje&
of this article are not known, but he appears to have tra-
velled during feveral years in Europe, Afia, and Africa.
In the year 1661 he went out as fecretary to the earl of
Winchelfea, the ambaffador extraordinary to the Ottoman
Porte. Here he remained eight years in that poft. In
1663 he publifhed the treaty or capitulation concluded be-
tween Charles If. and the Turkifh fultan, in which was the
favourable article, that Englifh fhips fhould be exempted
from fearch for foreign goods. When his conneétion with
the Porte was expired, he was appointed Englith conful at
Smyrna, an office which he held about eleven years, to the
entire fatisfaction of the Turkey company, and with the
refpect and attachment of all the Europeans in that city.
Upon his return, he employed himfelf in literary occupa-
tions till the year 1685, when he accompanied the earl of
Clarendon, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, as his fecretary for
Leinfter and Connaught. He was nominated by- James II.
one of his privy-council for Ireland, and judge of the ad-
miralty court, aad received the honour of knighthood.
After the reyolution, he was fent by king William as his
refident to the Hanfe towns, in which poft he continued ten
years. He died in England, in the year 1700, literally
worn out with age and long fervices. Independently of his
high charaéter as a diplomatift, he was celebrated for his
knowledge of the learned languages, and alfo of the modern
Greek, the Turkifh, the Italian, Spanifh, and French.
As an author, he is known by “ The prefent State of the
Ottoman Empire ;” “ The prefent State of the Greek and
Armenian Churches ;”? ** A Continuation of Knolles’ Hif-
tory of the Turks.” He continued « Platina’s Lives of
the Popes’? to his own time. He tranflated from the
Spanifh, « The Royal Commentaries of Peru, by Garcilaffo
de la Vega.” A paper of this author is inferted im the
Tranfaétions of the Royal Society, ef which fociety he was
amember. Biog. Brit.
RICCATI, Vincenvr, a learned Italian Jefuit, was born
at Caftel-Franco, in the territory of Trevifo, about the year
1707. His genius inclining him chiefly to the {tudy of the
mathematical fciences, he cultivated them with fo much
*fuccefs, that his fuperiors feleCted him as a proper perfon
to teach them to others. He accordingly was chofen pro-
feffor in the college at Bologna, which he filled with reputa-
tion till the fuppreflion of the order in 1773. He died in
17755 pe behind him feveral works that teftify his high
merit as a fcholar, among which is * A Treatife on the
Inte Calculus,’ in 3 vols. 4to. He did not confine
himfelf to the abftra& mathematics, but paid much attention
to the ftudy of hydraulics; a branch of fcience of the ut-
moft importance in all the northern Italian ftates, where the
Vor. XXX.
Rise
many and rapid rivers expofe the country to continual in-
undations. In this line he appears to have rendered con-
fiderable fervice to the Venetian territories; fo much fo,
that in 1774 a gold medal was ftruck in his honour.
RICCI, BarruoLemew, a learned Italian, was born at
Lugo, in Romagna, in the year 1490. He ftudied under
Amateo in Bologna, and for further improvement vifited
Padua and Venice. He pafled fome years in the houfe of
Giovanni Cornaro, as preceptor to his fon, who was after-
wards a cardinal; and for feme time kept a fchool at Ra-
venna. Through the recommendation of Calcaquini, he
was invited, in 1539, to the court of duke Hercules IL. of
Ferrara, to undertake the education of the princes Alfonfo
and Luigi. He there acquired the affeGtion of his pupils,
and the efteem of the learned. He died at the age of 79, in
the year 1569. ‘he principal works of Ricci are Ora-
tions,”’ and ‘ Epiltles,’”? the Latin {tyle of which has been
much applauded, as a happy imitation of that of Cicero.
The moft laborious of his works is entitled « Apparatus
Latinez Locutionis,’”’ being a Latin lexicon, in two parts ;
the firft containing the verbs, and the fecond the nouns with
which they are jomed. It was printed at Venice in 1535.
Ricci alfo wrote a comedy in Italian profe, entitled « Le
Balie,’’ which is well fpoken of ; and fome Italian poems,
which have appeared in colleCtions.
Ricct, MarTnew, an eminent miffionary, was born of
a good family at Macerata, in 1552. He was fent to ftudy
the law at Rome, where, at the age of 19, he entered inte
the fociety of Jefuits. He had not completed his theo-
logical ftudies, when he followed to the Eait Indies his pre-
ceptor, father Valignan. During his abode at Goa, he
applied afliduoufly to the language of China, to which
country he was deftined. In 1583 he arrived at Caoquin,
in the province of Canton, where he fettled with fome
brethren. To ingratiate himfelf with the Chinefe, he made
a map of the world, in which, whilft he corre¢ted their pre-
judices with refpect to the relative dimenfions of their
country, he complied with them by altering the meridian,
fo as to place it in the centre. It was not till 1600 that
he was able to gain accefs to the emperor at Peking, em-
ploying the pretext of bringing him a prefent of curiofities
from Europe. He was well received, and permitted to
fettle in that capital, where his mathematical fkill rendered
him acceptable to the court and men of letters. He pur-
chafed a houfe there, and built a church ; and the progrefs,
fuch as it was, which Chriftianity made in the metropolis of
China, was greatly owing to his exertions. He died there
in 1610, leaving curious memoirs on China, of which father
Trigault made ufe in his work « De Chriitiana Expedi-
tione apud Sinas.”’
Ricct, MicHart-ANnGELo, an Italian cardinal, and able
mathematician, in the 17th century, was defcended from a
noble family originally from Bergamo, and born at Rome
in the year 1619. In the courfe of his {tudies, he conceived
a powerful inclination for the mathematics, which was con-
firmed by Torricelli, during the temporary refidence of that
philofopher at Rome. Under his direGtions, Ricci’s genius
was carefully cultivated, and his progrefs reflected great
honour both on the tutor and pupil. After Torricelli left
Rome, he maintained a regular correfpondence with Ricci,
who proved and illuftrated in a happy manner feveral of his
new theorems. In the year 1666 Ricci publifhed a little
work, entitled s* Exercitatio Geometrica,” &c. in which
he determined, in a purely geometrical manner, the tan-
gents, and the maxima and minima of curves, chiefly com-
pared with conic feétions of the firft order. This piece was
reprinted by the Royal Society of London, as a treatife of
Ee the
RIC
the greateft utility ; and it was warmly applauded by fome
-of the moft diftinguifhed mathematicians of the age. Hav-
ing been induced to enter into the church, he relinquifhed
his mathematical purfuits, and wholly devoted his attention
to the affiduous ftudy of divinity, and the duties of his new
profeffion. He filled feveral ecclefiaftical ftations, and,
‘among others, thofe of fecretary to the congregation of in-
dulgences and of relics, and of confultor of the holy office.
In the year 1681, pope Innocent XI. raifed him to the
purple; an honour which he wifhed to decline, but was
compelled to accept by the pontiff’s abfolute command.
He poffeffed it, however, only for a fhort period, as he
died in 1682, at the age of 64. One of his “ Differta-
tions” is preferved in cardinal Brancaccio’s « Works ;””
another in Charles Dati’s ‘ Epiftola ad Philalethos ;”” and
one of his «* Letters”? in the firft volume of the collection,
entitled “¢ Lettere Memorabili.”” Gen. Biog.
Riccr, SEBASTIAN, was born at Belluno, near ‘Trevi-
fano, in 16593 and having difcovered an early genius for
painting, was conducted by his father to Venice, and placed
as a difciple with Fred. Cervelli, a Milanefe artilt of good
reputation, with whom he ftudied for nine years. He
afterwards improved his practice at Bologna, &c. by copy-
ing, and obtained the favour and patronage of Rannuccio,
the fecond duke of Parma. ;
By the liberality of that prince, he was honourably main-
tained at Rome, ftudying the produétions of the beft ancient
and modern mafters; and there he formed that manner
which diftinguithes his produétions, and exhibits a ready
and fplendid invention, a free and matterly handling of the
pencil, with a full luxuriance of colour, which for a while
raifed him into the higheft efteem, and confequently im-
menfe employment. :
Having quitted Rome, he returned to Venice, where he
was fo eagerly folicited for his paintings, that he had
fearcely time to take even neceflary refrefhment. His fame
{pread through Europe, and he received an invitation to the
court of the emperor at Vienna, to adorn the magnificent
palace of Schoenbrun. From thence he was encouraged to
vifit London, where he was immediately and inceflantly
employed by the court, the nobility, and perfons of for-
tune. Here he remained ten years, with his nephew and
co-adjutor, Marco Ricci, who painted flilfully feenes of
archite@ture and landfcape. He acquired great wealth by
the immenfe occupation he found; and then returned to
Venice, where he paffed the remainder of his days till his
75th year, when he fhared the common fate of mortals.
Ricci was one of the few, comparatively fpeaking, who
enjoy during their lives the utmott extent of their fame. In
his hiftory, that portion of renown which attaches to him
died with him, or nearly fo. In fact, he was a machinitt,
one who, being converfant in the rules of art, and fkilful in
the application of the means, dazzled where he could not
inftruét, and deluded by ingenuity without judgment, and
art without expreffion. His works are to be found in many
of our great houfes, as well as thofe of his nephew. At
Chelfea and at the Britifh Mufeum there are confiderable
pictures of his painting, but they do not rife in efteem by
continued obfervation; and yet, unfortunately, they had
{ufficient influence in their day to lead the artifts aftray from
the contemplation and imitation of the works of Raphael,
and the greater mafters of the Italian fchool.
RICCIA, in Botany, a cryptogamic genus of plants,
named by Micheli after a Florentine Senator of his time,
Peter Francis Riccio, Prefident of the Order of St. Ste-
phen, Auditor of the Academy of Pifa, &c.3 who feems
to haye been rather a patron, than a practical cultivator, of
Bale
botanic {cience.—Mich. Gen. 106. t. 57. Linn. Gen. 566.
Schreb. 766. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Schmidel. Ic. t. 44,
45. Hedw. Theor. 116. t. 29. Jufl. 8. Lamarck Illuttr.
t. 877.—Clafs andorder, Cryptogamia Hepatice. Nat. Ord.
Alge, Linn. Hepatica, Sufi.
Eff. Ch. Male, {cattered warts ?
Female, Germen globofe, funk, with the flyle, in the
frond, Cap/ule expofed, globofe, crowned with the ftyle,
of one cell. Seeds numerous, elliptical.
The genuine f{pecies of this genus grow on the earth,
flourifhing in the damp cold feafon of the year, and difap-
pearing in hot dry weather. Hence they are fuppofed to
be annual. Such are three of the Britifh {pecies; R. glauca.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1605. Engl. Bot. t. 25463; R. minima.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1605. Mich. Gen. t. 57. £63 and R. cry/-
tallina. Linn. Sp, Pl. 1605. Dickf. H. Sicc. fafe. rg. 20.
Mich. Gen. t. 57. f. 3.—Thefe form {mall glaucous patches
on the ground, in fandy or moift places. The other two
Britifh fpecies float in frefh water pools; R. fluitans. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1606. Engl. Bot. t. 251, whofe frond is forked
and linear; and R. xatans. Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2.
708. Engl. Bot. t. 252, whofe inverfely heart-fhaped
form, with copious linear ferrated feales, like radicles, be-
neath, has a very peculiar appearance. Nothing is known
refpecting the fructitication of thefe two lait. R. fruticulofa
of Dickfon is a Jungermannia, Engl. Bot. t. 2514, pro-
bably a variety of the furcata.
Riccra, La, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Cam-
pagna di Roma; 1 mile S.E. of Albano.
Riccra, a town of Naples, in the Molife; 15 miles E.
of Boiano. .
RICCIARELLI, in Biography.
DAnIeEL DA.
RICCIOLI, Jonn-Baprisr, a learned Italian Jefuit,
and an eminent philofopher, aftronomer, and mathematician,
in the 17th century, was born at Ferrara, a city belonging
to the papal jurifdiétion, in the year 1598. At the age
of 16 he commenced his noviciate in the fociety of Jefus.
When he had completed his courfe of academical ttudies, he
was felected to teach fucceflively rhetoric, polite learning,
philofophy, and f{cholaftic divinity, in the Jefuits’ colleges
at Parma and Bologna. While he difcharged the duties of
thefe appointments with great fuccels and reputation, he
devoted his leif{ure hours to the ftudy of geography, hydro-
graphy, chronology, experimental philofophy, and attro-
nomy. During the difpute which took place in his time,
refpecting the correétnefs of the Gregorian reformation of
the calendar, he inlifted himfelf among the advocates for
the reform, and publifhed fome little pieces on the fubject at
Bologna, under the name of Michael Manfredi. His prin-
cipal attention, however, was occupied on productions of
greater magnitude. He projected a grand work, which
was to be divided into three parts, containing a complete
fyitem of philofophical, mathematical, and aftronomical
knowledge. The firft of thefe parts was given by him to
the public in 1651, in two large and clofely printed volumes,
folio, under the title of «* Almagelttum Novum, Aftrono-
miam Veterum, Novamque Compleétens,” &c. In imitas
tion of the « Almagelt’’ of Ptolemy, it prefents us with a
collection of the difcoveries and improvements in aftrono-
mical {cience, from the earlieft ages of antiquity to the
author’s own time. From a table of contents which is pre-
fixed te this part, it appears that the fecond part was to be
divided into five books, treating of trigonometry, or the
doétrine of plane and {pherical triangles, aitronomical in-
{ftruments, the optical part of altronomy, geography, and
chrenology ; and the third part into ten boks, compre-
hending
See VoLTERRA,
R1LC
hending obfervations of the fun, of the moon, of ecliptes,
of the fixed ftars, and planets, with precepts, and tables of
the primary and fecondary motions, and other aftronomical
tables. But if thefe parts were completed, they do not ap-
pear to have been ever publifhed. In the year 1661 he
prefented to the world his “ Geographiz et Hydrographix
- Reformate, Libri XIT.’’ in folio; anid in 1665, his “ Af-
tronomie Reformate, Tomi duo,”’ folio, 2 vols. in one.
The laft work which he publifhed made its appearance in
1669, under the title of * Chronologia Reformata, et ad
Certas, Conclufiones Redacta,”’ folio, 2 vols. in one. Fa-
ther Riccioli died in 1671, when about 73 years of age.
RICCOBONI, Lovwis, a comic a&tor and writer, born
at Modena in 1674, devoted himfelf to the theatre under
the name cf Lelio. In 1716 he came to France with his
family, and diftinguifhed-himfelf as the beft actor at the
Theatre Italien. Religious motives induced him to quit
the ftage in 1729; and he died in 1753, much eiteemed for
the decency of his manners, and his amiable difpofition. He
was the author of a number of comedies, which had a tem-
porary fuccefs, and which contain much comic humour.
One of them, entitled « Les Coquets,”’ was revived a few
years fince. He alfo wrote “ Penfées fur la Declamation ;”’
«« Difcours fur la Reformation du Theatre ;’’? ‘* Obferva-
tions fur la Comedie et fur le Genie de Moliere;’’ “ Re-
flexions Hiftoriques et Critiques fur les Theatres de ?Eu-
rope ;”? and ‘* Hiftoire du Theatre Italien.”
The “ Hiftory of the Italian Theatre’? of this author, in
2 vols. 8vo., publifhed in 1730 and 1731, and the “ Reflec-
tions Hiitorical and Critical upon all the ‘Theatres of Eu-
rope,” which appeared in 1738, contain many judicious ob-
fervations relative to the ftage in general, and, in the work
firft mentioned, to the lyric theatre in particular.
Ricceson1, Marre Lasoras pe Mezirres, fecond
wife of the preceding, was born at Paris in 1714. After
her marriage, fhe became an aétrefs on the Italian theatre,
which fhe quitted with her hufband. She is known by fe-
veral novels, written with much elegance of ftyle and refine-
ment of fentiment. The principal of thefe are «* Lettres de
Miladi Catefby ;” «* Lettres de la Countefle de Sancerre ;”’
«¢ Lettres de Sophie de Valiere ;’’ “« Erneftine ;” «* Lettres
de Milford Rivers.’? She alfo tranflated Fielding’s Amelia ;
and fhe appears to have had a predile€tion for England, in
which the {cene of feveral of her novels is laid. She was in
habits of intimate correfpondence with Garrick. The
works of Madame Riccoboni were printed. colle€tively in
10 vols. 12mo. Neufchatel, and g vols. 12mo. Paris. They
rank among the moft elegant and ingenious of the clafs, and
difplay much knowledge of the ae affeGtions, and great
decency joined to vivacity. Several of her novels have been
tranflated into Englifh. She died in 1792, reduced by the
troubles of the time to a ftate approaching to want.
RICE, in Botany. See Oryza.
Rice, in Rural Economy, the name of a plant cultivated
in many parts of the Eait, in South Carolina, in America,
aad alin Spain, Italy, and Piedmont. Itis a plant that
save to the height of about two feet and a half, with a
alk not unlike that of wheat, but fuller of joints, and with
leaves refembling that of the leek. It branches out into
feveral ftems, at the top of which the grain grows in cluf-
ters, and each of them is terminated with an ear or beard,
and inclofed in a yellow rough hufk. When ftripped of
this, they appear to be of an oval fhape, of a fhining white
celour, and almolt tranfparent. It is probably a plant that
cannot be cultivated in this climate, as the experiments faid
to be made by fir Jofeph Banks, and detailed as below by a
wrter in the tenth volume of the Agricultural Magazine,
RIC
feem to fhew. It is ftated, that the dry or mountain rice
which he received lait year from the Board of Agriculture
for trial, had been procured at a confiderable expence by
fir John Murray, from the neighbourhood of Serinagur, a
city in India, fituated at the foot of mount Imaus, where
fnow lies till late in the {pring ; and where the climate has
been juppofed to refemble that of England fufficiently to
make it probable that the vegetable produétions of the one
would equally fucceed in the other country ; he therefore
coniiders it as a duty owing to the patriotic exertions of fir
John, to give the Board fome account of the refult of the
trial of it, made at Spring-Grove, near Hounflow, in Mid-
dlefex. He adds, that it was not till near the end of May,
when the famples, being of fix forts, were delivered out by
the Board, and they were fown immediately, on the 2 1/t day
of that month, on fix fmall beds in a garden, under the
fhelter of a paled fence, in a fouth expofure. And the
grains were fown very thin, in order that the progrefs of their
vegetation might be better noted: in a very few days they
appeared above ground. The feafon being warm, with
a moderate {upply of rain, it was feldom neceflary to water
them; however, when they appeared to flag, which gene-
rally happened after three or four dry days had taken place,
they were well fprinkled with a watering pot. He fays, that
in lefs than a month they had grown feveral inches high ;
each fort had acquired an appearance very different from the
reft ; {ome were pale green, and had broader blades; fome
were deeper coloured, and narrower in the blade; and one
fort had a brown hue on the whole plant ; and the bafes of
the leaves in this kind were nearly black.
He further ftates, that during the month of Auguft, they
tillowed much more than he has obferved any other corn to
do ; fo much fo, that although they had been fown very
thin, they became a denfe, compact bed of plants: the
blades in feme of the kinds ftanding as clofe, or clofer to
each other, than the thickeft fown barley ever does. At the
clofe of the month the blades were from a foot to eighteen
inches high; the plants continued to tillow, each root
having by this time produced from ten to twenty off-fets,
but no fymptom of a rifing-{tem was at all obfervable. In
the middle of September they had {till continued to tillow,
and the blades to ftrengthen, fo that fome of them were at
leaft two feet long. As the frofts of the autumn were now
nearly approaching, it became an objeét of fome importance
to examine the itate in which the plants really were, in or-
der to afcertain the probability of their having produced
ears, or poffibility of their having ripened corn, if they had
been fown a month or two earlier.
The moft careful infpection was therefore made by diflec-
tion, but no traces could be found of the rudiment of a
joint beginning to form itfelf on the crown of the root, or
of the embryo of the glumes of the ear, which in all kinds
of corn are firft difcernible in that part. He fays that about
this period he was taken ill, and obliged to defift from ob-
ferving their future progrefs ; but a froft foon after follaw-
ed, which cut the blade downto the earth, and at once de-
ftroyed all hopes of thefe kinds of rice producing grain in
our climate; the quantity of the blade was hawever fo un-
commonly great, that it is not impoflible, he thinks, it
might be advantageous to fow it as food far cattle, for a very
large proportion of itock might certainly be maintained
upon an acre of it. He concludes by obferving, that be-
fore the froit fets in, he had ordered a tuft of each kind of
the rice to be tranfplanted into 4 pot, and placed in a hot-
houfe, in order, if poflible, to afcertain the natura] period
of this grain; whether, like winter corn, it requires eight
or-nine months to come to perfection, or, like our Lent
Ee 2
sorn,
RIC
corn, arrives at the fame period in five or fix: but all of
thefe died, notwithftanding great attention was paid to
them’: fome feed, however, which he had given to Mr.
Lambert, fucceeded better; it was fown in his hot-houfe
in the month of June, where it throve well, but did not
produce ears till near Chriftmas, a period of feven months,
from whence it 1s probable, the grain would have ripened in
lefs than two months from the time the ear appeared. It 1s
eafy to deduce that in the neighbourhood of Serinagur thefe
Kinds of rice ave either fown as winter corn, or the climate
there is far better fuited to promote the quick progrefs of
veoetation than our’s is. It was, when it produced ears,
about three feet and ahalf high, and fome of the ftems had
five joints, including the radical one: had it been in a more
fuitable climate, it would certamly have grown taller, for
the flowers dropped off without producing feed.
It is however cultivated much in the Eatt, asin China, as
well’ as in the fouthern parts of America; the method of
which is thus defcribed by Mr. Duhamel. _ i i
1..'To haften the fprouting of the rice, it is put into bat-
kets, and foaked for fome days ina ftanding water. 2. When
their rice-grounds are fo foaked with water as to be quite
like mud, they are ploughed with a buffalo yoked to a
plough very fimple in its make, having but one fhare, one
handle, and no wheels. 3. After a gentle rain, they break
the clods with a kind of large hurdle, drawn by a large
buffalo; the driver fitting upon it to increafe the weight.
4. The ground is cleared of all ftones, and whatever roots
are in it are pulled up by a ftrong harrow, with great iron
teeth. This inftrument is drawn by a buffalo, and aman
guides it by the help of two handles, like thofe of a plough,
upon which he leans hard. The earth is like mud, and
partly covered with water during allthis operation. 5. The
earth is afterwards {moothed with a harrow, which has fe-
veral rows of teeth. A man guides this harrow by its two
handles, whilft a buffalo draws it; and as faft as its teeth
form little channels in the ground, the water runs in and
fills them up. 6. When the rice that was laid to foak has
f{prouted, the feedis known to be good; and it is then fown
by hand, very thick, and as equally as poflible. Only part
of the ground is fown in this manner, to furnifh plants
for the reft. The day after it has been fown the points of
the plants appear above the furface of the water ; for the
ground is overflowed all this time with juft enough water to
cover it. And it is added, that when the plants have ac-
quired a little ftrength, they are {prinkled with lime-water,
to deftroy the infects, and fome of the weeds that would
hurt them. For this purpofe a {mall bafket is faftened to
the end of along handle, and dipt in the lime-water, which
runs through it, and is conveyed over the plants. And the
Chinefe have a great veneration for the firft inventor of this
method, which anfwers to our cuftom of {teeping wheat in
lime-water, or manuring land with quick-lime. 7. To-
wards April, when the plants are grown {trong enough
to cover the whole field, and look very green and even,
the greateft part of them is pulled up by handfuls, all
the mud is carefully wafhed off their roots, and, being
held at the fame time as even as poffible with one another,
they are planted in tufts, pretty far afunder, and in a
quincunx form, in fields prepared on -purpofe for them.
A ferene day is chofen for this operation, which muft be
performed as quick as poffible. This practice of the Chinefe
is, he thinks, with refpeét to the common culture of rice,
what the new hufbandry is with refpe&t to the common cul-
ture of wheat. 8. The rice muft be watered, which is always
done in China by overflowing it. To this end, the rice-
grounds are always near a rivulet, pond, or great pool of
BLE
water, from which they are feparated only by a bank or
caufeway. If the water was higher than the rice-ground, a
trench cut through the caufeway would overflow it at once :
but as it is generally lower, or ona level with the rice-
ground, the neceflary quantity is conveyed in pails or buckets,
which are worked chiefly by the help of ropes. 9. Though
aman cannot {lep in thefe rice-grounds without being un
to his knees, the Chinefe weed them three times in a fummer,
and that with fuch care, that they pull up even the roots
of every weed, 10. When the rice is ripe, whichis known by
its turning yellow, like wheat, it is cut down with a fickle,
made into {heaves, and carried into a barn, where it js
threfhed with flails pretty much like ours: the ftraw is re-
moved with pitch-forks and fhovels, and the outer hufk of
the grain is taken off by beating it with great wooden peftles,
or a kind of mallet, after which it is fitted and winnowed :
and, laftly, to get off the under hufk, the grain is put be-
tween two mill-ftones, which are worked by a lever fattened
to the upper one. But the two moft remarkable circum-
{tances of this culture are, 1{t, the care which the Chinefe take
not to let their plants be too clofe together, left they fhould
rob one another of their food; and 2dly, their weeding
their rice-crounds three times in a fummer, which anfwers
the end of the hoeings recommended for the alleys between
the beds of other. grain, cultivated according to the horfe-
hoeing hufbandry.
This plant is faid to have been lately cultivated with fucs
eels near Dumfries, by Mr. Charters ; notwithftanding the
want of fuccefs in the above trial, as well as by others in
Cambridgefhire. And it is not improbable, but that by
degrees it may be fo naturalized to the climate, as has been
the cafe with many other plants, as to be cultivated without
much trouble or difficulty, and thus contribute to the
advantage of the country as an article of the grain
kind. Rice forms an excellent kind of bread when incor-
porated with flour, as well as a good food for the feeding
of different forts of animals of the poultry and other
kinds.
Rice is much ufed as food in the Roman Catholic coun-
tries in time of Lent. 'Vhe ordinary preparation is, by firft
fteeping it in water, then boiling it in milk. Some make it
into a fort of farina, or flour, by pounding it in a mortar,
after having firft put it in hot water, and again wafhed it
out in cold. ;
Among the common kinds of grain, rice is accounted the
mildeft and moft nutritious, and 1s fuppofed to be particu-
larly ferviceable in dyfenteries and diarrhceas. It is lefs
vifcous than wheat, or of lefs tenacity, when boiled with
water.
The northern nations eat their fowls and other meats with
rice and faffron. The Chinefe make a wine of rice, which
is of an amber colour, and taftes like Spanifh wine, and
ferves them for their common drink. In fome parts of
Europe they alfo draw a very ftrong brandy, or fpirit, from
rice.
Rice-Balking, in Agriculture, a provincial wordsapplied
to a method of ploughing, in which, according to Mr.
Marfhall, the flag is always turned up towards the un-
ploughed ground, the edge of the coulter paffing clofe to the
edge of the flag laft turned: whereas, in /lob-furrowing, the
flae is turned towards the ploughed ground, the coulter
pafling fifteen or fixteen inches from the Taft ploughed fur-
row ; into which, in this cafe, the edge of the flag hangs ;
and, in both cafes, a flip of unploughed foil, of a width
nearly to that of the flag, is buried.
Ricr-Bird, in Ornithology. See EmBeniza Oryzivora.
Rics Lake, in Geography, a lake of Canada, having a
6 portage
RIC
portage of 11 miles to lake Ontario. It difcharges itfelf
by the river Trent, into the head of the bay of Quinté.
RICEBOROUGH, a town of America, in Liberty
county, Georgia, where the county courts are held. The
county contains 6228 inhabitants. ,
RICERCARE, Ital. to feek ; whence ricercata, a re-
fearch, a flourifh, a prelude, an impromptu, a voluntary.
See ResEARCH.
RICEYS, Les, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Bar-fur-Seine ; 6, 7, and 8 miles S. of Bar-fur-
Seine. The place contains 3842, and the canton 7875 in-
habitants, on a territory of 1674 kiliometres, in 8 com-
munes.
RICH, Caps, a cape on the weft fide of Newfoundland,
towards the north end, and is the N.E. part of the gulf of
St. Lawrence, having the ifle of St. John, and fome other
{mall ifles, to the N. This cape was the boundary of the
French privilege of fifhing, which extended from hence
northward, and round to cape Bonavifta.
Ricu Jnlet, a narrow channel between two {mall iflands
near the coaft of North Carolina. N. lat. 34° 14/. W.
long. 77° §2'.
RICHARD of St. Vigor, in Biography, a celebrated
divine and {eripture commentator in the 12th century, was
a native of Scotland, who went to purfue his ftudies at the
univerfity of Paris. Here he entered among the canons
regular of St. Auguitine, at the abbey of St. Victor, and
became a pupil of the famous Hugh, who, like him, de-
rived his furname from the fame houfe. Under this maiter
he affiduoufly ftudied the feveral branches of feience, as far
as they were then known, particularly theological and
biblical literature ; and he acquired great reputation by his
proficiency, as well as the friendfhip of the moft eminent
men in that feat of learning. In 1164 he was elected prior
of his monaftery, where he died, in the year 1173, equally
refpected for his virtues as for his learned attainments. His
critical pieces are very accurate for the time in which he
lived. His ftyle, however, is not very elevated ; on which
account, his pious treatifes, though abounding in excellent
matter, are greatly deficient in weight and energy. His
works confift of critical obfervations and remarks on fome
of the /hiftorical parts of the Old Teftament, relating to
the tabernacle and the temple of Solomon; allegorical and
moral «¢ Commentaries”’ on feveral of the Pfalms, the Son
of Songs, and the Apocalypfe ; queitions on certain dif-
ficult paflages of St. Paul’s epiftles, and other parts of the
bible; and numerous critical, doétrinal, and practical
treatifes. The whole have been frequently printed in a col-
lective form; and the beft edition is faid to be that of
Rouen, in 1650, in 2 vols. folio. 3
Ricuanp J., king of England, furnamed Ceur de Lion,
fon of Henry II. by Eleanor Guienne, was born in the
year 1157. As fecond fon he was inveited in the duchy
of Guienne, and county of Poitou. In 1173 he united
with his brothers, Henry and Geoffrey, ina rebellion againft
his father, which was foon quelled, and forgiven by the
reigning monarch. Richard was now fent to Poitou to
reduce fome revolted barons, where he difplayed that martial
fpirit for which he was afterwards celebrated, and on account
of which he obtained his furname. Refufing to pay homage
for the duchy of Aquitaine to his elder brother Henry, a
war broke out between them in France, which their father
found great difficulty in terminating. Henry foon after
this died, and Richard, being now heir apparent, was re-
quired to refign Aquitaine to his youngeit brother, John.
This he refufed, and new wars enfued. In 1189 he joined
RIC
Philip Auguftus, king of France, againit his own father,
and did homage to the French king for the poffeffions
which he held on the continent. A war was the confe-
quence Of this unnatural junction, in which Henry was
harailed and wern out by Richard, while he found him-
felf abandoned by his youngeft fon John. Henry died in
July of the fame year, and was fucceeded in his throne by
the fubje&t of this article. He is faid to have vifited his
father’s corpfe on the day after his deceafe, and expreffing
great remorfe for his paft behaviour, charged himfelf with
being his murderer. Richard was crowned at Weitminfter,
received into his confidence the faithful fervants of the late
king, and difcountenanced all thofe who had been -abettors
in his own rebellion. He fet at liberty his mother, queen
Eleanor, who had long been in a {tate of confinement, and
endeavoured to conciliate the affeétion of his brother John
by grants of great extent in England and France. Richard,
while prince, had taken the crofs along with his father ; and
now he had come to the crewn, he was determined to give
{cope to his martial talents in the Eaft. Having made the
requilite preparations, he, in 1190, had an interview with
Philip of France, who had alfo taken the crofs, at which,
mutual conditions were agreed upon refpecting their co-
operation in the expedition, and the peace of the kingdoms
during their abfence. As a prelude to their enterprize,
which, according to the opinion of the times, was regarded
as extremely pious in its object and motives, Richard and
his nobles, who had embarked in the fame caufe, exercifed
their zeal in a horrible maflacre and pillage of the Jews in
feveral of the principal towns, which was ended by a bon-
fire of the bonds which the Chriftians had entered into
with this much injured people.
About the middle of the year, the kings of England and
France muftered their forces, which amounted to 100,000
men in arms, in the plains ef Vefelay, on the borders of
Burgundy. Richard then proceeded to Marfeilles for
embarkation, and in September the two monarchs met at
Meffina, where they fpent the winter, in the courfe of
which, diffentions arofe that were nearly breaking out into
open hoftilities, but which ended in a new treaty, in which
all differences were for the prefent adjufted. Richard had
long been under engagements to marry Adelais, Philip’s
fifter ; but an attachment which he had formed to Beren-
garia, daughter of Sanchez, king of Navarre, together
with fome mifconduét of the French princefs, induced him
to break the contra&t, in which it appears that Philip
acquiefced. Eleanor arrived at Meflina with Berengaria ;
but Richard, without waiting to celebrate his nuptials, fet
fail in April, 1191, with his he which was foon difperfed
by a ftorm. ‘The king failed into Crete; but three of his
fhips, with his intended bride, and his fifter, the queen of
Sicily, on board, were ftranded on the coait of Cyprus.
The king of that ifland treated the unfortunate crews and
the princeffes with great rigour, in revenge for which
infult, Richard landed his army in the ifland, defeated the
inhabitants in two battles, and reduced the king to the fur-
render of himfelf, his only daughter, and his fovereignty.
In this ifland he confummated his marriage with Beren-
garia, and then embarked for Paleftine.
The fiege of Acre, celebrated likewife in modern times,
which had been commenced two years before, was itill
carrying on by the relics of the emperor Frederic’s army,
with the other Chriftian adventurers who had at different
times joined the banners of the crofs, while it was ob-
ftinately defended by a numerous Saracen garrifon, fup-
ported by Saladin at the head of a powerful hoft in the
field. The arrival of the two kings infufed new vigour
into
RICHARD.
into the beficgers, and feats of arms were performed under
the walls, by Richard and Philip, efpecially by the former,
who far furpafled his rival in military enterprife. The
city furrendered in July 1191, and immediately there were
two competitors for the titular kingdom of Jerufalem,
whofe claims were efpoufed by the rival kings. Philip,
however, did not remain long in the Haft; he returned
home, leaving 10,coo men with Richard, who marched
from Acre with the intent of reducing the other towns on
the fea-coaft, while Saladin attended his motions, and gave
him frequent affaults, which produced deeds of extraor-
dinary valour on both fides, till at length a general engage-
ment was brought on, in which, after both wings of the
Chriftian army had been defeated, Richard in the centre,
by the moft heroic exertions of bravery, and confummate
military flill, gained a complete victory. This was imme-
diately followed by the poffeffion of Joppa, A fcalon, and other
places which Saladin had deferted ; and Richard advanced
within fight of the holy city ; but the greater part of the
allies refufed to concur in the fiege of that capital, and he
was obliged reluétantly to return to Afcalon. Here he
concluded a truce with Saladin, on the condition that
Acre, Joppa, and the other fea-ports of Paleftine, fhould
remain in the hands of the Chriftians, and that they fhould
enjoy full liberty to perform their pilgrimages to Jerufalem.
Richard now prepared to return home, where his prefence
was abfolutely neceflary on account of the great diforders
into which his kingdom was fallen. Previous to his em-
barkation, he terminated the conteft for the crown of
Jerufalem, by concurring in the eleétion of Conrad, and
beftowing the conquered kingdom of Cyprus upon the
difappointed competitor Lufignan. At this period, Con-
rad was murdered in the ftreets of Tyre by two emiffaries
of the prince of Affaffins, commonly called the * old man
of the mountain ;’’ and although the deed was clearly traced
to this fource, Philip was bafe enough to calumniate
Richard as the author of it, in order that he might have
an excufe for the defigns which he was carrying on againtft
him in Europe.
Richard fet fail from Acre in OGober, 1192. In the
courfe of his voyage he was wrecked near Aquileia: thence
he purfued his way through Germany, in the difguife of a
pilgrim; but being difcovered near Vienna, he was arrelted
by the orders of Leopold, duke of Auftria, and thrown
into prifon. He was afterwards given up to the emperor
Henry VI., who had been offended by him. When intel-
ligence of this event reached Englard, queen Eleanor wrote
repeatedly to the pope, reprefenting to his holinefs the
fcandal and injuttice of felling and imprifoning the moft il-
luftrious champion of Chriftendom, whofe exertions for the
common caufe were celebrated throughout Europe and
Afia; and claiming, in behalf of the captive king, the pro-
tection of the holy fee. Her reprefentations were of no
avail: Richard was kept in prifon, and loaded with irons ;
which afforded his rival, Philip, full opportumity for in-
yading his dominions. He entered into a treaty with John,
who readily took up arms againft his brother’s government,
while Phihp was making himfelf mafter of great part of
Normandy. Richard, in the mean time, fupported his mif-
fortunes and indignities with the moit undaunted courage.
The emperar, to jnftify his own conduét, produced the
royal captive before the diet at Worms, under a charge of
fevcral heinous offences; byt Richard repelled the accufa-
tions with fo much fpirit and eloquence, that he carried the
aflembly with him, who loudly exclaimed againit his deten-
tion. At length he was liberated, on the condition that
450,090 marks fhould be paid as a ranfom. He arrived in
England in March, 1194, to the great joy of his fubjeéts
in general.
When Philip was made acquainted with Richard’s de-
liverance, he wrete to John “to take care of himfelf, the devil
being broke loofe.’’? The property of John was immediately
contifcated, and his caftle at Nottingham feized. Richard
was recrowned at Wellminfter, in the prefence of William,
king of Scotland; and he then began to raife money, that
he might take revenge upon his inveterate foe, Philip of
France. John threw himfelf at the feet of his brother, im-
ploring, in the moft abject terms, his pardon. « I forgive
him,’”’ faid the hero, ‘ and hope I fhall as eafily forget his
injuries as he will my pardon.”’ In the enfuing war between
Richard and Philip, the former gained fome advantages ;
but a truce fufpended farther hoftilities. A peace was ter-
minated in 1196; but in the following year, the war was
renewed, in which much cruelty was exercifed on both
fides.
England, during this foreign contention, had been the
fcene of much calamity, partly through difturbances occa-
fioned by the exactions of a needy and rapacious govern-
ment, and partly by the more grievous calamities of famine
and peftilence. A lailing accommodation with France, as
preparatory to another expedition to the Holy Land, was
in agitation, when the reign and life of Richard were
brought to a clofe through his avarice, which is thus re-
lated by Hume.
Vidomar, vifcount of Limoges, a vaffal of the king’s,
had found a treafure, of which he fent a part to that prince
asa prefent. Richard, as fuperior lord, claimed the whole,
befieged the vifcount in the caitle of Chalus, near Limoges,
in order to make him comply with his demands. The gar-
rifon offered to furrender, but Richard was determined on
revenge ; and as he was furveying the caftle with Marcadeée,
leader of his Brabangons, he was ftruck by an arrow, aimed
at him by Bertrand de Gourdon. The wound was not
confidered as mortal: the place was aflaulted and taken, and
the whole garrifon executed, except Gourdon, who had
wounded him, and who was referved for a more favage exe-
cution, By the unfkilfulnefs of the furgeon, the wound,
which was> at firft but flight, exhibited the moft dangerous
fymptoms, and the king felt that his end was approaching.
He fent for Gourdon, and afked him what had induced him
to make an attempt upon his lite; to which the man boldly
replied, “ You killed, with your own hands, my father
and my two brothers, and you intended to have hanged
myfelf: I am now in your power, and you may take
your revenge, by inflicting upon me the fevereft torments ;
but I fhall endure them with patience, provided I can
think that I have been fo happy as to rid the world of fuch
a nuifance.”? Richard, ftruck with the magnanimity and
reafonablenefs of the reply, and probably humbled and
penitent by the near approach of death, ordered Gourden
to be fet at liberty, and a fum of money to he given him ;
but Marcadée, unknown to the dying king, feized the un-
happy man, caufed him to be flayed alive, and then hanged.
Richard died in the tenth year of his reign, and the forty=
fecond of his age, leaving no iflue behind him, The melt
fhining parts of his character are his military talents. He
loved glory, and chiefly military glory ; and as his con-
duct in the field was not inferior to his valour, he feems
to have poflefled every talent neceffary for acquiring it.
His refentments were high, and his pride unconquerable.
He was diftinguifhed by all the good as well as bad qualities
incident to an impetuous and vehement {pirit : he was open,
frank, generous, fincere, and brave; but revengeful, am-
bitious, haughty, and cruel. His talents were confiderable
in
RICHARD.
in the cabinet, as well as in the field. He was a paffionate
lover of poetry: fome of his compofitions in that line are
faid to remain; and he bears a rank among the Provengal
poets and Troubadours, who were the firft of modern Euro-
peans that diftinguifhed themfelves by attempts of that
nature.
Though the Englifh pleafed themfelves with the glory
which the king’s martial genius procured them, his reign
was oppreffive and arbitrary, by the high taxes which he
levied on them, and frequently without confent of the itates,
or great council. [n the ninth year of his reign he levied
five fhillings on each hyde of land; and becaufe the clergy
refufed to contribute their fhare, he put them out of the pro-
teétion of the law, and ordered the civil courts to give them
no fentence for any debts which they might claim. Twice
in his reign he ordered all his charters to be fealed anew, and
the parties to pay fees for the renewal. He eftablifhed by
law one weight and meafure throughout the kingdom, which
the mercenary difpofition and neceffities of his fucceffor en-
gaged him to difpenfe with for money.
Ricuarp II., king of England, fon of Edward the
black prince, and grandfon of Edward III., was born in
1366, and, on the death of his grandfather in 1377, he fuc-
ceeded to the throne in his eleventh year. The chief autho-
rity of the ftate, at this time, was in the hands of his three
uncles, viz. John, duke of Lancatter; Edmund, earl of
Cambridge, afterwards duke of York; and Thomas of
Woodltock, afterwards duke of Gloucefter. A council of
nine perfons was now nominated to conduét the adminittra-
tion of government. The early part of the king’s minority
paffed in wars with France and Scotland; the confequence
of which was a formidable infurreétion at home, produced
by the taxes neceflary for the public fervice. In 1381, the
indecent condué of a colleétor of the poll-tax at Deptford
having provoked one Walter, by trade a tyler, to break his
fkuli with a hammer, a flame was inftantly kindled, which
{pread over Kent, and the neighbouring counties; fo that,
in a fhort time, a body of 100,000 men was colleéted on
Blackheath. Their obje& was not merely to put an end to
an arbitrary tax, but to free the country from the perfonal
fervitude to which the lower clafles were, at that time, in a
great meafure fubjeGted. On their approach to London,
they fent a meflage to the king, requefting a conference.
He met them on the bank of the Thames, but was unable
to fatisfy their demands. In the rage of difappointment,
they burit into London, -committed great devattation, and
excited univerfal confternation. At length ample charters
of freedom were granted to them, and a general pardon for
all paft offences. The infurgents now difperfed, but the
principal leader, Wat Tyler, at the head of the Kentith
men, remained in London, and was unfatisfied with the
conceffions granted by the monarch. He met the king in
Smithfield, whom he addreffed with much infolence, and
making the moft extravagant demands, Walworth, lord
mayor of London, drew his fword and felled him to the
ground. While the rioters ftood aftonifhed with the fall of
their leader, the king, with great prefence of mind, rode
up alone, and exclaiming that he would be their leader,
drew them off involuntarily into the neighbouring fields.
The monarch would willingly have pardoned the in{urgents,
and confirmed to them the charters which had been ex-
torted by force; but other infurrections being excited, his
advifers caufed him to revoke ald the charters that had been
extorted from him, and to iflue commiflions for the trial of
the rioters, many of whom were executed.
Richard, when he was fixteen years old, efpoufed Anne,
daughter of the late emperor Charles IV. ; after this he began
to exercife a very tyrannical {pirit, notwithitanding the early
promife of his reign, and he took the great feal from Scroop,
who had refufed to fet it to certain extravagant grants of
lands made to courtiers. A war with France and Scot-
land, and the ambitious projeéts of the duke of Lancaf-
ter, difquieted fome fucceeding years. In 1385 Richard
marched with a large army into Scotland, and ravaged the
country to Edinburgh and Perth, both which towns he
burnt ; in the mean time a Scotch army was making a de-
itruétive inroad into England, The duke of Lancafter being
abfent, profecuting his claim te the crown of Caftile, the
king’s younger uncle, the duke of Gloucefter, a man of
popular manners and dangerous ambition, became a leader
of the oppofition to the adminiflration of the king’s favour-
ites. By his influence an impeachment was fent up te the
lords againft the chancellor ; and though the king withdrew,
with his court, to Eltham, he was intimidated into a dif-
miffion of his minifter, who was afterwards {tript of his eftates,
and committed to cuftody. The parliament now felt them-
felves {trong enough to proceed to active meafures, and they
went fo far as to diveft the king of all his authority, by
obliging him to fign a commiflion, appointing a council of
regency, confifting of fourteen perfons, to whom the foye-
reign power was transferred for a year. The king now, in
the twenty-firlt year of his age, was reduced to a ftate of
complete infignificance, but he held frequent confultations
with his friends relative to the means of emancipating him-
felf; andin the year 1387, making a progrefs to the north,
he fummoned a council of his friends at Nottingham, by
which que‘tions were propofed to the judges concerning
the legality of the commiffion which he had been compelled
to fign. They unanimoufly declared it to be a violation of
the royal prerogative, and pronounced all who had joined
in the execution of it, as guilty of a capital offence. The
duke of Gloucefter and his party began now to make pre-
parations to maintain their caufe by force of arms. Being
by much the ftronger party, they obliged the king to accept
of terms, andat the enfuing meeting of parliament the five
principals in the king’s council were impeached, and con-
demned to death. The judges, who had given their opinion in
favour of the king, were all found guilty of high-treafon,
but the punifhment of death was commuted for imprifonment
in Ireland during life. In 1389 Richard entered the council,
and, in a refolute tone, obferved, that he was of full age to
take the government into his own hands: his enemies fub-
mitted, and he granted a general amnefty.
Several years of tranquillity enfued, and the return of the
duke of Lancatter formed a counterbalance to the influence
of the duke of Gloucefter. In 1394 Richard vifited Ireland
at the head of an army, in order to fettle the affairs of that
ifland, which he accomplifhed, and then returned, Although
no aéts of notorious mifgovernment had been committed by
the king for a confiderable period, yet his private charaéter
and mode of life tended to difgrace him in the eyes of his
fubjeéts. He was indolent and averfe from bufinefs, and
{pent all his time in conviviality and amufement, admitting
jetters and perfons of the meaneit rank and {tation to his in-
timacy, and laying afide all the proper dignity of rank. He
was ftill governed by favourites, who were the real dif-
tributors of every grace from the crown, fo that the king
was little better than a cypher. By Gloucefter and his
party the moft criminal defigns were imputed to Richard,
which led the king, by the advice and folicitation of his
adherents, to apprehend the duke and his two accomplices,
the earls of Arundel and Warwick. This plan was executed
in 1397; the duke was fent over to Calais in clofe cuftody,
while the earls were committed to prifon. A parliament
3 was
RICHARD.
was then aflembled, before which the culprits were im-
peached of high treafon. Lord Arundel was condemned,
and executed ; the earl of Warwick was alfo convicted, and
condemned to perpetual banifhment. The duke of Gloucef-
ter was faid to have died of an apoplexy, but it was foon
difcovered that he had been fuffocated. Although the pro-
ceedings of parliament were favourable to the royal autho-
rity, yet much ill-will prevailed in the nation on account of
its feverities, and troubles were continually breaking out
among the nobles. A quarrel between the dukes of Here-
ford and Norfolk, arifing froma charge brought by the
former againft the latter, of flanderous words fpoken con-
cerning the king, was the caufe of the revolution that ter-
minated the reign. Richard interpofed his authority and
banifhed them both; but it was agreed, that both exiles
might receive, by their attornies, any inheritance that fhould
fall to them during their abfence. In 1399, John of
Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, died, and his fon, the duke
of Hereford, became heir to his vaft eftates, which
- Richard, in defiance of the agreement, feized as property
lapfed to the crown, and the attorney who claimed them
for the duke was even condemned as a traitor. While
the nation was full of difcontent on account of this aét of
tyranny, Richard went to Ireland, and, during his abfence,
Henry of Bolingbroke, as the duke of Hereford, invited
by his numerous partifans to make ufe of this oppor-
tunity, came over from France, and landed in Yorkfhire,
and being joined by the earls of Northumberland and Welt-
moreland, and other men of rank, proceeded towards the
fouth, at the head of 60,000 men, pretending that their
fole intention was to recover the duchy of Lancatter. The
duke of York, who had been left regent of the kingdom,
joined Henry ; and Richard, having heard thefe facts, in-
tended to withdraw into France. He was, however, taken
and thrown into Flint caftle, from whence he was taken to
London. His depofition being refolved on, thirty-five ar-
ticles of accufation were drawn up againit him, which,
_ however informal, and many of them unjuft, were confi-
dered as quite fufficient to juitify the meafures taken againft
him, and Richard was depofed Sept. 30, 1399. Henry
atthe fame inftant ftood forth, and claimed the crown, which
was without hefitation awarded to him. He declared that
the life of the dethroned king fhould be fafe, and he was
committed for fafe cuftody to the caftle of Pomfret ; but
the ufual fate of depofed monarchs foon awaited him. In-
deed it was eafy to forefee that he would not long remain
alive in the hands of fuch barbarous and fanguinary enemies.
‘Hiftorians differ with rerard to the manner in which he was
murdered. It was long the prevailing opinion, that fir
Piers Exton, and others of his guards, fell upon him in the
caftle of Pomfret, where he was confined, and difpatched
him with their halberts. But it is more probable, that he
was ftarved to death in prifon; and after all fuitenance was
denied him, he prolonged his unhappy life, it is faid, for a
fortnight, before he reached the end of his miferies. ‘This
- account is more confiftent with the ftory, that his body was
expofed in public, and that no marks of violence were ob-
ferved upon it. He died in the thirty-fourth year of his
age, and the twenty-third of his reign. He left no pofte-
rity, either legitimate or illegitimate.
‘All the writers who have tranfmitted to us the hiftory of
Richard, lived during the reigns of the Lancattrian princes ;
and candour requires, that we fhould not give entire credit
to the reproaches which they have thrown upon his memory.
But, after making all proper allowances, he {till appears to
have been a weak prince, and unfit for government, lefs for
yvant of natural parts-and capacity, than of folid judgment
and good education. He was violent in his tempe>; pro-
fufe in his expence ; fond of idle fhow and magnificence ;
devoted to favourites, and addicted to pleafure ; paflions,
all of them, the moft inconfiftent with a prudent economy,
and confequently dangerous in a limited and mixed go.
vernment. ,
This prince lived in a more magnificent manner than per-
haps any of his predeceflors or fucceffors. His houfehold
confifted of 10,0co perfons. He had 300 in his kitchen,
and all the other offices were furnifhed in proportion. It
mutt be remarked, that this enormous train had tables fup-
plied them at the king’s expence, according to the mode of
that age. Such prodigality was probably the fource of
many exactions by purveyors, and was one chief reafon of
the public difcontents.
Ricuarp III., king of England, born in 1450, was the
youngeft fon of Richard, duke of York. On the acceffion
of his brother, Edward IV., he was created duke of Glou-
cefter, and during the viciflitudes in the early part of Ed-
ward’s reign, he adhered moft clofely to him, and ferved
him with courage and fidelity. He is faid to have had
a hand in the flaughter of Edward, prince of Wales,
after the battle of Tewkefbury, and to have been the au-
thor, if not the real perpetrator, of the murder of
Henry VI. in the Tower, but the ferocity of his difpofition
was in him united with deep policy and diffimulation. He
married, about the year 1473, Anne, the widow of the
prince of Wales, already mentioned, who was daughter of
Neville, the great earl of Warwick. His elder brother,
Clarence, had married the other daughter, and a violent dif-
fention took place between them, on account of the divifion
of the property. Richard, who found Clerence an obftacle
to his views of aggrandizement, combined with the adver-
faries of that unfortunate prince in accufations which proved
his deftruction. On the death of Edward (fee his article)
in 1483, the duke of Gloucefter was appointed the pro-
tector of the kingdom. He immediately caufed his nephew,
the young Edward V., to be proclaimed king, and took an
oath of fealty to him. There were at this time two great
faGtions in the nation, of which the leaders were the duke
of Buckingham and lord Haitings. Both thefe courted
the duke of Gloucefter, who pretended a fteady friendfhip
for each when apart, while he was purfuing fchemes of the
blackeit ambition. His firft obje&t was to get rid of thofe
who were conneéted with the young king by blood; and
after {pending an evening in company with Rivers, Grey, and
fir Thomas Vaughan, he caufed them to be arrefted the next
morning, and committed to Pomfret caitle, at the fame
time difmiffing all the king’s attendants and fervants. He
fhortly after caufed the prifoners at Pomfret to be put to
death without the form of trial ; and on the very day of
their execution, at a council held in the Tower, a cry of
treafon was raifed by his order, on whicha party of armed
men entered, who feized the archbifhop of Yerk, the bifhop
of Ely, lord Stanley, and lord Haftings, ef whom the
three firft were committed to cuftody, while Hajtings was
led to immediate death. After this, his next ftep was to efta-
blifh, with or without evidence, the illegitimacy of Ed-
ward’s children, to make way for himfelf on the throne.
This he did by attacking the chaitity of his own mother,
who, he faid, had been true to her hufband only in the cafe
of himfelf, and that to Edward and Clarence there were
different fathers. Thefe pleas were zealoufly advocated by
his adherents, and among others by Dr. Shaw, brother to-
the lord mayor-of London, who dwelt upon them with
much eloquence, in a fermon which he preached at St.
Paul’s Crofs. The duke of Buckingham afterwards, ina
fpeech
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fpeech before the corporation and citizens of London, en-
larged upon the title and virtues of the proteGtor, and then
put the queftion to his audience, whether they chofe the
duke of Gloucefter for king? On their filence, he repeated
the queftion with more importunity, and at length a few
voices eried out * God fave king Richard.’? This was con-
ftrued into a public declaration in his favour, and Bucking-
ham, with the lord mayor, repaired to the proteétor with
atender of thecrown. He firit affeGted alarm and fufpicion,
and then pretended loyalty to his nephew, and unwillingnefs
to take fuch a burden upon himfelf. At length he accepted
the offer, and Richard-was proclaimed king on the 27th of
June 1483. The depofed king and his brother were never
more heard of, they were probably murdered in the Tower.
Richard was now extremely liberal towards thofe who had
been inftrumental in the change, and took other methods to
court popularity. He made a progrefs with a {plendid re-
tinue through feveral of the towns, and at York was a fe-
cond time crowned, on which occafion he created his only
fon prince of Wales. He foon began to difplay all the
qualities of a moft cruel tyrant, which fo difgufted the whole
nation, that defigns were formed to hurl him from the
throne. A confpiracy was excited againit him, in favour of
Henry, earl of Richmond, which he difcovered and quelled.
This failure appeared to feat the king more firmly on the
throne, and he took advantage of his fituation by calling a
parliament, in which many good laws were pafled, the pro-
ny of Edward IV. were baftardized, and the crown fet-
fed on himfelf and pofterity. The death of his fon, foon
after, was afevere {troke to himin the midft of his profpe-
rity, which was followed by that of his wife ; the laft was
imputed, but without any evidence, to the effets of poi-
fon. To prevent a projected marriage between Elizabeth,
the eldeft daughter of his brother Edward, and the earl of
Richmond, Richard determined to marry her himfelf; as
this union would have been very detrimental to the earl’s
intereft, he haftened his preparations for another expedition
to England, and in Auguft, 1485, landed an army at Mil-
ford-haven. Richard, informed of the advance of his
rival, took the field, and met him, with an army of nearly
15,000 men, at Bofworth, in Leicefterfhire. The battle
was fought on the 23d of Auguft ; in which the king, find-
ing his fituation defperate, rufhed againft his competitor,
flew his ftandard-bearer, and was upon the point of encoun-
tering the earl himfelf, when he was himfelf flain. The
body of Richard was found in the field, ftripped naked,
and carried acrofs a horfe to Leicefter, where he was in-
terred in the Grey friars’ church-yard. Thus fell this
hated tyrant, after having poffefled the throne about two
years and two months. The hiftorians, fays Hume, who
favour Richard, maintain, that he was well qualified for
government, had he legally obtained it ; and that he com-
mitted no crimes but fuch as were neceflary to procure him
pofleffion of the crown : but thisis a poor apology, when
it is confeffed, that he was ready to commit the moft horrid
crimes that appeared to him neceflary for that purpofe ; and
it is certain, that all his courage and capacity, qualities in
which he really feems not to have been deficient, would
never have made compenfation to the people for the danger
of the precedent, and for the contagious example of vice
and murder, exalted upon the throne. In perfon, Richard
has been reprefented as of {mall {tature, deformed, and of a
forbidding afpeét, but it is probable that the deteftation of
his chara¢ter has aggravated his bodily defeéts. His me-
mory lives in popular tradition, as that of the moft odious
tyrant that ever filled the Englifh throne. For the foregoing
Vor. XXX.
RIC
articles we are chiefly indebted to the hiftories of Hume and
Henry.
RicHarp, Joun, a French advocate and theological
writer in the 17th and the early part of the 18th centuries,
was born at Verdun, in Lorraine, about the year 1638.
The firft part of his education he received at Pont-a-Mouffon.
and was then fent to Paris, where he ftudied law and divi-
nity. Afterwards he was admitted an advocate at Orleans ;
but more for the fake of poflefling the rank and privileges
conne¢ted with that title, than from any defign to praétife
at the bar. His inclination led him to devote his time and
talents to the compofition and publifhing of fermons. By
his numerous produétions of this defeription he acquired
celebrity. In the year 1700 he began to publifh a compi-
lation, under the title of «« A Moral DiGtionary, or, Uni-
verfal Pulpit-Science,’’ which, in 1715, was extended to
6 vols. 8vo. It confifts of itriking fentiments and reafon-
ings on a great variety of fubjeéts, feleGted from the works
of French, Spanifh, Italian, German, and other divines, ar-
ranged in alphabetical order.
RICHARDIA, in Botany, was named by Houftoun,
in honour of Richard Richardfon, M.D. F.R.S. who re-
fided on his own eftate at North Bierly, Yorkfhire, and died
at an advanced age, about the year 1740. His fortune
rendering him independent of medical praétice, as a main-
tenance, he beftowed great attention on the botany of his
own country, and his name occurs continually in the publi-
cations of the early part of the 18th century, as the cor-
refpondent of Ray, Sloane, Dillenius, &c. He commu-
uicated feveral papers, on various fubjeéts, to the Royal
Society ; none of them botanical ; fee Pulteney’s Sketches,
vy. 2. 185.—Linn. Gen. 174. Schreb. 230. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 2. 222. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Juff. 198. La-
marck [lluftr. t. 254. Gertn. t. 25. (Ricardia; Rel.
Houtt. 5. t. 9.)—Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Ste/late, Linn. Rubiaceae, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in fix
deep, ereét, pointed fegments, halr the length of the co-
rolla. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; limb in fix acute,
erect fegments. Stam. Filaments fix, very fhort, inferted
into the tube of the corolla, alternate with its fegments; an-
thers fmall, roundifh, between the fegments. Pi/?. Germen
inferior, three-lobed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens, three-cleft in the upper part ; ftigmas obtufe.
Peric. none. Seeds three, obovate, gibbous, rounded at
the outer fide, angular at the inner, crowned with the
calyx.
Obt. Gertner has obferved that the calyx and corolla have
fometimes eight fegments, with eight ftamens.
Eff. Ch. Calyx in fix fegments. Corolla of one petal,
funnel-fhaped. Seeds three, crowned with the calyx.
1. R. feabra. Linn. Sp. Pl. 470. Willd. n. 1.—Gathered
by Houftoun at Vera Cruz.—A rough hairy plant, with
the habit. of a Spermacoce. The ffem is tall, purplifh, with
oppofite branches, its hairs curved downwards. Leaves
oppofite, crowded, ovate, pointed, entire, hairy, with
many ftraight, parallel ribs. Flowers encompafled with
numerous hairy briftles. Ca/yx briftly.
RICHARDSON, JonarHan, in Biography, a pain-
ter, and a writer on the art of painting, was born about the
year 1665. He was intended by his father for the law, but
at twenty years of age was permitted to defert that profef-
fion, and follow the bent of his inclination for painting.
He then became the difcipleof Riley, with whom he lived
four years, and finally conneéted himfelf by marrying his
niece. The degree of {kill which he attained, by no means
Ff corre.
RIC
correfponded with the ideas he entertained of the art, which
were certainly of a juft and elevated kind. There are, how-
ever, great ftrength, roundnefs, and boldnefs in the colouring
of his heads, which are drawn and marked in the manner of
Kneller, with freedom and firmnefs ; though the attitudes in
which they and his figures are placed, the draperies whieh
clothe the latter, and the back-grounds from which they are
relieved, are infipid and taftelefs. It is certainly a very cu-
rious circumttance, that, when he wrote with fo much fire
and judgment, as is difplayed.in his Effay on Criticifm, and
the Science of a Connoiffeur, dived fo deep into the inex-
hauftible ftores of Raphael, and was fo fmitten with the
native luftre of Vandyke, he fhould fo ill apply to his own
practice, the fagacious rules and hints he gave to others.
Full of theory, profound in refletions on the art, and pof-
{effed of a numerous and excellent colletion of drawings,
he appears to have poflefled no portion of invention, as ap-
plicable to the painter’s art, and drew nothing well below
the head; plainly manifefting the peculiarity of tatte or
feeling which leads to excellence in that profeffion.
Thus much, however, muift be faid of him, that when
Kneller and Dahl were dead, he ftood at the head of the
portrait painters in this country, and praétifed in it fuff-
ciently long to acquire a tolerable competency. He quitted
his occupation fome years before his death, when Hudfon,
who had married one of his daughters, maintained the fa-
mily honours for a while. Richardfon himielf, by tem-
erance and tranquillity of mind, enjoyed a life, protracted
amidit the bleffings of domeftic friendthip, to the advanced
age of eighty, and then died refpected and lamented. He had
had, a fhort time previoufly, a paralytic ftroke that affected
his arm, yet never difabled him from taking his cuftomary
walks-and exercife; and it was after having been in St.
James’s park, he departed fuddenly, at his houfe in Queen-
{quare, on his return heme. t :
The fale of his collection of drawings, in February 1747,
lafted eighteen days, and produced 2060/.; his pictures
about 7o0/. He left a fon, who painted and drew alfo, and
who appears to have beena perfect pattern of filial reverence
and affection. é
RicHARDSON, SAMUEL, in Biography, was born in 1689,
in fome fart of Derbyfhire, to which county his fa-
ther had retired from bufinefs, which he had carried on in
London. In very early life he was characterized for his love
of reading, and while a mere boy, he difplayed the uncom-
mon qualities of a tafte for letter-writing and female fociety.
At the age of thirteen, he was fo much in the confidence of
three young women, as to be employed by them in making
draughts of letters to their lovers ; and, at this early period,
fuch were his fidelity and difcretion, that not one of them
Aufpeéted him to be the writer for the others. He was ap-
renticed to a printer, whom he ferved moft confcientioutly
for the full term of feven years, ftealing from the hoursallowed
to reft and recreation, his opportunities for mental improve-
ment. Afterthe expiration of his apprenticefhip, he pafled
feveral years as journeyman in a printing-office, and then
fet up in bufinefs for himfelf. His habits of diligence and
accuracy, and his honourable dealings, foon gained him em-
ployers and friends, and he was often applied to by book-
fellers for making indexes, and writing prefaces and dedi-
cations. The immediate occafion of his becoming a novel-
writer, was an application made to kim by two bookfellers,
to write for them a volume of letters ina common ftyle, on
fubjeéts that might ferve as models for the ufe of thofe who
had not the talent of inditing for themfelves. He extended
the idea to the conyeying of inftru€tion in thinking and
5
Rie
aéting upon important occafions; and ia compofing forme
letters for the falutary purpofe of teaching young women
going out to fervice how to avoid the {nares that might be
laid for their chaftity, a ftory which he had heard many
years before of a real occurrence came into his mind, and
became the parent of “ Pamela.’”?» This work was publifhed
in 1740, and was received with extraordinary applaufe by
readers of all ranks. It brought the author into immediate
notice ; but his “ Clariffa,?? of which the firft two volumes
appeared in 1748, placed him in the firft rank of novelitts.
«A tale fo varied by character, fo minutely developing the
movements of the human heart, fo pathetic in its circum~
ftances, and prefenting fo fublime and perfeé an image of
female purity, had never before been given to the public.
The intereft it excited during its progreflive appearance,
efpecially among female readers, was incredible, and the
fate of no real perfonage could have agitated more bofoms
than that of the fititious heroine.” Rouffeau, in {peaking
of it, aflerts, that « nothing was ever written equal or ap-
proaching to it in any language.’? The * Hiftory of Sir
Charles Grandifon,”? his concluding. work, appeared in
1753, which was intended to give the world an example
of a perfe& man, uniting the fine gentleman and the
Chrittian.
While he was advancing in the career of his literary fame,
he was not inattentive to that improvement of his fortune
which his affiduity and integrity in his profeffion fo well me-
rited. His firft great public employment was that of print-
ing the “ Journals of the Houfe of Commons,” in 26 vols.
folio, which he obtained through the recommendation of his
friend, Mr. Speaker Onflow. In 1754 he rofe to be matter
of the Stationers’ company, and in 1760 he purchafed a
half of the patent of law-printer to his majefty. He was
twice married, and had feveral children, but four daughters
only grew up to folace his declining years. He was the fub-
ftantial valuable friend in difficulty, diltrefs, and ficknefs.
He was moft exemplary in temperance both of body and
mind, and. in the faithful difcharge of every moral duty.
He died at the age of feventy-two, and was interred by the
fide of his firft wite in St. Bride’s church. The writings of
Richardfon, exclufive of the three novels above referred to,
were of no great confequence. They are chiefly the Fa-
miliar Letters”? already noticed; an edition of ‘¢ /Efop’s
Fables,’”’ with reflections. His ‘¢ Correfpondence,”’ fele@ed
from the original manufcripts, was publifhed in fix volumes,
in the year 1804, with a biographical account of the au-
thor, by Mrs. Barbauld, to which the readeris referred for
more particulars relating to Mr. Richardfon.
Ricuarpson’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S.E.
coalt of Jamaica. }
RICHAW, atewn of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
land; feven miles S. of Liebftat.
RICHBOROUGH, a hamlet, and a diftriét of land,
in the parifh of Ath, lower half hundred of Wingharn,
lathe of St. Auguttine, and county of Kent, England, is
fituated about two miles N.W. from the town of Sandwich.
It is noted in hiftory as the fcite of the Roman poft which
guarded the fouthern entrance of the Portus Rutupentis,
whence it derived its original name of Rutupium. The
fortrefs which defended the northern entrance was called
Regulbium ; and is noticed under the article RecuLver.
This port, in Roman times, appears to have been the moit
famous of any in Britain; for it is noticed in the writings
of Lucan, Juvenal, and Aufonius; and alfo in thofe of
Tacitus, Ammianus Marcellinus, and Orofius. It lke-
wife eccurs in the Geography of Ptolemy, in the .
®
RIC
of Antoninus, in the Index of the writer of Ravenna, in
the Peutingerian Tables, and in the Notitia of the weftern
empire. In thofe days the fcite of Rutupium was a {mall
ifland, though at prefent it is a confiderable diftance within
land. This is proved by the teftimony of many ancient
writers ; by the appearance of the furrounding country ;
and the fact of {trata of fea-fand being difcovered by dig-
ging into its furface. The period when it was deferted
by the ocean was probably between the fourth and fixth cen-
turies, as about that time the name of Sandwich, which
rofe on the ruins of the Rutupian haven, begins to be men-
tioned in ancient writings as a frequented port.
Richborough was anciently called Rhutupie, Portus Tru-
tulenfis, or rather Portus Rhutupenfis, Rhutupfis Portus, Rhu-
tupia Statio, and Rhutubi civitas et portus, among the Greek and
Roman writers, by the Saxons denominated Reftace/ler, and
by others Ruptimouth and Richberg. After the Saxons had
commenced their piracies on the coait, the legio fecunda
Auguifta, which had been brought from Germany by Clau-
dius, and had been for many years ftationed at Ifca Silurum,
in Wales, was removed hither and commanded by an officer
under the count of the Saxon fhore. Under the Saxons it
was ftill confiderable, and the place in which king Ethel-
bert refided.
Much diverfity of opinion prevails among the learned as
to the precife fituation of the Urbs Rutupiz, fome iden-
tifying it with the caiftle, and others placing it along the
adjacent fhore, while a third clafs of writers fix it at
Canterbury. Among thofe who efpoufe the lait opinion
is the late bifhop Douglas, who has difcuffed the fubje&
with great learning and ingenuity, in a paper printed in the
firft volume of the “ Bibliotheca Topographica Britansica.””
With his view of the matter, indeed, we are itrongly in-
clined to coincide ; for it feems impoflible that the city
could ftand within the narrow limits of the caftle, and there
are no vettiges in its vicinity of foundations of extenfive
buildings, a circumftance which could fearcely have hap-
pened, if fuch buildings had ever exifted. Of the fortrefs
itfelf, however, much yet remains to folicit the examination
and excite the amazement of the antiquary. In form it ap-
pears to have been, when complete, a regular parallelogram ;
but the greater part of the eaitern wall is now deftroyed.
The whole {cite exterior to the ramparts occupied fix acres,
one rood, and eight perches of ground ; and the area within
the walls five acres, three roods, and eight perches. The
walls were flanked by round projeCting towers at the angles,
and by fquare ones at irregular diftances along the fides.
There are marks of two of thefe in the welt wall, and of
two others, befides the Porta-Decumana, in the north wall,
and of two more in the fouth wall; in which undoubtedly
was a third, that has fallen down the bank. Thefe fquare
towers, projecting about eight feet from the wall, were
folid nearly eight feet from the foundation, above which
they were hollow. In the main wall within thefe towers
are four large, round, fmooth holes in a row, each about
nine inches in diameter, and penetrating about eight feet
into the fubftance of the main wall. Below thefe are
{maller holes, four inches in diameter, that run about ten
inches into the wall; all which feem to have ferved for the
infertion of beams, to fupport an apparatus of defenfive
machinery. Within the area, towards the north-eait corner,
and beneath the furface of the ground, is a folid reétan-
gular platform of mafonry 144 feet long, 104 feet wide,
and 5 feet thick. It is compofed of bolders and coarfe
mortar; and is covered on the upper fide with a coat of
the fame fort of mortar to the depth of fix feet. In the
eentre of the platform is the bafe or foundation of a building
Ric
in the fhape of acrofs, which rifes about five feet above the
level of the platform. The fhaft of this crofs meafures
87 feet in length and 7% feet in breadth; and its tranfverfe
is 46 long and 22 wide. In the weftern wall of the cattle
was a large opening, 34 feet wide, where, about five feet
under the furface, is part of another platform, confifting
of large fquare blocks of ftone, and meafuring 24 feet
11 inches in breadth. There is no appearance of an
fuperftru€ture having been raifed from this foundation.
Near the middle of the north wall is the oblique entrance,
or “ Porta~-Decumana,’”’ which is narrow; and, from the
holes remaining in the walls, feems to have been furnifhed
with good timber defences. The exterior pafflage, runnin
parallel with the main wall, is about four feet and a half
wide, having a channel at the bottom for carrying off water
from the higher ground within the caftle. Many Roman
coins and other antiquities have been difcovered as well
within the area of the fortrefs, as in its vicinity ; and at
the di&ance of abeut 460 yards from its fouth-weftern
angle, the remains of a Roman amphitheatre are yet dif.
tinctly vifible, though its banks are much mutilated and
levelled by the operations of hufbandry. Leland informs
us, in his Itinerary, that there was formerly « a lytle
paroche chirch of St. Auguitine and an hermitage’’ within
the caftle. The church was a chapel of eafe to that of
Ath; and is mentioned as ftanding in the reign of Ed-
ward VI. Antiquities of Richborough and Reculver,
abridged from the Latin of archdeacon Battely, Lond. Sve.
1774. Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica, vol. i. 4to.
Lond. 1780. Beauties of England, &c. vol. viii. by
E. W. Brayley. King’s Munimenta Antiqua, vol. iii.
RICHEA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. R. Brown, in
memory of M. Riche, one of the naturaliits who accom-
panied the expedition in fearch of La Peroufe, and being
in a confirmed confumption at fetting out, died in the
courfe of the voyage. Labillardiere has dedicated a genus
to this companion of his labours, but it proves no other
than what Foriter had previoufly publifhed as CRaspepra ;
fee that article. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 555.
—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Epa-
cridee, Brown.
Eff. Ch. Calyx membranous, fimple, in five deep feg-
ments. Corolla of one petal, clofed, hood-like, {plitting
tranfyerfely ; its abrupt bafe remaining. Stamens inferted
into the receptacle, permanent. Five fcales under the ger-
men. Capfule fuperior, of five cells. Receptacles feparate,
pendulous from the top of the central column.
1. R. dracophylla—Gathered by Mr. Brown, in Van
Diemen’s ifland. A /brub, varying remarkably in itature,
being only eighteen inches high on the fummits of the
mountains, but in woods at their fides becoming a {mall
tree, of the height of ten feet. “ It has altogether the
habit of Labillardiere’s Dracophyllum montanum, differing
only in the fingular economy of the coro/la, which however
feems fufficient to mark it for a diitinét genus.” Brown.
Notwithitanding the opinion of this judicious author, we
prefume to think his Cy/anthe, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.
555, fearcely fufficiently diftinguifhed from the above.
Their corollas and cap/ules agree ; the only difference con-
fitting in the foliaceous calyx of Cy/anthe, and its want of
fcales below the germen. We feel the more difpofed to
unite thefe genera, as there is but one known fpecies of
either.
RICHEFORT, or Ricciarort, Joun, in Biography,
a Netherlandifh mufical compofer of confiderable eminence.
He is placed by Walther in the middle of the fixteenth
century ; but he was gee a compofer many years =
ig 2 ore
RIC
fore that period, as we find his name not only in the fecond
book of Motetti della Corona,” publifhed at Foflem-
brone, 1519, and preferved in the Britifh Mufeum, in
which colleGtion he was author of the fourth motet,
s< Miferemini mei ;”? but to a motet in a mufic-book, pre-
ferved at Cambridge, of Henry VIII. when prince of
Wales. Glareanus fays, that “ great praife is due in our
times to the vocal compofitions of John Richefort.”” In
the mufeum collection of French fongs, in four, five, and
fix parts, printed in the Netherlands during the fixteenth
century, there is one by this author for three tenors and a
bafe, which, though it would be thought monotonous by
modern ears, has great merit for the artful contexture of
the parts, which are moving throughout in clofe fugue and
imitation. The words, indeed, of thefe old fongs are gene-
rally as rude and devoid of meaning as thofe of our own
country, equally ancient ; this, however, contains a general
cenfure of indifcriminate urbanity.
RICHELET, Czesar-Perer, a [Trench writer, was
born, in 1631, at Cheminon, in Champagne. He went,
when young, to Dijon, where he fuperintended the edu-
cation of the fon of the marquis de Courtivron. About
1660 he went to Paris, was admitted an advocate, and be-
gan to plead at the bar. He became conneéted with
d’?Ablancourt and Patru, and acquired reputation from the
attention he paid to the French language. In 1665 he
was admitted to an academy of men of letters, which the
abbé d’Aubignac had eftablifhed at his own houfe. It
appears that he was for fome time placed about the dauphin,
as one who might contribute to infpire that prince with
the love of literature. He afterwards took up his abode
in different parts of France, the enemies he made by his
fatirical difpofition obliging him frequently to fhift his
refidence. He died at Paris in 1698, at the age of 67.
The principal work of Richelet is his « Ditionnaire Fran-
cois,”? of which the firlt edition was publifhed at Geneva
in 1680, 4to., and feveral have fince been printed with
additions. The laft is that of the abbé Goujet, Lyons,
1759, 3 vols. fol. Richelet’s Dictionary has been popular,
though his orthography was much cenfured. He alfo
publifhed s* DiGtionnaire des Rimes ;” “ Les plus Belles-
‘Lettres des meilleurs Auteurs Frangois ;”’ of this colle€tion
the beft edition is that of Bruzen de la Martiniere, 1737,
z vols. 12mo.; “ A Tranflation of Garcilafflo de la Vega’s
Hiftory of Florida ;”? and other works.
RICHELIEU, Armanp vu Puessis, a famous prime
miniiter of France, born at Paris in 1585, was the fon of
Francis du Pleffis Richelieu, grand provoft of France, and
captain of the guards to Henry IV. He was brought up
to the church, and after ftudying at the Sorbonne,’ went to
Rome. At the early age of 22, he was confecrated bifhop
of Lucon. Though he had obtained fome diftinétion by his
proficiency in {cholaftic theology, his great objeé&t was to
make his way at court. He concealed, under polite and in-
finuating manners, a determined difpofition, and a fpirit of
intrigue well fuited to a female regency and a reign of fa-
vourites. The queen-mother, Mary of Medicis, in 1616
nominated him her grand almoner and fecretary of ftate.
On the fall of the marfhal d’Ancre, his proteétor, Riche-
lieu retired from court, and affeGted to employ himfelf in
writing books of devotion, while he was upon the watch to
recover his credit. This point he at length gained, by
efleGting an accommodation between the queen and her fon
Lewis XIII., and the new favourite de Lugnes rewarded
his fervices by procuring him a cardinal’s hat in 1622.
After the death of Lugnes, the court and kingdom fell into
diforder through the intrigues of the great, and the con-
t
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tentions of different parties, while all agreed in their de-
fiance of the laws, and encroachments upon the fupreme
authority. A minifter of equal talents and refolution was
wanted to remedy thefe evils, and he exifted in Richelieu.
He had gained the confidence of the queen-mother, who
recovered influence enough to introduce him into the council,
notwithftanding the oppofition of the other minifters, who
feared him, andthe repugnance of the king, who fufpeéted
his ambition, and was fhocked with his licentious manners.
In 1624 he found means to fubvert all his rivals, and to
poflefs himfelf of the whole authority of the crown.
The government, in his hands, foon aflumed a tone of
vigour and decifion. He concluded the treaty of marriage
between the prince of Wales and Henrietta, the French
king’s fifler, in fpite of the efforts of Rome and Spain, and
equally difconcerted thofe courts by fending an army, and
preventing the projected union with the Milanefe. He next
turned his arms againft the French Calvinifts, who, ren-
dered difaffeéted by the frequent breaches of the treaties
made with them, were become a kind of independent re-
public within the kingdom. Having firft fecured the
friendfhip of Holland by pecuniary aid, he obtained the
affiftance of its fleet, and that of the Englifh, againft their
brother Proteftants of Rochelle, and expelled them from
the ifle of Rhé. It is acknowledged that the French mo-
narchy dates from him its ftrength and independence. One
of the principal enemies he had to contend with was Gaflon,
duke of Orleans, the king’s brother. In confequence of a
confpiracy entered into by this prince to aflaffinate the
minifter, and effet great changes at court, Richelieu ar-
refted feveral of his confidents, and brought fome of them
to the fcaffold. The danger he had incurred formed a pre- -
text for giving him a body guard; and, by his pretended
wifhes to quit his f{tation, he augmented his influence over
his mafter. In 1627 war broke out with England, chiefly
in confequence of the infolent vanity of the duke of Buck-
ingham ; and the Rochellers, with whom an accommodation
had been made, were induced to favour the Enaglifh.
Richelieu thereupon refolved to reduce to fubmiffion a town
which had long been the feat of an independent power,
often leagued with the enemies of the kingdom ; and after
the duke of Buckingham had been obliged with difgrace to
quit the ifle of Rhbé, Rochelle was inveited on all fides.
Richelieu in perfon took the command of the fiege, and in
order to prevent the arrival of fuccours by fea, he caufed to
be conftru€ted a vaft dyke in the ocean, by which all com-
munication from abroad was cut off. This circumttance
has given occafion to the cardinal’s flatterers to compare him
with Alexander before Tyre, and the work has been repre-
fented as one of the prodigies of his genius; but it was
really that of the genius of the engineer Metezeau, and
Richelieu only deferves the praife of adopting a bold defign,
and finding refources for putting it in execution. At
length, after a noble refiftance of eleven months, Rochelle
{ubmitted to famine; and the Proteftants having loft their
great bulwark, and all their other {trong places, were ren-
dered incapable of again a¢ting as an armed party. It iste
the credit of the policy and moderation of Richelieu that
they were ftill allowed the free exercife of their religion.
In 1629 Richelieu received the patent of prime minifter,
and was nominated lieutenant-general of the army employed
in the war in Italy, with powers fo extenfive, that the royal
authority was reduced to a fhadow. All that was great in
the nation trembled before him. His foreign politics had
chiefly in view the humiliation of the houfe of Auttria;
and by his treaty, in 1631, with Guftavus Adolphus, he
enabled that great king to purfue thofe plans which brought
: the
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the empire to the brink of ruin. Gafton, duke of Orleans,
in his retreat, with the duke of Lorraine, whofe filter he
had married for his fecond wife, plotted to excite a civil
war for the expulfion of Richelieu, and his own return to
confequence. His intrigues were difcovered, and all his
partizans were declared guilty of treafon. The duke of
_Lorraine was compelled to abandon him, and incurred the
lofs of fome of his ftrongeft places. Gafton entered France
with a {mall body of troops, accompanied by the brave
duke of Montmorenci, but was defeated at Caftelnaudari.
Montmorenci was taken prifoner, and expiated his crime on
the feaffold. The queen-mother herfelf was put under
arreft, her fervants were all fent to the Baftille, and fhe
finally ended her days in exile at Cologne. The king fup-
ported his minifter in all thefe feverities, created him a duke
and peer, and gave him the government of Brittany.
France had hitherto aéted only as an ally to the Swedes
in their hoftilities againft the houfe of Auftria; but after their
defeat at Norlingen in 1634, the cardinal thought it necef-
fary to enter as a principal into the war; and forming an
alliance with Holland, and the dukes of Savoy and Parma,
he caufed war to be declared againit the king of Spain in
1635. Events were at firft unfavourable to the French
arms, but at length became more profperous to France, and
the enemy was driven from her territories ; the public finances
were, however, exhauited, and recourfe was had to the
creation of a great number of venal offices, and other objec-
tionable meafures, to raife the neceflary fupplies. The
talents of a financier do not feem to have been among Riche-
lieu’s qualifications, and he himfelf ee an example of
profufion which increafed the public difcontent. No prime
minfiter ever affected more ftate and {plendour. The daily
expence of his houfehold was eftimated at a thoufand crowns,
a prodigious fum at that period! His guards and attendants,
his equipage and eftablihment, were rather upon the fcale
of a fovereign prince than of a fubjeét, and he much furpafled
his maiter in external pomp. Lewis betrayed a diffatisfaGion
on this account, which probably induced Richelieu to make
him a prefent of his palace, fince called the Palais Royal.
He incurred great perfonal danger in 1642, from a confpi-
racy again{t his power and life, headed by Cingmars. (See
his article.) The duke of Bouillon, and the duke of Orleans,
entered into the plot, and negociations were opened with
Spain for affiftance. The good fortune of Richelieu produced
a timely difcovery of this treafon, and Cingmars was be-
headed. The duke of Bouillon was arreited, but made his
peace by refigning his principality of Sedan. Gatton fur-
nifhed proofs againtt his affociates. The viGtim-mott worthy
of compaflion on this occafion was the fon of the illuftrious
de Thou, who was capitally condemned only for not revealing
a confpiracy which he difapproved. Richelieu was at this
time lying dangeroufly fick at Tarafcon. He proceeded to
Lyons by water,.and was thence carried to Paris in a kind of
chamber, borne on the fhoulders of his guards, breaches being
made in the walls of the towns through which he paffed to
admit him. It foon appeared that he had not long to live, and
he prepared for the final change with great firmnefs. In
receiving the facrament he declared, that in the courfe of his
miniftry, he had never any thing in view but the good of
religion and the itate—a declaration which the public opinion
did not ratify. He died in December 1642, at the age of
58, worn out with toil and anxiety ; but he terminated his
career with fortitude and ferenity, that aftonifhed thofe who
had beheld the fanguinary effets of his adminiftration.
Three mighty and fuccefsful proje&s immortalize the period
of his government. He humbled the turbulent fpirits of
the great, he fubdued the ftubborn zeal of the Hugonots,
RIC
and he curbed the encroaching power of the houfe of Auf-
tria. Undaunted and implacable, prudent and a@ive, no
combinations of the powerful nobles could withitand his
vengeance ; no intrigues could elude his penetration ; while
he exalted the throne, he controlled a fovereign impatient to
rule, and jealous of his authority ; and ohilethe extinguifhed
the liberties of the people, he eftablithed among them dif-
cipline and order, and opened to them the paths to learning
aud renown. His own account of his public charaGer is
this: ‘I venture upon nothing till I have well confidered it ;
but when once I have taken my refolution, I go direétly to
my end; I overthrow and mow down all that ftands in my
way, and then cover the whole with my red mantle.” He
was fonder of power than money, yet he amafleda princely
fortune, which he bequeathed to the king. He was the
author of fome fplendid eftablifhments; he rebuilt the
Sorbonne, founded the royal printing-houfe, the botanical
garden, and the French academy. As a writer, he obtained
fome credit in the controverfy with the opponents of
the Catholic church; the mot famous of his fuppofed
works is, his «* Teftament Politique,”’ the authenticity of
which has been the fubjeét of warm controverfy .The letters
of Richelieu are faid to be interefting, of which the beft
edition is that of 1696, in two vols. 12mo. Gen. Biog.
Hitt. of France, three vols. 8vo. 1790.
RicHELiev, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftriét of Chinon; 11 miles S. of Chinon;
deriving its name from cardinal Richelieu, its founder. The
place contains 3600, and the canton 12,525 inhabitants, on
a territory of 320 kiliometres, in 21 communes.
RICHELIEU, ariver of Canada, ifluing from lake Cham-
plain, and firft called «‘ Chamblee,?? which name was
changed by the French into Richelieu at fort Chamblee,
and difcharging itfelf into the river St. Lawrence, N. lat.
46° 1'. W. long. 72° 56, ;
Ricuetieu Jflands, a clufter of {mall iflands in the
river St. Lawrence, about 100 in number, 36 miles above
Trois Rivieres. N. lat. 46° 22/.. W. long. 71° 7/.
RICHEMONT, a town of France, in the department
of the Mofelle, on the Orne; 1o miles S. of Thionville.
RICHENBURG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Chrudim ; 10 miles S.E. of Chrudim.
RICHENVEIR, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine; fix miles N.N.W. of Colmar.
RICHER, Joun, in Biography, a French aftronomer
and natural philofopher in the 17th century, of whom
little is known, till he was admitted a member of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris in the year 1666, under the
title of aftronomer to that body. About 1671, Lewis KIV.
fent him to the ifland of Cayenne in South America, for
the purpofe of making obfervations that might contribute
to the improvement of aftronomical fcience. After three
years he returned, and gave the refult of his labours in his
«¢ Aftronomical and Phyfical Obfervations made at the
Ifland of Cayenne,” which are inferted in the feventh volume
of the “ Memoirs” of the Academy of Sciences. Caflini
{peaks of him with commendation in his ‘* Elements of
Aitronomy.” He died in the year 1696.
Ricuer, Craupe, a learned prieft and mathematician
in the 18th century, was born at Auxerre in the year 1680.
He was intended for the ecclefiaftical profeflion when
very young, and was fent to Paris for his education. Here
he diitinguifhed himfelf in 1701, when only arrived to the
years of manhood, by a work which he publifhed, entitled
«< Univerfal Gnomonics, or the Science of Dialling,” &c.
After this he was ordained prieft, and remained about ten
years
RTE
years almoft an entire ftranger to men of letters, engaged
in the religious education of the young. About the year
1730 his paffion for mathematical {tudies revived with great
ardour, and he produced a work entitled « General Ana-
lyfis, containing New Methods of refolving Problems of
every kind, and of all degrees to infinity.”” This work
was immediately adopted by the Academy of Sciences, and
conftitutes the eleventh volume of the ** Memoirs.”? This
volume was foon to be followed by three others; thefe,
however, did not make their appearance, which was pro-
bably owing to a change in M. Richer’s ftudies. By an
accidental perufal of a fragment of Manetho, high priett
of Heliopolis, in Egypt, he was induced to devote his
whole attention to the moft profound refearches in ancient
hiftory. Notwithitanding the obfcurity of this relic of
antiquity, he conceived that he thoroughly underftood it,
and that it furnifhed him with a clue, by the aid of which he
could unravel all the difficulties of ancient hiftory, facred
and profane. Under the influence of this perfuafion, he
laboured night and day in attempting to illuftrate it, till
he had produced two immenfe folio volumes, which no one
would undertake to print. As a {pecimen of his labours,
he publifhed « A Chronological Series of the Kings of
Egypt, determined according to three fimple Dynatties,
from the Fragment of Manetho.”? He died about the year
1756.
7RICHERIA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by Vahl,
to the much neglected memory of Peter Richer de Belleval,
firft profeffor of Botany, as well as of Anatomy, at Mont-
pellier, to whom Henry IV. of France committed the
care of eltablifhing a public garden in that univerfity.
This defign was executed in the moft fkilful and fplendid
manner. Belleval publifhed a catalogue of the garden in
1598, anda French treatife, in 1605, recommending an en-
quiry into the native plants of Languedoc. This lait was
accompanied by five plates, intended as a fpecimen of a
future work, for which he fubfequently prepared a number
of engravings, rude and {tiff in execution, but exhibiting
many rare {pecies. He never lived to publifh thefe, and
the plates remained negleéted in the hands of his family,
till Gouan recovered them, and fent impreflions to Linnzus.
At length Gillibert obtained the plates, and publifhed them
in 1796. The two pamphlets above-mentioned were re-
publifhed in 1785, by the celebrated and unfortunate
Brouffonet ; along with a treatife on the White Mulberry,
by Olivier de Serres, originally printed in 1603. Richer
de Belleval lived to fee his garden deftroyed by the fury of
-civil war, and was beginning to reftore it, when he died
in 1623, aged 65. His nephew accomplifhed the re-
eftablifhment of the garden, on a more extenfive feale.
M. Dorthes of Montpellier publifhed, in 1786, Recherches
fur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Pierre Richer de Belleval, in
which every thing, that could be colleéted on the fubje&,
isrecorded. Some writers erroneoufly mention Belleval as
the firit botanift who gave copper-plate figures of plants.
This honour is due to Fabius Columna, whofe Phytuba/anos
appeared in 1592. We muft not omit to mention, that
Scopoli has named a genus Bellevalia, a name, or fome-
thing like it, which Belleval himfelf was fond of giving to
the Lily of the Valley. Bruguiere, in 1775, called a
Madagafcar plant Richeria, but his genus has not been
eftablifhed.—Vahl Eclog. v. 1. 30. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.
7122. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4.—-Clafs and order, Poly-
gamia Disecia ; Dicecia Pentandria; or rather Pentandria
Monogyria. Nat. Ord. Euphorbie, Jui.
Gen. Ch. Male, @a/. Perianth of one leaf, permanent,
in four or five ovate, acute, downy fegments. Cor. Petals
R LC
four or five, roundifh, the length of the calyx. Neary four
or five glands, at the bafe of the imperfe& germen. Stam.
Filaments four, five, or fix, between the glands of the
nectary, erect, longer than the calyx ; anthers oblong, two-
lobed, ere&t. Piff. Rudiment of a germen {uperior, coni-
cal, villous, ftyle and itigma wanting.
Female, Ca/. and Petals like the male. Neary a rim
round the bafe of the germen. Stam. none. Pit. Ger-
men fuperior, ovate; ityle very fhort; itigmas three, re-
volute, channelled above. eric. Capfule coated, ovate,
fmooth and even, of three cells, with tix valves, feparating
at the bafe. Seeds folitary, pulpy-coated, pendulous from
the top of the central column.
Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx four or five-cleft. Petals four
or five. Neétary four or five glands, at the bafe of the
imperfe& germen. Stamens four or five.
bere Gal. and Cor. like tke male.
the bafe of the germen. Style very fhort. Stigmas t
revolute. Capfale coated, of pee cells ari anes
fplitting at the bafe. Seeds folitary, pulpy. :
1. R. grandis. Vahl. Eclog. v. 1. 30. t. 4. Gathered
by Ryan, on the fulphur mountain in the ifland of Mont-
ferrat. A tree of a great fize. Leaves alternate, ftalked
oblong, acute, entire, coriaceous, {fmooth, veiny, fix er
feven inches in length; very much contraéed at the bafe.
Spikes axillary, folitary, longer than the footftalks, lax.
Capfule the fize of a hazel-nut. The d¥coverer of this
rare tree is faid to have found fome of the flowers perfe&
as to famens as well as piffil. Hence, notwithitanding the
flight differences in the zeG@ary, we fhould incline to place
the genus in Pentandria Monogynia.
RICHFIELD, in Geography, a town of America, in
Otfego county, New York, taken from Otfego townfhip,
and incorporated in 1792.
RICHFORD, the north-eafternmoft townfhip of Frank-
lin county, Vermont, fituated on Miffifcou river; contain-
ing 442 inhabitants.
RICH-HILL, a poft-town of the county of Armach,
Ireland; 62 miles N.W. from Dublin, and four miles E.
from Armagh.
RICHLAND, a diftri& of South Carolina, bounded
S. and S.W. by Congaree and Broad rivers, and E. by
Wateree river, which divides it from Kerfhaw and Cler-
mont counties.—Alfo, a townfhip of Bucks’ county, in
Pennfylvania, containing 1317 inhabitants.
RICHMAN’s Istanp, a {mall American ifland on the
coaft of Cumberland county, in the ftate of Maine; four
leagues N. from Wood ifland and one league W. of Port-
land. Few veffels put in here, except coaiters. Wood
ifland is in N. lat. 43° 50’. W. long. 69° 37!. ;
RICHMOND, ,a borough and market-town in the wapen-
take of Gilling-Weit, north riding of Yorkfhire, England, is
fituated on the banks of the river Swale, at the diftanee of
48 miles N.W. from York, and 293 miles N.N.W. from
London. It was anciently much celebrated for its caftle,
which was founded by the firft earl of Richmond, Alan, fon of
Hoel, count of Brittany. This nobleman, who was nearly
related to William, duke of Normandy, accompanied that
prince in his expedition to England; and in reward for
his fervices, received from him all the forfeited eftates of the
brave Edwin, earl of Mercia. This grant was made during
the time William was engaged in the fiege of York, and
is peculiarly remarkable on account of its brevity. Alan
immediately after married Hawife, the conqueror’s daugh-
ter; and being thus loaded both with riches and honour
built the caftle, and part of the town of Richmond, to orcs
te& his family and his eftates againit the difinherited and
outlawed
Neétary a rim at
RICHMOND.
outlawed Englifhmen in thofe parts. Having no iflue by
his lady, the earldom of Brittany devolved to Conan le
Groffe, his fon by a fecond wife; and Alan, furnamed the
Black, fon of Hawife by a former hufband, obtained the
earldom and eftates of Richmond. During the reigns of
our Norman kings this title and property were poflefled by
feveral different families, fome of whom were allied to the
~ blood royal, both of England and France. Edward III.
conferred the eftate on his third fon, John of Gaunt, who
afterwards furrendered it in exchange for fome other lands.
The fame monarch gave Richmond, with his daughter, in
marriage to John, earl of Montford and duke of Brittany,
who was furnamed the Valiant. During the wars of York
and Lancafter, both the title and the eftates feveral times
changed poffeffors, and at length were vetted in the crown
by the acceffion of Henry, earl of Richmond, to. the throne,
under the title of Henry VII. By his fucceflor, Henry
VIII., Richmond was conttituted a duchy in the perfon
of his natural fon, Henry, who died without iffue in the
year 1535.
The town of Richmond is comparatively limited in ex-
tent and population ; containing, according to the late par.
liamentary returns, only 512 houfes, and 3056 inhabitants.
Its fine fituation, however, and the chara¢ter of its build-
ings, which are in general ‘con{tructed of itone, give it a
dignified and intereiting appearance. It occupies the top
and declivity of a lofty eminence boldly rifing from the
river Swale, which winds round the town and the caftle in
a femicircular direG&tion. The chief trade of this place is
that of knit woollen ftockings, in which men, women, and
children, are employed, The market day is Saturday,
weekly; and there are befides four annual fairs. The
market here is one of the largeit in the north of England
for corn; and the fairs are noted for a great fupply of
horfes, horned cattle, and fheep. Richmond is a borough
by royal charter, and fends two reprefentatives to parlia-
ment, who are elected by ‘* thofe perfons who are owners
of ancient burgages in the faid borough, having a right of
pafture in a common field, called Whitecliff palture.”? The
government of the town is veited, by the charter of queen
Elizabeth, in a mayor, recorder, twelve aldermen, twenty-
four common council-men, and other inferior officers. The
petty feflions for the wapentake of Gilling-Weft are
holden here. :
The caftle of Richmond ftands on the fouth fide of the
town, on a bold eminence, overlooking the Swale, which
runs in a deep valley beneath. On all tides the approach
to it is fteep and difficult, except on the north, where
the afcent is gradual. The caitle is now in a very ruinous
condition, but it ftill retains the features of former gran-
deur and importance. The keep-tower, of which the fhell
is nearly entire, is of great altitude; and its exterior walls
are more than eleven feet thick. The lower {tory is fup-
ported by a vait column of {tone in the centre, from which
{pring circular arches clofing the top. The ftaircafe only
reaches to the firft chamber, the reft of it being dilapidated,
as the floors of the two upper rooms are fallen in. In this
keep is a well of excellent water. The ruins of feveral
other parts of this caftle yet remain. In the fouth-eaftern
corner of the area is a ruinous tower, below which,is a
dungeon, about fourteen feet deep. The ground covered by
this fortrefs meafures nearly fix acres in extent, and is the
property of the duke of Richmond and Lennox.
The country around Richmond is extremely picturefque,
and affords feveral objeéts of intereft to the tourift and the
antiquary. Clofe to the town, on the north, are the re-
mains of a houfe of Grey friars, which was founded, in
1258, by Ralph Fitz-Randal, lord of Middleham; and
adjoining is the {cite of a nunnery, now totally demolifhed.
About a mile to the eaftward are the fine ruins of St.
Agatha abbey, feated on the banks of the river Swale. This
monattery was eftablifhed, in 1151, by Roaldus, conftable of
Richmond caftle, and at the time of the reformation main-
tained feventeen monks of the Premonitratenfian order.
Richard Scroope, chancellor of England, was a great
benefa€tor to this monaftery; for befides his manor of
Brumpton-upon-Swale, he granted 150/. a-year for the
fupport of ten additional regular canons, two fecular .
canons, and twenty-two poor men. Near this priory ftood
an hofpital, which being decayed in the reign of Henry VI.
was reftored by William Ayfcough, one of his judges, to
whom he had given the patronage of it. A cell for Bene-
diétines, dependent on the abbey of St. Mary of York,
was fituated on an eminence in this neighbourhood. It was
founded, in 1100, by Wymer, chief {teward to the earl
of Richmond. Many other religious foundations occupied
the banks of the Swale, which our limits forbid us to enu-
merate. The circumitance of the waters of this river hav-
ing been held facred, on account of the baptifm of 10,000
Saxons near Catterick, by bifhop Paulinus, in 627, gave
occafion to this multiplicity of religious foundations. Catte-
rick is fituated at the diftance of five miles from Richmond ;
and is fuppofed by feveral antiquaries to be the {cite of the
Roman Cataraétonium, or Cataracton, mentioned in the
Itinerary of Antoninus. Dr. Gibfon, however, fuppofes
that {tation {tood between the village and the river, and fome
extenfive Roman remains, on the {pot, he defcribes, feems
to juftify his conjecture. This {tation continued for fome
time a Saxon town; but was totally deitroyed at an early
period by the Danes. ‘The Roman road here divides itfelf
into two branches, one of which leads to Caldwell, diftant
about eight miles from Richmond, where vettiges of a large
town may yet be traced. ‘lhe Roman name of this {tation
isunknown. A Tour in Scotland 1772, by Thomas Pen-
nant, efq. 4to. Lond. 1790. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland.
Ricumonp, a village and parifh in the hundred of
Kingfton, and county of Surrey, England, is fituated on
the uth bank of the river Thames, at the diftance of ten
miles W.S.W. from St. Paul’s cathedral, London. It is
a {pot of great celebrity, both on account of the beauty
of its fcenery, as well as from having been the {cite of a royal
palace during feveral centuries. ‘The firlt authentic men-
tion of the manor here occurs in the reign of king John,
at which time it was denominated Sheen, and was the pro-
perty of Michael Belet, who held it by the fervice of be-
ing the king’s butler. In the reign of Edward I. it re-
verted to the crown, and has fince been generally poffeffed
either by the king, or fome branch of the royal family.
At what precife period the original royal palace was erected
is uncertain; for though Edwards I. and IJ. refided for
fome time in the manor-houfe, it does not appear to have
been a ftru€ture entitled to that appellation. Edward IIT.
is faid to have built a palace on his ‘‘ maner of Shene;”’ but
Manning, the author of the “ Hiftory and Antiquities of
Surrey,’’ inclines to the opinion, that he only improved and
enlarged the former building. Be this as it may, it had
undoubtedly become a fixed regal refidence in the reign of
that monarch, who died here the 21/t of June, 13773 as did
queen Anne, the confort of his fucceffor, Richard II. in
the year 1394. The latter prince was fo much affeGed by
his lofs, that he abandoned the palace, and fuffered it to fall
to ruin; or, as others affert, pulled it down. From this
period Sheen remained in a negleCed ftate, till the acceflion
of
RICHMOND.
of Henry V. to the throne, when the palace was rebuilt in
a ftyle of greater magnificence than before, and in fuch a
manner, as to render it “a delightful manfion of curious
and coftly workmanfhip, and befitting the character and
condition of a king.” Of Henry VI. we difcover no
traee here, nor does it appear that Edward IV. ever oc-
cupied the palace ; but it is recorded, that he granted it,
in the fixth year of his reign, to his queen, Elizabeth, to
be held by her during her life. Henry VII. gave the
cuftody of the manor to Robert Skeene; and on the death
of his own mother-in-law, the queen dowager, in 1486,
took pofleffion of the palace, which he frequently made
his refidence. In 1492 he held a grand tournament here,
at which fir James Parker, in a controverfy with Hugh
Vaughan, for right of coat of armour, was killed in the
firft courfe. Seven years fubfequent, the king being then
at the palace, it was fet on fire by accident, and almoit
totally deftroyed. Henry, however, foon replaced it by
another, which was built in a ftyle of much ‘ magnificence
and elegance ;”? and on this occafion changed the name of
the manor to Richmond, in reference to his own title be-
fore he obtained the crown. The picture of Henry V.
and his family, the marriage of Henry VI. and that of
Henry VII. in the Strawberry-hill colleétion, are fuppofed
to have been painted for this monarch, and intended for
the palace of Richmond. It had been finifhed only a
fhort time, when another fire broke out, which did con-
fiderable damage. One of the newly ercéted galleries alfo
fell in the fame year, only a few minutes after the king
and his fon had been walking in it. Philip I., king of
Spain, was entertained here with great magnificence in the
year 1506; and king Henry VII. died here 21ft April,
1509. His fucceffor kept his Chriftmas at Richmond the
year fucceeding his acceffion to the throne; and on the
12th of January enfuing a tournament was held in the park,
when the monarch himfelf, for the firft time, took a part
in the exercifes. Charles V. was lodged at Richmond in
the year 1523. King Henry VIII. had a fon of his own
name born here, who died when {carcely two months old.
Queen Elizabeth was imprifoned in the palace by her fitter,
queen Mary; and after fhe was feated on the throne, it
became one of her favourite places of refidence. In her
reign, Eric IV., king of Sweden, was lodged here, and
here fhe herfelf ended her days, on the 24th of March, in
the year 1603. In the autumn of the fame year the feveral
courts of juftice were removed hither from London to avoid
the plague, which was then raging with great vehemence
in the eapital. Henry, prince of Wales, refided here in
1605, and in 1625 the courts were a fecond time adjourned
to Richmond for the fame reafon as before mentioned.
Charles 1. was frequently at this palace, where he formed
a large colle¢tion of pictures. In 1636 lord Buckhurit,
and lord Edward Sackville, performed a mafk before his
majefty and his royal confort. When the fame moaarch was
in Scotland, the parliament ordered that the young prince
fhould be fent to Richmond with his governor, probably
bifhop Duppa, who is faid to have educated Charles II.
at this place. In the month of June, 1647, the palace
was prepared for the king’s reception, but he is generally
ftated to have refufed to go to it. Mr. Lyfons, however,
quotes a newfpaper of the 29th of Auguft in that year, as
mentioning that the prince elector was then at Richmond,
and that the king, with the duke of York, hunted in the
New Park, and killed a ftag and a buck. During the
commonwealth, the palace was fold by the commiffioners of
the houfe of commons, who ordered a furvey of it to be
taken, as it then exifted. From this document we learn,
that the great hall meafured 100 feet in length, and 40 in
breadth; and that it had a fcreen at one extremity, and a
turret or clock-cafe, covered with lead, at the other. The
fame record defcribes the privy lodgings as.a free-ftone
building, three ftories high, and furmounted by fourteen
turrets. A ‘canted tower,” with a ftaircafe of 124 fteps, is
likewife noticed; alfo a chapel 96 feet long, and 40 broad ;
and a privy garden, with an open gallery 200 feet in length,
over which was a clofe gallery of the fame extent; but no
mention is made of a library, though a French writer
aflerts, that a royal library was ettablifhed at Richmond by
Henry VII. and the librarian is enumerated among the
officers of this palace in the houfehold eftablifhments of
queen Mary and queen Elizabeth. The furvey further
mentions three pipes, which fupplied the palace with water,
one from the white conduit in the New Park, another from
the red conduit in the town-fields ; and a third from a con-
duit near the alms-houfes, which are fituated clofe to the
river. The materials of the palace are there valued at
10,782/. 19s. 2d. It was purchafed by Thomas Rookefby,
William Goodrick, and Adam Baynes, on behalf of them-
felves and other creditors, and fhortly after refold by them
to fir George Norton, who had been one of the com-
miffioners appointed to fit in judgment on CharlesI. On
the reftoration, this gentleman having been deprived of his
eftates by confifcation, Richmond palace was beftowed on
the queen mother, but it is probable, that at this period
it was in a very difmantled ftate. Indeed Fuller, who
wrote foon after the reftoration, fpeaks of it as pulled
down; but this could not literally be the cafe, as it feems
to have been inhabited fubfequent to his day. Now, how-
ever, it is totally demolifhed, except a few of the out-
offices, and its {cite is occupied by feveral houfes, which are
held on leafe from the crown. One of thefe, the pro-
perty of the late duke of Queenfberry, was built by the
third earl of Cholmondeley, who ornamented it with a
very fine colleGtion of pictures. The tapeftry, which hung
behind the earl of Clarendon in the court of chancery, full
decorates the hall of this manfion. The firft mention made
of a park at Richmond is inthe reign of Edward I. This
is the park which, in the time of Henry VIII. was called
the Old or Great Park, in contradiftin@ion to another
adjoining, called the New Park, which had been formed by
the predeceflor of that monarch. The lodge belonging to
it was for fome months the refidence of the celebrated car-
dinal Wolfey, after he had loft the favour of his capricious
and tyrannical mafter. Charles I. having formed a third
park of far greater extent than both the former ones united,
they appear to have merged into one foon after, as in the
furvey taken in 1649, only two parks are mentioned, wiz.
that lately inclofed by the monarch, called the New Park,
and another ityled the Little or Old Park. This laft was
valued at 220/) 3s. per annum, and was purchafed by
William Brome of London for 7048/. The lodge already
mentioned was afterwards pollefled by fir Thomas Jervafe,
and the park by fir John Trevor, in leafe from the crown,
to which the whole manor reverted at the reftoration. King
William afterwards granted the lodge, together with the
ftewardfhip of the manor, to John Latton, efq., who held
them till the death of that prince. In 1707, they were
granted by queen Anne to James, duke of Ormond, who
rebuilt the lodge, and refided there till his attainder in 1715,
when he privately withdrew to Paris. By a& of parlia-
ment, pafled in 1721, the earl of Arran, his brother, having
been enabled to purchafe his eftates, king George II.,
then prince of Wales, bought this of Richmond from him,
and frequently retired hither, even after his acceflion to the
throne.
RUI€
throne. His queen, Caroline, was very partial to the fpot,
and had a dairy and menagerie here; feveral ornamental
buildings were alfo difperfed by the fame princefs through-
out the gardens, in one of which, called the Hermitage,
fhe placed the buits of Newton, Locke, and other eminent
literary characters. His prefent majefty frequently refided
here in the early part of his reign; and was fo ftrongly at-
tached to the place, that he ordered the old lodge to be
demolifhed with: the view of building a magnificent palace
on its fcite, which, however, has never rifen above the
foundation ; but an obfervatory has been erected at a fhort
diftance from it, according to defigns furnifhed by fir
William Chambers. Here is a mural arc of 140 degrees
and eight feet radius; a zenith fector of twelve feet; a
tranfit inftrument ef eight feet ; and a ten-feet reflector by
Herfchel. On the top of the building is a moveable dome,
which contains an equatorial inftrument. Part of the Old
Park forms a grazing and a dairy farm in his majelty’s own
oecupancy. ‘The remainder conttitutes the royal gardens,
which were firft laid out by Bridgeman, and afterwards
altered to their prefent improved itate by Brown. The
other park, viz. the New or Great Park, made by Charles I.
met with great oppofition to its formation, and may be
reckoned among the impolitic meafures of his reign. It
was prefented to the common council of London by the par-
liament ; but was reftored to the crown in 1660. ‘The
rangerfhip of this park is confidered an office of high dignity
and truit, and has been frequently held by a female branch
of the royal family.
Within Richmond parifh were anciently fituated feveral
religious houfes. Edward II. founded here a convent of
Carmelite friars, and endowed it with an annual income of
120 marks out of his exchequer; but only two years
atter its eftablifhment he removed the monks to Oxford.
Henry V. alfo founded here a houfe for the maintenance
of friars of the Carthufian order, whom he incorporated
by the name of the Houfe of Jefus of Bethlehem, at Shene.
The foundation charter defcribes it as built on the north
fide of the palace; and it appears from records to have
been a itruéture of great extent and magnificence. At the
diffolution its annualrevenues were eftimated at 962/. 1 1s. 6d.,
and fhortly after its feite was granted to Edward, earl of
Hertford. A third convent was erected here by Henry VII.
about the year 1499, and filled with friars of the Francifcan
order. This eftablifhment was fuppreffled in 1534, but its
value is not recorded. «
Richmond church is dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen,
and confifts of a nave, two aifles, and a chancel, built of
bricks, with a {quare embattled tower at the weit end, con-
itructed of ftone and flints in chequers. The principal
monuments here are thofe of Henry, lord vifcount Brounker,
cofferer to king Charles II. ; admiral Holborn; fir Matthew
Decker ; lady Chaworth, reli& of fir Richard Chaworth, who
died in 1689 ; lady Howard, reli€t of William lord Howard
of Efcrick ; James Thompfon, author of the ‘ Seafons ;”
and that of Mrs. Yates, the celebrated actrefs, who died
in 1787. This church is in the diocefe of Winchetter, and
in the deanery of Ewell. According to the parliamentary
returns of 1811, the parifh contains 875 houfes, and 5219
inhabitants. Hittory and Antiquities of the County of
Surrey, by the late Rev. Owen Manning, S.T.P. continued
by William Bray, efg. of Shire, fol. vol. i. 1804. Salmon’s
Antiquities of Surrey, 8vo. 1732. Lyfons’s Environs of
London, vol. i. 4to. Maurice’s Richmond, a poem, 4to.
Ricumonp, a townfhip of America, on the W. line of
Mafiachufetts, in Berkihire county; 17 miles W. by S.
from Lenox, and 150 W. of Bofton. Iron ore of the
Voi. XXX.
RUS
beft quality is found here; but as it lies deep, it is raifed
at a great expence. It abounds with lime-itone, and coarfe,
white, and clouded marble. It was incorporated in 1775,
and contains an iron-work, three grift-mills, a fulling-mill,
two faw-mills, with 1041 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip
of Chefhire county, New Hampjthire, on the Maflachufetts
line, about 11 miles E. of Connecticut river, and g7 W.
by S. from Portfmouth. It was incorporated in 1752,
and contains 1290 inhabitants.— Allo, a townfhip in Wath-
ington county, Rhode ifland, feparated from Hopkington
on the W. by Ward’s river, a branch of Paucatuck river.
Tt is diftant about 19 miles W. of Newport, and contains
1330 inhabitants.—Alfo, a county of New. York, compre-
hending the whole of Staten ifland; which fee.—Alfo, a
county of North Carolina, in Fayette diitrict, bounded S.
by the itate of South Carolina, and N. by Moore county.
It contains 6695 inhabitants. The chief towi is Rocking-
ham. The S.E. part of the county is a continued plain,
covered in many places by pines, and moitly inhabited by
Scotfmen. The upper part has hills and vallies. In the
middle and eaft parts large traéts remain uncultivated.
The inhabitants, with regard to reljgion, are Prefbyterians,
Baptilts, Methodilts, and Quakers. Their houfes are logs,
covered with flabs.—Alfo, a county of Virginia, bounded
N. and N.E. by Weftmoreland, and S. and S.W. by
Rappahannock river, which feparates it from Effex county.
It contains 6214 inhabitants. The court-houfe is 273 miles
from Philadelphia.—Alfo, the prefent feat of government
of the ftate of Virginia, fituated in Henrico county, on
the N. fide of: James’ river, at the foot of the falls, and
containing between 400 and 500 houfes; built partly on
the bank of the river fo as to be convenient for trade, and
partly upon an eminence that overlooks the lower part of
the town, and commands an extenfive profpe¢t of the river
and country. The new houfes are well built, and the ftate-
houfe is on the hill. In this town is an elegant ftatue of
the illuttrious Wathington, executed at Paris. The lower
part of the town is divided by a’creek, over which is a eon-
venient bridge. Another bridge of curious conftruéction
conne¢ts the city with Mancheiter. The public buildings,
befides the itate-houfe, are an epifcopal church, a court-
houfe, gaol, theatre, and three tobacco warehoufes. At
the W. end of the town are feveral mills. Near the mills
are a diftillery and brewery. The falls above the bridge
are feven miles in length. A noble canal is cut on the N.
fide of the river, which terminates in a bafin of about two
acres, in the town of Richmond. Richmond is 626 miles
from Botton, 374 from New York, 176 from Baltimore,
278 from Philadelphia, 247 from Fayetteville, 497 from
Charleiton, and 662 from Savannah. N,. lat. 37° 40’. W.
long. 77° 50.—Alfo, a county of the upper diftri@ of
Georgia, in which is fituated the city of Augufta; it is -
feparated from South Carolina on the E. by Savannah river,
and contains fix towns and 6189 inhabitants.—Alfo, a
townfhip in Chittenden county, Vermont, eftablifhed in
1794: It contains an excellent tra& of Jand, and lies on
both fides of Onion river. It has 935 inhabitants. —Alfo,
a town, or rather village, in the ifland of St. Vincent, in
the Weit Indies ; fituated at the head of a deep bay, on
the W. fide of the ifland. Chateaubelair river runs on the
S. fide of the town, which gives name to the bay. An-
other river on the N. fide of the town empties into the
bay.—Alfo, a townfhip in Lenox county, Upper Canada,
N. of Frederickfburgh in the bay of Quinte, and watered
in front by the river Appennie.
Ricumonp Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of
St. John, in the gulf of St. Lawrence.
Gg RICHOLD,
RIC
RICHOLD, or Ricuetp, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer, near the Meufe; two miles N.W.
of Dalem.
RICHTENBERG, a town of Anterior Pomerania 3
28 miles E.N.E. of Roftock. N. lat. 54° 11!. E. long.
T2cKrols
RICHTENSWYL, a town of Switzerland, fituated
on the W.. fide of the lake of Zurich, in the canton of
Zurich, with a convenient harbour; 11 miles S. of Zu-
rich.
RICHTER, Francis-Xavien, in Biography. There
are fix muficians, male and female, recorded in Gerber’s
Continuation of Walther’s Lexicon ; among whom, the moft
celebrated and bett known in England was Francis-Xavier,
whofe works, of various kinds, have great merit. His har-
mony is correct ; the fubje¢ts are often new and noble;
but his’ detail and manner of treating them are frequently
dry and fteril, and he fpins and repeats paflages in different
keys without end. The French and Italians have a term
for this tedioufnefs, which is wanting in our language,
they call it rofalie, or rofalia; derived from the name of a
female faint, remarkable for repeating her «* Pater nofter,”
and ftringing her beads more frequently than even St.
Dominic himfelf, or than any other pious perfon, that has
merited’a place in the Golden Legend. An Italian cries
out, upon hearing a itring of repetitions, either a note
higher, or a note lower, of the fame paflage or modula-
tion, ah fanta Rofalia! Indeed this fpecies of iteration in-
dicates a want of invention in a compofer, as much as
ftlammering and hefitation imply a want of wit or memory
in a ftory-teller. He died at Strafburgh in 1789, mm the
Soth year of his age.
RICIMER, count and patrician of the Welftern em-
pire, and an’ important civil and military character in
the fifth century, ferved from his youth in the Roman
armies, in which he acquired great reputation by his
warlike exploits, and at length came to be regarded as
the ableft commander of the age. In the reign of the
emperor Avitus, being one of the chief commanders of
the Barbarian troops which formed the defence of Italy,
he deftroyed, in the year 456, on the coaft of Corfica, a
fleet of Genferic, the Vandal king, deftined to ravage the
coafts of Gaul or Italy. His fuccefs in this inftance en-
abled him to avail himfelf of the public difcontent to de-
pofe Avitus, and raife Majorian to the throne in the year
457. Not being raifed to the dignity which he expected
under this prince, he compelled him to abdicate the purple,
which aét was foon followed by his death. Ricimer next
raifed an obf{cure man, named Libius Severus, to the throne,
who bore the title of emperor during four years without
performing any one imperial funétion. In that period, and
in an interregnum of two years more, Ricimer exerted
fovereign authority, amafling treafures, forming a feparate
army, and negociating alliances. His own mean birth pre-
yented him from afluming the purple, and in 467 he con-
curred in the inauguration of Anthemius, whofe daughter
he married. The new emperor and his fon-in-law pafled
fome years in union, but at length diffentions broke. out
between them, which ended in the murder of the emperor,
and Olybrius was proclaimed in his ftead. Thus a third,
or perhaps a fourth, emperor was added to the number of
Ricimer’s victims ; but in a few weeks after the maflacre of
Anthemius, “ Italy,’ fays Gibbon ‘* was delivered by a
painful difeafe from the tyrant Ricimer, who bequeathed
the command of his army to his nephew Gundobald, one
of the princes of the Burgundians.’”? Guibbon’s Rom. Hift.
vol. vi.
R Le
RICINA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated on
the coaft of Hibernia, being one of thofe called Ebudes,
according to Ptolemy and Pliny.—Alfo, a town of Italy,
in the Picenum, which became a Roman colony under
the reign of the emperor Severus. It was fituated S.W.
of Auximum.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in Liguria, S.E.
of Genoa.
RICINOCARPODENDRON, compounded of +ic#-
nus, xeer@, fructus, and devdeov, arbor, in Botany, the name
of a genus of plants, eftablifhed by Dr. Amman, the
charaéters of which are thefe: the flower is of the roface-
ous kind, confifting of three petals, difpofed in a circular
order, in the centre of which there arifes a large and open
tube, through which fhoots up the pittil, which grows at
the bottom of the cup; this piitil, finally, becomes a tri-
gonal fruit, divided imto three cells within, and containing
each one feed in a rough coat.
The leaves of this tree fometimes refemble thofe of the
afh, being compofed of three or four pairs of {maller
leaves joined to a middle mb, thefe are not ferrated, and
terminate in a fharp point; the flowers grow at the ale of
the leaves, they are white, and are difpofed in lax fpikes ;
the fruit is green at firft, afterwards it becomes of a yel-
lowifh-red, and finally fcarlet ; it is of the bignefs of a
walnut, and in fhape much refembles the fruit of the rici-
nus; the covering of the feeds is black on the outfide,
and red within, and each feed is divided into two lobes;
when ripe, the fruit burits, and the feeds fall out. It
is a native of the Eaft Indies. AG. Petropol. vol. ii.
p- 214.
RICINOCARPOS, from the refemblance of the fruit
to Ricinus. See AcALypua, Croton, MercuRIALIS,
TRAGIA.
RICINOIDES. See Creanotuus, Croron, Jarro-
PHA.
RICINUS, fo denominated from the refemblance its
feed has to the little infect called a tick, Ricinus ; and thia,
according to Ainfworth, is compounded of re and canis,
becaufe the tick, or tyke, is particularly annoying to dogs,
by fixing itfelf upon their ears and other parts. It is
the Kixs or Keorwy of Diofcorides, words expreffive of the
likenefs of its feed to the above-named infect; the former
of thefe appellations, however, is of eaftern origin, and of
rather uncertain fignification, occurring in the prophet Ja-
nah. Pliny mentions an Egyptian herb called Pa/ma-Chrifti,
with feeds like a tyke.—Linn. Gen. 503. Schreb. 655.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.564. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 5. 331. Purfhv. 2.602. Tournef. t. 307.
Juff. 388. Lamarck Did. v. 6. 200. Illuttr. t. 792.
Gertn. t. 107. Loureir. Cochinch. 584.—Clafs and order,
Monoecia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Euphor-
bie, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven
into five, ovate, concave fegments. Cor. none. Stam. Fila-
ments very numerous, thread-fhaped, united unequally below
into various fets ; anthers twin, roundifh.
Female on the fame plant with the male, Ca/. Perianth
inferior, of one leaf, deciduous, cloven into three, ovate,
concave fegments. Cor. none. Pi/?. Germen fuperior,
ovate, covered with awl-fhaped briltly bodies ; ityles three,
cloven, ereét and fpreading, hifpid; ftigmas fimple. Peric-
Capfule roundifh, three-furrowed, generally prickly all
over, of three cells and three valves. Seeds folitary, nearly
ovate.
Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corollanone. Stamens
numerous. Female, Calyx three-cleft. Corolla none.
Styles three, cloven.. Capfule three-celled. Seed folitary.
9 Obf.
RICINUS.
Obf. Willdenow divides this genus into two fetions ;
the firft containing fuch fpecies zs have palmate kaves, the
fecond thofe which have fimple, undivided leaves.
Se&. 1. Leaves palmate. )
1. R. communis. Common Palma-Chrifti, or Caftor-oil
Plant. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1430. Woodv. Med. Bot. 171.
~ t, 61.—Leaves peltate; lobes lanceolate, ferrated. Stem
herbaceous, pruinofe. Stigmas three, cloven at the tip.—
Native of the Eaft and Weit Indies. Firft cultivated in
England, as appears from Turner’s Herbal, in 1562. It
flowers in July and Auguft. Root biennial or annual, long,
thick, and fibrous. Stems round, thick, jointed, channelled,
glaucous ; of a purplith-red colour upwards. Leaves large,
deeply divided into feven fegments, on long, tapering, pur-
plifh ttalks. Flowers in long, green, and glaucous {pikes,
{pringing from the divifions of the branches; the males
form the lower part of the fpike, the females the upper.
Seeds ovate, fhining, black dotted with white. rel
The prefent f{pecies is fubje&t to confiderable variations.
In our gardens it is a ftrong, luxuriant, fhrubby annual.
In Africa it becomes a tree. Clutfius obferved it in Spain,
with a trunk as large asa man’s body, and fifteen or twenty
feet high. And Ray faw it in Sicily as big as our common
Elder-trees, woody and long-lived. From the feeds of this
valuable plant is extraGed the oleum ricini, or cattor-oil, fo
important for its medicinal properties as a gentle, though
mott effectual, cathartic.
2. R. viridis. Green Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 2. Hort.
Berol. v. 1. t. 49.—Leaves peltate ; lobes oblong, toothed,
the midddle one flightly three-lobed. Stem herbaceous,
pruinofe. Stigmas fix.—Native of the Eaft Indies, flower-
ing at Kew, in Augutt. Very like the lait, but always an-
nual, with a taller and fomewhat lefs pruinofe fem. Leaves
larger, and not fo diftinétly palmate.
3. R. africanus. African Palma-Chrifti, Willd. n. 3.
(R. communis ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 355.)—Leaves pel-
tate ; lobes oblong, ferrated. Stem fhrubby, {mooth.—
Native of the north of Africa. Stem arboreous, or rather
fhrubby, not pruinofe. Leaves {maller than in the pre-
ceding. Stigmas fix, or more properly three, cloven down
to the bafe.
4. R. lividus. Dark-leaved Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 4.
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 196. Mifc. v. 2. 360.—Leaves peltate,
coloured ; lobes oblong, ferrated. Stem fhrubby, {mooth,
coloured.— Native of the Cape of Good Hope, whence it
was introduced at Kew in 1795. A ¢ree ten feet or more
in height. Stem, during the firit year, blood-red and fhining,
afterwards woody and thick, afh-coloured and {ftreaked.
Leaves divided into eight or ten lobes, of a dark blood-
red colour, on long, glandular italks. Flowers green.
Fruit of a livid colour, with long, foft prickles. Seeds
fhiniag, variegated with black and brown.
5+ R. inermis. Smooth-fruited Palma-Chrifti. Willd.
n. 5. Jacq. Ic. Rar.t. 195. Mile. v. 2. 362.—Leaves pel-
tate; lobes oblong, ferrated. Stem fhrubby, pruinofe.
Capfules without prickles.—Native both of the Eaft and
~ Weft Indies. In habit much refembling the laft, but alto-
gether itouter. Stem brown, {potted with dark purple.
Leaves very large, on long ftalks. Fruit ovate, rugofe,
dark green.
6. R. /peciofus. Beautiful Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 6.
Burman. Ind. 207. t. 63. f. 2.—Leaves peltate, inclining
to digitate ; leaflets lanceolate, ferrated.—Native of Java.
We tae not that this is any where deferbed or figured,
except as it occurs in the above authors.
Sed. 2. Leaves fimple, or undivided.
9» Re Tanarius. Scollop-leaved Palma-Chrfti. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1430. (Tanarius minor ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 190.
t. 121.) —Leaves peltate, ovate, pointed, wavy, toothed.—
Native of the Eait Indies, and woods of Cochinchina. It
flowers at Kew, from July to September. A middling
fized éree, with twilted, {preading branches. Leaves on long
ftalks, {cattered, fragrant. Flowers in long, fimple, ter-
minal clufters.
8. R. dioicus. Dioecious Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 8.
Forit. Prodr. 67.—Leaves heart-fhaped, pointed, nearly
entire. Flowers dioecious. Capfules muricated.—Native
of Tanna ifland. This Jerub has round, fmooth, brown
branches, the younger ones white with down. Leaves alter-
nate, entire, or very obfcurely toothed ; {mooth above with
downy veins ; refinous and dotted beneath. Female flowers
in {mall, axillary, {talked clufers. Bra&ea folitary, ovate,
pointed, very large, at the bafe of every flower.
g- R. globofus. Globular Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 9.
(Croton globofum ; Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1181.)—Leaves
ovate, obtufe, entire. Flowers dioecious. Capfules glo-
bular.—Native of lofty mountains in Jamaica. A branched,
erect /brub, four or five feet high. Branches round, ftriated,
afh-coloured. Leaves alternate, ftalked, coriaceous. Flowers
in terminal, fhort, erect cluflers. Capfule roundith, the fize
of a pea.
10. R. integrifolins. Simple-leaved Palma-Chrifti. Willd.
n. 10.—Leaves ovate, pointed, entire, coriaceous. — Native
of the Mauritius. Adopted folely on Willdenow’s autho-
rity, who defcribes it as “ a /brub with round, brown, fmooth,
divided branches. Leaves imooth, on channelled ftalks two
or three inches long. Clufers axillary. Flowers and Fruit
unknown. It appears to be dioecious.’’
Ricinus, in Gardening, contains plants of the tall, her-
baceous, tender, annual kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
is the common palma-Chriiti (R. communis).
This plant becomes a tree in its native fituation, and the
feeds afford the caftor-oil of the fhops.
And there are feveral varieties of it, as the great Americar
palma-Chrifti, which has brown ftalks that divide into two
or three branches, and rife fix or feven feet high ; the leaves
are broader, and not fo deeply divided ; they are of a deep
green on both fides, and are unequally ferrate. The {pikes
of flowers are fhorter, the feed-veflels rounder and of a
brownifh colour, and the feeds are much lefs, and brown.
This fort is a native of the Weft Indies.
Alfo the green-ftalked American palma-Chrifti, which has
a thick herbaceous item, of a greyifh-green, with the joints
not fo far afunder as in the preceeding fort: it rifes about
four feet high, and is divided at the top into three or four
branches, which {pread out almoft horizontally ; the leaves
are large, of a deep green on their upper fide, but greyifh on
their under ; they are deeply cut into fix or feven (fometimes
eight) lanceolate fegments, which are unequally ferrate ;
the petioles fpread out more horizontally than thofe of the
common fort, and are much fhorter; the principal ftalk and
branches are terminated by loofe {pikes of flowers; the
covers of the capfules are green, and clofely armed with
foft {pines ; the feeds are fmaller and lighter coloured than
thofe of the preceding fort. This is alfo a native of the
Welt Indies.
Likewife the wrinkled-capfuled palma-Chrifti, which rifes
with an herbaceous ftalk about four feet high; the lower
part is purplifh, and the upper deep green, the joints pretty
far afunder; the leaves are of a deep green on their upper
fide, but paler underneath; they are not fo deeply divided
as fome of the others, and are more regularly ferrate ; the
{pikes of flowers are large ; the males have more ftamens,
with yellow anthers; the capfules are oval and wrinkled,
Gg2 but
RAC
RICHOLD, or Ricuetp, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer, near the Meufe ; two miles N.W.
of Dalem.
RICHTENBERG, a town of Anterior Pomerania ;
28 miles E.N.E. of Roftock. N. lat. 54° 11’. E. long.
WABI Yons
RICHTENSWYL, a town of Switzerland, fituated
on the W.. fide of the lake of Zurich, in the canton of
Zurich, with a convenient harbour; 11 miles S. of Zu-
rich.
RICHTER, Francis-Xavier, in Biography. There
are fix muficians, male and female, recorded in Gerber’s
Continuation of Walther’s Lexicon ; among whom, the moft
celebrated and beft known in England was Francis- Xavier,
whofe works, of various kinds, have great merit. His har-
mony is correct ; the fubjects are often new and noble;
but his‘ detail and manner of treating them are frequently
dry and fteril, and he {pins and repeats paflages in different
keys without end. The French and Italians have a term
for this tedioufnefs, which is wanting in our language,
they call it ro/alie, or rofalia; derived from the name of a
female faint, remarkable for repeating her “* Pater nofter,’”’
and ftringing her beads more frequently than even St.
Dominic himfelf, or than any other pious perfon, that has
merited a place in the Golden Legend. Arn Italian cries
out, upon hearing a {tring of repetitions, either a note
higher, or a note lower, of the fame paflage or modula-
tion, ah fanta Rofalia! Indeed this fpecies of iteration in-
dicates a want of invention in a compofer, as much as
flammering and hefitation imply a want of wit or memory
in a ftory-teller. He died at Strafburgh in 178g, m the
Soth year of his age.
RICIMER, count and patrician of the Weftern em-
pire, and an’ important civil and military chara¢ter in
the fifth century, ferved from his youth in the Roman
armies, in which he acquired great reputation by his
warlike exploits, and at length came to be regarded as
the ableft commander of the age. In the reign of the
emperor Avitus, being one of the chief commanders of
the Barbarian troops which formed the defence of Italy,
he deftroyed, in the year 456, on the coaft of Corfica, a
fleet of Genferic, the Vandal king, dettined to ravage the
coafts of Gaul or Italy. His fuccefs in this inftance en-
abled him to avail himfelf of the public difcontent to de-
pofe Avitus, and raife Majorian to the throne in the year
457. Not being raifed to the dignity which he expected
’ under this prince, he compelled him to abdicate the purple,
which aét was foon followed by his death. Ricimer next
raifed an ob{cure man, named Libius Severus, to the throne,
who bore the title of emperor during four years without
performing any one imperial function. In that period, and
i an interregnum of two years more, Ricimer exerted
fovereign authority, amafling treafures, forming a feparate
army, and negociating alliances. His own mean birth pre-
vented him from affuming the purple, and in 467 he con-
curred in the inauguration of Anthemius, whofe daughter
he married. The new emperor and his fon-in-law pafled
fome years in union, but at length diflentions broke. out
between them, which ended in the murder of the emperor,
and Olybrius was proclaimed in his ftead. Thus a third,
or perhaps a fourth, emperor was ‘added to the number of
Ricimer’s victims ; but in a few weeks after the maflacre of
Anthemius, “ Italy,’? fays Gibbon ‘ was delivered by a
painful difeafe from the tyrant Ricimer, who bequeathed
the command of his army to his nephew Gundobald, one
of the princes of the Burgundians.’? Gibbon’s Rom. Hitt.
vol. vi.
RC
RICINA, im Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated on
the coaft of Hibernia, being one of thofe called Ebudes,
according to Ptolemy and Pliny.—Alfo, a town of Italy,
in the Picenum, which became a Roman colony under
the reign of the emperor Severus. It was fituated S.W.
of Auximum.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in Liguria, S.E.
of Genoa.
RICINOCARPODENDRON, compounded of +ict-
nus, xaew@, frudus, and dedeov, arbor, in Botany, the name
of a genus of plants, eftablifhed by Dr. Amman, the
chara¢ters of which are thefe: the flower is of the roface-
ous kind, confifting of three petals, difpofed in a circular
order, in the centre of which there arifes a large and open
tube, through which fhoots up the pittil, which grows at
the bottom of the cup; this piitil, finally, becomes a tri-
gonal fruit, divided into three cells within, and containing
each one feed in a rough coat. :
The leaves of this tree fometimes refemble thofe of the
afh, being compofed of three or four pairs of f{maller
leaves joined to a middle mb, thefe are not ferrated, and
terminate in a fharp point; the flowers grow at the al of
the leaves, they are white, and are difpofed in lax {pikes ;
the fruit is green at firft, afterwards it becomes of a yel-
lowifh-red, and finally fcarlet; it is of the bignefs of a
walnut, and in fhape much refembles the fruit of the rici-
nus; the covering of the feeds is black on the outfide,
and red within, and each feed is divided into two lobes;
when ripe, the fruit burfts, and the feeds fall out. It
is a native of the Ealt Indies. AG. Petropol. vol. ii.
p. 214.
RICINOCARPOS, from the refemblance of the fruit
to Ricinus. See AcaLtyrpua, Croton, Mercuriatts,
TRAGIA.
RICINOIDES.
PHA.
RICINUS, fo denominated from the refemblance its
feed has to the little infe@t called a tick, Ricinus ; and this,
according to Ainfworth, is compounded of re and canis,
becaufe the tick, or tyke, is particularly annoying to dogs,
by fixing itfelf upon their ears and other parts. It is
the Kixs or Kgotwy of Diofcorides, words expreffive of the
likenefs of its feed to the above-named infect; the former
of thefe appellations, however, is of eaitern origin, and of
rather uncertain fignification, occurring in the prophet Jo-
nah. Pliny mentions an Egyptian herb called Palma-Chrifti,
with feeds like a tyke.—Linn. Gen. 503. Schreb. 655.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4.564. Mart. Mill. Dict. v.4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 5. 331. Purfhy. 2.602. Tournef. t. 307.
Juff. 388. Lamarck Di. v. 6. 200. Iluftr. t. 792.
Gertn. t. 107. Loureir. Cochinch. 584.—Clafs and order,
Monsecia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Tricocce, Linn. Luphor-
bie, Jui.
Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven
into five, ovate, concave fegments. Cor. none. Stam. Fila-
ments very numerous, thread-fhaped, united unequally below
into various fets ; anthers twin, roundifh.
Female on the fame plant with the male, Ca/. Perianth
inferior, of one leaf, deciduous, cloven into three, ovate,
concave fegments. Cor. none. Pi/?. Germen fuperior,
ovate, covered with awl-fhaped briltly bodies ; ityles three,
cloven, erect and fpreading, hifpid; ftigmas fimple. Peric-
Capfule roundifh, three-furrowed, generally prickly all
over, of three cells and three valves. Seeds folitary, nearly
ovate.
Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corollanone. Stamens
numerous. Female, Calyx three-cleft. Corolla none.
Styles three, cloven.. Capfule three-celled. Seed folitary.
9 Obf.
See CeanoTHrus, Croton, Jatro-
RICINUS.
Obf. Willdenow divides this genus into two feétions ;
the firft containing fuch fpecies zs have palmate leaves, the
f{econd thofe which have fimple, undivided leaves.
Se&. 1. Leaves palmate. ;
1. R. communis. Common Palma-Chrifti, or Caftor-oil
Plant. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1430. Woody. Med. Bot. 171.
- t, 61.—Leaves peltate; lobes lanceolate, ferrated. Stem
herbaceous, pruinofe. Stigmas three, cloven at the tip.—
Native of the Eaft and Wett Indies. Firft cultivated in
England, as appears from Turner’s Herbal, in 1562. It
flowers in July and Auguft. Roof biennial or annual, long,
thick, and fibrous. | Stems round, thick, jointed, channelled,
laucous ; of a purplifh-red colour upwards. Leaves large,
deeply divided into feven fegments, on long, tapering, pur-
plifh ttalks. Flowers in long, green, and glaucous {pikes,
{pringing from the divifions of the branches; the males
form the lower part of the fpike, the females the upper.
Seeds ovate, fhining, black dotted with white. lal
The prefent f{pecies is fubje& to confiderable variations.
In our gardens it is a ftrong, luxuriant, fhrubby annual.
In Africa it becomes a tree. Clufius obferved it in Spain,
with a trunk as large asa man’s body, and fifteen or twenty
feet high. And Ray faw it in Sicily as big as our common
Elder-trees, woody and long-lived. From the feeds of this
valuable plant is extraGted the oleum ricini, or cattor-oil, fo
important for its medicinal properties as a gentle, though
molt effectual, cathartic.
2. R. wiridis. Green Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n.2. Hort.
Berol. v. 1. t. 49.— Leaves peltate ; lobes oblong, toothed,
the midddle one flightly three-lobed. Stem herbaceous,
pruinofe. Stigmas fix.—Native of the Eaft Indies, flower-
ing at Kew, in Augutt. Very like the lait, but always an-
nual, with a taller and fomewhat lefs pruinofe fem. Leaves
larger, and not fo diftinétly palmate. , t
3. R. africanus. African Palma-Chrifti, Willd. n. 3.
(R. communis ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 355.)—Leaves pel-
tate; lobes oblong, ferrated. Stem fhrubby, {fmooth.—
Native of the eal of Africa. Stem arboreous, or rather
fhrubby, not pruinofe. Leaves {maller than in the pre-
ceding. Stigmas fix, or more properly three, cloven down
to the bafe.
4. R. lividus. Dark-leaved Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 4.
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 196. Mifc. v. 2. 360.—Leaves peltate,
coloured ; lobes oblong, ferrated. Stem fhrubby, {mooth,
coloured. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, whence it
was introduced at Kew in 1795. A ¢ree ten feet or more
in height. Stem, during the firit year, blood-red and fhining,
afterwards woody and thick, afh-coloured and ftreaked.
Leaves divided into eight or ten lobes, of a dark blood-
red colour, on long, glandular italks. Flowers green.
Fruit of a livid colour, with long, foft prickles. Seeds
thining, variegated with black and brown.
5- R. inermis. Smooth-fruited Palma-Chrifti. Willd.
n. 5. Jacq. Ic. Rar.t. 195. Miufc. v. 2. 362.—Leaves pel-
tate; lobes oblong, ferrated. Stem fhrubby, pruinofe.
Capfules without prickles.—Native both of the Eaft and
Weft Indies. In habit much refembling the laft, but alto-
gether itouter. Stem brown, {potted with dark purple.
Leaves very large, on long ftalks. Fruit ovate, rugofe,
dark green.
6. R. /peciofus. Beautiful Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 6.
Burman. Ind. 207. t. 63. f. 2.—Leaves peltate, inclining
to digitate ; leaflets lanceolate, ferrated.—Native of Java.
We know not that this is any where deferibed or figured,
except as it occurs in the above authors.
Set. 2. Leaves fimple, or undivided.
9» R» Tanarius. Scollop-leaved Palma-Chriti. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1430. (Tanarius minor ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 190.
t. 121.) —Leaves peltate, ovate, pointed, wavy, toothed.—
Native of the Eait Indies, and woods of Cochinchina. It
flowers at Kew, from July to September. A middling
fized tree, with twilted, {preading branches. Leaves on long
italks, fcattered, fragrant. F/owers in long, fimple, ter-
minal cluiters.
8. R. dtoicus. Dioecious Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 8.
Forit. Prodr. 67.—Leaves heart-fhaped, pointed, nearly
entire. Flowers dioecious. Capfules muricated.—Native
of Tanna ifland. This /orub has round, {mooth, brown
branches, the younger ones white with down. Leaves alter-
nate, entire, or very obfcurely toothed ; fmooth above with
downy veins ; refinous and dotted beneath. Female flowers
in {mall, axillary, ftalked cluflers. Bra&ea folitary, ovate,
pointed, very large, at the bafe of every flower.
g- R. globofus. Globular Palma-Chrifti. Willd. n. 9.
(Croton globofum ; Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2. 1181.)—Leaves
ovate, obtufe, entire. Flowers dioecious. Capfules glo-
bular.—Native of lofty mountains in Jamaica. A branched,
erect /hrub, four or five feet high. Branches round, ftriated,
afh-coloured. Leaves alternate, {talked, coriaceous. Flowers
in terminal, fhort, ere& cluflers. Capfule roundith, the fize
of a pea.
10. R. integrifolins. Simple-leaved Palma-Chrifti. Willd.
n. 10.—Leaves ovate, pointed, entire, coriaceous. — Native
of the Mauritius. Adopted folely on Willdenow’s autho-
rity, who defcribes it as * a /brub with round, brown, fmooth,
divided branches. Leaves {mooth, on channelled ftalks two
or three inches long. Clufers axillary. Flowers and Fruit
unknown. It appears to be dioecious.”’
Ricinus, in Gardening, contains plants of the tall, her-
baceous, tender, annual kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
is the common palma-Chrifti (R. communis).
This plant becomes a tree in its native fituation, and the
feeds afford the caftor-oil of the fhops.
And there are feveral varieties of it, as the great Americar
palma-Chriiti, which has brown ftalks that divide into two
or three branches, and rife fix or feven feet high ; the leaves
are broader, and not fo deeply divided ; they are of a deep
green on both fides, and are unequally ferrate. The {pikes
of flowers are fhorter, the feed-veflels rounder and of a
brownifh colour, and the feeds are much lefs, and brown.
This fort is a native of the Weft Indies.
Alfo the green-ftalked American palma-Chrifti, which has
a thick herbaceous item, of a greyifh-green, with the joints
not fo far afunder as in the preceeding fort : it rifes about
four feet high, and is divided at the top into three or four
branches, which {pread out almoft horizontally ; the leaves
are large, of a deep green on their upper fide, but greyifh on
their under ; they are deeply cut into fix or feven (fometimes
eight) lanceolate fegments, which are unequally ferrate :
the petioles fpread out more horizontally than thofe of the
common fort, and are much fhorter: the principal ftalk and
branches are terminated by loofe {pikes of flowers; the
covers of the capfules are green, and clofely armed with
foft {pines ; the feeds are fmaller and lighter coloured than
thofe of the preceding fort. This is alfo a native of the
Weit Indies.
Likewife the wrinkled-capfuled palma-Chrifti, which rifes
with an herbaceous ftalk about four feet high; the lower
part is purplifh, and the upper deep green, the joints pretty
far afunder; the leaves are of a deep green on their upper
fide, but paler underneath; they are not fo deeply divided
as fome of the others, and are more re ularly ferrate ; the
{pikes of flowers are large ; the males have more ftamens,
with yellow anthers; the capfules are oval and wrinkled,
Gg2z but
REC
But have no prickles; the feeds are {mall and brown. ‘This
is a native of both the Indies.
Farther, the red-talked palma-Chrifti, which rifes with
a large reddifh ftalk to the height of ten or twelve feet,
with many joints, and dividing into feveral branches; the
leaves are very large, fome meafuring more than two feet
and a half in diameter 5 are of a dark green, unequally fer-
rate, and not fo deeply cut as in fome of the varieties ; the
{pikes of flowers are large, and brown, with whitifh anthers ;
capfules large, oval, and clofely fet with foft prickles ; the
feeds are very large, and beautifully ftriped. This fort isa
native of Africa and both the Indies.
And the {mall American palma-Chrifti, of which there are
two {ub-varieties, one with a red, the other with a pale-green
ftalk, diftinguifhed in America by the names of red and
white oil-feed; the {tem feldom rifes more than three feet
high, fometimes dividing at the top into two or three
branches ; the leaves are much {maller and more deeply
divided than in the other varieties ; their borders are une-
qually ferrate, and the fegments of the leaves are frequently
cut on the fides; the fpikes of flowers are {maller and more
compact ; the capfules are alfo {maller, rounder, of a light
green, and clofely fet with foft prickles ; the feeds {mall, and
finely ftriped. This is a native of Carolina, and fome other
laces.
Laftly, the livid leaved palma-Chriiti, which is an ever-
green tree, ten feet in height, and more; the trunk, during
the firft year, is blood-red and very fhining ; afterwards it
becomes woody, as thick as the wrift, hollow with tranf-
verfe fepta, pithy, with circular warts at the joints from
fallen ftipulas, afh-coloured, interruptedly and flightly
ftreaked: before the leaves come out, they are wrapped up
in red ftipulas like fheaths, that fall off foon after; the
leaves are divided half way into eight, fometimes ten lobes,
which are ferrate and acute, and the petiole is long ; they
are of a dark blood-red colour on the upper furface, and
livid on the lower, with blood-red veins, the largeft lefs than
a foot in diameter, quite fmooth, without any hairinefs what-
ever; the fruit of a livid colour, with long foft prickles ;
the feed fhining, variegated with black and brown. This is
a native of the Eaft Indies. :
Method of Culture—All thefe forts of plants are capable
of being increafed by feeds, which fhould be fown upon a
hot-bed in the fpring, and when the plants are come up, be
each planted into a feparate pot filled with light frefh earth,
and plunged into a frefh hot-bed, watering and fhading them
‘until they have taken root ; after which they muft have a
great fhare of free air when the feafon is mild, otherwife they
draw up tall and weak. As the plants grow fat, and their
roots ina fhort time fill the pots, they fhould be fhifted into
larger pots, filled as above; and about the end of May,
when the feafon is warm, be hardened to endure the open air
by degrees; when, if fome of the plants be fhaken out of
the pots, and planted out into avery rich border, and in dry
weather duly watered, they grow to a large fize, and produce
a great quantity of flowers and feeds. If it be intended to
preferve any of the plants through the winter, they muft not
be planted out in the full grouud, but be fhifted into larger
pots occafionally, as their roots require, placing them in
the open air during the f{ummer feafon in fome warm fitua-
tion, where they may remain until October, when they muft
be removed into the green-houfe with other exotic plants,
watering them fparingly in winter, and admitting free air
_ in mild weather, as they only require to be protected from
froft and cold winds.
In common, they have a fine ornamental effect in their
leaves among other potted green-houfe plants, and alfo in
LENG
the large open border or clumps, wher cultivated as annuals ;
but they require room.
Ricinus Communis, or common Palma-Chrifti, in the
Materia Medica. See Castor Oil.
RICITOSA, in Geography, a town of Moldavia; zo
miles W. of Birlet.
RICK, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a pile of
corn, hay, flraw, &c. regularly heaped up in the open air,
and fheltered from wet by thatch. See Sracx, and
STAND, Corn.
Rick-Yard, a term fometimes given to that part of the
farm-yard in which the {tacks are placed. They fhould be
{ufliciently large, well fheltered from winds, and perfeétly
{ecured from all forts of vermin, efpecially rats and mice.
RICKBAD, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 20 miles N.W. of Lucknow.
RICKETS, in MMedicize, a difeafe affecting children,
and principally charatterifed by enlargement and flexure,
or diftortion of the bones.
The origin and etymology of this word are equally un-
known. It has occurred in this, as in feveral other in-
ftances, that the vulgar had recognized and given a name
to the difeafe, before medical men had difcriminated its
nature, or at leaft had taken the pains to point out its
peculiarities by any written document. The firft account
of the difeafe 1s that of Dr. Gliffon, publifhed in the year
1650, which was the refult of fome communications on the
fubje&t in a private medical fociety. In this treatife we
are informed, that the rickets had firft been noticed in the
counties of Dorfet and Somerfet, about thirty years before,
where it was vulgarly known by this name, and that it
{pread from thence over all the fouthern and weftern parts
of the kingdom, but was not yet commonly known in the
north. The rapidity of its progreis, and the extent and
fatality of its prevalence, are fcarcely lefs extraordinary
than its general and fpeedy difappearance in later times,
as no affignable caufe has ever been pointed out either for
its origin or its ceflation. Its firft appearance, as a caufe
of death, in the bills of mortality of London, was in the
year 1634, when the total number of deaths under this
head was only 14; but an extraordinary increafe foon took
place. For, in 1649, the deaths from rickets amounted to
1903; in 1650, to 2603; in the following year, to 329;
and in 1660, 521 perfons died of this difeafe. At the
commencement of the 18th century, the mortality from this
diforder was 393 (A.D. 1700) ; and it fubfequently de-
creafed rapidly; for in the year 1750, the number of
deaths, recorded in the bills under the head of rickets, is
only 21; andat theend of the century (1799), the deaths,
under the head of ‘evil and rickets’? conjoined, do not
exceed 7. (See Ann. Medical Regilter, vol. 1. for 1808,
p- 324.) At prefent, indeed, the difeafe is almoit un-
known to medical praCtitioners, except by name.
With the view of accommodating a claffical name both
to the vulgar appellation and to the fymptoms of the difeafe,
Gliffon invented the term rachitis, exzizs:, i. e. fpinal dileale 5
fince the curvature of the {pine, which enfues, is one of the
mott prominent fymptoms. Thisappellation has been adopted
by the nofologiits, and all fubfequent writers, who have
ufed a Latin nomenclature. (See Gliffon, de Rachitide,
cap. i.) Whether the difeafe was really unknown, or did
not exift, until modern times, is a queition which it would
be very unprofitable to difcufs; fince there are few fatis-
factory documents to be found on the fubjeét. We fhall
therefore proceed to deliver a hiltory of the fymptoms.
This difeafe feldom commences before the ninth month,
and rarely after the fecond year, of a child’s age; but it
may
RICKETS.
may appear at any interval between thefe two periods. Its
progrefs is at firit ufually very flow. The early ap-
pearances of its approach are a flaccidity of the mufcular
flefh, and a certain degree of emaciation of the body, not-
with{tanding that the appetite for food is rather increafed
than impaired ; together with a palenefs and lofs of colour
~ in the complexion, and a flight degree of fulnefs, or tume-
fa€tion in the face. The head at the fame time appears
large with refpe€&t to the body, and the fontanelle, and
even the futures of the fkull, are more open than is ufual
in children of the fame age. The head continuing to in-
creafe in fize, the forehead efpecially, becomes unufually
prominent, and the neck appears very flender in proportion
to the head. The progrefs of dentition is alfo flow, or
much later than ufual; and thofe teeth which protrude
themfelves foon become black, decay, and often fall out.
Their ribs lofe their convexity, and become flattened at
their fides, while the iternum, or breaft-bone, is pufhed
forward, fo as to form a fort of ridge. At the fame time,
or fometimes fooner, the epiphyies at the feveral joints
of the limbs become fwelled, while the limbs between the
joints appear, or perhaps aétually become, more flender.
The bones now are obvioufly every where, to a certain
degree, flexible, becoming varioufly bent and diftorted, and
efpecially the legs and the {pine of the back are incurvated
in various directions. If the child had already acquired
the power of walking before the commencement of the
difeafe, it becomes daily more feeble in its motions, and
more averfe to exertion, and at length lofes the power of
walking altogether.
While thefe fymptoms go on increafing, the abdomen
always appears preternaturally full and tumid, and the
ftools are generally frequent aad loofe ; yet the appetite
often remains good. The faculties of the mind often ex-
hibit a premature advancement, and the power of {peech is
early acquired; but in fome cafes the underitanding is
impaired, and itupidity or actual fatuity enfues. There
is ufually no febrile affeétion accompanying the difeafe at
its commencement ; but it feldom continues long before the
pulfe becomes frequent, and other fymptoms of fever enfue.
With thefe fymptoms the difeafe- proceeds, and con-
tinues in fome inftances for feveral years; but, in many
cafes, in various ftages of that progrefs, it ceafes to ad-
vance, and the child gradually recovers its health and
itrength, except that the diftortion of the limbs, produced
by the difeafe, continues during the remainder of life. In
other cafes, however, the malady proceeds, continually in-
creafing, until it has affected almoft every fun@ion of the
animal economy, by the derangement of the vifcera' and
the impediment to their operations, which the diftortion of
the bones occafions. The moft material danger and diftrefs
thus produced arife from the dittortion of the fpine, ribs,
and iternum, by which the cavity of the cheft is greatly
diminifhed, and the aGtion of the lungs and of the heart
much impeded, or altogether arrefted. The funétions of
the liver, ftomach, &c. and thofe of the uterus and bladder,
under diftortions of the pelvis, are thus alfo often rendered
morbid and diitrefsful for the reft of life. When the head,
too; is greatly enlarged, the exiltence of water is to be
apprehended. It is unneceffary to enter into any detail of
all the variety of fymptoms, which are the fecondary effe@
of thefe impediments to the aétion of particular organs ;
fince relief is not to be obtained effetually while the
mechanical impediment exifts incurably, and the origin of
each particular fymptom will be eafily explained from the
cireumitances of each cafe. The organs themfelves, how-
ever, become ferioufly deranged under this ftate of pref-
7
fure and obftructions; and morbid conditions have been
difcovered in various parts internally in the bodies of thofe
who have died. Thus, moft of the vifcera of the abdomen,
the liver, {pleen, and mefenteric glands, have been found
to be preternaturally enlarged ; the lungs have been found
in a morbid itate, apparently from fome inflammation that
had come on towards the termination of the difeafe. The
brain has been commonly found in a flaccid ftate, with
effufions of a ferous fluid into its cavities. The bones
very univerfally have been commonly found in a flaccid
ftate, with effufions of a ferous fluid into their cavities. The
bones very univerfally have been found to be foft, fo much
fo indeed, as to be readily cut by a knife ; and the mufcular
parts alfo foft and tender, the whole of the dead body being
without that degree of rigidity which is fo common in
almoft all others. Cullen, Firft Lines, par. 1724.
The great peculiarity, then, of this difeafe, appears to
confift in a deficiency of that matter which forms the folid
parts of the body, efpecially of the bones, or in a faulty
itate of the procefs of offification, by which that matter
is depofited in the membranes and fubftances deftined to
become bony, to give them their due firmnefs, hardnefs,
and ftrength. There is obvioufly a defect in the quantity
of this matter, the place of which is fupplied, efpecially
about the epiphyfes of the bones, by a foft fubitance
which increafes their bulk. What this deficiency of offific
matter depends upon, it is difficult to afcertain: it may
originate either in the faulty aétion of the organs of digef-
tion and affimilation, by which the nutritive fuids are pre-
vented from being properly prepared; or from a fault
in the organs of fecretion and nutrition, which prevents the ”
proper elaboration of the circulating fluids. Of the nature
of this latter procefs, however, we are totally ignorant ; and
practitioners have more generally referred to the former, and
afcribed the difeafe to the a€tual deficiency of bony matter
in the circulating fluids, as furnifhed by the digeftive organs :
yet they have been generally. alfo compelled to refer this
deficiency to fome general laxity or debility of the fyitem.
But admitting the exiftence of fuch a debility, it is alto-
gether impoflible to account for its operation in diminifhing
the offific matter, being limited to the early portion of
childhood ; for though a mollities ofium, or foftnefs and
flexibility of the bones, has occurred in adult life, it is a
circumitance of extreme rarity. In a word, the eflential
nature of the difeafe is beyond our inveltigation.
Caufes of Rickets.—Neither are the caufes of the difeafe
very clearly demonitrated. Great itrefs was laid by the
earlier writers upon the 4ereditary predif{pofition which
defcended from parents to their children; but the very
rapid increafe of the difeafe among children, foon after the
diforder was firft noticed, and therefore the neceflary pri-
mary origin of it in many whofe parents muift have been
free from the taint, renders the opinion untenable. Indeed
the rife, prevalence, and difappearance of the difeafe, durin
a certain period of time, including about a century and a half
would feem to conneét its exiftence with fome more general
caufe ; but no one has been able to point out any pecu-
har phyfical condition of the people of England, during
that period, to which fuch a malady can be attributed.
Some have imputed it to the multiplication of manufac-
tures and other unwholefome occupations; but the manu-
faGtures continue while the difeafe has nearly vanifhed. It
is certain, however, that in later times the difeafe has been
principally known among the children of the poor, livin
in clofe and uncleanly fituations, and in dirty ilsventilaced
apartments ; and efpecially among thofe children who are
ill-nurfed, that is, in whom conftant wathing and proper
exercife,
RIC
exercife, as well as good feeding, have not been attended to.
Damp air, and refidence in a cold and humid fituation, have
alfo been enumerated among the predifpofing caufes of
rickets ; and in this refpect, as well as in the practice of
better modes of management in infancy, the change of cir-
cumftances in the prefent ftate of great towns, and even in
the habitations of the peafantry, when compared with thofe
of the preceding century, will be deemed fufficiert, at leaft
to have greatly diminifhed the general foarces of infantile
difeafe and mortality. See HearrH. _
Cure of Rickets.—Obfervation of the circumftances under
which the rickets occurred, as well as of thofe with which
it was accompanied, fuggefted the only means that were
reforted to for the cure of this difeafe, until modern che-
miftry propofed the adminiftration of a fubititute for the
deficient offific matter ; a propofal, however, which does not
appear to have led to the advantages which were anticipated.
The method fuggefted from obfervation of the circum-
ftances juft alluded to, was rather of a preventive than of a
curative nature ; and turned upon the plan of invigorating
the conftitution of the infant from the period of its birth.
This is to be accomplifhed by remedies which may improve
the tone of the ftomach in particular, and through that
medium of the fyitem at large, or by thofe which operate
dire@tly upon the latter. Of thefe general tonic remedies,
the cold bath feems to have been commonly found to be the
moft effe@tual, at leaft as a preventive of the difeafe. Since
it became a general cuftom in this country, through the
recommendation of medical men, to wafh young childen
with cold or tepid water daily, the rickets feem to have
been lefs and lefs prevalent. Indeed Dr. Cullen declared
long ago, that he had never met with the rickets where this
practice was adopted; and that where the difeafe had
already begun, this remedy often checked the progrefs of
the difeafe, and fometimes cured it entirely.
With the fame view internal medicines of a tonic quality
have been generally prefcribed, to remove or arrelt the dif-
eafe ; and among thefe, the preparations of iron have been
moft frequently employed. A preparation of this kind was
long ago recommended by Mr. Boyle, and univerfally
adopted, under the appellation of ens veneris, which, not-
withftanding its name, was iron. The ruft of iron, and
other preparations, as well as thofe of zinc, have been alfo
ufed for the cure of rickets, in preference to the Peruvian
bark, on account of the difficulty of adminiftering this
{ubftance to infants in any ufeful quantity ; De Haen, how-
ever, has borne teftimony to the efficacy of the latter.
Much is alfo to be done by good nurfing ; that is, by a
proper regulation of the exercife, diet, and clothing, by all
of which the healthy performance of the fundtions of an
infant is greatly afliited. Exercife, indeed, even in the
only form in which young children can enjoy it, viz. that of
geftation, is one of the moft powerful general tonics ; and
even fri€tion with dry flannels would probably contribute
to the fame end. The diet of children 1s now reduced to a
much more rational ftandard than during the lait century,
and the proper mode of adminiftering it is now too well
underftood to require any minute inftruétions in this place.
(See Inrants.) The fuppofition of the pernicious acidity,
arifing from the ufe of that mott natural food milk, to which
Zeviani and fome other writers afcribed the origin of the
difeafe, is altogether without foundation,
It is highly proper, alfo, where there is a ricketty ten-
dency prefent, to attend to the fymptoms which accompany
its approach, and to corre¢t any influence which thefe fymp-
toms may have upon the general health. Above all, it is
advifable to adminifter remedies again{t the derangements of
REE
the abdominal vifcera, connected with tumid abdomen and
irregularity of bowels, which fo commonly attend that dif-
pofition. For this purpofe the teftaceous powders, com-
bined with {mall dofes of fome mercurial alterative, or with
rhubarb, or the latter united with fteel and foda, may be
prefcribed with benefit. The ufe of emetics, which was re-
forted to by fome practitioners, appears to be of no bene-
ficial tendency, unlefs they may act on the bowels as laxa-
tives; and a fyftem of a¢tive purging, which was alfo gene-
rally employed, as it contributes to much debility, fhould
be avoided.
It remains only to mention the chemical propofal, which
M. Bonhomme of Paris propofed, of adminiitering the com-
ponent parts of bone in the way of medicine, upon the
{uppofition that the difeafe depends upon the mere deficiency
of thefe fubftances in the circulating blood. M. Bonhomme
therefore fuggeited the adminiftration of phofphate of lime
and phofphate of foda in fubftance ; and formed a powder,
confifting of equal parts of thefe fubftances, of which he
gave a fcruple twice a day to infants. He contends that the
calcareous phofphate, when taken internally, is really tranf-
mitted by the lymphatic veffels, and is applied to the pur-
pofes of offification, and that this adminiftration of it power-
fully contributes to reftore the natural proportions in the
fubitance of the bones, and thus accelerates the cure of
rickets. In fupport of thefe opinions, he relates various
experiments made on young fowls, to which it was given
mixed with their food, and in which, he maintains, the pro-
grefs of offification was accelerated, in comparifon with
others to which it was not given. (See his Memoir on Ra-
chitis ; and Duncan’s Annals of Medicine for 1797.) Thefe
phyfiological experiments, however, lead to no legitimate
deduétions as to the operations of difeafe in the human body;
and, experience in the latter has not apparently fupported
the doétrines of M. Bonhomme.
Ricxets is alfo a difeafe affeting fheep, as well as fome
forts of vegetable crops.
RICKETY Gram, in Agriculture, a fort of vegetable
diforder that often attacks wheat crops. It is, according
to Dr. Anderfon, a kind of difeafe which is totally different
from that of /mut or ruff. The grain affected with this dif.
eafe aflumes a {mall fhrivelled appearance, and irregular
form ; its colour is fomewhat darker than good wheat of the
fame kind, but is different from that which is affeGted with
either of the two other difeafes. Water, when poured upon
wheat of this kind, foon, he obferves, moiitens it, and brings
to life a number of eel-fhaped animals in various {tages of
their growth, which had taken up their refidence there
while the grain was yet in its fucculent {tate, and thus occa-
fioned the difeafe which produced the alteration in its form.
As the grain ripens and dries, thefe animalcules are arrefted
in their progrefs, their life totally fufpended, and their de-
{tructive operations upon the corn of courfe obftructed, fo
long as it remains in this dry ftate. Bet no fooner does this
grain become foft, in confequence of being moiftened with
water (whether after being fown in the ground or other-
wife), than thefe creatures are reftored to life and activity ;
they foon begin to feed upon the grain while it is moitt,
and, if not interrupted in their progrefs by another deficca-
tion, quickly lay their eggs (for they are oviparous), and go
through the ordinary evolutions of nature. The young,
when hatched in the corn that was fowed, after living upon
it for fome time, begin, he afferts, to eat their way up the
growing ftalk, and eftablifh themfelves at length in the grain
itfelf, while it is advancing towards maturity, where they
are arrefted in their progreis in the manner above defcribed
when it is fully ripened,
And
Ric
And in refpeé& to the nature of the animalcule that pro-
duces thefe effects, it is remarked, that it can be preferved
alive in a quiefcent dried ftate, for twenty-eight years at
leaft, as has been fhewn by experiment, after the lapfe of
which period it was found to revive as readily as if its vital
funétions had been thus fufpended only for one day. It is
further ftated as worthy of remark, that the eggs of this
creature cannot be preferved for a length of time in a dry
ftate, and ftill retain their prolificacy, neither can thofe
among them which are very young, or thofe which have at-
tained their full fize, be revived after they have been dried
up. It is only thofe individuals that are in the full vigour
of life, and ia a ftate foon to produce young, that are en-
dowed with this fingular faculty. In this cafe, the obvious
intention of nature is to preferve the fpecies, by keeping
them in life until the grain fhall be fown, and thus to have
a proper food provided for their progeny, however long that
may be.
RIC KMAN, Georce W1LriAM, in Biography, a mem-
ber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterfburgh,
was born at Pernau in 1711, after the deceafe of his father,
who was treafurer to the king of Sweden. Having ac-
quired the rudiments of a good education in the gymna-
fium at Revel, he profecuted his ftudies at the univerfities
of Halle and Jena, but applied chiefly to mathematics and
natural philofophy, to which he fhewed a particular attach-
ment. In the year 1735 he was made a member of the Im-
perial Academy of Sciences ; in 1741 he became extraordi-
nary profeffor, and in 1745 he was elected ordinary profeffor
of experimental philofophy. He was from this period par-
ticularly attached to the new fcience of electricity, and ap-
plied himfelf particularly to atmofpherical eleCtricity. On
the difcoveries made in this branch of knowledge he had
compofed a treatife, which he intended to read on the 6th
of September 1753, at a public meeting of the Academy ;
and in order to demonftrate what he might advance in the
difcourfe, he made a great number of experiments on divers
thunder clouds. In one of thefe the profeffor was ftruck
dead by a flath of lightning, drawn by his apparatus into
hisroom. Of this fatal accident there are two accounts in
the Tranfactions of the Royal Society.
The profeflor had provided himfelf with a gnomon, an
initrument to meafure the ftrength of the electricity of the
pafling clouds. He was, on the 6th of Auguft, N.S. 1753,
a little before noon, at the Academy, when it thundered at
a confiderable diftance, the fky being then clear and the fun
fhining bright. In the hope of confirming his former ob-
fervations, or of making fome new ones, he hurried home,
accompanied by Solokow an engraver, that the latter might
make himfelf mafter of the leading circumftances of the
electrical experiments, in order to be the better enabled to
reprefent it on a copper plate, which was to be annexed to
his differtation. The philofopher led the engraver to his
apparatus, but while examining for his own ule, or perhaps
defcribing the effect of the electricity on the gnomon to his
friend, with his head inclined towards it, he received a vio-
lent fhock, which inftantly deprived him of exiftence. M.
Solokow obferved, he faid, a globe of blue fire, as big as
his fift, jump from the rod of the gnomon towards the head
of the profetlor, which was at the initant about a foot from
the rod. This flafh killed M. Rickman, but M. Solokow
could give no account of the particular manner in which he
was immediately affected by it; for, at the fame time that
the profeflor was itruck, there arofe a fort of fteam, or va-
pour, which entirely benumbed him, and made him fink to
the ground, fo that he did not even remember to have heard
the clap of thunder, which was very loud. The globe of
RIC
fire was, however, attended with a report as loud as that of
a piftol: a wire, which brought the electricity to his metal
rod, was broken in pieces, and its fragments thrown upon
M. Solokow’s clothes. Upon examining the effeéts of the
lightning in the room, it was found that the door-cafe was
half fplit through, and the door torn off and threwn into
the room. An attempt was made to bleed the breathlefs
body, but no blood followed. The fhoe belonging to the
left foot was burft open, and uncovering the foot at that
place, they found a blue mark, from which it was inferred
that the ele¢trical fluid, having entered the head, made its
way out again at the foot.
Upon the body were feveral red and blue f{pots, but the
hair of the head was not finged. The ftocking was entire
though the fhoe was ripped up; the coat was uninjured
though the waiftcoat was much finged ; and there appeared
on the back of M. Solokow’s coat long narrow ftreaks, as
if red-hot wires had burnt off the nap. On opening the
body the cranium was entire, and the brain perfeét, but the
tran{parent pellicles of the windpipe were exceflively tender,
gave way, and were eafily rent. There was fome extrava-
fated blood in it, as likewife in the cavities below the lungs ;
thofe of the breaft being quite found, but thofe towards
the back were of a brownifn colour, and filled with more
of the above-mentioned blood: otherwife none of the en-
trails were touched, but the throat, the glands, and the
thin inteftines, were all inflamed. After two days the body
was in fuch a itate of putrefaction that it was with difficulty
got into a coffin. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlix. pt. 1. Prieftley oa
Eleétricity.
RICKMANSWORTH, or RickmereswortH, in Geo-
graphy, a {mall market-town in the hundred of Cafhio and
county of Hertford, England, occupies a low, moorith fitua-
tion near the confluence of the rivers Gade and Colne, at
the diftance of 19 miles N.W. from London. The manor
was an ancient demefne of the Saxon Kings, and was given
by king Offa to the abbey of St. Alban’s, to which it was
confirmed by fucceeding monarchs, und had the charter of
a weekly market and two annual fairs granted by Henry III.
The church is a fpacious edifice, confifting of a nave, aifles,
and chancel: it was repaired in the year 1677, and again in
1802 : the large gallery at the weit end was probably ereéted
about the former period. Previous to the late repairs, a
large altar-tomb, in memory of Henry Cary, baron of Le-
pington and earl of Monmouth, ftood againft the fouth wall
of the chancel; but being fuppofed to disfigure the place,
it was removed ; and a memorial flab of black marble, which
was affixed to the tomb, was let into the fouth wall, with
fculptures in white marble of the family arms. Againft the
north wall is a mural monument, to commemorate fir
Thomas Fotherly (gentleman of the privy chamber to
Charles [.), and his ion and grandfon. Several others of the
family are recorded on a flab onthe floor. In the eatt part
of the fouth aifl> are three large altar-tombs, in which are
depofited the remains of the families of Colte, Salter, and
Whitfield, inhabitants of this town. In the north aifle a
neat mural monument records the memory of Timothy
Earle, efg. of Moor-houfe, who died in May 1787, aged
80; and alfo of Dorothy his wife. A marble tablet againit
the north wall commemorates admiral William Bladwell,
formerly of Money-hill in this parifh, who died in March
1783, at the age of 80.
Rickmanfworth, by the vicinity of feveral ftreams, is ren-
dered very convenient for trades that require the affiftance of
water: feveral mills have confequently been ereéted for va-
rious purpofes in its neighbourhood: a large cotton and
flour-mil] at the fouth entrance to the town; one for flock
- and
RIC
and filk at a fmall diftance to the weft; and feveral for
paper, &c. towards the north, on the rivulet that flows from
Chefham. Additional employment; particularly for females,
is derived from the manufatture of ftraw-plat. The market
was formerly diftinguifhed for. its corn trade, but is now
little frequented, though toll free: the market-houfe is a
mean wooden ftruéture, raifed on pillars, and open beneath.
The population, as afcertained under the a&t of 1811, was
3230, the number of houfes 589.
Tke manor of the Afoor in Rickmanfworth parifh, being
anciently parcel of the poffeffions of St. Alban’s abbey, was,
about the year 1431, with other contiguous manors, held
under that foundation by a tenant named Flete, who had for
feveral years refufed either to pay the quit-rent, or to per-
form the covenanted fervices claimed by the abbot ; one of
which was finding for his ufe, and that of his fucceffors, ‘ one
nag-horfe to carry him to Tynemouth, whenever he or they
fhould vifit that ceil:’’ the difpute was at length decided in
favour of the abbot by fir William Babyngton, chief juftice
of the common pleas; and Flete was compelled to the ob-
fervance of the accuftomed homage and fealty. The next
pofleffor on record was Ralph de Boteler, lord of Sudely in
Gloucefterfhire. It is now held by Robert Williams, efq.
banker of London.
Moor-Park houfe, the {plendid refidence of this gentle-
man, is a magnificent building of the Corinthian order,
ftanding ina finely wooded park about five miles in circum-
ference, and having two fronts, refpectively facing towards
the north and fouth. The height of the ground to the
fouth contraéts the view; but the northern front commands
an extenfive profpeét ; the hill, which had previoufly ob-
ftruéted the fight, having been lowered about the year 1725,
at the expence of 5000/. This was effected by B. H. Styles,
efq. to whom the prefent manfion is indebted for its chief
grandeur, as he new cafed and fronted it with Portland
itone ; and having built the magnificent portico, erected two
wings for the chapel and offices, and conneéted them with
the centre by colonnades of the Tufcan order. The charge
of the carriage of the {tone from London, amounted to up-
wards of 15,000/., and the entire expence, including the
improvements in the park, was more than 150,000/. Beau-
ties of England and Wales, vol. vii. by E. W. Brayley.
RICKSGOLD, in Commerce, one of the two {pecies of
paper currency in Sweden, the other being danco. The
latter is iffued by the national bank, and the former by the
Rickf{gold bank, which is under the direGtion of govern-
ment. Banco is 50 per cent. better than Rickfgold; that is,
two dollars of the former are worth three dollars of the latter.
Banco is a legal tender, and has lately been declared, by
royal authority, the national currency. Rickfgold is cur-
rent in all payments; but as no frefh iffues of this paper
have been lately made by government, it is continually de-
creafing in circulation, while banco increafes. Both cur-
rencies are made payable to bearer on demand, and are ac-
cordingly difcharged when prefented for payment.
RICLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Aragon,
on the Xiloca, anciently called ‘* Nertobriga;”? 14 miles
N.E. of Calatayud.
RICOCHET Barrery, in Fortification. See BATTERY
a Ricochet.
Ricocner Firing, in the Military Art, is a method of
firing with pieces elevated from three to fix degrees, and
loaded with a fmall charge, fo that the ball may bound and
voll along the infide of the parapet. The ball or fhot, thus
difcharged, goes rolling and bounding, killing, maiming, or
deftroying all it meets with in its courfe, and creates much
RID
greater diforder, by moving thus flowly, than if thrown
from the piece, whofe elevation is greater, with greater
violence. :
The word ricoche fignifies duck and drake, terms applied
to the bounding of a flat ftone thrown almoit horizontally
into the water.
RICOTE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Murcia; 20 miles N.W. of Murcia.
RICOTIA, in Botany, a Linnean name whofe origin no
one has been able.to explain, nor can we throw any. light
upon it. It has the appearance of a proper name, and was
probably given in honour of fome ch{cure botanilt.—Linn.
Gen. 337. Schreb. 440. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 477. Mart.
Mill. Di@. v. 4. Aut. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 98. Juff. 239.
Lamarck Dia. v. 6. 210. Illuftr. t. 561. Gaertn. t. 142.
—Clafs and. order, Tetradynamia Siliquofa. (Siliculofa ;
Brown.) Nat. Ord. Siliquofe, Linn. Crucifere, JSufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, deciduous, of four,
oblong leaves, approximating in a parallel manner. Cor.
cruciform, of four, obcordate petals, {preading. Stam. Fi-
laments fix ; four the length of the tube; two fomewhat
fhorter : anthers oblong, acute. /i/?. Germen fuperior, cy-
lindrical, the length of the ftamens; ityle {earcely any ;
ftigma acute. Peric. Pod feffile, lanceolate-oval, with one
or two cells, and two flat valves. Seeds moftly four, orbicu-
late, comprefled. i
: Eff. Ch. Pod of one cell, oblong, compreffed: valves
at.
1. R. egyptiaca. Egyptian Ricotia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 912.
(Lunaria foliis fupradecompofitis: foliolis trifidis, filiquis
oblongis pendulis; Mill. Ic. v. 2. 113. t. 169.)—Native of
Egypt, flowermg in June and July.x—Root annual. Stem a
foot high, fmooth and branching. Leaves unequally pin-
nate; leaflets various, fome undivided, others three-lobed,
of a lucid green. lowers purple, on long ftalks, at the
fides and ends of the branches, in {mall, loofe clu/ffers. Pods
drooping, when ripe of a pale brown colour.
This genus is very nearly allied to Lunaria, from which
indeed it chiefly differs in having a feffile, not ftalked, pod.
RICZIWOL, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 30 miles N. of Pofen.
RIDA, a town of the Valais; 4 miles S.E. of Sion.—
Alfo, a town of Sweden, in the province of Upland; 24
miles N.E. of Stockholm. ~
RIDALE, or Rispare, a river of England, in the
county of York, which runs into the Swale, near Rich-
mond.
RIDAL-HEAD, a mountain of England, in Cumber-
land ; 2 miles N. of Amblefide.
RIDDERHUDE, a town of the duchy of Bremen; 8
miles N. of Bremen.
RIDDLE. See AXniema.
Ripvte, in Rural Economy, a fort of fieve ufed to fepa-
rate duft and the feeds of plants from corn. They are made
of different forms and fizes, for different ufes.
RIDE of hazle, or other wood, is a group or clufter of
{prigs fhooting out of the fame root or ftock.
Ripe, or Riding, in the Manege. To ride fignifies to
learn to ride. Thus, he rides under 2 good mater. For an
account of the origin and hittory of the art of riding, we refer
to the article Horse.
In addition to the obfervations which occur under tliat
article, in proof of the antiquity of the art of riding, we
fhall here introduce fome other confiderations, which tend
to evince the priority of riding to the ufe of chariots.
Egypt appears to have beea the {pot in which the horfe
feems to have been frit fubdued and difciplined by man ;
and
‘ RIDE.
and it is evident from the Mofaic hiftory, that in the firft
inftance where mention is made of Pharaoh’s chariots, he is
likewife faid to have had his horfeman: which word, in the
Hebrew language, is explained by the commentators to
mean one who fits upon and guides a horfe. Befides, the
Hebrew word, “ parafh,’’ horfeman, is derived, as Buxtorf
fays, from a Hebrew root, which fignifies to prick or fur ;
- and the rider, or fpurrer, was fo denominated, becaufe he
ufed to prick or fpur the horfe.. Aben-Ezra fays, that the
horfeman was fo called from wearing fpurs on his heels.
By this account and explanation of the word, which in the
Hebrew fignifies a ‘* horfeman,”” we are informed of the
great antiquity of {purs; and may reafouably conclude, that
the art of riding was not only known, but, from the inven-
tion of fpurs, had alfo received an improvement, not un-
worthy of the difcovery of more difcerning times; and
feems to imply, that riding was not only familiar, but even
advanced in thofe primitive times to a degree of exatnels,
perhaps, not hitherto fufpeéted. The arguments here, and
alfo under the article Horse, alleged in proof of the feni-
ority of horfemanfhip to that of the ufe of chariots, may be
ftrengthened by the following paflage in the book of Job,
where, {peaking of the oftrich, he fays, ‘ fhe lifteth herfelf
on high, fhe fcorneth the horfe and its rider ;’” which ex-
preffion feems to imply that it was a cuftom, as it is now in
fome nations, to hunt this bird on horfeback, and that
fhe was fuperior to the fwifteft horfe. Hence it mutt be
granted that riding was pra¢tifed in his country, and at the
time in which he lived; nor is it to be forgotten, that he
lived in a country diftinguifhed above others for its horfes,
and in which no chariot was ever known to have been ufed.
We may alfo add to the fame purpofe, the noble defcription
which he gives of the horfe, fo known and fo admired, in
which he {peaks of him only as being rode, and not driven
in a carriage: and if this writer, as fome learned perfons
have thought, lived long before the time of Mofes, what he
fays in relation to this fubje& mutt be anterior to the Mofaic
hiftory ; and if that be the cafe, the antiquity of equitation
will be carried fo high, as to put it beyond the reach of in-
quiry and inveftigation. In the defcription juft referred to,
the Englifh tranflators make Job fay, “ that this animal’s
neck is clothed with thunder ;’? an expreffion no lefs falfe
than abfurd. The true rendering of this paflage is, that
his neck is clothed with a mane. Thus Bochart, Le Clerc,
Patrick, and other commentators tranflate it. Bochart
fays, that the word, which in Hebrew fignifies thunder, is
fynonimous with that for the mane of the horfe; but this
being the cafe, it is altonifhing that the tranflater fhould
have fet afide the juft and natural fignification, and have
chofen to cover the horfe’s neck with thunder, inftead of a
mane ; nor is it lefs amazing, that this nonfenfe fhould have
been extolled by the author of the ** Guardian,’”’ and others,
as an inftance of the fublime. We thall here obferve, that
the Grecians, in many inftances, chofe mares for riding be-
fore horfes. /Elian fays, they thought them fitter for the
courfe ; and Virgil only names the mares of Epirus, as run-
ning in the Olympian race. Pliny fays, they were f{wifter
than horfes. Berenger’s Hilt. and Art of Horfemanthip,
vol. i. pe 12, &c.
The knowledge and utility of the art of riding confift in
being able to aifcern, and dextrous to employ, the means by
aia the horfe may be brought to execute what the rider
requires of him, with propriety, readinefs, and fafety ; and
this knowledge in the man, and obedience in the horfe,
fhould be fo intimately conneéted, as to form one perfect
whole; this union being fo indifpenfably neceflary, that,
where it is not, there is no meaning between the man and
Vor. XXX.
horfe: they talk different languages, and all is confu-
fion.
The Greeks, who excelled in the art of riding, were ac-
cuftomed to mount and difmount, by vaulting and leaping
from and upon the backs of their horfes, as well as from
one horfe to another. Thefe feats of a¢tivity feem to have
been firft praétifed in battle, and in thofe ages when faddles,
and confequently ftirrups, were unknown. The utility of
this method mutt be acknowledged; for if one horfe was
tired, wounded, or killed, his mafter had another for his
fervice ; two or three being led into the field, which were
ufed as occalion required. Thefe exercifes, fo effentially
neceffary in war, were, after a time, performed in the public
games, and other occafional exhibitions, merely to fhew the
nimblenefs and addrefs of the horfeman ; and the modern art
of vaulting, in all its variety of poftures and methods, and
which has now little more in-view. than to difplay the activity
of the performer, is, without doubt, derived from this an-
cient pratice ; as well as the whole modern manege, except
fome few experiments, calculated merely for grace and plea-
fure, is borrowed from the different motions and evolutions
performed by men and horfes in battle. To this likewife
we owe the folemnities and {ports of tilts, tournaments, and
jutts ; invented as a mock-war, to fill up the lazy hours of
peace, to infpire and keep alive a martial fpirit, and to
render the body active, robuit, and expert in the feats of
arms.
It is well known that the Romans were indebted to
Greece for many arts and ufeful improvements, and parti-
cularly horfemanfhip, which was received and adopted by
them with fuch eagernefs, and cultivated with fuch diligence
and zeal, that they foon were able to excel their matters.
Romulus, at a very early period, inftituted his order of
‘ equites,’’ or horfemen, as Athens and Sparta had done
before, on purpofe to encourage the practice of riding, and
engage his new fubjeéts to keep horfes at their own expence,
which, in thofe times, were fo coftly, that the rich alone
were equal to the charge of maintaining them. Among the
_Romans they had a horfe called « fingularis,’”’ or fingle,
upon which a man rode without a faddle, ufing only a
cloth, like the Greeks, faftened with a furcingle, or elfe
fitting upon the bare back. The riders were alfo, occa-
fionally, tied and bound to their horfes by thefe girths, that
they might fit more firmly and fecurely ; but the pra¢tice
was imprudent and dangerous, as they were thus liable to
be dragged and torn by the horfe, in cafe they were un-
feated, like the warrior defcribed by Silius Italicus (lib. 4.
Punic.) :
« ——. Rapiturque pavore
Traétus equi, vinétis connexa ad cingula membris.”
Lock faddles, now but little ufed, are liable to the fame
objection.
The art of riding fubfifts in various modes and different
degrees of fkill and perfeGtion among different nations. In
Arabia, where the horfes are the ftineft and beft of their
kind, their owners manage them with fingular dexterity.
Their faddles have the back part, or ‘ cantle,” fo high,
that it reaches more than half-way up the rider’s back.
The ftirmups are flat, in the Turkifh manner, and contain
the whole foot. They never ufe a girth, which makes it
more difficult to mount and keep their feat. The Arabian
youth underitand the equilibre, and keep their body in a
juit counterpoife ; being fo dextrous, that they will ftand
on the faddle, while the horfe runs at full {peed, fling their
lances, turn round, throw themfelves over, and ftand upon
their heads ; the horle coutinuing his career al] the time.
Hh Similar
RIDE.
Similar evolutions were practifed by the ancient Romans.
The Turks ride with their ftirrups fo fhort, that their knees
are almoft as much bent, as when they fit upon their hams
upon a fofa. Their faddles are as large and unwieldy as a
pack-faddle: they faften and fecure them upon the horfe by
a large girth, which pafles over them, and prevents the
faddles from turning, which their great weight would other-
wife make them do. The bridles are generally gilt and
ornamented, but otherwife very clumfy andill-made. ‘The
Turks feldom ufe {purs, or carry a whip or fwitch; and
yet they have an abfolute’ command over their horfes, and
make them do whatever they pleafe. In riding, they ufe
only a ftick, about three feet in length, and of the fize of
alarge cane. This they hold by the middle, and ftrike the
horfe with it on his neck with either end, to direct and
compel him to turn; making them run at full fpeed, and
laying them out fo rapidly, as almoft to make their bellies
touch the ground; the riders, at the fame time, ftriking
their darts into a turban, or toffing them in the air, riding
after, and catching them before they fall to the ground.
Others, efpecially the Arabs belonging to the fultan, will
leap from one horfe to another, running at their utmott
fpeed. Others will creep under the belly, and up to the
faddle again; others will turn 'two or three times round the
horfe’s neck, and others will ftand upright upen the faddle,
and turn their faces to the tail, the horfes all the time going
at their utmoft itretch.
The Periians have great perfonal addrefs and aétivity on
horfeback. © They play at «¢ Mall’? mounted on their horfes,
and ftrike the ball with certainty and furprifing fall. They
place allo upon the top of a tree, or high pole, an apple,
as a mark to fhoot at with arrows. ‘They fet off at full
fpeed, and when they are got beyond the mark, turn them-
felves round towards the croupe, draw their bows, and in
this pace, and this attitude, feldom fail to hit the apple.
The Tartars have, in all ages, been famous, under different
names, for their love of horfes, whofe flefh they eat, drink-
ing the milk of the mares, and {kill im riding. It is a prac-
tice with them to tie the reins of their bridles to their girdles,
and by the motion of their bodies alone to govern and direct
their horfes; pulling them into diflerent attitudes, and
making them perform a variety of evolutions. By this
method they have their hands at liberty for the ufe of their
weapons, which they manage with a flcill furpafling that of
other nations. Some will hold their bows in the fame hand
in which they hold their bridles, and at the fame time draw
the bow, and guide their horfe with great addrefs, always
riding with their ftirrups very fhort, in order to eollect
themfelves better, and be able to rife up, as it were, when
they ate going to attack an enemy, and {trike a blow.
The venerable Bede fays, that the Englifh began to ufe
faddle-horfes about the year 631, when prelates and others
rode on horfeback, who till that time were accuftomed to
go on foot ; but that if, upon urgent occafions, they were
obliged to ride, they ufed mares only, in token of their
humility ; the mare not being fo full of pride or fpirit as
the horfe. In the reign of Edward Il. the horfes called
‘s Dextrarii,” correfponding to thofe that are now termed
managed horfes, or horfes drefed and difciplined for war,
were held in the higheft eftimation, and appropriated to
military exercifes; and upon common occafions, perfons of
rank and confideration always rode upon horfes of inferior
degree, diftinguifhed by the names of “ Courfers, Amblers,
Palfreys, Hackneys, Nags, and Poneys,’’ recommended. by
their eafy paces and quiet temper. In feveral countries it
was a cuftom, rigoroufly obferved, that no knight of chi-
valry, or other gentleman, fhould ride upon a mare, it being
thought difhonourable and vile. The mares were always
devoted to the cart, and all the ignoble fervices. The
Spaniards, Turks, and fome other nations, {till adhere to
this abfurd notion, upon all occafions. The Dextrarii
above-mentioned were called ‘ magni equi,’? or great
horfes, being of the largeft fize, and intended to ferve in
war or for the exercife of the tournament; and as thefe
great horfes were required to be dreffed or taught, that they
might perform their tafks with readinefs and fidelity ; and as
it 16 neceflary that the rider fhould have knowledge and fll
to guide his horfe, thofe perfons who profefled the fcience
of arms were obliged to learn the art of managing their
horfes, in conformity to certain rules and principles; and
hence came the expreffion of learning to “ride the great
horfe.”’
After an ample review of the ftate of horfes in England,
Berenger takes occafion to diftribute them into two general
claffes, which may be arranged under two diftin@ periods of
time. In the firlt era, as it was an univerfal cuftom for
horfemen to fight in armour, the burden was fo heavy, and
the fervice fo fevere, that none but /arge and /fout horfes were
equal to the tafk. The practice of raifing fuch a breed of
horfes began about the time of Henry Ii., or fomewhat
earlier, and continued till towards the end of the reign of
Elizabeth. About the reign of James, armour, being res-
dered ufelefs by the invention of fire-arms, was laid afide ;
and the great horfe became ufelefs, and, on many occafions,
even improper. Lighter and more nimblehorfes were therefore
brought into ufe, and here begins the era which compre-
hends the fecond clafs of horfes, called the Aight or /zwift
breed. This ingenious writer clofes his review with ob-
ferving, that, however highly gifted the horfes may be,
there are duties incumbent alfo upon thofe who are to ride
them, without an attention to which all the talents of the
horfe, inftead of being called forth and improved, will be
crufhed, extinguifhed, and nature have been kind in vain.
Thefe duties are comprehended under the “art of riding.”’
This art has been, as this author regrets, fo long neglected
and defpifed, that one would be almoit prompted to conclude
that a fatality had conftantly attended it in this country ;
favoured as it is with every advantage for breeding, nou-
rifhing, and procuring the fineft horfes of all forts, and with
a nobility and gentry, whofe love of exercife, a€tivity, cou-
rage, perfonal endowments, and commanding fortunes,
would qualify them to take the lead, and “ witch the world
with noble horfemanfhip ;”’ yet, with all thefe high privi-
leges, they have fuffeted it to languifh, and almott perifh in
their hands; for a length of time it has been able to boaft
but of a very few perfons who have ftood forth as its avowed
friends and protectors. The duke of Newcaitle honoured
it with his praétice, and greatly enriched it with his know-
ledge. Sir Sidney Medows, fir William Hope, and the earl
of Pembroke, are alfo mentioned with approbation and
refpeét. Our author adds, that fince the acceffion of his
prefent majefty, the profpeét has brightened, and better
times begin todawn. Since this happy event, the art has
manifefted figns of recovery ; public riding houfes have
been opened, encouraged, and frequented ; and the art has
been fo far proteéted and honoured by his majefty, that, as
our author fays, we may expect to fee the goldén age of
horfemanfhip revive, and that men willno longer ‘ complain
of the want of excellent horfes, nor the horfes groan for
want of worthy riders.”” This art has been much mdebted
to the publication of ‘The Hiftory and Art of Horfeman-
fhip,”? by Richard Berenger, efq., which has furmfhed
various extraéts, to be found under their appropriate titles,
in our Cyclopedia. We fhall here fubjoin fome particulars
that
RIDE.
that have not elfewhere been introduced, and clofe the
article with fuitable references for the direétion of the
reader.
The pofture of the body is an objeét of primary confidera-
tion in the art of riding. In reference to this objec, the
body may be divided into three parts, two of which are
moyeable, and the other immoyeable. Of the two moveable
’ parts, the firft is the trunk or body, down to the waiit; the
f{econd is from the knees to the feet ; and the remaining im-
moveable part is that between the waift and the knees. The
arts which ought to be without motion are the fork or
twift of the horfeman, and his thighs ; and for this purpofe,
they ought to have a certain hold or centre upon which
to reft, fo that no motion of the horfe may difturb or loofen
them; this point or centre is the bafis of the hold which
the horfeman has upon his horfe, and is called the “ feat ;”
and hence it muit appear, that not only the grace, but the
fymmetry and true proportion of the whole attitude depends
upon thofe parts of the body that are immoveable. Let
the horfeman then place himfelf at once upon his twitt, fitting
exaétly in the middle of the faddle; let him fupport this
poiture in which the twit alone feems to fuftain the weight
of the whole body, by moderately leaning upon his buttock ;
let his thighs be turned inward, and reft flat upon the fides
of the faddle; and in order to this, let the turn of the
thighs proceed direétly from the hips, and let him employ
no force or ftrength to keep himfelf on the faddle, but truit
to the weight of his body and thighs: this is the exact equi-
libre: in this confifts the firmnefs of the whole building, a
firmnefs which young beginners are never fenfible of at firit,
but which is to be acquired, and will always be attained, by
exercife and practice. A moderate ftrefs upon the buttocks
is neceflary, becaufe a perfon that fits full upon them can
never turn his thighs flat upon the faddle; and the thighs
fhould always lie flat, becaufe the flefhy part of the thigh,
being infenfible, the horfeman would not otherwife be able
to feel the motions of his horfe ; the turn of the thigh fhould
-be from the hip, becaufe this turn can never be natural; but
as it proceeds from the hollow of the hip-bone, the horfeman
never avails himfelf of the itrength or help of his thighs,
becaufe, befides their being then lefs fteady, the clofer he
prefied them to the faddle, the more would he be lifted above
the faddle; and with refpect to his buttock and thighs, he
ought always to be in the middle of the faddle, and fit
down full and clofe upon it. With regard to the pofition of
the body or trunk, which is the firft of the moveable parts,
and which comprehends the head, the fhouldets, the breaft,
the arms, the hands, the reins, and the waift of the horfeman,
we fhall begin with the head. This fhould be free, firm, and
eafy, and thus prepared for all the natural motions which
the horfeman may make in turning it to one fide or the
other. The fhoulders only influence, by their motions, that
of the breait, the reins, and the waift. The horfeman
fhould prefent or advance his breaft, by which his whole
figure is opened and difplayed; he fhould have a {mall
hollow in his reins, and pufh his waift forwards to the
pommel of the faddle, becaufe this pofition correfponds, and
unites him to all the motions of the horfe. ‘The mere
throwing of the fhoulders back produces all thefe effects in
the degree that is requifite ; whereas if we were to leok for
the particular pofition of each part feparately, and by itfelf,
without examining the conneGtion fubfifting between the
motions of one part with thofe of another, there would be
{uch a bending in the reins, that the horfeman would be
hollow-backed ; and by forcing his breaft forward and his
wailt towards the pommel of the faddle, he would be
flung back, and muft fit upon therump of the horfe. The
arms fhould be bent at the elbows,’ and the elbows thould
reft equally upon the hips. It is indeed the bridle-hand
which ought to be fteady and immeveable, and hence it
might be concluded, that the left elbow only ought te reft
upon the hip ; but grace confifts in the exa¢t proportion and
fymmetry of all the parts of the body ; and having the arm
on one fide raifed and advanced, and the other kept down
and clofe to the body, would prefent an aukward and dif-
agreeable appearance. It is this which determines the
fituation of the hand which holds the whip, the left hand
being of an equal height with the elbow; fo that the
knuckle of the little finger and the tip of the elbow be both
in aline ; this hand then being rounded neither too much nor
too little, but fo that the wrift may direé all its motions,
the right hand, or the whip-hand, fhould be placed lower
and more forward than the bridle hand. It fhould be lower
than the other hand, becaufe if it were on a level with it,
it would reftrain or ob{tru& its motions, and if it were
higher, it could not take fo great a compafs as the bridle-
hand, which muit be always kept.over-againit the horfe-
man’s body ; it is abfolutely neceflary to keep the propor-
tion of the elbows, that it fhould be jower than the other.
The fecond divifion of the moveable parts includes the legs
and feet. The legs ferve for two purpofes ; they may be
ufed as aids or correétions to the animal ; they fhould there-
fore be kept near the fides of the horfe, and in a line with
the rider’s body ; for being near that part of the horfe’s
body whererhis feeling is moft delicate, they are ready to
perform their office atthe moment when they are wanted.
Befides, as they are an appendage to the thighs, if the
thigh is upon its flat in the faddle, they will neceffarily be
turned juit as they ought, and will infallibly give the fame
turn to the feet, becaufe the feet depend upon them, as
they depend upon the thighs. The toe fhould be held a
little higher than the heel, for the lower the toe is, the
nearer will the heel be to the fides of the horfe, and muft be
in danger of touching his flank. Many perfons, however,
when they raife their toe, bend and twift their ankle, as if
they were lame in that part. he reafon is plaia; it is be-
caufe they make ufe of the mufcles in their legs and thighs,
whereas they fhould employ only the joint of the foot for
this purpofe ; a joint given by nature to facilitate all the
motions of the foot, and to enable it to turn to the right or
left, upwards or downwards. Such, according to Mr.
Berenger, is the mechanical difpofition of all the parts of the
horfeman’s body.
The hand, in horfemanfhip, admits of five different po-
fitions, in order to guide and govern the motions of a horfe.
The firft is that general pofition from which proceed, and
indeed ought to proceed, the other four.
Hold your hand three fingers breadth from your body, as
high as your elbow, in fuch a manner that the joint of your
little finger be upon a right line with the tip of the elbow ;
let your wrift be fufficiently rounded, fo that your knuckles
may be kept direftly above the neck of your horfe; let
your nails be exaétly oppofite your body, the little finger
nearer to it than the others, your thumb quite flat upon the
reins, which you mutt feparate by putting your little finger
between them, the right rein lying upon it : this is the feft
and general pofition.
Does your horfe go forwards, or, rather, would you have
him go forwards? Yield to him your hand, and, for that
purpofe turn your nails downwards, in fuch a manner as to
bring your thumb near your body; remove your little
finger from it, and bring it into the place where your
knuckles were in the firft pofition, keeping your nails
diredtly above your horfe’s neck : this is the fecond,
h2 Would
RIDE.
Would you make your horfe go backwards? quit the
firft pofition ; let your wrift be quite round ; let your thumb
be in the place of the little finger in the fecond pofition,
and the little finger in that of the thumb; turn your nails
quite upwards, and towards your face, and your kuuckles
will be towards your horfe’s neck. This is the third.
Would you turn your horfe to the right? leave the firft
pofition, carry your nails to the right, turning your hand
upfide down, in fuch a manner, that your thumb be carried
out to the left, and the little fingers brought in to the right.
This is the fourth pofition.
Laftly, would you turn to the left? quit again the firft
pofition ; carry the back of your hand a little to the left, fo
that the knuckles come under a little, that your thumb may
incline to the right, and the little finger to the left. This
makes the fifth pofition.
Thefe different pofitions, however, alone are not {ufficient ;
we mutt be able to pafs from one to another with readinefs
and order.
Three qualities are effentially neceflary to the hand. It
ought to be firm,’ gentle, and light. We call that a firm or
fteady hand, whofe feeling correfponds exaétly with the
feeling in the horfe’s mouth, and which confifts in a cer-
tain degree of fteadinefs, conftituting that juft cor-
refpondence between the hand and the horfe’s. mouth, which
every horfeman wifhes to find.
An eafy or gentle hand is that which, by relaxing a little
of its ftrength and firmnefs, eafes and mitigates the degree
of feeling between the hand and horfe’s mouth, which we
have already defcribed.
Lattly, a light hand is that which leflens ftill more the
feeling between the rider’s hand and the horfe’s mouth, which
was before moderated by the gentle hand.
The hand, therefore, with refpect to thefe properties,
mult operate in part, and within certain degrees, and de-
pends upon being more or lefs felt or yielded to the horfe,
or withheld.
It fhould be a rule with every horfeman not to pafs, at
once, from one extreme to another, from a firm hand to a
flack one; fo that in the motions of the hand you mutt, upon
no account, jump over that degree of fenfation which con-
ftitutes the eafy or gentle hand. Were you at once to go
from a firm hand to a flack one, you would then entirely
abandon your horfe, you would furprife him, deprive him of
the fupport he trufted to, and precipitate him on_ his
fhoulders, fuppofing you do this at an improper time. On
the contrary, were you to pafs from the flack to the tight
rein, all at once, you mutt jerk your hand, and give a violent
fhock to the horfe’s mouth; which rough and irregular
motions would be fufficient to falfify the firmeft appui, and
ruin a good mouth.
It 1s indifpenfably neceffary, therefore, that all its
operations fhould be gentle and light ; and, in order to this,
it is neceflary that the writ alone fhould dire&t and govern
all its motions, by turning and {fteering it, if we may fo fay,
through every motion that it is to make.
In confequence, then, of thefe principles, we infift that
the wrilt be kept fo round that your knuckles may be always
directly above the horfe’s neck, and that your thumb be
always “kept flat upon the reins. In reality, were your
writ to be more or jefs rounded than in the degree we have
fixed, you could never work with your hand but by the
means of your arm; and, befides, it would appear as if it
were lame ; again, were your thumb not to be upon the flat
of the reins, they would continually flip through the hand,
and by being lengthened, would fpoil the appui; and, in
order to recover them, you would be obliged every moment
to raife your hand and arm, which would throw you into
diforder, and make you lofe that juftnefs and order without
which no horfe will be obedient, and work with readinefa
and pleafure.
Thofe motions, which are called defcents of the hand, are
made three different ways, either by dropping the knuckles
direétly, and at once, upon the horfe’s neck, or by taking
the reins in the right hand, about four fingers’ breadth
above the left, and letting them flide threugh the left,
dropping your right hand at the fame time upon the horfe’s
neck, or elfe by putting the horfe under the button, as it is
called ; that is, by taking the end of the reins in your right
hand, quitting them entirely with your left hand, and letting
the end of them fall upon your horfe’s neck. Thefe motions,
however, which give a prodigious grace to the horfeman,
never fhould be made but with great caution, and exadtly
at the time when the horfe is quite fogether, and in the hand ;
and you muft take care in counterbalancing, by throwing
back your body, the weight of the horfe upon his haunches.
The appui being always in the fame degree, would heat
the mouth, would dull the fenfe of feeling, would deaden the
horfe’s bars, and render them infenfible and callous; this
fhews the neceffity of continually yielding and drawing
back the hand, to .keep the horfe’s mouth frefh and awake,
See Appur.
The effects produced by the feveral pofitions and motions
of the hand above deforibed, are as follow: the hand direéts
the reins, the reins operate upon the branches of the bit ;
the branches upon the mouth-piece, and the curb; the
mouth-pieces operate upon the bars, and the curb upon the
chin of the horfe.
The right rein guides the horfe to the left, the left rein
to the right. Would you go to the right? you pafs to
the fourth pofition of the hand, that is, you carry and turn
your nails to the right ; now, in carrying thus your nails to
the right, and reverting your hand in {uch a manner that.
your thumb points to the left, and your little finger being
raifed turns to the right ; you, by this means, fhorten your
left rein ; it is this left, therefore, that turns and guides the
horfe to the right. Would you go to the left ? pafs to the
fifth pofition ; you will carry the back of your hand to the
left, fo that your nails will be turned downward a little,
your thumb will be to the right, the little finger to the
left ; this will fhorten the right rein; the right rein, there-
fore, determines your horfe to the left.
We have already faid, that the effe¢t which the mouth-
piece has upon the bars, and of the curb upon the chin,
depends upon the branches of the bitt; when the branches
rife, or are turned upwards, the mouth-piece finks; and
when the branches fink, the mouth-piece rifes; fo that
when your horfe is going ftraight forward, if you keep
your hand low, and clofe to your body, the mouth-piece
then preffes {tronger upon the bars; and the chain or curb
having, in confequence, more liberty, aéts lefs upon the
beard. On the contrary, if you keep your hand high, a
little forward, and confequently a little out of the line of
the end of the branches, the mouth-piece then finks, and
the branches, of neceflity, operate upon the curb, which
preffes then very ftrongly upon the beard. Now, in order
to place, and bring in your horfe’s head, you mutt hold
your hand low; and, in order to raife and lighten a horfe
that weighs upon the hand, and carries his head too low,
you mutt advance your hand’a little, and keep it high.
Would you have your horfe go back, come to the third
pofition ? but take care to round your wrift exa¢tly, in order
to work equally with both your reins; and by this means
aid your horfe more effe€tually to go back ftraight and ba-
lanced
RIDE.
tanced between your lege, which he could never do, if one
rein were to operate ftronger than the other.
There are particular cafes where the reins are feparated,
and one held in each hand ; it is ufual to feparate them, when
you trot a young horfe, or when you are to work one who
is difobedient and refiits his rider; upon thefe occafions,
keep both your hands upon a level, low, and near your
“body. To turn tothe right, ufe yourright rein ; to go to
the left, ufe your left rein; but in order to make them have
their effet, move your arm gently, turning it a little from
your body, keeping your hand always low, and even near
your boot.
Every horfeman, who would be perfeét in his art, ought
to know the difpofition of his horfe, the vices to which he
is fubjeét, the caufes from gyhich they proceed, and the
proper method of reltraining or amending them. Some-
times a horfe will rebel, when you prefs him to do fome-
thing of which he is ignorant; in this cafe he fhould be
taught what you expeét. If he knows, but cannot, through
inability, perform what you require, endeavour to aflift
nature by the help of art; but if he knows, and is able to
do what you expeét, firft try every method which patience
and perfeverance can fuggeft, and if you fail, compel him
by force and feverity. A horfe may be imperfeét and bad
from four caufes: weaknefs, heavinefs in his make, want
of courage, and floth ; and four qualities muft confpire to
make a good horfe, viz. ftrength, activity, courage, and
judgment. By a combination or mixture of thefe different
qualities, are the various difpofitions of horfes produced ;
and the remedy ought to be adapted to the nature of the
animals as well as to the diforder which the horfeman propofes
to reGtify. A horfe may be difficult to be mounted ;
examine the fource of this vice. It may be owing either to
the ignorance, or the brutality, of thofe who have firft had
to do with him, or perhaps that the faddle may have hurt
him, or elfe toa temper naturally bad. To whatever caufe
it may be owing, remember never to beat him; for inftead
ef curing him, you would certainly confirm him ia his vice ;
clap him gently when you approach him, ftroke his head
and mane, talk to him, and as you talk, clap the feat of the
faddle ; keep yourfelf {till all the while, put your foot only
in the ftirrup to encourage your horfe, without doing any
more, in order to make him familiar, and to lofe all appre-
hention and fear when he is going to be mounted; by little,
and by degrees, at lait, he will let you mount him; you
will immediately get down, and remount, and fo fuccef-
fively for feveral times together, without attempting to do
any thing elfe; but fend him back to the itable. If it
happens that when you are upon him, he runs from the
place where you got upon him, bring him to it immediately,
keep him there fome time, coax him, and fend him away.
The firit leffons ought to be well weighed, when you un-
dertake to bring a young horfe to obedience, and to reclaim
him from liberty to the fubjeGtion of the bridle, faddle, and
the weight of his rider ; fo reftrained, it is not furprifing if
he fhould employ all his ftrength againft you in his own de-
fence.
The generality of colts are difficult to be turned and
guided as you would have them go; we ought not, how-
ever, to be furprifed at this their firft difobedience. It muft
be imputed to the habit they acquire from their birth, of
conftantly following their dams; indulged in this liberty,
and fubjected all at once by the bit, it is but natural they
fhould rebel. There is no way of eradicating thefe firft im-
prefiions, but by gentlenefs and patience. A horfeman who
thould make ake of force and correction, and employ it all
at once upon a young horfe, would difcourage and make
him be vicious ever after. If, therefore, your horfe refufes
to go forward, you mutt lead another horfe before him; the
erfon who rides the colt will try from time to time, and, in-
fenfibly, to make the colt ¢o abreaft with him, and after-
wards get before him. If, being furprifed at feeing the
horfe no longer, he ftops, or runs back, the rider muit en-
deavour to drive him forward either by his voice, or fome
kind of flight inftrument, or he that rides the other horfe
may give him a ftroke with the chambriere, in order to
make him go forward ; if thefe methods fhould not fucceed,
he will go before him again with the other horfe ; by degrees
(for one leffon will not be fufficient) the colt will grow ac-
cuftomed to it, and, at laft, will go on of himfelf.
Mott horfes who ftart have fome defe& in their fight,
which makes them fear to approach the object. The horfe-
man, upon thefe occafions, inftead of having recourfe to
punifhment, which often ferves only to alarm the horfe, and
extinguifh his courage and vigour, fhould firft endeavour to
lead him gently towards the objeé that terrifies him, either
by encouraging him with his voice, or by clofing his legs
upon him, to make him go up to the objeét that terrifies
him. If he will not go towards it, you may give him the
fpurs, but with difcretion; and by coaxing and careffes,
puth him towardsit infenfibly. Severe correétion will never
cure him of this fearfultemper, which is a fault inherent in
“his nature; nor of any imperfection in his fight, which is a
diforder belonging to him; but the habit of view and {mell-
ing may, in time, remedy the defeéts of nature.
If, notwithftanding, you perceive that floth and malice
are added to thefe faults, you muit ufe, as you find it ne-
ceflary, both mildnefs and fevere correction; and you will
beftow them in proportion to the effeét they produce. For
the reft, be careful never to furprize and alarm a young
horfe whichis fhy, and apt to ftart ; never terrify him with
what he moft fears; never beat him in order to make him
come up to an objeét of which he is afraid; accuftom him
by degrees to it, and have patience ; the fear of punifhment
does oftentimes more harm, and is more dreaded by him,
than the very objeét which firft alarmed him.
There are fome horfes who are ftruck with fuch terror at
the fight of a ftone, or wooden-bridge, at the found and
echo of the hollow part of it, that they will fling them-
felves headlong into the water, without the rider’s being
able to reftrain him. They are to be cured of this appre-
henfion, by covering the pavement of their {ta!l with wooden
planks, between two and three feet high. The horfe itanding
conitantly upon them, his feet will make the fame noife as
they do when he goes over a bridge ; and he will, of courfe,
grow familiar to the found, and lofe all apprehenfion of it.
To accuftom them likewife to the noife of the water
running under the bridge, lead himto a mill, fix two pillars
dire@ly over-againit the wheels, and tie your horfe con-
itantly for two hours together, feveral times in the day.
Having done this, bring him back to the bridge, and let an
old horfe, that is not afraid, go before him upon the bridge,
by degrees you will find him go over a bridge as readily and
quietly as if he had never had the leaft apprehenfion.
For horfes that are addiéted to lie down in the water,
you muit provide yourfelf with two little leaden balls, and
tie them to a piece of packthread, and, in the moment
that he is lying down, you muft drop thefe into his ears ;
and if he rifes inftantly, or forbears to lie down, draw them
back ; but this method is not lefs fure than that of breaking
a flafk filled with water upon his head, and letting the water
run into his ears.
Fire, {moke, the fmell of gunpowder, the noife of guns,
or other arms, naturally furprife and frighten a horfe.
There
RIDE.
There are few that will come near fire, or pafs by it, without
difficulty. There are many occafions, however, in which
it isneceflary ; it is therefore proper to accuftom your horfe
to it. In the firft place, begin with your horfe by letting
him fee it, and for that purpofe tie him between two pillars,
and hold before him, at about thirty paces diftant, a burn-
ing whifp of ftraw ; this fhould be continued for {ome days
together, repeating it feveral times each day. Let the
perfon who holds the brand advance towards the horfe ftep
by ftep ; and let him take care to advance, or {top, often, as
he perceives the horfe is moved, or lefs frightened, who, in
a fhort time, will be emboldened, and no longer afraid of the
fire. After this, get upon him, carry him flowly, and as it
were infenfibly, towards the brand, the perfon who holds it
taking care not to ftir; if your horfe comes up to it with-
out being frightened, let the man on foot walk en, and let
the horfe follow the fire. Would you bring your horfe to
go acrofs a fire, lay upon the ground fome itraw about half
burnt out, and he will pafs over it.
With refpe& to the noife of arms and drums, let your
horfe hear them before you give him his oats ; do this re-
gularly every day, for fome time, and he will be fo ufed to
them as not to mind them. ‘
A horfe is faid to be enfier, in its natural fenfe whole,
entire ; and,-in the figurative meaning, obitinate, {tubborn,
opinionated, to that hand to which he refufes to turn. A
hurt in his foot, leg, or fhoulder, may often be the caufe of
his refufing to turn to that fide where he feels any pain. A
hurt in his reins, or haunches, a curb or f{paving, which,
by hindering him to bend, and reft upon his hocks, may
make him guilty of this difobedience. Art can do little
towards curing thefe evils ; confequently, a horfe fo affected
will never drefs- well, becaufe he never can be made fupple
and ready ; befides, every horfe is naturally inclined to go
to one hand more than the other, and then he will go to
that hand on which he finds himfelf the weakeft, becaufe
with the ftrongeft he can turn more eafily.
It isa known fa& that horfes are naturally inclined to go
better to one hand than to the other. The halter, the
bridle, the faddle, and the girths, are all put on, and tied
on the left fide; when they are rubbed or curried, the man
ftands on their left fide ; the fame when they are fed; and
when they are led out, the man holds them in his right hard,
confequently their head is pulled to the left ; here is a chain
of reafons fufficient to induce us to believe, that if they are
readier to turn to one hand than the other, it is owing to a
habit and cuftom which we ourfelves have given them.
We feldom meet with horfes that are readier to turn to the
right hand than the left; and when it fo happens, it often-
times denotes an ill temper ; it demands much time and pains
to cure them of this fault.
Note.—It is not proper to ufe fevere correction to make
a horfe obey who refufes to turn to one hand; if he is cold
and dull, he will lofe all his vigour and courage; if he is of
an angry temper, hot, and brifk, you would make him
defperate and mad; work him then upon the principles of
art, and purfue the method you think moit likely to reform
his ill habits, and reduce him to obedience. If he obfti-
nately refufes to turn to one hand, begin the nest leffon by
letting him go to his favourite hand a turn or two; finifh
him on the fame hand, and by degrees you will gain him ;
whereas, were you to do ctherwife, you might make him
be ever after rebellious. A horfe that ftrenuouily refifts his
rider, if he has vigour and courage after he is reduced and
conquered, will, neverthelefs, fucceed in what you want
of him, provided he is under the direion of an able and
knowing perfon, who underftands the aids of the hands
and legs, and their mutual harmony and correfpondence,
Such a herfe is even preferable to one who never rebels, be-
caufe, in this laft, nature may be deficient, if we may be
allowed the expreffion, with refpe€t to his want of ftrength
and refolution.
In order to teach your horfe to turn to both hands, you
mutt feparate your reins, as we have already mentioned ;
do not confine him too much, fupport him moderately, fo
that you may eafily draw his head to one fide or the other,
as you would have him go, and to give him the greater
liberty to turn.
If he refufes to obey, examine him; if he is by nature
impatient, hot, and vicious, by no means beat him, pro-
vided he will go forward; becaufe being held in hand, and
kept back a little, is punifhmentyenough; if he ftops, and
tries to refift, by running back, drive him forward with the
chambriere.
The refiftance of a horfe whofe mouth is faulty, difcovers
itfelf more in going forward than backward, and in forcing
the hand. A horfe of this fort ought never to be beat, he
ought to be kept back, as we have juit now faid; you mutt
endeavour to give him a good and juft appui, and put him
upon his haunches, in order to cure him of the trick of
leaning upon his bit, and forcing the hand. If your horfe
is heavy, never prefs or put him together, till you have
lightened his fore-part, and put him upon his haunches, for
fear of throwing him fo much upon his fhoulders, that it
may be very difficult afterwards to raife him. ‘Take parti-
cular care to lighten every horfe that is heavy before, and
has malice in his temper at the fame time; for if you were
to prefs him, he would refift you through vice; in which
cafe, by his want of ftrength on one hand, and being heavy
and unwieldy on the other, you would be expofed to evident
danger.
A reftive horfe is one that refufes to go forward, who
ftanding ftill in the fame place, defends himfelf and refifts
his rider in feveral different manners ; it is much to be feared
that one fhould lofe all temper with fuch a horfe, fince it
requires a great deal of patience to cure fo capital a fault,
and which, perhaps, by habit and time, is fo rooted in him
as to be almoft naturalto him. Treat a horfe of this fort,
who has been too much conitrained and tyrannized over,
with the fame lenity that you would fhew to a young colt.
The fpurs are as improper to be ufed to one as the other ;
make ufe of your {witch, in order to drive him forward, as
you will alarm him lefs, for the {purs furprize a horfe, abate
his courage, and are more likely to make him reitive, than
oblige him to go forward, if he refufes to do fo.
There is likewife another method to punifh a reftive horfe,
it isto make him go backward the moment he begins to refift ;
thefe corrections often fucceed; but the general rule is to
puih and carry your horfe forward, whenever he refufes to
advance, and continues in the fame place, and defends him..
felf either by turning or flinging his croupe on one fide or
the other; and, for this purpofe, nothing is fo efficacious as
to pufh him forward vigoroufly.
The moft dangerous of all defences a horfe can make, is
to rife directly upon his hinder legs, and ftand almoft quite
ftraight, becaufe he runs a rifk of falling backward, and in
that cafe the rider would be in danger of his life. People
have endeavoured to corre€&t this vice by a method of
punifhment, which might prove dangerous unlefs given in
time, and with the createft exa¢tnefs.
Whenever the horfe rifes ftraight up, throw your body
forward, and give him all the bridle; the weight of your
body upon his fore-parts will oblige him to come down ;
in the minute that his fore-feet are coming to the ground,
give
RID
give him both the fpurs firm, and as quick as you can.
Thefe aids and correétions, however, muit be given with
the greateft caution and exaétnefs; for were you to give
him the fpurs when he is in the air, he would fall over,
whereas if you watch the time fo as not to {pur him but
when he is coming down, and his fore-feet near the ound,
it is then impoffible he fhould fall backward, for then his
balance is deftroyed, and he is upon all his legs again, and
cannot rife without firft touching the ground, and taking
his {pring from thence ; if, therefore, you give him the fpurs
before he is in a fituation to rife again, you will punifh him,
and drive him forward at the fame time.
This defence is {till more dangerous in horfes who are of
a fiery temper, and weak in their haunches at the fame time.
Thefe are continually apt to rife ; and whatever precautions
the rider may take, he is in continual danger of their
coming over; the way to correct them is this; tie your
horfe between the pillars very fhort, put on a good cavefon
of cord, and do not fuffer him to be mounted. Prick him
upon the buttock with a fpur, or fharp piece of iron, in
order to make him {trike out behind ; encourage him when
he kicks, and continue to make him kick, encouraging him
from time to time, when he obeys; do this for a quarter of
an hour every day. When you perceive that he begins to
kick the moment after you fo prick him, without waiting
till he feels it, get upon him, hold your reins long, prick
him, and let a man itand by and prick him at the fame time ;
encourage him when he kicks, and continue to prick him,
to make him do it, till he will kick readily only at the offer
you make of pricking him; he ought to be brought to this
point in five or fix days. After this, take him out of the
pillars, mount him, and trot him in the longe, and make
him kick by pricking him behind ; after that, let him walk
two or three fteps, then make him kick again, and fo work
him by degrees. Put him to the gallop, and if he offers to
rife, prick him behind, and make aim kick ;. nothing excels
this method, to break a horfe of this terrible and dangerous
vice. \
Thofe horfes who are fubje& to kick, either when they
o forward, or itand ftill, muft be kept much together, or
held in clofely, to make them go backward, and you will
cure them of this vice. f
He who would fucceed in correéting the vices of horfes
fhould never depart from this maxim ; always to obferve a
juft medium between too indulgent lenity and extreme
feverity ; work your horfe according to his ftrength and
capacity ; give your leflons in proportion to his memory ;
and difieatie your punifhments and rewards fuitably to his
courage and difpofition. See Berenger’s Hilt. and Art of
Horfemanthip, vol. ii. ch. 1, 2, 3. See alfo. Arps, Airs,
Appur, Batrotapes, CaprioLtes, Corrections, Crov-
PADES, CurveTs, Entier, Epaute en Dedans, GALLopr,
Hanp, Mezarr, Passape, Passace, Pesapr, PIttars,
PrrovetTe, Ramincue, Restive, STEP and Leap, Svop,
TRRRE-A-TERRE, Trot, Union, VoLte. :
Rrvg, among fheep farmers, a term applied to rams,
which, when they are put to the ewes, are faid to be at ride.
“See Ram.
Ripe, in the Sea Language, a term varioufly applied.
Thus, a fhip is faid to ride, when her anchors hold her
faft, fo that fhe drives not away by the force of the wind
or tide.
A hhip is faid to ride well or eafy, when fhe does not la-
bour heavily, or feel a great ftrain, when anchored in an
open road or bay. On the contrary, when fhe pitches vio-
heatly into the fea, fo as to {train her cables, matts, or hull,
>
RID
fhe is faid to ride hard, and the veflel is termed: a bad
reader.
A hip rides acrofz, when fhe rides with her main-yards
and fore-yards hoiited up to the hounds, and both yards and
arms topped alike.
She is faid to ride a-peek, when one end of the yard is
peeked up, and the other hangs down : this is alfo faid of a
fhip, when, in weighing, fhe is brought dire&tly over her
anchor.
She is faid to ride athwart, when her pofition lies acrofs
the direétion of the wind and tide, when the former is fo
itrong: as to prevent her from falling into the current of the
latter: and to ride betwixt wind and tide, when the wind
hath equal force over her one way, and the tide another, fo
that fhe is in a manner balanced between them, and rides
without the leaft ftrain on her cables. If the wind have
more power over her than the tide, fhe is faid to ride
wind-road.
She is faid to ride haw/eful, when, in ftrefs of weather,
fhe falls fo deep, that the water runs in at her haufes.
She is faid to ride portoifz, when her yards are ftruck
down upon the deck, or when they are down a-port-laft.
To Rive Jand-locked, at fea. See Lanv-locked.
To Rink by the Stoppers. See Stoppers.
RIDEAU, in Fortification, a {mall elevation. of earth,
extending itfelf lengthways on a plain; ferving to cover a
eamp, or give an advantage to a poft.
The word, in its original French, fignifies a curtain er
cover, formed from the Latin ridellum. Borel derives it
from ridere.
A rideau is alfo convenient for thofe who would befiege'a
place at anear diftance, and to fecure the workmen in their
approaches to the foot of a fortrefs.
Riveav is fometimes alfe ufed fora trench, the earth
of which is thrown up omits fide, to ferve as a parapet for
covering the men.
RiveEAv, in Geography, a river in the eaftern diftri@ of
Canada, which runs into the Utwas, or Ottawa. N. lat.
45° 15'. W. long. 76°.
RIDER, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ha-
dramaut.
River, in Artillery Carriages, a piece of wood, fomewhat
higher than it is broad, and of «length equal to that of the
body of the axle-tree, upon which the fide-pieces reft in a
four-wheel carriage; {uch as the ammunition-waggon,
block-carriage, and fling-waggons.
River is alfo ufed for after-claufes, added to bills, whilft
they are depending in parliament.
Riner-Roll. See Rott.
Rivers, Out. See Our-Riders.
Rivers, in Ship Building, interior ribs, to ftrengthen
and bind the parts of a fhip together, being fayed upon the
infide ftuff, and bolted through all. They are moftly ufed
in fhips of war, and are varioufly fituated, as the froor-
riders, which are fayed athwart the keelfon, and fhould be
placed over the firft futtocks. The next are the fr/? futtock-
riders, which fay alongfide the floor-riders, and give fcarph
above them : thefe are conneéted by crofs-chocks athwart
their heels, that {carph to each fide with hook and butt. The
next are /econd futtock-riders, which fay alongfide of the firft
futtock-riders, down to the floor-riders, and run up under
theorlop beams. he third futtock-riders fay alongfide the
fecond futtock-riders, fearph or meet the heads of the firft
futtock-riders, and run up to the gun-deck beams. The
whole are bolted together fore and aft. Breadth and top-
riders, which were above the former, feem now to be difcon-
tinued
RED
tinued in the navy, asthey could only be ufeful in wake of
the main and fore-chains, as the midfhips is much better
ftrengthened now by uniting the fides and /id-beams toge-
ther by the knees.
Thefe riders ftood diagonally, fo as to faften through two
or more timbers, the itrength depending much thereon.
The top-riders came up to the top of the fide, and the
breadth-riders between them and the third futtock-riders, or
on the broadeft part of the fhip, and hence their name.
Riders are not fo much required in merchant-fhips as in
fhips of war, excepting floor and lower riders in large fhips
(which are generally of iron, fo as not to interrupt the
ftowage), becaufe the cargo being ftowed low down, and the
rigging lighter, the upper works are not fo liable to ftrain
and labour, like thofe fhips of war having their heavy
ordnance above the line of floatation.
RIDGE, in Buildings, the higheft part of the roof or
covering of a houfe. f : :
Ridge is particularly ufed for a piece of wood, in which
the rafters meet.
Ripee-Tyle. See TYE.
Rince, in Sea Language, is a long aflemblage of rocks,
lying near the furface of the fea, fo as to intercept the paf-
fage of a fhip under fail.
Rince-Tackle. See TACKLE.
Rince-Ropes. See Ropes.
RIDGEFIELD, in Geography, a poft-town of Ame-
rica, in Fairfield county, Conneéticut ; 10 miles S.W. of
Danbury. This townfhip was called by the Indians « Cau-
dotowa,” or high land. It was fettled in 1709, and contains
2103 inhabitants. : :
RIDGES, in Agriculture, are pieces of ground laid up be-
tween two furrows, having always confiderable length, but
different {mall breadths, according to circumftances. :
It is ftated by the author of the Prefent State of Agri-
culture in Great Britain, that in many of the more fertile
and populous diftri@s, the ridges are found remarkably
crooked, unequal in breadth, and made to rife towards the
middle, or crown, to the height of feveral feet above the fur-
rows, on either fide. And he fuppofes that thefe are formed
in the worft manner, to anfwer the purpofes which are now
intended by dividing a fieldinto ridges. But this, he thinks,
could not have efcaped the notice of all the farmers of for-
mer periods; but that, on the contrary, from the practice
being fo general, it is more than probable that fuch form,
though now confidered abfurd, was formerly fuppofed an
improvement, as in the cafe of many other pra¢tices of anti-
quity ; as in many of the hilly fituations in Scotland, where
the foils are dry, and in a tolerably level ftate, and where
cultivation had without doubt taken place at a very early
period, although at prefent abandoned to the growth of
heath, the ridges are found as ftraight as thofe in the beft
cultivated diftriéts in the kingdom. The reafon which in-
duced the cultivators of thefe times to conttruét the ridges
in fuch forms, may, he thinks, be explained in this way ;
that as the lands were moftly cultivated in the open field, or
run-ridge ftate, the furrows of the ridges were, for the moit
part, the mark or boundary between one farmer and an-
other. The portion of land belonging to a tenant in any one
place being on this account fo fmall, as to prevent him from
employing any other mode of drainage, than that of raifing
the ridge to fuch a height, as to permit the water to dif-
charge itfelf by the furrows, without injuring the crop. It
is ftated, that all the ridges that are broader at one end than
the other, will generally be difcovered to be the narroweft
at that end which is {till the moft wet andfpouty. It is of
6
RID
courfe conceived, that this form was purpofely given them,
as the only means by which lands in fuch a ftate could be
drained. And that, as the moft crooked ridges are found
on the fleep and floping grounds, it may be fuppofed that
that form and pofition were adopted by the firft cultivators, as
the beft for preventing the foil from being wathed away by
fudden falls of rain, which muft no doubt have been the
cafe to a greater extent, hadthe ridges been ftraight. Each
furrow, by becoming a fort of {mall rivulet, without any
thing to impede its courfe, muft have done more mifcbief to
the foil than if it had been gradually taken off the circuitous
courfe of the crooked ridges.
But from the change in the nature of poffeffing lands,
proprietors and tenants having now, except ina few open field
diftri€ts, the means of draining and forming the ridges in
the moft effectual manner, thefe old forms of ridges, which
can only be ufeful in fuch cafes as the above, are not only
rendered ufelefs, but operate ftrongly againft the full im.
provement of the foil. But notwithitanding this, there is,
it 1s conceived, no fort of buftnefs in which the farmer can
be engaged, that demands more judgment and caution than
that of levelling and altering the dire¢tion of fuch forts of
ridges. However, before the mode of managing this in the
cheapeft and moft, effe€tual manner is explained, it may be
proper to fhew the moft fuitable forms and direGtions in dif-
ferent forts of foil, and under different circumftances of the
grounds.
In forming ridges, great attention is neceflary to the na-
ture and quality of the foil, and the particular fituation of
it, as the fize, height, and direétion muft, in a great mea-
fure, be governed by them. It has been obferved by a
late practical writer, that where the land is of fuch a nature
as to be highly retentive of moifture, or, from the pecu-
liarity of its pofition, liable to become too wet for the
growth of ufeful crops, the ridges fhould in general be
made narrower, and have a more rounded or convex form,
than in the contrary cafe, or where it is expofed to injury
from becoming too dry. But, in the firft cafe, they ought
not, however, to be raifed fo very high as is fometimes the
practice, as by fuch means much inconvenience is often fuf-
tained from the crowns becoming too dry, and the grain
ripening in a flow and partial manner. Befides, narrow
ridges, with but a little elevation, are, in general, much
more effectual in taking away the water that may be in-
jurious.
It has been remarked by the writer of the Perthfhire
Agricultural Report, in refpe&t to the height of ridges in
lands of more dry defcription, that as the furrows, in gene-
ral, produce lefs crop than any other part of the ground,
the fewer furrows the better, provided the land can bear it.
If the field be dry, there is not only more produce by fewer
furrows, but the ridges are cloven by every ploughing (a
thing that cannot be done in raifed ridges with deep fur-
rows), which keeps them in an uniform level furface, and
greatly facilitates the ldbour of {pring and harveft. Per-
fons who are not accuttomed to inveftigate the caufe of what
they daily fee, are deterred from making their ridges nearly
flat by the waters that flagnate, in the ftrips of grafs and
fprits that lie between the ridges, which they have raifed
greatly in the middle : never confidering that they are work-
ing againft nature, becaufe the more the ridges are rounded
the deeper are the furrows, till they become like ditches,
and the more readily do clods fall down, fo that they are
with their own hands producing the very evil which they
wifh to prevent. Whereas, were the ftrips of flags and
other trumpery torn up, were the furrows lefg deep, and
ept,
o Seeeert
RIDGES.
kept perfeétly clean and open, to allow a free paffage to the
water, the whole would flow to the open drain at the ex-
tremity of the field; and the higher the furrows are, in
re{peét to this drain, their relative height would make the
water flow the fafter. Care fhould always be taken that
the clods that fall back into the furrows, and dam the water
in fuch land, fhould be removed with the fpade. The flo-
* yenlinefscf men in this particular circum{tance, more fre-
quently produces the ftagnation complained of, and all its
baneful confequences, than either ridges moderately raifed,
or any other caufe. This he confiders as perfeétly fatisfac-
tory, in refpect to laying out fuch lands into ridges in the
firft inftance. But that, in cafes in which neither the cir-
cumftances of the foil, nor the nature of its fituation, re-
quire that the ridges fhould be formed in a particular man-
ner, or of any certain breadth, that of making them about
eighteen feet may be the mott fuitable, as they are found to
anfwer well in the way of keeping the ground properly
dry, and of the moft convenient dimenfions for turning the
teams at the ends in ploughing. And that befides, the
feed, where this method is purfued, can eafily be fown by
one caft up and another down ; an operation which, in other
circumitances, would be attended with confiderably more
labour. That, in the covering of the feed by means of har-
rowing, the work is alfo accomplifhed with more facility
and difpatch, as by employing double implements of this
kind, one turn may wholly finifh the bufinefs. And that in
the reaping, too, they have advantages, in allowing the num-
ber of reapers that are neceflary to work with convenience,
and without being in the way of eachother. This, though
a great advantage in fome cafes, is of lefs confequence fince
the mowing of grain is become more general.
But it is ftated, that wet, clayey, or any ftiff and te-
nacious loamy foils, where the under itratum is clay, fhould
be ploughed as much as poffible into ridges of much lefs
fize, in order that they may be kept in a ftate of drynefs,
fuitable to the growth of the crops that are to be put upon
them. Three or four feet, according to the degree of te-
nacity and wetnefs, may, in fuch forts of land, be fully
fufficient. And it is added, that in the counties of Effex
and Hertford, on this fort of wet foils, three feet are found
to anfwer the purpofe ina very effectual manner. And that
it has been obferved in the Middlefex Agricultural Report,
onthe authority of much experience, that their fuperiority:
over ridges of greater breadths, for taking the water off
without wafhing the land, is incontrovertible. That, in
fhort, as there ismuch variation in lands of thefe kinds, the
width and flatnefs of the ridges fhould be increafed as they
recede from the nature of clay or clayey loam, and approach
that of fand, in order that a larger proportion of moifture
may be preferved: while, on the contrary, as they are be-
coming more of a clayey quality, they ought to be narrower,
and to have a more high and rounded form, that the dif-
charge of injurious moifture may be more expeditious. In
loamy foils they fhould be either broad and flat, or narrow
and round, in fome meafure, according to the degree in
which they approach the fandy or clayey foils, And that,
in very wet clayey foils, where they reft upon a fubfoil of
fome porous kind, great advantage in the way of drainage
may often be obtained, by finking the furrows fo deep, as
toreach it. But fome perfons, on thefe forts of clayey
foils, f{uppofe the beft breadth to be ten or twelve feet, as
where they are narrower there is much difadvantage, though
keep the land drier. Alfo, in lands of the marfhy
or fenny kinds, as moftly approaching in fome degree to the
nature of thefe, the ridges fhould be made narrow, and ra-
ther round in their forms,
Voi. XKX.
But that as the principal defe& of lands of the fandy kind
is that of parting with their moifture too readily, and of
courfe becoming quickly in a ftate of too much drynefs for
the purpofe of healthy vegetation, it is the moft advifable
to plough them into very broad ridges, or even in fome
cafes quite flat, without the leaft degree of furrow being
made ; as, in this way, the moifture may be more effectually
retained in {uch foils, to the great advantage of the crops
which ate grown upon them. But in the conftructing of
ridges on fuch foils as are of the boggy or mofly kinds,
fome attention is neceffary in refpeé& to their depth, and the
proportion of wetnefs that may be prefent ; as where they
are thin, and have but little injurious moifture, they may be
more broad and flat than where they are deep of mofs, and
more retentive of moifture: fix or feven yards may, im
eneral, be the beit. It is obferved, that even in the deeper
Ee long experience has {hewn that, in the firft inftance,
it is improper to make them too high or too narrow; as, in
the former cale, they throw the water eff from their fides,
without admitting jit to penetrate their fubftance, the top
of courfe gets too ary ; while, in the latter, there is a lofs
of furface, from too many divifion furrows. The breadths
already mentioned are found to be the beft ; and when the
improvement is completed, the ridges appear like fegments
of wide circles, with a clean well-defined divifion furrow be-
tween each of them. The moitture is thus caufed flowly to
filtrate through the mofs, rendered friable by lime, until it
reaches the divifion furrows. It is generally neceflary te
clean thefe out before winter, and at the time the crop is
fown, until the mofs acquires folidity. This has been fully
fhewn in a paper, in the fecond volume of Communications
to the Board of Agriculture. See the work.
And it has been remarked, that ridges in thefe foils are
generally formed by the fpade, the workmen beginning
nearly in the middle of the part which is to form the ridge,
only leaving the {pace of about eighteen or twenty inches,
upon which the materials raifed from the trenches on each
fide are depofited, fo as to conftitute the crown ; and in this
way, digging up and turning over narrow fpits on each fide,
the workman proceeds till he comes to the divifion furrows,
which are cut out and laid on the fides: in which way, the
ridge, when completed, appearing as if done by the plough.
And in the deeper moffy foils, efpecially of the more fpongy
kind, it is probable the breadth of the ridges may be in-
creafed with advantage, after they have collapfed and be-
come fufficiently firm ; as, by fuch means, they will be more
fuitable for being laid down to grafs or {ward, for the pur-
pofe of pafturage.
Further, in what refpe&s the general difpofition of ridges,
where there is not a neceflity of giving them any particular
direction, either for the purpofe of drainage, or other cir-
cumftances, they fhould be formed as much as poflible in
the direétion of north and fouth; as, by that means, much
advantage may be gained in the crops attaining maturity,
and in becoming dry, from their having the more full in-
fluence of the fun and wind. And it has been remarked by
Mr. Marfhall, in his Midland Economy, that the fhocks,
after grain has been reaped, fhould be fet in the fame direc-
tion, and not have an eait and weit pofition ; as, in this cafe,
the fheaves on the north fide are many days later in being in
a proper condition for being conveyed to the ftack, than
thofe on the fouth, From further experience, he is alfo
convinced of the bad effects of ridges having an eaft and weft
direction ; it having been found that corn, on the fouth
fides of {uch as were not by any means high, {hot into ear,
and changed and ripened a week at leaift earlier than that on
the north; and that at the _ of reaping, the wheat -
i t
RIDGES.
the fouth fides was, in fome patches, too ripe; while that
on the north fides was, in many parts, abfolutely in a green
ftate.
But where the ridges are to be conftruGted in fuch lands
as are hilly in their fituation, or have much declivity, it is
neceflary that they be neither made too fteep, nor have too
much of a horizontal direétion given them ; being drawn in
{uch a manner, as that they may have that fort of eafy
floping direGtion, by which the water may be taken off in a
oradual eafy manner; as, in this way, there will not only
be great advantage in the faving of labour in ploughing,
nearly one-third lefs power in the team being fufficient ; but
the injury and inconvenience of heavy rains wafhing down
the foil and manure will in a great meafure be obviated. It
has been {tated by the author of the Gentleman Farmer,
that in a hanging field, that had been carefully drefled with
lime and dung for turnips, and in which the turnips were
fairly above the ground, a heavy, fummer fhower {wept
down the crop, together with the lime, dung, anda portion
of the loofe foil, leaving the land naked and expofed.
Therefore, in the forming ridges in lands that have fuch
fituations, it has been well obferved by the author of the
Agricultural Report of Perthfhire, that when the fields
hang fo much as to be accounted fteep, the ridges ought
neither to be drawn parallel to the bottom of them, nor at
right angles, ftraight up and down; either of which would
be inconvenient in the ploughing, and injurious to the foil ;
but they ought to be drawn diagonally. The great point
is to underftand in what direCtion this diagonal flope of the
ridges ought torun. In this refpeét the tenants of Bal-
gowan, in this diltrict, are perfectly correét ; and it is his
wifh that their example were followed by all farmers, whofe
land has a great declivity, of which there is a contiderable
proportion, not only in that, but in all hilly countries what-
ever. The form and direétion of the ridges are, he thinks,
contrived with fuch judgment, that the furrow (or, as lord
Kaimes with more accuracy calls it, the furrow-flice) falls
eafily away from the mould-board, as well in afcending as
in defcending the field, which is the principal fecret. There
can be no more than two diagonal linés in any four-fided
figure, which is generally the form of inclofures ; and if
you bring a fenfible ploughman to each of the angles below,
defiring him to look towards each of the oppofite angles
above, he will at once tell you which of thefe diagonal di-
rections is eafielt for himfelf and his horfes, and will accord-
ingly fix on that line by which the furrow, in a/cending, will
fall moft readily into its place, having his right hand and the
mould-board of his plough with a fide-afpeét to the bottom
of the field. But, with the view of rendering this more
obvious, fuppofe the field to have a fteep defcent and a
fouthern afpect, the ridges are drawn from fouth-weft to
north-eaft ; which is ‘the cafe in the inftance alluded to.
Suppofe, again, the field to havé a northern afpeé, the
ridges are drawn in the fame direction, but with this dif-
ference in ploughing, that you a/cend {outh-weft in the laft
cafe, whereas you defcend fouth-weft in the firft. If the
field fronts the eaft, you afcend north-weit ; or invariably
four points forward from the flope of the field, in going up
the hill. Befides the vaft faving in refpe& to the power or
ftrength of the team in this way, and that of the foil being
lefs hable to be carried away by rains, by the running of the
water in the furrows; where the ridges are made parallel to
the bottom of the field, all the dexterity of a man and force
ef cattle that could be applied would be infufficient to turr
every fecond furrow up againit the hill.
It is remarked, that the expedient univerfally employed,
according to the old fyftem, in ploughing fields of this
kind, was either to plough with a double mould-board, or,
if the mould-board were fingle, to plough only one furrow
in going twice the length of the ridge ; but mott frequently
the laft. Both are, he thinks, bad hufbandry. In the
former method, you lofe none of your time, indeed; but
one half of your labour is loit by the latter. His principal
objection, he 1s of opinion, holds equally againft both. All
the foil is, year after year, rolling downward ; and in pro-
cefs of time, the upper part of the field will be peeled to the
bone, and quite bare of foil, while a great bank is accumu-
lating at the bottom, like a dunghill, compofed of the
richeft land in the field; and withal, the furrows are laid fo
completely on their backs, that little benefit is derived
from the manure, excepting it be laid on the furface the firft
year.
The fame writer further ftates, that where a hill is to be
drefled, in order to be laid down to grafs, it ought to re-
ceive the latter furrow by going round in a {piral line, with-
out ever turning the plough, beginning at the bafe, and
ending at the top. This requires lefs labour, and is more
beautiful. In preparing the ground for this latt furrow, it
may be ploughed diagonally, to keep the foil from tumbling
down hill, as has been mentioned above, in refpect to de-
clivities: for this purpofe, the furface of the hill may be
divided into three or more fections. And it is remarked by
a late pratical writer, in addition, that, in this way, no
more {trength of team is required in ploughing fuch eleva-
tions than in that of ploughing on a level; while, where the
foil is of the gravelly or fandy kind, the great inconvenience
of the moiiture going off too quickly is guarded againit, by
its being detained in the furrows. And the {piral turrow is,
according to the firlt writer, the neateft method of finifhing
off a lawn, even of flat Jand, near a gentlemzn’s houfe ; as
it brings the whole furface to an uniform appearance, and
pleafes the eye more than having the lawn ftriped with
furrows. :
In regard to fueh lands as are level, or have but little in-
equality of furface, the belt general practice, it is obferved
by the author of a late work, is to form the ridges as
ftraight and as regular in refpeét to breadth as poffible ; as,
by having them crooked, and of irregular breadths, the
water is not only liable to ftagnate and injure the foil, but
the friction in ploughing is greatly increafed, and the fur-
row-flice is not fo well laid over, being more difpofed to fall
back. And, befides, many unneceflary turnings are re-
quifite, on account of the inequalities of breadth, by which
much time is loft, as well as much trouble given to the
ploughman in managing the plough while at work.
In fome’ of the lefs improved counties in the northern
parts of the kingdom, as Lancafhire, and thofe adjoining
it, the ridges on the old lands are often narrow, crooked,
and very ill laid out, being for the moft part too much
rounded in the middle parts, and in the form of butts, which
are the {tates in which they are at the prefent time, few or no
attempts having been made to alter them in any way. How-
ever, from the nature and depths of the foils, it would not
appear that there would be any danger or difficulty in doing
it; though this may be the cafe in fome other fituations,
where it ought to be attempted with proper caution. In
fome parts of the above diftriét, as that of the field, the
term farring or furrowing is often made ufe of, inftead of
that of ridge.
Method of Levelling and Straightening old Ridges. —In fuch
kind of land as has been Jong in a cultivated ftate, high,
crooked, and irregular ridges are frequently met with, that
often become neceflary to be altered, fo as to be rendered
more itraight and level. This, though apparently fimple,
is
i
RIDGES.
is a matter of more difficulty and treuble, and which de-
mands more knowledge and care in its execution, than is
commonly fuppofed by perfons unacquainted with the bufi-
nefs. Various ob{tacles have been thrown in the way of
this fort of improvement by farmers in different diftricts.
By fome the expence is confidered as very great, while
others oppofe it on the ground of the injury done to the
land for fome years afterwards. And according to the
Agricultural Report of the county of Perth in Scotland,
the obje€tion made by fome farmers in the Carfe of Gowrie
is this: in the ation of levelling ridges, that have been,
time immemorial, raifed high in the crown, much foil is
brought up, which for ages had neither feen the fun nor
f{melled the air. This, like moit other foils, which has been
fo long and fo deep buried, is very unprodu¢tive at firit, and
blafts all their expectations. It is perfectly confonant to
the procefs of nature, the writer fuppofes, that this {hould,
in fome meafure, happen; and, as far as it has any weight,
is an argument nut only againit levelling, but againit itraight-
ening the ridges of fuch land. But was not, he afks, every
particle of that foil, which is fo much reprobated, on the
furface of the ground before the ridges were fo raifed by
the hand of man? Was not this very foil, at that time, as
‘ood as any foil in the field? Nay, was it not much more
Fertile before it was buried in the middle of the ridge, than
the new foil, which the ploughman was digging up year
after year, out of the fterile furrow, to afliit in gradually
raving his ridge higher? Every man mutt anfwer in the
affirmative. If you therefore bring back your land nearly
to the level in which the hand of nature left it, you will
find the very foil, which had been fertilized by the deciduous
parts of plants, from the creation, until it came into culti-
vation ; the foil which Providence intended for the produc-
tion « f grain for the ufe of man, this foil has not furely loft
its fertility, although that fertility has lain long dormant by
its being covered up in the bowels of the earth, and removed
from the benign influence of heaven. The fertility of a foil
cannot be exhaufted by any other means, but by over-crop-
ping. It may be fufpended, as in this inftance, but not
annihilated. Reftore the foil to its native place, and to that
influence of which it was deprived, and it will foon become
equally productive as at firit. It is not pretended that its
fertility will be exerted all at once. Clay is a ftubborn foil :
it is neither fo eafily itimulated by manure, nor by the be-
nignity of the atmofphere, as other foil. It requires time
and labour and expence to fet it in motion ; but when moved
it retains its powers longer and makes very ample returns.
And in addition to thete obfervations, vaift benefits mutt in
many cafes refult from bringing ill-formed ridges into a pro-
per fituation for the advantageous culture of crops upon them.
With regard to the time or feafon for the execution of
this fort of work, it has been remarked that the moft fuit-
able period for accomplifhing it where the plough is em-
ployed, is when the land is undergoing a courfe of repeated
ploughings, as in the cafe of a Eos ; as under fuch cir-
cumitances the more elevated parts of the field may be
ploughed over as often, and in {uch direétions, as is moft
fuitable for bringing them into a level ftate. Where the
ridges are not raifed to any very confiderable height in their
middles, but badly formed in other refpects, they may fome-
times be readily brought into proper order by being fplit,
or cloven down occafionally ; a mode which is performed by
beginning at the furrows and terminating at the crown or
middle OF the ridge, fo that the former furrows become the
crowns, and the new furrows are made ia the middle of the
old ridges, which being filled by a furrow from each fide,
has the tendency of foon bringing them into a more equal
and level form. But that in cafes where the foil is of the
light, gravelly, or open and mellow kind, the plough may
be conveniently employed in levelling the ridges, without
producing any injury of confequence to the crops that may
afterwards be put upon the land. It is proper, however,
even in lands of thefe Linds, to ufe fuch caution in perform-
ing the operation, in order to avoid the injury that might be
caufed by too large a proportion of the under foil being
brought to the furface in different parts of the ground, and
in that way rendering it lefs produétive in crops than it was
before.
It has been contended, however, by Dr. Anderfon, in the
firft volume of his Effays, that where this fort of work is done
by fuch implements as are contrived for expeditioufly bring-
ing high ridges to this fituation, as ploughs, harrows, drags,
&c. the farmer of neceflity buries all the good mould that
was on the top of the ridges in the old furrows: by which
he greatly impoverifhes one part of his field, while he too
-much enriches another; infomuch, that it is a matter of
great difficulty, for many years thereafter, to get the field
brought to an equal degree of fertility in different places:
which makes it impoffible for him to get an equal crop over
the whole of his field by any management whatever: and he
has the mortification frequently, by this means, to fee the
one half of his crop rotted by an over-luxuriance, while
other parts of it are weak and fickly, or one part ripe or
reddy for reaping, while the other is not properly tilled; fo
that it were, on many occatfions, better for him to have his
whole field reduced at once to the fame degree of poornefs
as the pooreft of it, than have it in this ftate. An almoit
impracticable degree of attention, in {preading the manures,
may indeed in fome meafure, he thinks, get the better of
this difeafe: but it is fo difficult to perform this properly,
that he has frequently feen fields that had been thus levelled,
in which, after thirty years of continued culture and drefl-
ings, the marks of the old ridges could be diftinétly traced
when the corn was growing, although the furface was fo
level that no traces of them could be perceived when the
corn was off the ground. But this, he remarks, is a degree
of perfection in levelling that cannot be ufually attained by
following this mode of practice, and therefore it is but fel-
dom feen; for all that can be expected to be done by any
levelling machine is to render the /urface perfeétly {mooth
and even in every part at the time that the operation is per-
formed: but as in this cafe the old hollows are fuddenly
filled up with loofe mould to a great depth, while the earth
below the furface, upon the heights of the old ridges, re-
mains firm and compa¢t, the new-raifed earth, after a fhort
time, fubfides very much, while the other parts of the field
do not fink at all; fo that in a fhort time the old furrows
come to be again below the level of the other parts of the
field, and the water, of courfe, is fuffered in fome degree
to ftagnate upon them,*infomuch that in a few years it be-
comes neceilary once more to repeat the fame levelling procefs,
and thus renew the damage that the farmer futtains by this
pernicious operation. He therefore thinks that on thefe ac-
counts, if the farmer has not a long leafe, it will be found,
in general, to be more for his intereit to leave the ridges as
as he found them, than to attempt to alter their direétion :
and if he attends with due caution to moderate the height of
thefe old ridges he may reap very good crops, althouch,
perhaps, at a fomewhat greater expence of labour than he
would have been put to upon the fame field, if it had been
reduced to a proper level furface, and divided into ttraight and
parallel ridges. However, where aman is fecure of pofleff-
ing his ground for any confiderable length of time, the ad-
vantage that he will reap from having level and well laid
it 2 out
RIDGES,
out fields are fo confiderable, as to be worth purchafing if
it fhould even be at cenfiderable expence. But the lofs that
is fuftained at the beginning by this mechanical mode of le-
velling ridges, if they are of confiderable height, is fo very
great, that it is, perhaps, doubtful if any future advantage
can ever fully compenfate it. On thefe grounds he rejects
the ufe of machinery in thefe operations, and recommends
the method defcribed below as being more efficacious and
fuccefsful. There have, however, of late been many valu-
able machines contrived for the purpofe of accomplifhing
the work in an eafy and cheap manner, and which have been
found to anfwer in practice. An implement of this fort has
been defcribed under the head machine. See Macuine Land
Levelling.
But where the lands are of the clayey, loamy, or tena-
cious wet quality, there is much greater difficulty, as well
as greater attention required, in levelling down and chang-
ing the forms of the ridges, as it frequently happens that in
fuch foils, after the earth from the crowns has been removed
in order to render them level, a coarfe, unfriendly, fiff foil
is brought up, as has been feen above, that requires a great
length of time and much amelioration to bring into a ftate
capable of fupporting good crops of any fort of grain. — In
thefe cafes and forts of foils, in the ftraightening and bring-
ing down the ridges on the coarfe lands in the northern
parts of the ifland, the author of the Perth Agricultural
Report advifes it as proper to begin the aperation by re-
moving the made or ameliorated foil on the.crown of the
ridge to one fide, which may, he thinks, be done by two
or three ploughings in one direction, turning the furrow al-
ways one way. This is eafier than doing it with the {pade.
Then fuch a quantity of the buried foil may be cait with
the fpade from the crown of the ridge, as will fill up
the furrows at pleafure ; and, lattly, the ameliorated foil
may be fpread over the furface of the whole. If it is not
thought enough to fave the ameliorated foil on the crown
of the ridge alone, firft one fide of the ridge may be taken,
and then the fame procefs repeated.on the other ; by which
means almoft all the wrought foil may be kept on the fur-
face. A good fummer fallow and a hearty dofe of lime, and
the mixture of wrought mould, will reanimate the new foil,
and reftore its vegetative power to its primitive ftate; anda
very few feafons will naturalize the whole foil, while the
farmer has the advantage of ftraight ridges, moderately raifed.
Some, however, think that this bulinefs may be belt per-
formed by the {pade, though it is now obvioufly impoffible
in many fituations from the vaitly increafed expence of
labour. Where this mode is to be employed, it is advifed
by Dr. Anderfon, in his Effays on Agriculture and Rural
Affairs, to let a number of men be colleéted, with {pades,
according to the extent of work, and then fet a plough to
draw a furrow direétly acrofs the ridges of the whole field
intended to be levelled. Divide this furrow into as many
parts as labourers, allotting to each a ridge or two, more
or lefs, according to the number and height of the ridges,
and other circumftances. Let each of the labourers have
érders, as foon as the plough has paffed that part afligned
him, to begin to dig in the bottom of the furrow that the
plough has ju/? made, about the middle of the fide of the
old ridge, keeping his face towards the old furrow, working
backward till he comes to the middle of the old ridge,
going deeper as he advances, fuitable to the height he has
to bring down ; then let him turn towards the other furrow,
and repeat the fame on the other fide of the ridge, fo as to
leave the bottom of the trench he has thus made acrofs the
ridge, entirely level, or as nearly {fo as poflible. When he
has finifhed that part of the furrow allotted to him, which
the plough has made in going, let him then go and finiffi in
the fame mafiner his own portion of the furrow which the
plough makes in returning. In this manner each man per-
forms his own tafk through the whole field, gradually raifing
the old furrows as the old heights are deprefled.
And the old furrow ought to be raifed to a greater height
than the middle of the old ridges, fo as to make allowance for
the fubfiding of that loofe earth. And the operation is thus
finifhed at once. He recommends the making of thefe tem-
porary or crofs ridges 40 or 50 yards broad at leait : for
although fome time will be loft in turning at the ends of the
broad ridges, the advantage that is reaped by having few
open furrows is more than fufficient to counterbalance this
lofs: and in order to moderate the height that would be
formed in the middle of each of thefe great ridges, it will
always be proper to mark out the ridges, and draw the
furrow that isto be in the middle of each, fome days before
you colleét your labourers to level the field, to prevent any
hurry or lofs of labour in the future operation of levelling.
The field will thus be reduced at once toa proper level, and
the rich earth that formed the furface of the old ridges
will {till be kept on the furface of the field to be formed
into new ridges. And the fame writer adds, that the direc-
tion of the ridges, as noticed before, ought to be north
and fouth, if the field will permit, by which means the eaft
and weft fides of the ridges, dividing the fun equally between
them, will ripen at the fame time. Alfo further, that when
the foil is fo wet as to require the raifing of the ridges, they
ought to be made twelve feet wide, aud twenty inches high,
and to be preferved always in the fame form, by ca/ling,
that is, by ploughing two ridges together, beginning at the
furrow that feparates them, and ploughing round and round
till the two ridges be finifhed. The feparating furrow is
indeed raifed a little higher than the furrows that bound
the two ridges, but at the next ploughing that inequality is
corrected by reverfing the operation, which is eafily done.
Andin regard to the expence of the different methods, the
following ftatements are given by the fame writer, which,
though far below the prefent price of labour, may furnifh
the means of calculation to the improver. Suppofing the
price of labour in Scotland to vary in different places from
fixpence to one fhilling, and that the medium price be fixed
at nine-pence a day; and that the hire of a plough, with
four horfes and two fervants (for fo many, in general, will
be requifite to labour properly ground in the condition that
this is f{uppofed to be in), varies in like manner from three
to five fhillings per yoking, and that the medium price of
this be called four fhillings ; in this cafe the comparative
expence of levelling, by thefe two different modes, would
be as follows.
Expence of Levelling by Spade.
Sods
For wages to eleven labourers one day, atl, 8
nine-pence each - 2 = 2 5 3
For the hire of a plough 23 yokings, at four ocr
fhillings each - 5 S n o {
Total expence of one day’s work - - o18 3
Expence of Levelling by Plough and Harrows.
For two yokings and a half of a plough, as
before - “ s BY o O10 90
For harrowing ditto, fuppofed at one-fourth Be Mace
of the ploughing — - J = z
0 12° 6
Total
RIDGES.
o> 2 s. a.
Total for once ploughing, ke. - = - O12 6
‘The fame five times more repeated = - Cee jar
Total expence of levelling by plough sat acto
pirin sy/Bak. aege ilk eA PRE ner ae
Total expence of levelling by the fpade o 18. 3
Difference 216 9
But another method practifed by Mr. Paterfon of Caitle-
huntley is, according to Dr. Robertfon, firft to open up
with the {pade a trench of about ten feet broad, from end
to end of the field, in the fame direétion that the ridges are to
be made. The upper furface of the ten-feet trench is laid
upon one fide, to be removed afterwards. Then the under
foil of this trench is levelled and drefled by the fpade and
wheel-barrow, or carts, if neceflary, at the fame time giving
the land a gentle fall at both ends, to enable the water to run
off in the furrows towards the main drains. When this
under foil has got its proper fhape, he marks off another ten-
feet trench, and with the fpade throws the upper foil of the
fecond trench on the new-formed under foil of the firft trench,
fo as to cover it completely and equally : and fo on through
the whole field. The upper foil of the firft trench was
carried round in carts, and laid on the under foil of the laft
trench. The appearance of the field was then regular,
rifing in the middle and falling at both ends. He recom-
mends ridges eighteen feet wide. ‘The whole expence is
fuppofed to be 8/. an acre. And it is obferved in the third
volume of the Farmer’s Magazine, that ridges in enclofed
lands are capable of being {traightened with profit, or at
leaft witheut lofs, by wearing down the high ridges by the
preceding crops, fo as not to leave too much to the fallow,
which is by turning one field at leaft into turnip or fallow
every year until the whole is gone over. For as the land is
ploughed and harrowed over and over ur all directions, until
it is brought to aclofe fine mould, the ridges may then be
laid off juit asthe farmer pleafes, without any lofs. But
that in ftraightening without this previous operation, the
lois cannot be calculated. The advantages are therefore
obvious to every man.
A writer in the fifth volume of the fame work alfo ob-
ferves, that in wet clayey foils, where the operation is
undoubtedly moft difficult to execute, he has accomplifhed
the bufinefs with facility in this way. On dry foils, very
ltele judgment or fkillis required to do it, with fafety tothe
ground, ard advan to the occupier. He itates, that in
1794 he fallowed and itraightened a field of about thirty acres,
which had been oats the preceding year. The foil wasa
wet clay, and the ridges were very unequal in breadth, from
ten to thirty feet, intermixed with dats or guffets, which are
always detrimental to fuch lands, as they occation the ploughs,
&c. to turn often upon the other ridges, by which means
the prints or marks of the horfes’ feet are left unfilled up.
The firft operation confilted in cleaving down the ridges.
The tield was then ploughed acrofs, and thoroughly har-
rowed; but before the broad ridges could be brought to a
level, feveral ploughings were neceflary, which were ac-
cordingly given. The feafon, however, was far advanced
before thefe neceflary operations could be effected ; and, as
lime could not at this time be applied with advantage, he
was under the neceflity of laying it up in heaps, in an ad-
jacent grafs field, fo as it might be expeditioufl laid on
whenever the field was {traightened. The next confideration
was, to form the ridges in fuch a manner as to’prevent water
from ftagnating upon the ground. With this view, he run
them partly eait and weit, and partly north and fouth,
asthe level would admit. When the ridges were thus formed
and gathered up, the lime was applied, and a good. crofs-
harrowing given, in order to fill up the furrows. And it
being now the latter end of OGober, and the weather very
wet, he thought it advantageous, in giving the feed furrow,
to yoke the horfes)in line, and not a-breait, as isthe ufual
practice. The whole field was fown on the 6th and 9th of
November, and the braird appeared about the beginning
of December. The weather having been wet for fome days
after the wheat was fown, it appeared rather thin in Match,
but always retained a dark green colour. It improved much
during the fummer months ; aud at harveit, turned out as
good a crep as ever he faw upon fuch poor wet foil, the
produce per acre being from thirty-two to thirty-four Win-
chefter bufhels of good marketable grain, Next year he
ploughed the field again, and fowed one half with oats, and
the other half with peas, both which were as good crops as
could be expeéted. Perhaps it may be thought that he
fhould have fown grafs feeds among the wheat ; but it is his
opinion, that when ridges have been altered, a fecond fal-
lowing is neceflary before the field can be profitably laid down
to grafs. Lait year he ftraightened a field in the above-
mentioned way, which has anfwered his expectations to the
full. It was fown with grafs feeds, which at prefent
promife well. He concludes by obferving, that the ad-
vantages refulting from the pra@tice of ftraightening ridges
are obvioufly many and great. More work is performed
both by plough and harrows, and to better purpofe, in
a given {pace of time: much feed too is faved; for when
the ridges are at or below eighteen feet in breadth, which
they ought never to exceed, two cafts will fuffice : whereas,
in their former ftate, three, or even four cafts, will be necef-
fary in fome parts, and in others one will be too much.
Straightening ridges, and making them all of one fize, alfo
greatly furthers harvelt work, as it is well known, that
{hearing is more expeditioufly performed upon them, than
upon thofe that are unequal with one another, or fuch as
are broad at one end and narrow at the other. The laft,
though not the leaft advantage, which he fhall notice at pre-
fent, is, that wheat isnot fo apt to canker upon ftraight as
upon crooked ridges. He will not now inquire how this
comes to be the cafe ; but leave it to the confideration of
thofe who delight in abitraét philofophical refearches: it is
fufficient for him to be affured, from experience, that it is fo.
The bufinefs of {traightening and levelling ridges, in many
fituations, certainly demands much more attention than
it has hitherto met with by the farmer and land proprietor,
But befides thefe modes of ridging, which are neceflary
in laying out lands for the purpofe of tillage, there are others
that become requifite in confequence of the growth of par-
ticular forts of crops, and the particular methods of buf-
bandry by which they are cultivated. Thus we have
one, two, and three, or more Sout ridges, according as the
crops are grown to moit advantage, on one or other of thefe
forts of {mall ridges, or as they fuit the different forts
of tools by which they are put into the ground. Some
other local modes likewiie occur in tillage diftriGs, of form-
ing {mall ridges, for the cultivation of different kinds ef
crops. See TILLAGE.
Rivces, in Gardening, portions of ground laid up by
means of the f{pade in a narrow (trip, to the height of one,
two, or more feet, for the purpofe of receiving’ the benefit
of frofts and the influence of tlie atmofphere, and thereby
become more mellow, light, and friable, as well as more
fertile and produGtive. See Ripcinc.
Rince-Work, in Agriculture, that fort of tillage which is
executed
RID
executed in the ridge method, or by raifing the {urface of
the land into fome kind of ridges.
Rivces of a horfé’s mouth, are wrinkles or rifings of the
fAefh in the roof of the mouth, running acrofs from one fide
of the jaw to the other, with interjacent furrows.
It is commonly in the third or fourth ridge that the far-
riers {trike with the horn, in order to bleed a horfe whofe
mouth is overheated.
RIDGIL, in Rural Economy, a male fheep, in which
the tefticles do not come properly down into the fcrotum.
Ripcit Lambs, fuch as have none, or only one tetticle,
inthe {crotum orcod. There is often great trouble and danger
in thefe forts of animals being mixed with other fheep ftock,
as they not only teafe the ewes, but frequently injure them.
The lambs fhould, of courfe, always be cut while young, as
from fix to ten or twelve weeks old, though the operation
may be performed with fafety at a much later period, and
even when a year or more old. Mr. Marfhall, in his Nor-
folk Economy, defcribes the manner of doing it in this
way, where only one of the tefticles had come down’or
entered the cod. Having cut off the end of the {crotum,
bag, or cod, the telticle was drawn out in the ufual manner
of gelding. The other was taken out at the fide contrary
to that on which the palpable tefticle was placed. Invper-
forming which, the lamb is laid flat on its fide upon the
ground, being held in that pofition by one man, keeping its
neck and fore legs clofe down, while another f{tretches it
out by drawing the hind legs backwards, keeping them
tight down, fo that the animal cannot ftir. The operator
then clips off a {mall patch of wool, about the fize and fhape
of a duck’s egg, clofe below the loin, and in the middle
between the huckle and the fhort ribs ; after which he makes
an incifion, fufficiently wide to admit his forefinger, with
which he fearches for the {tone and brings it out, difengag-
ing it from the tunic or coat in which it is enclofed by a
kmife, drawing out the cord or ftring. The orifice after this
is carefully fewed up, and the wounded parts anointed
with elder or fome other ointment.
And it is {tated asremarkable, that the concealed tefticles
all laid on the fame fide, namely the right fide ; the contrary
fide to that on which females are cut, in the cafes he had the
operation performed in. And that in one the operation was
rendered difficult by the tefticle being very {mall, and braced
up clofe to the vertebre. It is likewife added, that the pal-
pable telticle being priorily extracted, increafes the difficulty
of the operation, as the perfon who performs it does not
know which fide to cut on, and is fometimes obliged to cut
on both before he finds the concealed tefticle. *
This is a nice operation, which requires much care and
attention in the perfon who performs it.
RIDGING of Ground, in Gardening, the practice of
throwing it up into high ridges in order to le fallow in
winter, &c. to melfow, and improve in its quality and
tertility.
It may be noticed, that this is a work of great utility in
the kitchen garden, as well asin other parts, but more efpe-
cially in {tiff heavy foils, and cold wet lands. It is accom-
plifhed by trench-digging the ground over, laying the earth of
each trench ina raifed, rough ridge, lengthways, that by thus
lying as high, open, and hollow as poflible, it may meliorate
and fertilize more effectually by the weather during the winter.
And it receives further improvement from the levelling it
down again, which is expeditioufly effected, for the recep-
tion of the intended feeds, plants, roots, &c. which
breaks, divides, and pulverizes the earth itill more ef-
fectually.
And this fort of ridging is generally performed, either in
RID
the latter end: of autumn, or any time in winter, or early
in the {pring, as the ground is the moft vacant at thofe fea-
fons, and not generally immediately wanted for any principal
fowing or planting.
This fort of work is executed by beginning at one end of
the plat of ground, and digging out a trench one or two
fpades in width, and a full fpade’s depth, removing the
crumbs from the bottom, in the lengthways acrois the
ground, and wheeling the earth to the finifhing end, to be
ready to fill up the a trench: fo marking out a fecond
trench clofe to the firlt, of the fame width, then proceeding in
the trenching and ridging, previoufly paring the top of the
fecond trench, with all weeds, rubbifh, or dung thereon, if
any, into the bottom of the firlt, and then digging the
ground of the fecond along regularly, the proper width
and depth as above; turning the earth {pit and {pit into the
firft open trench, laying it in a raifed ridge lengthways
thereof, without breaking it fine, fo that it may le fome-
what rough and hollow, according as the nature of the foil
may admit : proceeding thus with another trench in the fame
manner, and continuing the fame with the whole, trench
and trench, to the end-of the plat of ground; filling up
the laft trench with the earth of the firft opened, laying it
now ridgeways, as in the preceding trenches.
But in the work of levelling down ridged ground, as
wanted, it fhould proceed regularly, ridge and ridge, long-
ways, levelling the earth equally to the right and lett,
loofening any folid parts, and breaking all large rough
lumps and clods moderately fine ; forming the whole in an
even regular furface, in order for fowing and planting, as
required.
And in general, it is not advifable to lay down more
than can be fown the fame or next day, while the furface is
frefh flirred, efpecially in broad-caft fowing and raking in the
feed, as, moit generally, all tolerably light mellow foils are
more yielding to the rake while the furface is frefh moved ;
or before rendered wet by rain, &c.; or very dry and har-
dened in the top earth by the fun, air, and winds, in dry
weather, in the {pring months, &c.; and likewife for
fowing feeds by bedding in and covering in with earth from
the alieys, &c. or with earth raked off the beds for that
purpofe, it would generally be molt fuccefsful to perform it
in a frefh ftirred furface ; though it is not fo material in
drill fowing ; and befides, when feeds are committed to the
earth, while itis in a frefh turned up furface, e{pecially in a
dry feafon, they are more forwarded ina free regular germi-
nation than in ground that has lain fome time after digging
or levelling down. Though fome grounds, of a wet, or
heavy, {tiff nature, fometimes require to lie afew days after
digging or levelling down, in order for the rough cloddy
furface to mellow in fome degree, either by drying a little,
or by having a moderate rain, or fometimes both, to
meliorate the lumpy clods, pliant tothe rake, inthe cafe of
broad-caft fowing, and raking in the feed.
RipGinG-up, mn Hufbandry, a term ufed to fignify the
practice of laying up the mould or foilto the rows of par-
ticular forts of crops, as thofe of the pea, potatoe, turnip,
cabbage, and other fimilar kinds. It alfo implies the laying
up land or earth in fuch a manner as that it may receive the
moft full and perfeét benefit and influence of the atmofphere,
and in confequence become in a mellow and pulverized
ftate. Itisoften very neceflary in ftiff lands.
RIDGLET, in Agriculture, a provincial word, ufed to
fignify a {mall ridge, efpecially when raifed by baulking or
ridging up with the plough.
RIDGLING, in Rural Economy, the male of any beaft
that
HYD
that has been partially caftrated, or which is not properly
formed in the cod.
RIDICULE, in Zrhics, is commonly ufed in the fame
fenfe with irrifion ; and has for its objects the abfurdities
and misfortunes of mankind. The latter, however, are
very improper objects of ridicule, whofe province fhould ex-
tend only to the carelefsnefs, inconftancy, humour, affectation,
impertinence, and in fhort all the leffer follies and imper-
fections of mankind. Such are generally the fubjects of
Horace’s Satires; and Dr. More obferves, that irrifion,
which is the parent of ridicule, was the original of {atire.
Dr. Campbell (Philof. of Rhet. vol. i.) obferves, that
ridicule is not only confined to quettions of lefs moment, but
is fitter for refuting error than for fupporting truth, for re-
{training from wrong condué, than for inciting to the prac-
tice of whatis right. It is not properly levelled at the fa/f,
but at the ab/urd in tenets ; and it is not the criminal part of
mifcondué whichit attacks, but that we denominate filly or
foolifh. With regard to doétrine, it is not falfity or miftake,
but palpable error or abfurdity (a thing hardly confutable
by mere argument) which is the objeét of contempt ; and
confequently thofe dogmas are beyond the reach of cool
reafoning which are within the rightful confines of ridicule.
This ftatement is obvioufly inconfiftent with the mode of
arguing adopted (very improperly, as we conceive) by
thofe who make ridicule, or raillery, the teft of truth. To
this clafs we may refer a noble writer, who, in his * Charac-
teriftics”” (vol. i.) after alleging that truth may bear a//
lights, obferves, that one of thofe principal lights or natural
mediums, by which things are to be viewed, in order to a tho-
rough recognition, is ridicule itfelf, or that manner of proof
by which we difcern whatever is liable to juft raillery in any
fubjeét. So much, at leatt, is allowed by all, who at any
time appeal to this criterion. His adyocates, however, have
afferted, that unjuit reprefentations have often been given
of the politions which he has maintained in his “* Effay on the
Freedom of Wit and Humour,” and it has been faid, parti-
cularly in the “* General Diétionary,”’ that he was very far
from vindicating a vague, indecent, and boundlefs ridicule,
or inclined to employ his wit and humour otherwife than
under certain reltri¢tions, and when particular occafions
called for and juitified it. Although it be allowed, that his
lordfhip has been in fome inflances mifunderftood and mifre-
prefented, and he has written in a manner fo inaccurate and
unguarded, as to have fubjected himfelf to juft animadverfion
and cenfure, Dr. Brown, in his * Effays on the Charac-
teriltics,’” has animadverted on his lordfhip’s reafoning ; and
with great ingenuity contended, that though ridicule is a
fpecies of eloquence, reafon alone is the detector of falfehood,
and the teft of truth; that ridicule can never pretend to
this charatter ; that it is one of the moft powerful engines by
which error can be maintained and eftablifhed; and that its
proper object is folly of condu&, and chiefly affectation.
Other writers have defended his lordfhip, among whom we
may reckon the Rev. Mr. Charles Bulkley, an ingenious and
learned diffenting minifter. Ina work afcribed to Mr. Ram-
fay, the painter, the-author has attempted to thew, that ri-
dicule is of two kinds, and that it may be applied to opinions
as well as to manners. The ufual objects of ridicule are,
indeed, certain improprieties and peculiarities of character
and conduét, and to affert, in general, that it is the teft of
truth, is advancing a falfe pofition. Reafon is undoubtedly
the genuine and proper teit of truth. Neverthelefs, ridi-
cule may in fome cafes be jultly applied to opinions. ‘There
are tenets fo flagrantly abfurd, that it is not eafy to refrain
from viewing them in the light of humour and raillery, and
perhaps the beft way of expofing them may be to difplay
7
RID
them in that light. Neverthelefs, it muft be acknowled eds
that ridicule, when applied to grave and important fab.
jects, is a very dangerous weapon; that it ought to be
adopted with the utmoft difcretion, and that it has often
been made ufe of in an improper manner.
_With regard to conduét, fays Dr. Campbell, we may
difcover to what kind ridicule is applicable, by direGting
our attention to the different departments of tragedy and
of comedy. In the laft it has a mighty influence ; but into
the firft it never legally obtains admittance. Thofe things
which principally come under its lath are aukwardnefs,
rutticity, ignorance, cowardice, levity, foppery, pedantry,
and affectation of every kind. But again{t murder, cruelty,
parricide, ingratitude, or perfidy, to attempt to raife
a laugh, would fhew fuch an unnatural infenfibility in
the fpeaker, as would be exceflively difguitful to any au-
dience. To punifh fuch enormities, the tragic poet muit
take a very different route. It fhould be carefully remem-
bered, fays our author, that where nothing reprehenfible, or
fuppofed to be reprehenfible, either in conduét or fentiment,
is ilruck at, there is properly no fatire (or, as it is fometimes
termed, pointed wit), and confequently no ridicule. We
may here obferve, that the words “ banter”? and « raillery”*
are ufed to fignify ridicule of a certain form, applied, in-
deed, more commonly to praétices than to opinions, and
oftener to the little peculiarities of individuals, than to the
diltinguifhing cuftoms or ufages of feéts and parties. The
only difference in meaning between the two terms is, that
the firft generally denotes a coarfer, the fecond a finer fort
of ridicule; the former prevails moft among the lower
claffes of the people, the latter only among perfons of
breeding. Dr. Campbell, after remarking that an air of
ridicule in difproving or difluading, by rendering opinions or
practices contemptible, hath occafionally been attempted
with approbation by preachers of greatname, fuggetts the
abfolute neceffity, in the ufe of it, of the greateft care and
delicacy, that it may not degenerate into a {train but ill
adapted to fo precious an occupatior..
Our author cites the authority of Ariftotle in favour of
the general principles with regard to the fubje& of ridicule
which he has endeavoured to eftablith. « The ridiculous,’?
fays the Stagyrite, « implies fomething deformed, and con-
fifts in thofe fmaller faults, which are neither painful nor
pernicious, but unbefeeming : thus a face excites laughter,
in which there are deformity and diftortion without pain.”
Ariftotle here {peaks of ridicule, not of laughter in general ;
and not of every fort of ridicule, but folely of the ridiculous
in manners, of which he has, in few words, given a very ap-
pofite defcription. Laughter is not his theme, but comedy
and laughter, only fo far as comedy is concerned with it’s
andthe concern of comedy reaches no farther than to that
kind of ridicule which relates to manners. For an account
of Hobbes’s theory of laughter and Dr. Campbell’s objec-
tion to it, fee LAUGHTER.
On the fubjeét of laughter, Dr. Hartley | Obf. on Man)
remarks, that young children do ‘not laugh aloud for fome
months. The firft occafion of doing this feems to be a fur-
prife, which brings on a momentary fear firft, and then a mo-
mentary joy, in confequence of the removal of that fear,
agreeably to what may be obferved of the pleafures that fol-
low the removal of pain. This may appear probable, inaf-
much as laughter is a nafcent cry, ftopped of a fudden ; and
alfo becaufe, if the fame furprife, which makes young chil-
dren laugh, be a very little increafed, they will ery. As chil-
dren learn the ufe of language, they learn to laugh at fen-
tences or ftories, by which certain alarming notions and ex-
pectations are raifed in them, and again diflipated inftan-
taneoully.
RID
taneoufly. Children, and young perfons, are diverted by
every little jingle, pun, contraft, or coincidence, which 1s
level to their capacities, even though the harfhnefs and in-
confiftency, with which it firft {trikes the fancy, be fo mi-
nute, as {carcely tobe perceived. And this is the origin of
that laughter which is excited by wit, humour, buffoonery,
&c. The moft natural occafions of mirth and laughter in
adults feem to be the little miftakes and follies of children,
and the fmaller inconfiftencies and improprieties, which hap-
pen in converfation in the daily occurrences of hfe; inaf-
much as thefe pleafures are; in great meafure, occafioned, or
at leaft fupported, by the general pleafurable flate, which
our love and affeétion to our friends in general, and to chil-
dren in particular, put the mouth and body into. For this
kind of mirth is always checked where we have diflike ;
alfo where the miftake or inconfiftency rifes beyond a cer-
tain limit ; for then it produces concern, confufion, and un-
eafinefs. This account of the original of laughter, and
alfo of its falutary effets which the author mentions, both
with refpe&t to the body and mind, is inconfiftent with
Hobbes’s theory, to which we have above referred. The
laughter of pride and contempt, and the ridicule conneéted
with it, are very different, not only in their origin, but in
their influence.
Ripicue, in a Comedy. See Comepy.
RIDICULI Aopicura, or the Chapel of Laughter, in
Roman Antiquity, was a building erected at Rome, about
two thoufand paces beyond the gate Capena, in memory of
the flight of Hannibal from the fiege of the city, on account
of the ruin and tempeft that befel him on that occafion.
The Romans, in ridicule of his flight, built and confecrated
this chapel.
RIDING, a corruption of #rithing, a divifion of York-
fhire, of which there are three ; viz. the Eaft-riding, Wetft-
riding, and North-riding.
In indi€&tments, in that county, it is neceflary that the
town and riding be exprefled. See Recisrrr.
Rivine Academy. See Acaprmy and Manrce.
An academy for riding was founded in this country, by
king William III. See Rips.
Ripinc Armed, with dangerous and unlawful weapons,
is an offence at common law. (4 Inft. 160.) By the fta-
tute 2 Edw. III. cap. 3. none fhall ride armed by night or
day, to the terror of the people; or come with force and
arms before the king’s juttices, &c. doing their office, upon
pain to forfeit their armour, and fuffer imprifonment at the
king’s pleafure; anda fine may be fet upon them by the
' juftices, by 20 Ric. II. cap. 1. And no perfon can excufe
the riding armed, in public, by alleging that he wears ar-
mour for his defence againit an aflault ; but men may wear
common arms, according to their quality and the fafhion,
and have attendants with them armed agreeable to their cha-
ra¢ters: alfo perfons may ride or go armed to take felons,
fupprefs riots, execute the king’s procefs, &c. 3 Int.
162.
Ripine Caf, in Hu/bandry, aterm ufed by the farmers
for a particular method of fowing their grounds, by making
two cafts upon the ground at the fame time.. This is not
much ufed, but it is a quicker way than the double caft,
which is the method now moft ufed. Plot’s Oxford{hire,
Se Ls
Ripine-Clerk, one of the fix clerks in chancery, who in
his turn, for one year, keeps the eontrolment-books of all
grants that pafs the great feal that year. Blount.
Ripinc-Bitts, in Ship Building, are the largeft bitts in a
fhip, and thofe to which the cable is fitted when fhe rides at
anchor.
RID
RIDL, in Geography, a town of Auftria; 10 miles
S.S.W. of Aigen.
RIDLEY, Nicnoxas, in Biggraphy, an eminent Eng-
lith prelate, and martyr to the caufe of the reformed re-
ligion, defcended from an ancient family in Northumberland,
was bors early in the 16th century. As he exhibited early
proofs of good natural abilities, he was placed in a grammar-
{chool at Newcaftle-upon-Tyne, in which he made {uch
progrefs, that he was taken from thence and entered of
Pembroke-hall, Cambridge. This was about the year
1518. In 1522 he was admitted to the degree of B.A.;
and in 1524 he was eleGted a fellow of his college. In the
following year he commenced M.A.; and having been or-
dained prieft, he weat, for farther improvement, to the
Sorbonne at Paris; and from thence to Louvain; con-
tinuing on the continent till the year 1529. He had been
brought up, and continued a zealous Papift; but on his
return home, he applied with great diligence to the reading
of the {criptures, as the fafeft guides in his theological
ftudies. In 1533 Mr. Ridley was chofen fenior proétor of
the univerfity ; and while he continued in this office, the
point of the pope’s fupremacy was brought before the uni-
verfity, to be examined upon the authority of {cripture. No
one-was better qualified to give an opinion on this fubje&
than Mr. Ridley; and after much public difputation, the
univerfity came to the following refolution: “ That the
bifhop of Rome had no more authority and jurifdiétion de-
rived to him from God, in this kingdom of England, than
any other foreign bifhep ;”’ and this was officially figned by
Mr. Ridley, as well as by the vice-chancellor and the other
proctor. In the year 1536, his well-known learning and
talents procured him a powerful patron in archbitho
Cranmer, who took him into his family, and made him his
chaplain. He had, probably before this, abandoned the
principles in which he had been educated; and being, in
1538, prefented by the archbifhop to the vicarage of Herne,
in Eaft Kent, he preached certain dotrines attached to the
reformation, but neverthelefs {till adhered to the doétrine of
tranfubftantiation. Among other converts whom he made
to his own opinions was lady Fiennes, who proved a diftin-
guifhed ornament to the caufe which fhe adopted. To ex-
cite or enliven’ the devotion of his parifhioners, he had the
“ Te Deum” fung in Englifh, which was afterwards made
the fubje& of an accufation againit him. In 1539, when
the a& of the fix articles was pafled, he bore his teftimony
again{t it, though he himfelf was not likely to be affeted
by the penalties of the ftatute. In 1540 he went to
Cambridge, and proceeded do¢tor in divinity; and foon
after he was chofen to the mafterfhip of Pembroke-hall.
About the fame time he was, through the influence of the
archbifhop, nominated chaplain to the king; and this ho-
nour was {peedily fellowed by his collation to a prebendal
{tall in the cathedral church of Canterbury. In this city,
when his duty called him to preach, he endeavoured with
all his talents to expofe to the people the abufes of Popery ;
which gave fo much offence, that charges were exhibited
againft him for preaching contrary to the flatute of the fix
articles. The attempt, however, of involving him in the
penalties of the law, completely failed. Gardiner, bifhop
of Winchefter, next endeavoured to entrap him; and ar-
ticles were exhibited againit him before the juftices of the
peace in Kent, and afterwards before the king and council,
which charged him with preaching againft auricular confef-
fion, and with directing the Te Deum to be fung in Eng-
lifh. The accufation was fortunately referred to Cranmer,
_by the king, who immediately crufhed it, much to the mor-
tification of Dr. Ridley’s enemies. About the year 1545
3 he
RIDLEY.
he began to examine the do¢trine of tranfubftantiation,
which he and his friend and patron, Cranmer, rejected as
unferiptural. Towards the clofe of the year he was ap-
pointed prebend of St. Peter’s, Weftminfter. It 1547 he
was promoted to the bifhopric of Rocheiter ; and in the fol-
lowing year he was employed in reforming the liturgy, in
conjunction with Cranmer, five other prelates, and fome
learned divines ; and in 1549 he was appointed one of the
commiflioners empowered to fearch after all Anabaptiits,
heretics, and contemners of the book of common prayer.
In this charaéter he was involved in the foul reproach of
having contributed to bring to the ftake Joan Bocher, and
others. (See Cranmer.) That hé did this from con-
{cientious motives, there can be no doubt ; but he ought to
have inveitigated the principles, before he proceeded to the
horrid a& of perfecution ; and having a mind open to con-
vidtion, he would foon have found that no tenets, in-
culeated by the mild and holy Jefus, would Jead to the in-
fli&tion of corporal punifliment for the fake of curing mental
error. He more than once oppofed the unreafonable com-
mands and wifhes of thofe in power; and would no doubt,
in the cafe of Bocher and others, have done fo too, had he
felt it his duty.
The bifhop of Rochefter was one of the eommiffioners ap-
pointed to fit in judgment on the caufe of Bonner, bifhop of
London; and by him the fentence of deprivation was pro-
nounced againit the prelate. This was in the reign of Ed-
ward. In that of Mary, as we fhall fee, ample revenge
was taken of him. Ridley fucceeded to the bifhopric of
London in the year 1549-50, when the bifhopric of Welt-
mintter was fuppreffed as a diftinét fee, and united to that
of London. Ridley’s condu& towards his predeceflor
Bonner, and his family, after taking poffeffion of the epif-
copal palace, was honourable to his integrity and bene-
volence, of which the following fats are fufficient proofs.
He took care to preferve from injury the goods, &c. be-
longing to Bonner, allowing him full liberty to remove them
when he pleafed. Such materials as Bonner had purchafed
fer the repair of his houfe and church, the new bifhop em-
ployed to the ufes for which they were defigned; but he
repaid him the money which he had advanced for them. He
took upon himfelf the difcharge of the {ums which were due
to Bonner’s fervants for liveries and wages; and that the
mother and fifter of that prelate, who lived near the palace
at Fulham, and had their board there, might not be lofers
in confequence of his promotion, he always fent for them
to dinner and fupper, conftantly placing Mrs. Bonner at the
head of the table, even when perfons of high rank were his
ueils.
" Soon after his tranflation to the fee of London, bifhop
Ridley was nominated one of the commiffioners for exathin-
ing Gardiner, bifhop of Winchetter, and concurred in his
deprivation. In 1550 bifhop Ridley vilited his diocefe, and
he direéted that the altars fhould thenceforth be taken
down in the churches, and tables fubitituted in their room,
for the celebration of the Lord’s fupper; to take away
the falfe perfuafion which the people had, of facrifices to
be offered upon altars. In 1551 the {weating ficknefs pre-
vailed in London, and in the fpace of a few days carried off
eight or nine ‘hundred perfons; but in the midft of the
alarm which this neceffarily occafioned, Ridley admiaiftered
in the duties of his office, trufting himfelf entirely to the
good providence of God for fafety, in the danger to which
he was every moment expofed; and he endeavoured, with
all the zeal of an exemplary {piritual paftor, to improve the
public calamity to the reformation of the manners of the
people. ‘To promote more generally a reformation in the
Vou. XXX.
doGtrine of the church, the council, this year, appointed
Cranmer and Ridley to prepare a book of articles of faith.
With this view they drew up forty-two articles, and fent
copies of them to the other bifhops and learned divines, for
their correGtions and amendments; after which the arch-
bifhop reviewed them a fecond time, and then prefented
them to the council, where they received the royal fanétion,
and were publifhed by the king’s authority, as an a of the
{upremacy. Inthe year 1552 he paid a vifit to the princefs
Mary, and offered to preach before her ; but the refufed to
hear him herfelf, or permit her fervants to attend to his doc-
trine ; telling him, that, in her father’s days, he would not
have dared to have avouched that for God’s word that he
then did. Mary never forgot nor forgave this interference
on the part of the prelate, which, notwithitanding the re-
marks of moft of Ridley’s biographers, appears to us to have
been uncalled for, if it were not even an aét of rudenefs
not eafily juitified.
When the parliament aflembled in 1 553, the king, who
was languifhing under the decline which foon put anend to
his life, ordered the two houfes to attend him at Whitehall,
where bifhop Ridley preached before him, recommending
with fuch energy the duties of beneficence and charity, that
his majeity fent for him, to inquire how he could beft put in
practice the duties which he had fo well and fo ftrongly en-
forced ; and the refult of this fermon and conference was a
determination in the king to found, or incorporate anew,
and endow with ample revenues, thofe noble inftitutions,
Chrift’s, Bartholomew’s, Bridewell, and St. Thomas’s
hofpitals.
Upon the death of Edward VI., Ridley was earneft in
attempting to fet lady Jane Grey on the throne; but when
the defign had mifcarried, he went to Mary to do her
homage, and fubmit himfelf to her clemency. His recep-
tion was fuch as he might have expeSted: he was immedi-
ately committed to the Tower, where, however, he was
treated with mugh lefs rigour than Cranmer and Latimer,
who were likewife prifoners in the fame fortrefs. Ridley,
it has been thought, might have recovered the queen’s fa~
vour, if he would have brought the weight of his learning
and authority to countenance her proceedings in religion.
He was, however, too honeft to a@ again{t his conviétion ;
and he was, after eight months’ imprifonment in the Tower,
conveyed from thence to Oxford, where he was, on the
it of Oétober 1555, condemned to death for herefy.
During the fortnight between his condemnation and execu-
tion, the priefts tried all their means of perfuafion to gain
him over to their caufe. He was deaf to their remon-
ftrances, and was not to be fhaken in the. principles which
he had adopted.
The rsth of OGober being the day appointed by the
court for his execution, he met the trial with calmnefs and
fortitude. He called it his marriage-day, and {upped on
the preceding evening with the utmoit cheerfulnefs, having
invited fome friends on the occafion. When they rofe to
depart, one of them offered to fit up with him through the
night, which he would not permit, faying, he meant to go
to bed, and, by God’s will, to fleep as quietly that night
as he ever had done in his life. On the following morning,
having drefled himfelf in his epifcopal habit, he walked to
the place of execution, between the mayor and one of the
aldermen of Oxford; and feeing Latimer approach, from
whom he had been feparated fince their condemnation, he
ran to meet him, and with a cheerful countenance embraced
him, and exclaimed, “ Be of good heart, brother, for God
will either afluage the fury of the flames, or elfe give us
{trength to endure them.”? Then walking to the ftake, he
Kk kneeled
RIE
kneeled down, kiffed it, and prayed with great fervour.
A fermon was now preached, at the conclufion of which he
was afked to recant; but he refufed, and with a fteadfaft
voice cried out, « May God’s will be done.” He was
then ftripped to his fhirt, and faftened by an iron chain to
the fame ftake with bifhop Latimer. Every thing being
ready, a kindled faggot was laid at Ridley’s feet, who,
when he faw the fire flaming up towards him, with a loud
voice commended his foul to God. Latimer’s fufferings
were foon at an end, but Ridley endured the agonies of
dying a much longer time, ‘till they were terminated by the
explofion of a bag of gunpowder, which had been fufpended
from his neck: after this he difcovered no figns of life.
Such was the end of bifhop Ridley, who was unquettion-
ably one of the moft eminent inftruments in promoting the
caufe of the reformation. In private life he was a pattern
of all the virtues. His temper was excellent ; his manners
very affable and agreeable ; and of the benevolence of his
heart he gave abundant proofs, in his extraordinary libe-
rality to the poor. He was unqueftionably a man of great
learning, and was author of a number of works. Many of
his letters have been publifhed by Fox, in his * Ads and
Monuments ;” and may likewife be feen in Gloiter’s Life
of Bifhop Ridley, to which, to Wood’s Athen., and Neal’s
Hitt. of the Puritans, our readers are referred.
Riptey, Sir Tuomas, a learned civilian, of the fame
family as the preceding, was born at Ely, and educated
firft at Eton, and then at King’s-college, Cambridge. He
afterwards became a mafter in chancery, and vicar-general
to the archbifhop of Canterbury. He died in 1628, and
was author of “A View of Civil and Ecclefiaftical
Law.”’
Riptey, Guoster, of the fame family with the pre-
ceeding, was born in 1702, on board the Glouceiter Eaft
Indiaman, whence he derived his name. He was educated
in {chool-learning at Winchefter ; from which place he was re-
moved to New-college, Oxford, where he laid the foundation
for thofe acquirements, by which he was afterwards diftin-
guifhed as a poet, hiitorian, and divine. He obtained fome
preferment in the church; and in 1740 and 1742 he
preached eight fermons at lady Moyer’s lecture, which were
publifhed. In 1763 he publifhed the ‘* Life of Bifhop
Ridley,’? to which we have referred; and fhortly after,
«< A Review cf Philips’s Life of Cardinal Pole.’’ In re-
ward for his labours in this controverfy, and in another which
Mr. Archdeacon Blackburn’s Confeffional produced, he was
_ prefented by Secker to a golden prebend at Salifbury. He
died in 1774, leaving a widow and four daughters, one of
whom, Mrs. Evans, publifhed feveral novels. In the latter
part of his life he loft two fons, young men of confiderable
ralents: The elder, James, was author of “ The Tales of
the Genii ;”? a humorous paper, called «*’The Schemer,”’
afterwards colleGted into a volume; “ The Hiftory of James
Lovegrove,’’ and feveral other literary pieces. ‘Two poems
by Dr. Ridley, one ityled ‘ Jovi Eleutherio, or an Offering
to Liberty ;’’ and the other entitled “« Pfyche,’”’ were
printed in Dodfley’s Cclleétion. «* Melampus,”’ the fequel
of the latter, was printed by fubfcription. His tranfcript
of the Syriac Gofpels was publifhed with a Latin tranfla-
tion, by profeffor White, in 2 vols. 4to. Gen. Biog.
Ripiey, in Geography, atownfhip of America, in Dela-
ware county, Pennfylvania, containing 991 inhabitants.
RIDOLLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Agra; 35 miles S. of Agra.
RIDZIN. See Reussin.
RIE, in Rural Economy, a provincial term, applied to
the operation of turning grain in a fieve, fo as to bring the
RIE
capes into an eddy at the top.
cular kind of circular motion.
RIEBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Hohenloe; 7 miles S.S.E. of Weichenfheim.
RIEBECK-CASTEEL, or the caftle of Van Riebeck,
one of the divifions in the diftri@ of Stellenbofch and Draken-
ftein, in the Cape diftri€, Southern Africa, which may be
confidered as a prolongation of the Paardeberg (which fee),
terminating to the northward in a high rocky fummit. It
took its name from the founder of the colony having tra-
velled to this diftance from the Cape, which is about 60
miles, and which, in that early period of the fettlement,
was as far as it was confidered fafe to proceed, on account
of the numerous natives, whofe race has now almoit difap-
peared from the face of the earth. The produce is the fame
as that of Paardeberg, in both which there are as many
corn-farms as freehold eftates.
RIEBEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark ;
3 miles S. of Belitz.
RIECHENAU, a town of the country of the Grifons ;
g miles 5.S.W. of Coire.
RIED, a town of Bavaria; 18 miles S. of Paflau.—
Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the principality of Aichftatt ;
4 miles S.E. of Harrieden.
RIEDEN, atown of Germany, belonging to Anfpach,
infulated in the principality of Culmbach; 22 miles N. of
Anfpach.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the Upper Pala-
tinate; 9 miles S. of Amberg.
RIEDENBURG, a town of the bifhopric of Paffau, on
the Inn; 12 miles $.S.W. of Paffau.—Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, on the Altmuhl; 17 miles N.E. of Ingolftadt.
RIEDLIN, Virus, in Biography, a diftinguifhed Ger-
man phyfician, was born at Ulm in March, 1656, where
many of his anceftors had praétifed the fame profeffion with
confiderable repute. He obtained his early education prin-
cipally at his native city, and terminated his ftudies by going
to Tuningen in 1674, where he made great acquifition,
during a refidence of two years, and afterwards into Italy ;
and he graduated at Padua, about the end of the year 1676.
He wifhed to have refided longer at this diftinguifhed uni-
verfity ; but his father having died in his boyhood, he was
unable to procure the neceflary means, and therefore he re-
turned to Ulm in the following year. In 1679 he was
ele€ted a member of the college of phyficians at Augfourg,
where he fettled, and obtained a confiderable fhare of prac-
tice among the firft people ; but on the prefling folicitations
of his countrymen, he returned to Ulm in 1704, and re-
mained there, in the enjoyment of extenfive reputation, till
his death, which took place in 1724. His principal work is
entitled ‘* Linee Medice, continentes Obfervationes, Hif-
torias, Experimenta, Cauteles, &c. 2 Menfe Januario 1695
ad Menfem Junium 1700,” in ten fmall volumes. It isa
fort of journal, in which he not only recorded his own ob-
fervations, but thofe of others. It does not, however, com-
mend itfelf by much originality or good method. Eloy
Did. Hitt.
RIEDLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Wurtem-
berg ; 27 miles S.W. of Ulm. N. lat. 48° 11’. E. long.
ol.
RIEFF. See Riva.
RIEGEL, Henry Josepu, in Biography, a mufician
born at Wertheim, in Franconia, in 1741. M. Laborde
does him the honour te call him a French compofer. He
ftudied mufic under Jomelli, at Stutgard, and was ‘recom-
mended by Richter to complete the mufical education of a
young lady of rank in France; which having finifhed, he
eftablifhed himfelf at Paris in 1765. His paffion for the
6 harpfichord
It is performed by a parti-
RIE
harpfichord confined his ftudies chiefly to that inftrument
for a confiderable time; but after having acquired a diltin-
guifhed reputation for his execution, he attended {cholars,
and applied to compofition. Befides many quartets, con-
certos, fonatas, duos, &c. he compofed fymphonies a grand
orcheftra, which had confiderable fuccefs at the concert of
amateurs. He gained reputation by a French oratorio,
«The Flight from Egypt,” the firit work of that kind
that was executed at the Concert Spirituel, where it was
well received for four fucceffive years. A fecond oratorio,
«© The Taking of Jericho,’’ had likewife merited applaute.
His comic opera, “ The Cobler and Financier,”? was at
firft reprefented at court, but afterwards well received in the
capital, at the Italian theatre, though not performed by the
bett actors.
What charaCterizes his compofitions is the great purity
of his harmony. His effeéts are ingenious: in his capital
pieces of fymphonic cempofition, there is always a natural
and regular melody. This compofer, paffionate for his art,
enjoyed, free from envy, the talents of others. An enemy
to cabal, he was exclufively attached to no kind of ftyle ;
but enjoying whatever was good in all ftyles, (French,
Italian, German,) he was one of the few foreigners who did
the molt honour to the profeffion in France. Laborde.
RIEHEN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in
the bifhopric of Bale, and principal place of a bailiwic ;
3 miles E. of Bale.
RIELVES, a town of Spain, in New Cattile; 11 miles
N.W. of Toledo.
RIEMLING, in Ichthyology, a name given by feveral
to the {mall frefh-water fifh, called by the Latins poxinus,
and vulgarly the ping.
RIENECK, in Geography, a town and citadel of Ger-
many, and capital of a county of the fame name, on the
Sinn; 36 miles E. of Frankfort on the Maine. N. lat.
o° rr, E. long. 9° 47!;
RIENS Arrear, in Law, a kind of plea ufed to an
ation of debt upon arrearages of accounts; by which the
defendant alleges, that there is nothing in arrear.
RiENs paffe par le fait, nothing paffes by the deed, is the
form of an exception taken in fome cates to an action.
Riens par defcent, nothing by defcent, is the plea of an
heir, when fued for his anceftor’s debt, though he had no
lands from it by defcent, nor has affets in hand.
RIENTZ, in Geography, a river of the county of Ty-
rol, which joins the Eyfach, at Brixen.
RIENZI, in Biography. See Gasrini.
RIER, or Reer-county, Retro-comitatus, in Law, is
ufed in the ftatute of Wettm. 2. c. 39. 2 Edw. ITI. cap. 5.
and in our law-books, in oppofition to open county.
This appears to be fome public place, which the fheriff
appoints for the receipt of the king’s money, after the end
of the county-court. Fleta fays it is dies craflinus poft comi-
talum.
RIERSDORFF, in Geography, a town of Aultria;
miles W. of Mauttern.
RIESENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland; 18 miles S.W. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 53° 43!.
E. long. 19° 24'.
RIESENKOPPE, or Scuner, a mountain of Silefia,
and one of the moft elevated in Europe, in the principality
of Jauer.
RIESSA, a town of Saxony, in the margraviate of
Meiflen, on the Elbe; 12 miles N.W. of Meiffen. N. lat.
519 18!. E. long. 13° 15/.
RIETBERG, a town of Germany, and capital of a
county of the fame name, on the Embs, which county is
R 1.F
about 18 miles long and 6 broad; 12 miles W.N.W. of
Paderborn. N. lat. 51° 55/. E. long. 18° 32'.
RIETI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Spoleto, the.
fee of a bifhop; containing, befides the cathedral, three
collegiate and fix parifh churches, and 12 convents. In the
year 1785, it was much damaged by an earthquake; 25
miles E.S.E. of Spoleto. N. lat. 42° 44. E. long. 12°
56.
RIEV VoLopimerov, a town of ‘Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tver; 64 miles S.W. of T'ver. N, lat. 56° 5/.
E. long. 34° 44!.
RIEUMS, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét
of Murat; g miles S.W. of Murat. The place contains
1425, and the canton 6316 inhabitants, on a territory of
200 kiliometres, in 15 communes.
RIEUPEIROUX, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aveiron, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriét of Villefranche ; 15 miles W. of Rodes. The place
contains 1752, and the canton 6299 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1824 kiliometres, in 13 communes.
RIEUX, a town of France, and principal place of a dif-
trict, in the department of the Upper Garonne ; and before
the revolution, the fee of a bifhop; 24 miles S. of Tou-
loufe. N. lat. 43° 15’. E. long. 1° 17!.-—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Morbihan; 10 miles S.E.
of Rochefort.—Alfo, a town in the department of the Ille
and Vilaine, on the Vilaine ; 6 miles $. of Redon.—Alfo,
a town in the department of the Aube; 10 miles E. of Car-
caflonne.
RIEZ, an old, populous town of France, formerly
Civitas Reienfium, a bifhop’s fee, and the feat of a council
in 439, fituated on a plain between the Afle and Verdun, in
the department of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrié& of Digne; 18 miles S. of Digne.
The place contains 2784, and the canton 9963 inhabitants,
on a territory of 330 kiliometres, in 14 communes. Its
environs abound in wine and fruits.
RIEZE, a river of France, which runs into the Ga-
ronne, near Saverdun.
RIF, one of the largeft provinces of the empire of Mo-
rocco, fituate in that chain of mountains which forms a
part of the Leffer Atlas. This province, the foil of which
1s tony, is bounded by that of Garet to the eaft, the Medi-
terranean to the north, on the coaft of which is the ancient
city of Gomera, and alfo Melilla and Veles de Pegnon, be-
longing to Spain; by the province of Garb to the weft, and
to the fouth by thofe of Shaus or Chaus, and Fez.
Rir. See Banira.
RIF-DY KE, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, eaft of
North Ronaldfha. N. lat. 59° 13’. W. long. 2° 17.
RIFENBACH, ariver of Germany, which runs into
the Inn, 2 miles N. of Kuffftain.
RIFFREDO, a town of Etruria; 20 miles N.N.E. of
Florence.
RIFLE Guns, in the Military Art, are thofe whofe
barrels, inftead of being fmooth on the infide, like our
common pieces, are formed with a number of {piral channels,
refembling female fcrews; except only that the threads or
rifles are lefs defleéted, making only one turn, or a little
more, in the whole length of the piece. This conftruétion
of the barrel is employed for correéting the irregularity in
the flight of balls from fmooth barrels, of which we have
mentioned feveral inftances under our articles GuNNERY
and Prosecrives. It has, for inftance, been found, from
the experiments of Mr. Robins, that notwithitanding the
piece was firmly fixed, and fired with the fame weight of
Kz powder,
RIFLE
powder, fometimes the ball was deflected to the right, fome-
times to the left ; fometimes above, and at others below,
the true line of direction. It has alfo been obferved, that
the degree of deflection increafes in a much greater propor-
tion than the diltance of the obje&t fired at: thus, at double
the diftance, the deflection of the ball from the line in which
the piece is pointed is confiderably more than double, and
at treble the diftance more than treble, what it was at firit.
Mr. Robins fecured a mufket barrel upon a block of wood,
and firing it with a ball at a board of a foot {quare, at 60
yards diftance, found that it miffed the board only once in
16 fucceflive difcharges; yet when fired with a fmaller
charge, at the diftance of 760 yards, the ball was thrown
fometimes 100 yards to the right or left of the line in which
it was pointed. The direCtion upwards and downwards
was alfo found equally uncertain; the ball, in fome dif-
charges, having ftruck the ground 200 yards nearer the
piece than it did at others.
It is not difficult to account for thefe irregularities : they
doubtlefs proceed from the impoflibility of fitting a ball fo
accurately to any plain piece, but that it will rub more
againft one fide of the barrel than another, in its paflage
through it. Whatever fide, therefore, of the muzzl> the
ball is laft in conta&t with, on quitting the piece, it will ac-
quire a whirling motion towards that fide, and will be found
to bend the line of its flight in the fame diretion, whether
it be upwards or downwards, to the right or left ; or ob-
liquely, partaking in fome degree of both; and after quit-
ting the barrel, this defleGion, which, though in the firft
inftance it is but trifling and inconfiderable, is ftill farther
increafed by the refiftance of the air; this being greateft on
that fide where the whirling motion con{pires with the pro-
greffive one, and lea{t on that fide where it is oppofed to it.
‘Thus, if the ball, in its paflage out, rubs againft the left
fide of the barrel, ‘it will whirl towards that fide; and as the
right fide of the ball will, therefore, turn up againft the
air during its flight, the refiftance of the air will become
eateft on the right fide, and the ball be forced away to
the left, which was the direétion it whirled in.- If the axis,
about which the rotatery motion of the ball is made, pre-
ferved its pofition during the whole flight, the deflection
would be in the fame direétion from one end of the track to
the other; though it is obvious, that the quantity of this
defle&tion would {till not be proportional to the diftance :
for if all refiftance of the ball were to ceafe at any part of
its flight, ftill the ball would neceffarily purfue the line in
which it then moved, and the defleGtion be double at a double
diftance, treble at atreble diftance, and fo on. But as this
refiftance does not ceafe, but continue to aét upon the ball
throughout its whole flight, (though lefs in the latter part
of it than at the commencement, in confequence of the de-
creafe of velocity,) it is obvious that the deflection of the
ball will be accelerated at every inftant, and confequently
increafe in a greater proportion than the diftance; as we
have feen it has been found to do, from the experiments
above alluded to. It happens, however, from various ac-
cidental circumiftances, that the axis of the ball’s rotation
frequently changes its pofition feveral times during the
flight ; fo that the ball, inflead of bending its courfe uni-
formly in the fame dire¢tion, often deferibes a track va-
rioufly contorted. So great, however, is the tendency of
the ball to defleé itfelf againft the fide it rubs againft, that
it has been faid, though we never faw the experiments au-
thenticated, that a ball,. when fired out of a barrel bent to-
wards the left hand, (and which will, therefore, be thrown
from the piece in the dire&tion of the bend,) yet as the ball,
in this cafe, will be forced to rub again{t the right fide of
GUNS.
the muzzle, and thus turn its left fide up againft the air, fo
it will be found to alter its courfe during the flight, and
bend towards the right hand, fo as to fall a confiderable
way to the right hand of the line in which the piece was
pointed.
It will readily appear, therefore, from what has been
ftated, that thefe variations will be more frequent and con-
fiderable when the ball runs very loofe in the piece ; or
when, from any roughnefs on its furface, or on the middle
of the barrel, a confiderable degree of friftion takes place
between them. With a view to prevent friction, it has
been propofed to greafe the ball; but this we fhould ima-
gine would be of very little fervicz. All that can be done
in a plain barrel is to have the balls caft very folid and
true, and afterwards milled in the fame manner as is now
pratifed upon fhot : the barrel alfo fhould be very fmooth
on the infide, and the ball fit it very accurately, fo as to
leave fcarcely any windage: yet, with all thefe precautions,
it is very difficult, we may fay impoffible, to prevent it
entirely ; for gravity will conftantly aét, and friction on
the under fide will naturally be occafioned by the weight
of the ball. In faét, when we confider the caufes of the
aberration in the flight of balls, it will be pretty evident
that the only means of correcting it is by preventing the
ball from rubbing more againft one fide of the barrel than
another in pafling through it ; and by giving to the bullet
a motion which will countera@ every accidental one, and
preferve its direGtion, by making the refiftance of the air
upon the fore part continue the fame during its whole
flight ; that is, by giving it a rotatory motion perpen-
dicular to the line of direction. The contrivance for this
purpofe is called rifling, and confifts of forming upon the
infide of the barrels a number of threads and furrows,
either in a ftraight or fpiral direétion, into which the ball
is moulded, whereby any rolling motion along the fides of
the barrel is effe€tually prevented.
The numbers of thefe threads in a gun are different, ac-
cording to the fancy of the workman and the fize of the
barrel ; and, in like manner, the depth to which thefe chan-
nels or rifles are cut down, 1s not regulated by any inva-
riable rule ; but differs according to the country where the
work is performed, or the caprice of the artificer. There
are alfo different methods of charging pieces of this- kind,
but the ufual one is as follows: after the powder is put in,
a leaden bullet, fomewhat larger than the bore of the gun, is
taken, and having greafed it well, it is laid on the mouth
of the piece, and rammed down with an iron rammer, hollow
at the end; the foftnefs of the lead giving way to the
violence with which the bullet is impelled, that zone of the
bullet which is contiguous to the piece, varies its circular
form, and acquires the fhape of the infide of the barrel, fo
that it becomes the part of a male fcrew, exactly fitting the
indents of the rifle. And hence it happens that, when the
piece is fired, the indented zone of the bullet follows the
{weep of the rifles, and thereby, befides its progreffive mo-
tion, acquires a circular one round the axis of the barrel,
which motion will be continued to the bullet after its fepa-
ration from the piece ; by which means a bullet difcharged
from a rifled barrel is conftantly made to whirl round an
axis, which is coincident with the line of its flight. And
hence it follows, that the refiftance on the foremoft furface
of the bullet is equally diftributed round the pole of its
circular motion, and aéts with an equal effort on every fide
of the line of direétion, fo that this refiftance can produce
no deviation from that line: and if, by the cafual irregu-
larity of the foremoft furface of the bullet, or by any other
accident, the refiftance fhould be ftronger on one fide of
i the
RIFLE
the pole of the circular motion than on the other; yet, as
the place where this greater refiftance ats muft perpetually
fhift its pofition round the line, in which the bullet flies,
the defle&tion, which this inequality would eccafion, if it
aéted conftantly with the fame given tendency, is now con-
tinually retified by the various and contrary tendencies of
that difturbing force, during the courfe of one revolution ;
fo that the ball will always go right forwards, and thus
that defleGtion or deviation, already taken notice of under
the article Prosectirx, and in the preceding part of this
article, will be prevented. This may be explained by the
motion of an arrow; for if an arrow that is not feathered
be fhot from a bow, its motion will be very irregular ; but
when the feathers of the arrow are properly arranged in a
{piral form, fo as to make the arrow {pin round its axis, it
will always fly ftraight forward. Upon the fame principle,
every {chool-boy finds himfelf under the necefflity of making
his fhuttle-cock fpin, before he can depend upon the truth
of its flight. Mr. Robins obferves, that the a€tual motions
of bullets difcharged from rifled pieces correfpond very
well with thefe fpeculations. Although the ufe of pieces
of this kind had long prevailed in Europe, particularly in
Germany and Switzerland, the advantages refulting from
them have been very imperfectly underftood, and, as
Mr. Robins obferves, unaccountably mifreprefented. The
three following reafons have been conftantly alleged in
favour of this conftru@tion: either that the inflammation
of the powder was greater by the refiftance which the
bullet thus forced into the barrel gave it, and that by it
the bullet received a much greater impulfion than it would
have done from the fame quantity of powder in a common
piece, or that the bullet, by the compounding of its cir-
cular and revolving motion, did, as it were, bore the air,
and thereby flew to a much greater diftance, than it would
otherwife have done; or that, by the fame boring motion,
it made its way much eafier through all folid fubftances,
and penetrated much deeper into them, than if difcharged
in the common manner. But the ingenious writer juit
mentioned, fatisfied himfelf by numerous experiments made
with rifled barrels of various fizes, that none of thefe
reafons hold true in the ufe of fuch pieces; but that the
advantage of their conftruction refults from its preventing
the defleétion of the ball, as we have above reprefented it.
And that it produced this effeét he found by obferving,
that the fame hemifphere of the bullet which lies foremoit
in the piece, continued foremoft during the whole courfe of
its flight.
In Germany and Switzerland, an improvement is made
in the method, already recited, of charging thefe pieces ;
efpecially thofe of the larger fort, which are ufed for
fhooting at great diftances. This is done by cutting a
piece of very thin leather, or of thin futtian, in a-circular
fhape, fomewhat larger than the bore of the barrel. This
circular piece being greafed on one fide is laid upon the
muzzle with its greafy parts downwards, and the bullet
being placed upon it, is then forced down the barrel with
it ; by which means the leather or futlian inclofes the lower
half of the bullet, and by its interpofition between the bullet
and the rifles, prevents the lead from being cut by them.
But in thofe barrels where this method is praétifed, the
rifles are generally fhallow, and the bullet ought not to be
too large. The rifle-barrels, which have been made in
intends where they are not very common, are contrived
to be charged at the breech, the piece being, for this pur-
pofe, made larger there than in any other part. The
powder and bullet are put in through the fide of the barrel
by an opening, which, when the piece is loaded, is filled up
GUNS.
with a fcrew. By this means, when the piece is fired, the
bullet is forced through the rifles, and acquires the fame
{piral motion as in the former kind of pieces ; other barrels
unfcrew at the breech, for the convenience of charging them.
With regard to the defeéts of thefe rifled pieces, Mr. Robins
obferves, that if either the angle of elevation, or the cur-
vature of the bullet’s track through the air be great, the
inclination of the axis round which it whirls will caufe
irregularities, which will often produce confiderable de-
flections. Accordingly he propofes to make ufe of bullets
of an egg-like form, inftead of {pherical ones, and to fire
them with their broad ends foremoft, that thus their longer
axes may be always carried, by their centres of gravity,
into the lines of their flight. Upon the whole, he con-
cludes, that whatever tends to diminifh the fri@tion of thefe
pieces, tends, at the fame time, to render them more com-
plete ; and confequently the lefs the rifles are indented, the
better they are, provided that they are juft fufficient to
keep the bullet from turning round in the piece. Befides,
the bullet ought to be no larger than to be juft prefled by
the rifles, for the eafier the bullet moves in the piece, fup-
pofing it not to fhift its pofition, the more violent and ac-
curate its flight will be. Andto render them in this refpe@
{till more complete, the {weep of the rifles fhould be in
each part exaétly parallel to each other: for then, after
the bullet is once put in motion, it will flide out of the
barrel without any fhake, and with a much {maller degree
of friétion than if the threads of the rifles have not of
them the fame degree of incurvation. The foreigners are
fo exa& in this refpe&t, that they try their pieces, with a
view to this particular, in the following manner : they firft
pour melted lead into them, and letting it cool, they pro-
cure a leaden cylinder of perhaps two or three diameters in
length, exa@tly fitted to one part of the infide of the piece ;
then if this leaden cylinder, being gently pufhed by the
rammer, will pafs from one end of the barrel to the other,
without any fenfible ftrain or effort, they pronounce the
piece perfe& ; but if it any where fticks or moves hard
they efteem it defective.
We have ftated that fome rifle-pieces are charged at the
breech ; thefe, however, are neceflarily much dearer than
the others, and excepting the expedition in charging them,
are really inferior to thofe in which the ball is introduced
at the muzzle, on which account they are not much
employed at prefent, at leaft not in this country. The
want of expedition in the charging pieces of this kind is,
however, a very ferious defeét, to remedy which, it has
been propofed to have the balls caft with projections upon
them, in the fame manner as defcribed in the following
article on Rirte Ordnance. This may be done with great
eafe and accuracy, by making correfponding hollows round
the zone of the bullet-mould ; by this means the balls may
be fitted fo accurately to the rifles, as to leave fearcely any
windage ; while the friction will be lefs than it is either
when the ball is put in at the breech, or forced in at the
muzzle.
In treating of the caufes of aberration in the flight of
balls, we have fuppofed the air to be perfectly at reft ;
but it is evident that the force of the wind will affeé balls
confiderably, whether they are fired from a plain or a
rifle barrel; this effect, however, will be much lefs in the
latter than in the former; but in neither cafe is it poffible
either to avoid it entirely, or to eftimate the quantity of
aberration that it may, under different circumftances,
occafion.
Pieces intended for fhooting with ball, whether they
be plain or rifled, ought to be of much more equal pace
nefs
RIF
nefs from the breech to the muzzle, than thofe that are
intended for fhot only. In every barrel there is an undu-
lating vibration communicated to the metal by the explo-
fion.. This is moft remarkable in a thin barrel, and when
the charge is great, and in an equal degree, whether the
piece be rifle or plain, and therefore ought to be equally
attended to by gunfmiths in both cafes. For more on the
fubje& of rifle mufket barrels, fee Robins’ Traéts, vol. i.
p- 328, &e.; fee alfo Nicholfon’s Philofophical Journal,
vol. i. p. 382; and for rifle ordnance, fee the Memoir
of the National Inftitute mentioned in the following ar-
ticle.
Ripte Ordnance. After the important advantages at-
tending rifled barrel mufkets were well underftood, the
idea naturally occurred of carrying the fame improvements
into cannons and field-pieces, and many experiments have
been made with a view of conftructing. thefe on fimilar
principles to the mufket. The firft attempt of this kind
was made by Dr. Lind, and Capt. Alexander Blair, of the
69th regiment, in 1774. The pieces are of caft iron, and
are not bored like the common cannon, but have the rifles
moulded on their core, after which they are cleaned out, and
furnifhed with the proper inftruments.
Guns of this defcription, which are intended for the field,
ought never to be made to carry a ball of above one or two
pounds weight at moft ; a leaden bullet of that weight being
fufficient to deftroy either man or horfe. A pound gun of
this defcription, of good metal, need not weigh above an
hundred weight, and its carriage about another hundred,
and may therefore be eafily tran{ported from place to place
by a few men, and a couple of good horfes may tran{port
fix of thefe guns and their carriages, if put into a cart.
But for other purpofes, in which a greater momentum is
neceflary, there is nothing to prevent them being made of the
ufual calibre.
The following are the dimenfions that have been recom-
mended for thefe kinds cf cannon. ‘The iength of the gun
being divided into feven equal parts, the length of the firft
reinforce is two of thefe parts; the fecond reinforce 143
- of the diameter of the calibre; the chafe 3-3, diameter cf
the calibre. The diftance of the hind part of the bafe ring
to the beginaing of the bore is 143, calibre. The trunnions
are each one calibre in length, and the fame in breadth ; their
centres are placed 2ths of the length of the gun from the
hind part of the bafe ring, in fuch a manner, that the axis
of the trunnions pafs through the centre line of the bore,
which prevents the gun from kicking, and breaking its car-
riage. The length of the cafcable is 14. of a calibre.
The calibre of the gun being divided into 16 equal parts ;
then
The thicknefs of metal from the bafe ring to the] 8
bore, is. - s rs 2 S 5 Poe
At the end of the firft reinforce - - 17
At the fame place for the beginning of the fecond }
reinforce - - - - - ge
At the end of the fecond reinforce — - - 15
At the fame place for the beginning of the chafe 13.75
At the end of the chafe, or muzzle, the mouldings }
excluded - = = = a 5 9
At the {welling of the muzzle £3 2 12
At the muzzle fillet i - z 9-5
At theextreme moulding = - - “ 8
Bafering = - = = “ = 5-5
Ogee next the bafe ring < S = 5.5
The altragal, or half round - - - 475
Its fillet = : - : = I
RIE
Total aftragal and fillets at the vent-field 4
Firft reinforce ring - 2 4 f 4ae
Second reinforce ring - 2 . 4.6
Itsogee — - ~ a s x 3
Its altragal - . - 2 “ The
And its fillet = : t i ay
The muzzle, aftragal and fille = . 4
Breadth of the fillet at the bafe ring - = i
Diftance of the fillet at the button from the fillet at }
the bafe ring 2 = e fe if 5
Breadth of the fillet atthe button z E
Diameter of the fillet at the button - = 18
Diftance of the centre of the button from its fillet 12
Diameter of the button S 4 Ss 13
Diameter of its neck E e s 10.5
The vent fhould be placed about half an inch from the
bottom of the chamber or bore, that the cartridge may be
pricked, left fome of the bottom of the cartridges thould. be
left when the gun is fponged, which might retard the firing
till the ball be again drawn, which is very difficult in pieces
of this kind.
The rifles in this gun make one {piral turn in the length of
the bore, but go no nearer to the breech, in their full fize,
than two calibres, and-terminate in a gentle flope in half a
calibre more, fo as not to prevent the cartridge, with the
powder, from being eafily fent home to the bottom of the
gun, which would otherwife conitantly happen with the
flannel cartridges, and even fometimes with paper ones, if
not made to enter very loofely. ‘The fhape of the rifles is
femicircular, their breadth being equal to the diameter,
which is =3,ths of the calibre, and their depth {ths of a ca-
libre. The bullets are of lead, having fix knobs caft, on
them, to fit the rifles of the gun; and being thus made of
foft metal, they do not injure the rifles.
Rifle ordnance, however, of any calibre, might be made to
carry iron fhot for battering, or for other purpofes ; pro-
vided holes, that are a little wider at their bottoms than at
their upper, parts, be caft in a zone round the ball, for re-
ceiving afterwards leaden knobs to fit the rifles of the can-
non ; by which means the iron fhot will have its intended line
of direction preferved, without injuring the rifles more than
if the whole ball was of lead, the rotatory motion round its
axis, or the line of its dire€tion, which corres the aberra-
tion, being communicated to it by the leaden knobs follow-
ing the f{piral turn of the rifles in their progrefs out of the
gun. It is particularly to be obferved, that the balls mutt
be made to go eafily down into the piece, fo that the car-
tridge with the powder, and the bullet, may be both fent
home together witha fingle pufh of the hand, without any
wadding above either the powder or the ball, by which
means the gun is quickly loaded, and the ball flies farther
than when it is forcibly driven into the gun, as was found
from many experiments. The only reafon why, in common
rifle mufkets, the bullets are forcibly rammed in, is, that
the zone of the ball which is contiguous to the infide of the
bore, may have the figure of the rifles imprefled upon it, in
fuch amanner, as to become part of a male fcrew, exa@ly
fitting the indents of the rifie, which is not at all neceflary -
in the prefent cafe, the figure of the rifles being, in the
firft inftance, caft upon the ball. ‘Vhefe knobs retard the
flicht of the ball in fome degree, but this {mall difadvantage
is fully counterbalanced by the eafe with which the gun is
loaded, its fervice being nearly as quick as that of a com-
mon field-piece, and the retardation. and quantity of the
whirling motion which is communicated to the bullet being
conftantly the fame, it will not in the leaft afleét the experi-
ments
.
RIG
ments made with them, in ‘order to determine the refiftance
of the air. :
The French, in the courfe of the late war, have made
experiments on rifle ordnance of a different kind to that
abeve explained ; in which, in fa@, the gun isof the ufual
form, the principal difference being in the nature and form
of the ball, which M. Guyton (who has given an account
of thefe experiments in vol. vii. of the National Inftitute of
France) calls bullets a bague de plomb, which in form are cy-
lindrico-fpherical, the cylindric part being next the charge.
A rim of lead is fixed round the centre of the ball, rather
exceeding the bore of the gun, which is cut off by the
edge of the muzzle, in introducing the ball into the piece,
whereby all the advantages of the rifle are obtained, although
the rotatory motion above defcribed, and which is fuppofed
to have fo great an influence on the direction, has not place
in the prefent inftance. According to M. Guyton’s report,
the accuracy in the reCtilinear motion of thefe balls ex-
’ ceeded any thing before known in artillery practice ; befides,
that although the weight of the bullet was nearly double
that of acommon {hot of a piece of the fame calibre, the
range in very few inftances fell fhort of the common range,
and in fome even confiderably exceeded it. The difficulty
and time requifite in loading a gun with a ball of this kind,
however, are fo great, as, in our opinion, to render it ufe-
lefs, although it - eat to have been recommended for adop-
tion, in a few particular fituations, by a committee of French
artillery officers. In the courfe of the memoir in which
the above experiments are detailed, M. Guyton mentions an-
other kind of rifle cannon, invented by an Italian officer,
which was found remarkably corre& in proje@ting the ball
in aright line. The bore of this gun is flightly conical,
being greateft at the breech, where the piece is loaded by
unfcrewing the breech, as in fome rifle mufkets and piftols :
the ball is of lead, which muft neceflarily, from the con-
itru€tion of the gun, change its form in paffing through the
bore. But this, as well as the one above-mentioned, feem
to-require too much time in loading to be ever adopted as
‘regular pieces of ordnance.
RIFTS, im Farriery, are {mall cracks, clefts, chaps, or
any other fimilar fiffures or openings in the hoofs of horfes’
feet. See thofe heads.
RIG. See Rmerine. :
Ric, in Rural Economy, a male fheep, with none, or one
tefticle‘only in the fcrotum.
RIGA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Ruffia, for-
merly the capital of Livonia, now of the government of its
own name, is fituated in the gulf of Riga, and the fee of
an archbifhop. This town derives its confequence from its
fituation on the Duna, which, being navigable from the fron-
tiers of the government of Polotfk, brings the produ@tions
of the north-eaftern parts of Poland and the weitern pro-
vinces of Ruffia, and has depth enough to receive, clofe to
its walls, fhips of burden, which fail to and from the Bal-
tic. Next to St. Peterfburg, it is the moft commercial
town im the Ruffian empire. The trade is chiefly carried
on by foreign merchants, who refide inthe town. Thofe of
the Englith factory poffefs the greateft fhare of the com-
merce, and live in an hofpitable, {plendid manner. The prin-
cipal exports are corn, hemp, flax, iron, timber, maifts,
leather, tallow; and the imports are falt, cloth, filks,
wine, grocery, potafh, and falted herrings. The mait
trade is peculiarly beneficial tothe town; the burghers of
Riga fend perfons, who are called maft-cutters, into the
Ruffian provinces, to mark the trees, which are purchafed
itanding. They grow moftly on the diftriéts which border
RIG
the Dnieper, are fent up that rivertoa landing-place, trani-
ported 30 verits to the Duna, are then formed into floats
of from 50 to 200 pieces, and defcend the ftream to Rigas
The tree which produces the largeft mafts is the Scotch
fir. Thofe pieces which are from 18 to 25 inches in dia-
meter, are called maits; under thofe dimenfions, fpars, or,
in England, Norway mafts; becaufe Norway exports no
trees more than 18 inches in diameter. The Englifh mer-
chants, who contract with government, buy the mafts from
the burghers of Riga, which are {kilfully examined in order
to afcertain their foundnefs, and are ufually from 7o to 80
feet in length.
The hemp is brought from the Ukraine and Poland, and
requires two years in its paflage to Riga. The barks m
which it is conveyed are from 250 to 300 tons burden, are
covered with mats, {loping like a pent-houfe:roof, and have
a falfe bottom. They afcend the Dnieper and Duna; but
on account of numerous fhoals, can only pafs the Duna in
the fpring, or about three weeks after the fnow ins to
melt, and if they mifs that time, they are delayed till au-
tumn. The hemp exported from Riga is generally more
efteemed, and 30 re cent. dearer than that exported from
Peterfburg ; the former comes from the Ukraine, the pro-
vinces of Mohile and Poletik, and the neighbouring parts
of Poland; the other from the governments of Tver and
Novogorod. The Riga hemp is chiefly ufed for fhrouds
and ftays of men of war, and procured by contraét for the
Enghth admiralty and the Eaft India company.
The inhabitants of Riga carry on alfo a confiderable com-
merce in falt. They.import it from Spain, and fend it up
the Duna, to iupply the diftri@s bordering on that river ;
and by land into Courland, and into the neighbouring pro-
vinces of Poland. This town, fays Mr. Coxe, contains
within the fortifications gooo inhabitants, and in the fu-
burbs 15,000, exclufive of a garrifon of 1000 foldiers, Ac-
cording to Heym, the town and fuburbs contain 14,280
males, and 13,516 females.
Over the Duna at Riga is a floating wooden bridge,
40 feet in breadth, and 2600 in length. “A row of piles
extends from one fhore to the other; each pile is from 25
to 40 feet er according ‘to the depth of the river, and ap-
pears about four feet above the level of the water. To
thefe piles the ponts of the bridge are loofely faitened, by
means of iron chains fixed to the tranfverfe beams. The
bridge rifes and falls with the river ; and, under the wheels
of heavy-laden carriages, plays as if aCtuated by a fpring.
This is the fafhionable walk, and is an agreeable bufy fcene,
when crowded with people, and lined on each fide with
fhips taking in or unloading their cargoes. In the begin-
ning of winter, when the froit fets in, the bridge is re-
moved ; the piles, remaining in the water, are forced up by
the ice, and conveyed to land; and the whole is laid down
again in the f{pring.
Riga was built in the year 1200, and fooa after inclofed
by a wall. At different periods it hath fuffered much by
fires and fieges. N. lat. 56° 55'. E. long. 23° 54’.
Riea, Ital., a line of the itaff, in Mufic ; and {peaking
of mufic in general, the whole five lines, or itaff, are called
und riga.
RIGADON, Ricopoy, and Rigaudon, a gay and lively
dance, written all thefe feveral ways. Some day it came
from Provence ; but Rouffeau affirms, that he has been told
by an old dancing-matter, that it had its name from its in-
ventor, Rigaud. :
At the beginning of the lait century, there were three
dances which every eminent mafter taught, and every noble-
man’s
RIG
man’s and gentleman’s child learned, in the courfe of their
education: thefe were the minuct, rigaudon, and l’ouvre,
all natives of France, during the reign of Louis XIV.
The air to the rigaudon is always in jig time of ¢, be-
ginning with an odd quaver. See Dance, Miyuer, and
L?OuVRE.
RIGAL, in Mufic. See Ricox.
RIGAUD, HyacintH, in Biography, was born at
Perpignan, in Languedoc, in 1663, and was the fon of
Matthias Rigaud, a painter of fome note, from whom, of
courfe, he received his initiation into the mytteries of his
art. He had the misfortune to lofe his inftructor, when he
was only eight years of age; and for a while, he was at the
mercy of incapable maiters. At length he became ac-
quainted with a portrait-painter, of the name of Ranc, under
whom he acquired confiderable freedom of tafte ; and, after
a few years, was enabled to produce works which rivalled
thofe of his mafter, for truth, for livelinefs, and ex-
preffion.
He was impatiently defirous of vifiting Italy, but was
diffuaded from it by Le Brun, v:ho advifed him to continue
at Paris, and ftudy portraiture; by which he might affure
himfelf of fortune and reputation : and his fubfequent fuccefs
proved the propriety and kindnefs of the advice. He foon
diftinguifhed himfelf by a richnefs and boldnefs of ftyle, that
induced the king of France, Louis XIV., to fit to him for
his portrait ; and in fucceflion, he painted the princes of the
blood, and prime nobility of the kingdom. Many foreign
princes, nobles, and generals, alfo had their portraits from
his hand; and he treated them with a {plendour in compofi-
tion, of which he is the inventor, and which unfortunately
governed the French {chool of portrait-painters till the revolu-
tion. We fay, unfortunately !—for though Rigaud managed
it with great dexterity, yet not being founded in nature, it
neceflarily led to error. To produce fuperior grace, the
aétions of the figures are twifted, and too often diftorted :
they are engaged about trifles, with an air of immenfe im-
portance ; and the draperies arranged in flowing lines, which
convey an idea of motion in fubftances which would require
a guft of wind to move them, while the wearers are tran-
quilly feated in fplendid apartments, and under complete
fhelter. He died in 1743, at the advanced age of 8o.
RIGAULT, Nicuoras, was born at Paris in 1577,
and was educated among the Jefuits, who in vain at-
tempted to induce him to enter into their fociety. As a
literary charaéter, he made himfelf known by a fatirical
work, entitled “ Funus Parafiticum,”’ publifhed in 1595;
with which the celebrated de Thou was fo much delighted,
that he entrufted him with the education of his fon... When
the learned Cafaubon, who had the care of the royal library,
removed to England, Rigault fucceeded him in that em-
ployment. His fervices were fo well approved, that he was
created attorney-general of the fovereign chamber of Nanci,
counfellor to the parliament of Metz, and, finally, intendant
of that province. He died at Toul in 1654, at the age
of 77, with a character for generofity, modefty, and bene-
volence, that contributed as much to his reputation as his
numerous writings. It was chiefly as an editor of Greek
and Latin authors that he made himfelf known to the
learned world. Of thefe were ‘ Minutius Felix,”’ 1643 ;
«St. Cyprian,” 1648; and « Tertullian,’ 16645. en-
riched with ufeful notes, corrections, and obfervations.
He gave tranflations of the Greek writers, “ Onofander,’’
ss Artemidorus,’’ and others; and he edited, with notes,
«¢ Phedrus,”’ ‘* Martial,”? “ Rei Agrariz Scriptores,’’ &c.
He alfo wrote and edited fome works on juridical fubjects ;
RIG
and he was appointed, together with Peter Dupin, by the
will of the prefident de Thou, to give a complete edition of
his hiftory, which appeared at Geneva in 1620.
RIGEL, in Afronomy See REGEL.
Ricet, or Rizcer, Antuony, in Biography, a harp-
fichord mafter and compofet. In 1780 he was at Spire,
Manheim, and Paris, where he publifhed pieces for the
harpfichord, with a violin accompaniment in duo, a parte
equali ; and afterwards capriccios for the harpfichord. His
ftyle is flight, with little invention, but not vulgar.
RIGG, in Agriculture, a provincial word, ufed to fignify
the fame as ridge.
RIGGEN, in Rural Economy, the ridge of the roof of
a building. See Farm-Building.
RiGGEn-Tree, the piece of timber laid along the ridge of
a roof, to fupport the heads of the fpars or rafters, which,
in modern buildings, is found unneceflary,
RIGGIL. See Ric and Ripa. :
RIGGING, a general name given to all the ropes em-
ployed to fupport the mafts, and to extend or reduce the
fails, or arrange them to the difpofition of the wind.
The former, which are ufed to fuftain the malts, remain
ufually in a fixed pofition, and are called fanding rigging :
fuch are the fhrouds, ftays, and backftays. (Flate III.
Rigging, fig. 1.) The latter, whofe office it is to manage
the fails, by communicating with various blocks, &c. fitu-
ated in different parts of the mafts, yards, fhrouds, &c. are
comprehended in the general term of running rigging: fuch
are the braces, fheets, haliards, clue-lines, -brails, &c.
Plate \11. fig. 2.
The principal objects to be confidered in rigging a fhip
appear to be ftrength, convenience, and fimplicity ; or the
properties of affording fufficient fecurity to the maits, yards,
and fails ; of arranging the whole in the moft advantageous
manner, to fuccour the mafts, and facilitate the management
of the fails; avoiding perplexity, and rejeéting whatever is
fuperfluous and unneceffary. The perfeétion of this art,
then, confifts in retaining all thefe qualities, and in preferving
a judicious medium between them.
Rigging is in part prepared on fhore, in a rigging-houfe,
which has the following conveniencies, &c.; viz. at the
upper end is a windlafs ; and at certain diftances down the
middle are two rows of large {trong pofts, for ftretching
ropes, and laying on fervice ; and on each fide of the houfe
are births for the men to ftrop blocks, and prepare {mall
rigging on.
There is much fubordinate knowledge neceflary, before a
perfon can either prepare rigging in the houfe, or fit it on
board the fhip. This confilts of ¬ting; as the over-
hand knot (Plate I. fig. 1.); reef-knot, fig. 2; bowline-
knot, fig. 33 wall-knot, fgs. 4 and 53; double wall-knot
crowned, fig. 6; buoy-rope-knot, fg. 7; {topper-knot,
Jig. 83 diamond-knot, fingle, fg. 9; diamond-knot, double,
Jjig- 103 fhroud-knot, opened for knotting, fg. 113 as
knotted, fig. 12; ends tapered and ferved, which com-
pletes it, fg. 13; tack-knot, fg. 143 {prit-fail fheet-knot,
ig. 15.
Hitches. — Sheepfhank, fig. 16; half-hitches, fg. 175
clove-hitch, fig. 183 rolling-hitch, fg. 19; midfhipman’s
hitch, fig. 20; Blackwall-hitch, fg. 213; magnus-hitch,
Jig. 225 timber-hitch, fg. 23; racking-hitch, fg. 24.
Bends. — Sheet-bend, fig. 26; Carrick-bend, fig. 273
fifherman’s bend, fig. 30; hawfer-bend, fig. 31; temporary
bend, fig. 32. -
Gafket, fg. 253; outfide-clinch, fg. 283 cat’s-paw,
Jigs 29:
Splices
RIGGING.
Splices.—Eye-fplice, ends opened, fig. 33 ; finithed, fig. 345
fhort-{plice, ends opened and laid nee Jig: 353 tinifhed,
Jig. 36; long-{plice, ends opened and laid for {plicing, fig. 375
finifhed, fig. 38; cunt-fplice, ends opened and laid for
{plicing, fg. 39; finifhed and ferved over the fplice, fig. 40 ;
cable Spite for drawing, ends opened, tapered, and pointed,
Jig. 405 tapered fhort-{plice, fg. 42. This fplice is ferved
all over the fplice.
Hawfer, the ends opened, fig. 43 ; tapered and pointed,
Jig. 443 ditto with a becket, fg. 45.
_ Worming, fig. 46; parfling, fig. 47; ferving, fig. 48;
platting, fig. 49.
The ropes, &c. for the feveral parts of rigging are, in
eircumference and in length, according to the eltablifhed
dimenfions for fhips of every clafs, particularly in the
navy.
There is no one undeviating mode which is purfued in the
progreflive rigging of fhips. It is an operation which mult
at all times depend upon the time allotted for its perform-
ance, and the neceflity of immediate fitting. The nature
of it, however, is fuch, that all parts may be advancing at
the fame time, the lower malts and bow{prit being fixed.
Fore, main, and mizen majfis, have girtline-blocks lafhed
round the maft-head, above the ftop of the cap, one to
hang on each fide. ‘The girtlines that reeve through them
lead down upon deck, for hoiiting the rigging, tops, &c.
and the men employed to place the rigging over the matt-
head.
Pendants of tackles are wormed, parcelled, and ferved
with {pun-yarn, i the way of the {plice (which is to the fize
of the matt-head) ; they have large iron thimbles {pliced into
their lower ends; are then wormed, &c. as above, the
whole length in the houfe ; and are the firft thing put over
the matt-head, refting on the boliters, they being firlt
clothed with wern canvas feveral times doubled and tarred.
Thofe over the mizen-ma{t are called burton-pendants, as
9253, Plate Il. fig. 1.
Shrouds.—The cablet is warped round two iron fids fixed
in the floor, diftant from each other the length of the firft
warp; that is, fromthe top of the bol{ter to the foremoft
dead-eye ; one end of the cablet is made fait to the lower
fid, and the remainder paffed round the upper fid; and fo on
alternately, one turn clofe to the back of another. The
additional length, gained by the turns lying round each
other, is fufficient for the lengthening of each pair of
fhrouds, as they rake aft. When the whole gang of fhrouds
is warped out, the bights at the lower end are cut through,
in a ftraight direétion, with the fids.
Brigs have four pair of fhrouds forward, and the fore-
moft fhroud and pendant are in one. The upper bights are
defigned for the eyes, and the outer turns are called /wifters,
and are left from four to five feet at each end longer than
the fhrouds, and have an eye {pliced in them to the fize of
the mait-head.
The fhrouds, when cut to their length, are ftretched for
worming by the windlafs and tackle, and then'wormed with
double {pun-yarn one-fourth the length from the centre of
the eye on.each fide: but the fore leg of the foremoft pair
is wormed all the whole length. Each length, after being
wormed, is hove out, till each pair has acquired, by ftretch-
ing, one and a half the length of the eye; and fhould re-
main on that f{tretch twenty-four hours, before the fervice
is laid on.
The eyes of all fhrouds are parcelled with worn canvas,
well tarred, about one fathom and a half on each fide of the
middle for large fhips, and propoftionably for fmaller ; and
then ferved with {pun-yarn one-fourth of their length ; each
Vou. XXX.
turn of the ferving is laid very clofe, and ftrained tight
round, to prevent the watér penetrating. The fore leg of
the foremott pair of fhrouds is ferved the whole length. .
Swifters, when ftretched, have the length of the {plice
fet off on each fide of the middle, and likewife the length
of the eye, or circumference of the maft-head. The latter
is parcelled and ferved as above. They are then cut afun-
der in the middle, and fpliced to the circumference of the
matt-head; then got on the firetch, and ferved over th
fplice one-fourth of the length. :
The bights of fhrouds are feized together to the circum-
ference of the maft-heads, 1, 2, (Plate Ml. fe 14.and 15.);
the feizing of the firft fhroud is put on below the bolfter or
treftle-trees, with feven under and fix riding turns, and a
double crofs over all. The {vizing of each fhroud is to be
laid its breadth below the next, and clear of each other, to
prevent chafing.
Thus far the fhrouds are prepared in the houfe: they are
next hoifted over the maft-head. The firlt pair leads down
on the itarboard fide forward; the next pair forward on
the larboard fide; then the fecond pair on the ftarboard,
and the fecond on the karboard, and fo on, till all are
fixed. By this method, the yards are braced to a greater
degree of obliquity, when clofe hauled; which could not
be were the foremoft fhrouds latt fitted on the maft-
head.
Swifters (which are the after fhrouds) are fwayed next
over the malt-head above the fhrouds, ard are fixed on the
ftarboard and larboard fides of the fhip, to fupport the
matts, and enable them to bear the ftrain of a heavy prefs
of fail; as 4, 5, 6, Plate IIL. fig. 1.
Stays have an eye fpliced in one end, 1, (Plate II. fig. 16.)
fufficiently to receive itfelf through. Each ftay is got on
the ftretch, and hove well out, as the fhrouds were; then
wormed with {pun-yarn one-third the length; and then
hove out, till the middle itrand or heart is made to break
in feveral places. The moufe, 2, (Plate II. fg. 16.) made
with fpun-yarn, &c. in the fhape of a pear, is then raifed
on the ttay, at one-third of its length, or by fome at two
fides of the mait-head, added to twice the length of the
treftle-trees from the eye to the moufe. The warp of the
moufe to be marline, and the pointing continued the cir-
cumference of the {tay for the length of the tail. . The col-
lar, 3, the eye, 1, and one fathom below the moufe, 2, to
be parcelled with worn canvas, well tarred, and ferved over
with f{pun-yarn. (Plate II. fig. 16.) The ftay is hoifted
over the maft-head, and fupports the matt, by extending
from its upper end towards the fore part of the fhip, and
counteracts the ftrain of the fhrouds which lead aft; and
thus is the ma{t kept in a firm pofition fore, aft, and fide-
ways.
BP cencobipiy is next hoifted over the maft-head, the fame
as the former.
Collars.—Yore-{tay-collars are fitted to the circumference
of the bow{prit, and {pliced together at the ends; wormed,
parcelled, and ferved the whole length; then doubled, and
a heart feized in the bight. | The fplice is to lie on the back
of the heart with guarter-/eizings, a {core being cut on each
fide of the heart, large enough to adinit from nine to twelve
turns of feizing ; the feizing te be {naked on the back, to
lie clofely.
Main-flay-collar, 4, (Plate 11. fig. 16.) is made by the
rope-maker with an eye in one end: in the houfe it is
wormed, parcelled, and ferved round the eye and the whole
length.
The fore-ttay, 7, (Plate III. fig. 1.) and main-ftay, have
a heart turned into the lower end with a throat-feizing, 5,
Ll ( Plate
RIGGING.
( Plate Li. fig. 16.) and two round-feizings, 6 and 7, above,
and the end of the ftay capped with canvas, whipped and
tarred, 8; then fet up with its laniard, g, (Plate II.
jig. 16.) which is alternately reeved through the heart in the
ftay and the heart in the fore-ftay-collar on the bowfprit.
The Janiard is fet up with a luffi-tackle, or luff upon luff,
and the four firft turns are ttopt, and {o on, till the laniard
is expended: the end is then well ftopt.
The fore-preventer-ltay, 8, (Plate III. fig. 1.) fets up
as the fore. flay.
The main-ftay, 9, (Plate III. fig. 1.) fets up as the fore-
ftay. Its collar reeves from the itarboard fide, through a
hole in the upper part of the knee next the ftem, (or large
triangular eye-bolt drawn through the ftem, in fome mer-
chant fhips,) then paffed through the eye, 10, in the other
end, and is brought down to its {ftanding-part, and fecurely
feized and crofled im two or three places, 11, 12, 13,
(Plate 11. fig. 16.) and the end capped; the heart is then
feized in the bight above the bow{prit-chock.
The main-preventer-ftay, 10, (Plate II]. fg. 1.) fets up
as the fore-ftay, to a heart feized in the bight of its collar,
which lafhes round the fore-maft, on the fore-fide through
the eyes in the ends, or through bolts in the knight-heads or
ftem.
The mizen-ftay, 11, (Plate I]. fig. 1.) fets up through
a thimble feized in the collar, which is lafhed round the
main-matt, about twelve feet up from the deck. A thimble
is turned into the end of the ftay, after it is reeved through
the collar, and is fet up with a laniard through an eye-belt
in the deck, abaft the main-matt.
The fhrouds have a dead-eye turned into the lower ends,
as 3, (Plate II. fig. 15.) left-handed, (being cable-laid
rope,) with a throat-feizing, 4, clapt on clofe to the dead-
eye; and above that a round-feizing crofled, 5, and the end
of the fhroud whipt with fpun-yarn, and capped with canvas,
6, well tarred. The laniards, 7, are then reeved through
the dead-eyes thus: the end of the laniard is thruft through
the after-hole of the dead-eye in the fhroud, and ftopt with
a walnut-knot ; the other end is pafled through the after-
hole of its refpe&tive dead-eye in the chains, 8, then returns
upwards, aad reeves alternately through the holes in each,
and is fet taught with a tackle. It is cuftomary to fet up
the fhrouds the firft time with temporary laniards of worn
rope and fpun-yarn feizings; and the proper laniards and
feizings, when fet up the laft time for fea.
The tops, 12, 13, 14, (Plate III. fig. 1.) are gotten
over their refpeétive maft-heads by the girtlines.
The futtock-ftaves are wormed, parcelled, and ferved
with fpun-yarn the whole length, in the houfe; and then
cut to their lengths, as wanted, on board ; and are feized
along the lower fhrouds horizontally, as much below the
upper fide of the treftle-trees as the cap is above. The
fhrouds are then /qwiftered together, thus: a {par is lafhed
to the outfide of the fhrouds, about a fathom below the
futtock-ftave; a fingle block is then lafhed round each
fhroud and {par, except the foremoft and aftermolt {hroud,
fo that all come in together; the f{wiftering-line is then
reeved through eacn block from fide to fide, beginning in
the middle, one end leading aft, the other forward; it then
crofles, and reeves through two leading blocks, one on each
fide the deck, and is bowfed tight, till the fhrouds come in
to the length of the catharpin-legs.
Catharpin-legs are four in number. The foremoft is the
fhorteft, and they increafe an inch in length as they go aft.
The. length of the foremoft one is from four feet in {mall, to
eight feet in large fhips. They have an eye fpliced in each
end, and then wormed, parcelled, and ferved with {pun-
yarn the whole length, in the houfe. They are feized
through the eye at each end, round the futtock-ftave and
fhroud.
Ratlings, 23, 24, 25, (Plate III. fig. 1.) are faftened
horizontally to the fhrouds the firft thirteen inches below
the futtock-ikave, and all the others the fame diftance afun-
der ; they are faftened round each fhrond with a clove-hitch,
except at the ends, which have an eye, and feized round the
fhroud. The foremott and aftermott fhrouds are left out for
the firft fix ratlings down from the futtock-ftave, and like-
wife the fix lower ratlings next the dead-eyes.. Small {pars,
or boats’ oars, are feized to the fhrouds, about five feet afun-
der, for the men to ttand on to rattle down the fhrouds. The
{wifters on the fhrouds are next removed half way down
between the dead-eyes, and bowled tight, and fo remain as
long as conyenient.
The cap is next {wayed up into the top by the girtlines.
Bow/prit. Horfes, 15, (Plate 11. fg. 1.) The outer
ends are {pliced round a thimble in the upper eye-bolt, on each
fide the bowfprit-cap. Theinner ends have a thimble feized
in, and fet up to an eye-bolt in the knight-heads on each fide
the ftem with a laniard; the turns are frapped together, and
the end hitched.
Gammoning, 16, 17 (Plate III. fig. 1.) The end of the
rope is firft whipt, then paffed through the hole in the knee,
(but where there is no knee, through a large triangular ring-
bolt driven through the flem,) and over the bow{prit with
a round turn, and clinched clofe againit the cleats ; the other
end is pafled through the fore part of the hole and over the
bowfprit, crofling every turn, keeping each turn forward on
the bow{prit and aft in the hole, from nine to eleven turns,
and every turn is hove tight and nippered. The outer end of
the bowiprit is {wayed down by a chain-boat, or the fhip’s
long-boat, loaded with cafks of water, to make it fit clofe
on the bed. When all the turns are hove tight, they are
frapped together in the middle by as many cro{s-turns as are
pafled over the bowfprit, which are alfo hove very tight :
the end of the gammoning-rope is then whipt, and feized to
one of the turns.
Bobftays are wormed, parcelled, and ferved with fpun-yarn
three-fourths of their length ; and their collars are fitted to
the circumference of the bow{prit, with an eye {pliced in each
end ; they are then wormed, parcelled, and ferved from eye
to eye; and havea heart feized in the bight, with along and
fhort leg, with feven under and fix riding turns, well ftrained
and crofled with two turns ; the end whipt, and fecured with
a walnut-knot, in the houfe. The bobftay-collar is lafhed
upon the upper fide of the bowfprit at two-thirds out, or
within the faddle for the {pritfail-flings, with from eight to ten
turns through the eyes, and hove tight by a seaver. Ships
in the navy generally have two pairs of bobitays, 18, 19,
(Plate 111. fig. 1.), merchant-fhips commonly but one
pair ; one end is pafled through a hole in the front of the
knee, or large triangular eye-bolt in the {tem ; the ends are
then {pliced together. A heart, or dead-eye, is feized in the
bight, the fplice to come on the heart ; it is then fet up
with a laniard, paffing through the heart in the ftay, and its
collar by a luff-tackle.
Shrouds, 20, (Plate III. fig. 1.) are cable-laid rope ; they
have an iron-hook and thimble fpliced in the inner ends, and
are ferved over the fplice. They hook to an eye-bolt on
each fide the bow ; the fore-ends have a heart, or dead-eye,
feized in, and they are fet up the fame as the bobftays.
The ufe of the bobftays and fhrouds is to draw down, and
keep fleady, the bowfprit ; to counteraét the force of the
ftays of the fore-mait, which draw it upwards.
Topmajis.—The girtlines may now be taken down from
the
—eEeEE————t”™S
RIGGING.
the lower maft-heads, and one of the top-blocks fecurely
lafhed round the maft-head below the cap. The end of a
hawfer is then led up from aft, outfide the treftle-trees, and
reeves through the top-block at the maft-head, then leads
down infidethe fore part of the treftle-trees, and reevesthrough
the fheave-hole in the heel of the topmatt, and is racked to
the topmait in two or three places between the heel and the
hounds ; it is there well ftopt with three-quarter lafhing, and
enough of the end left to make faft round the maft-head.
The other end of the hawfer is led to the capftan. When
the topmatt is hove high enough to enter the treftle-trees,
the end of the hawfer is made faft round the matt-head:
the lower cap, 32, 33, 34, (Plate III. fig. 1.) is then lifted
over the head of the topmatt, and fecurely ftopt with
lafhing a little below the hounds. The topmatt is now
hove high enough for the cap to enter over the lower
matt-head, and then» lowered, that the cap may be beaten
down firmly"6n the matt-head with malls ; then the lafhings
may be cait off, and as the topmaft is raifed the rackings
are cut loofe.
Top-rope-pendants have a large thimble fpliced in the
lower end, and are marled over the fplice in the houfe, and
pointed when on board. The top-rope-pendant is then
reeved through the top-block, which is heoked to an eye-
bolt on one fide the lower cap, next through the fheave-hole
in the heel of the topmait, then led upwards, and made fait
to an eye-bolt.in the cap oppofite to the top-block. Through
the thimble, at the lower end of the pendant, is hooked the
block of the top-tackle ; its lower block is hooked to an eye-
bolt in the deck, and the fall brought to the capitan. The
girtline-blocks are now lafhed to the topmait-head, and the
topmatt-crofs-trees and cap are {wayed up into the top, and
the crofs-trees, 35, 36, 37, (Plate III. fig. 1.) fixed on the
maft-head.
Burton-pendants for the mizen-maft, 3, and topmatts, fore
and main, 21, 22, (Plate III. fig.1.), have adplice in the
middle to the circumference of their refpective maft-heads ;
thimbles fpliced in their lower ends ; and ferved with fpun-
yarn over the fplices in the houfe. The burton-pendants are
hoifted by the girtlines, and placed over the topmatt-head,
that the thimbles may hang on each fide, to which are hooked
the burton.tackles.
Shrouds are warped out on the floor, as the lower fhrouds
are, and fitted to the circumference of the topmaft-head. In
the foremott fhroud, on each fide, is feized a fifter-block, 2,
( Plate II. fig. 14.), below the futtock-itave, in the houfe.
They are {wayed up and placed over the topmatt-head, 41,
42, 43, (Plate III. fig. 1.) ; the firft pair to lead down on
the ftarboard fide forward, the next pair on the larboard fide
forward, and fo on with the other two pair. The dead-eyes
are turned in to their ends the fame as the lower eyes are,
and are fet up with laniards to the dead-eyes in the futtock-
plates by the burton-tackles.
Futtock-fhrouds, 26, 27, 28, (Plate III. fig. 1.) The
whole-lengths are divided into four, and cut m the bights.
Each length has a hook and thimble fpliced in each end, and
the ends of the {plices ttopt with fpun-yarn ; then doubled,
anda fpun-yarn tied in the middle for the cutting-mark.
The hooks are then hooked in each other, and got upon the
{tretch. They mutt be well hove out, in order to try the hooks
and fplices, as tle topmait, &c. depends very much thereon.
If a hook thould break, or a {plice draw, the former mutt be
fhifted, and the latter hauled tighter through. After they
are fufficiently ftretched, the ends of the fplices are tapered,
marled down, .and ferved with fpun-yarn within two
feet of the cutting-mark ; then cut afunder, and the ends
whipt. On board, their upper ends hook to a hole in the
lower end of the futtock-plates, and the lower ends of the
futtock-fhrouds are made faft to the lower fhrouds, with «
round turn round the futtock-itave and fhrouds, and feized
up-on the ftanding-part of the fhroud with two feizings
croffed.
Stays are fwayed up and placed over the topmait-head
next the fhrouds, in their order thus: the breatt-backftay
firit, and the ftanding-backftay next ; then the topmaft-ftay ;
and, laitly, the topmaft-preventer-ftay.
Topmatt-caps, 38, 39, 40, (Plate III. fg. 1.) may now
be lifted on the topmaft-head, and beat down firm ; the girt-
lines unlafhed and taken down, and the topmaft hove up and
fidded. Then fet up the fhrouds, 41, 42, 43, (Plate I.
Jig. 1-), and rattle them down, as before directed. Set up
the breaft-backftay, &c. thus: the breaff-backflay, 44, 45,
( Plate III. fg. 1.) has a fingle block turned into the lower
end, with a throat and round-feizing, through which reeve
the runner, one end of which is made faft to the chain-plates,
abreaft the matt, with a half-hitch, and the end feized down.
In the other end is {pliced a double block, conne&ted by its
fall to a double block that is ftrapped with an eye, through
which a /pan is reeved, that has an eye fpliced in each end, by
which it 1s lafhed to the chain-plates.
Standing-backflays, 46, 47, 48, (Plate 111. fig. 1.) are fet
up, the fame as a fhroud, to a {mall dead-eye in the after-end
of the channel.
Shifting-backftays, 49, 50, 51, (Plate III. fig. 1.) are
clinched round the topmatt-head and a thimble {pliced in the
lower end, to which is hooked a tackle, the lower block of
which is hoeked to an eye-bolt over the fide, and frequently
fhifted, fo as to render the topmaft under a prefs of fail of the
greateft affittance.
Fore-topmafi-ftay, 52, and fore-topmafi-preventer-flay, 53,
( Plate IIL. fig. 1.) are fet up by pafling the end through
a fheave under the dees of the bow{prit ; then a long tackle-
block is turned into the ends, which is conneéted by its fall
to a fingle block hooked to an eye-bolt in the bow on each
fide, and fet up with a luff-tackle, cat’s-pawed to its fall,
When the itay is fet up, the parts of the tackle are ftopt
together with a rope-yarn, and the fall of the long-tackle is
pafled through the eye-bolt and arfe of the block alternately
till it is expended ; the end is then made faft round all the
parts with two half-hitches. :
Main-topma/t-fay, 54, (Plate III. fig. 1.) reeves through
a fingle sor aoa with a long i thee leg ; the fhart
leg has an eye fpliced in it, the long leg goes round the fore-
maft-head above the rigging, and through the eye of the
fhort leg, and is turned back and feized. The ftay, having
a thimble turned in the lower end, leads down between the
cat-harpins and the matt, and fets up with a laniard to an eye-
bolt in the deck, clofe abaft the matt.
The preventer flay, 55, (Plate 111. fg. 1.) reeves through
a thimble feized in the bight of a collar, that is lafhed clofe
up te the Jibs of the fore-mait, and then fet up to an eye-
bolt, as the topmalt-itay.
Mizen-topmaft-flay, 56, (Plate III. fg. 1.) reeves through
a thimble feized in the bight of the collar, that is lafhed clofe
up to the dibs of the main-maft ; a thimble is then fpliced
into the end of the ftay, which is fet up by its laniard to a
thimble in another collar, that is lafhed round the maft, a
little below the cat-harpins.
When the fays are fet up very tight, the fhrouds and
backitays muit be caft off, and the mait-head gotten fo far
forward as nearly to touch the fore part of the partners by
the runners and tackles, 29, 30, ( Plate III. fig. 1.) or bur-
tons of the mizen-matt, 31, (Plate IIT. fig. 1.) The pen-
dants are frapped together abaft their refpeétive mafts, and
the runners made fait as far as convenient before the matt,
and the falls led to the capftan or windlafs.
jb)
Lower
RIGGING.
Lower Yards.—TVhe lower yards mutt firit be gotten on
board thus: the hawfer that hove up the topmalt is made
faft round the yard with a round turn and two half-hitches,
fecurely {topt with fpun-yarn along the yard in feveral places,
and well {topt at the upper arm. As the yard is hove on
board, the ftops are cut, and the runner-tackle of the oppofite
fide is brought-on to the quarter of the yard, to affift it in
Jowering as the yard advances on board beyond the flings.
They are laid athwartthips before their refpective matts,
but the fore-yard mult be kept above the main-ftay by the
runners, which, are made faft round each quarter of the yard.
They are then rigged as follows.
HHorfes, 1, 2, 3, (Plate II]. fig. 2.) have an eye fpliced
in one end to the circumference of the yard-arm, and ferved
with. {pus-yarn over the fplice. The eye goes over the yard-
arm, I, and itops againft the cleats, and the other end reeves
through the thimble in the lower end of the itirrups, 2,
which are from three to four in number; the inner end of the
horfes then have a thimble turned in, with a throat and round
feizing, through which they are lafhed to the yard, juft be-
yond the fling-cleats on the oppofite fide. The itirrups, 3,
( Plate Il. fg. 17.) have their upper ends opened and plaited,
and. are fattened to the yard at equal diftances with three
sound turns, and nailed, fo as that the horfes may hang fuf-
pended about three feet below the yard.
Yard-tackle-pendants, 4, 5, 6, 75 ( Plate Ill. fig. 2.) have
an eye fpliced in one end the fize of the yard-arm, 4, and
adouble block in the other end, 5, and the {plices ferved
over with {pun-yarn inthe houfe. The eye is put over the
yard-arm next the horfes, and the double block is connected
by its fall to a fingle block {trapped with a hook and
thimble, 6, Plate Il. fig. 17.
Brace-pendants, 8, 9, 10,11, 12,13, ( Plate III. fg. 2.)
haye an eye {pliced in one end, as in the former, and a fingle
block in the lower end, and the fplices ferved over with
{pun-yarn in the houfe. They, like the former, are next put
over the yard-arm, 7, and the brace reeved through the _
fingle block, 8, (Plate Il. fg. 17.) Sometimes in the
navy, but moftly in merchant-fhips, the block is lafhed clofe
up to the yard, without a pendant. Fore-braces have their
ftanding-part made faft round the collar of the main-ftay, on
each fide, with a hitch, and the end feized. . The leading-part
reeyes through a fingle block, lafhed on each fide the main-
ftay-collar, clofe up to the rigging, and leads down and pafles
through a fheave in the brace-bitts, at the fore part of the
quarter-deck. The main-braces have their ftanding-part
made faft with a clinch round an eye-bolt in the upper part
of the quarter-piece : the leading-part reeves through a fixed
block clofe aft upon the plank-fheer, or a block lafhed to an
iron ftay projecting on the fide, and leads in and belays round
acleat on the infide. The f{tanding and leading-parts of the
main-brace are led aft through a thimble {pliced in the end
of a /pan with two legs, which is made falt with a half-hitch.
round the mizen-fhrouds on each fide.
Preventer-braces to the fore-yard, in war, reeve through a
block Jafhed round the yard-arm, 9, (Plate II. fig. 17.)
and through a block im a {pan, hitched round the bow{prit-
cap; they lead in upon the forecaftle, and the ftanding-part
makes faft round the cap. Thofe to the main-yard reeve
through the block on the yard-arm, then through a block
lafhed to the fere-fhrouds, clofe below the cat-harpins, lead
down upon the forecaftle, and the ftanding-part makes faft to
the fhrouds above the block with a hitch, and the end is feized.
Topfail-/beet-blocks are next put over the yard-arms, 8, 9,
10,11, (Plate III. fg. 2.), ftrapt with an eye to the fize
of the yard-arm, 10, Plate II. jig. 17.
Lift-blocks are then f{pliced into the ftraps of the topfail-
fheet-blocks, 11; (Plate I], fg. 17.) 5 the lifts, 12, 13, 14,
15, 16, 37, (Plate Il]. fig. 2.) reeve through a block in a
{pan, hitched round the malt-head, between that and the top-
matt, then lead down abreaft the fhrouds, and reeye through
a block faftened to the fide, and there belay.
Quarter-blocks, 18, 19, ( Plate I11. Jig. 2.) are ftrapt with
a long and fhort leg, with a lafhing-eye fpliced in each end,
through which they lafh round the middle of the yard, within
the cleats, the block hanging downwards, 11, Plate II.
Sige 176
The quarter-block is a double block, with a thick and thin
fheave runuing or the fame pin, through which reeve the top-
fail-fheets, and the thin fheave is intended for the clue-lines ;
but a fingle block, in lieu of them, is recommended, as they
would lead fairér and work eafier. Large merchant-fhips
have a fingle block lafhed on each fide of the middle of the
yard, and the fheets reeve on their re{pective fides, and lead
down by the fides of the maft. Smaller fhips have a double
block lafhed in the middle of the yard, as the quarter-block,
through which the fheets reeve, and lead down on oppofite
fides.
Clue-garnet-blocks, 12, ( Plate Il. fig. 17.) lath through the
eyes upon the yard, the blocks to hang downwards, four feet
without the fling-cleats, on each fide.
Leech-line-blocks, 13, (Plate 11. fig. 17.) are lafhed through
the eye and round the yard, ten feet within the cleats at
each yard-arm. The blocks to hang on the fore-fide of the
yard.
: Bunt-line-blocks, 14, (Plate 11. fig. 17.) are lafhed, like the
former, midway between them and the flings.
Slab-line-blocks, 15, (Plate Il. fig. 17.) are ftrapt with a
fhort lafhing-eye, and are feized to the {pan of the quarter-
blocks underneath the yard.
Tricing-blocks, 16, (Plate Il. fig. 17.) for the yard tackles
are {trapt as the above, and are feized round the yard about
one-third the length within the arm-cleats. The blocks to
hang under the yard. ~
The inner tricing-line, 20, (Plate II. fg. 2.) reeves
through a block lafhed to the futtock-ftave, has a long-eye
{pliced in the outer end, the bight is put over the hook of
the fingle block with a couple of turns, 17, (Plate II.
fig. 17+), and the leading-part belays to the fhrouds. At
fea it is hooked to a becket, or ftrap, round the futtock-
ftaff. The outer tricing-line, 21, (Plate 111. fig. 2.) is {pliced
round the itrap of the yard-tackle-block, 18, ( Plote II.
jig-17+), and reeved through a block on the yard, it then
reeves through a block Jafhed in the fhrouds near the fut-
tock-{taff, and leads down upon deck.
Jeers, im large fhips, are two large tackles, 22, 23,
(Plate Il. fig. 2.) The blocks at the maft head are hove
up clofe on each fide by the top-burton tackles, and fo lafhed,
that every turn of the lafhing is alternately-pafled through
the ftrap of the block (Plate Il. jig. 11.), and over abroad
elm-cleat, nailed on the oppelite fide of the maft-head, and
the ends of the lafhing are well ftopt. The other two
blocks are ftrapt with a double ftrap to the fize of the yard,
with a long and fhort leg (Plate Il. fig. 10.) (See Strap-
ping of Blocks, below.) hey lafh on each fide the middle,
or flings, within the cleats, #9, 20, (Plate Il. fg.17.) The
long leg of the itrap is pafled down the aftfide of the yard,
and meets the bight of the fhort leg on the forefide, and
lafhes, every turn pafling alternately through each bight, rofe-
fafhion. ‘Che falls reeve through the blocks at the matt-
head and on the yard, and lead down upon deck. Jeers, in
merchant-fhips, and {mall fhips in the navy, have two fingle
blocks lafhed on each fide the maft-head, as above, and an-
other, the fame fize, in the middle of the yard. The fye then
reeves through one of the blocks at the maft head, then
through the block on the yard, and then through the block
on
RIGGING.
on the oppofite jide of the maft-head. In the lower ends of
the tye is {pliced a double block, with its fall, which reeves
through another double block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in
the deck. “The fall of the jeers leads through the bitts to
the capitan, by which the yards are hoifted up in their place.
Trufs-pendants are doubled, and cut in the bight; they
have a thimble fpliced into one end, and are ferved with fpun-
yarn one-third the length, in the houfe. The ends that have
the thimbles are pafled round the yards within the fling-
cleats, and are well feized. One end pafles over the yard,
the other under, and both ends round the mait. The itar-
board end reeves through the larboard thimble, and the lar-
board end through the itarboard thimble. The lower end
has a double block turned in, with a throat and round-feiz-
ing, and its fall reeves through a double block that hooks
to an eye-bolt in the deck, on each fide the matt, by which
the trufs-pendant is ftraightened or flackened, coufequently
the yard is clofe confined, or removes from the matt.
The nave-line reeves through a fingle block lafhed under
the aftfide of the top, and through a block or thimble feized
to the trufs-pendants ; one end leads upwards, and makes fait
round the treltle-trees. The leading-part goes down upon
deck. ;
Slings and Straps.—The ftrap has an eye {pliced in each
end, with a long and fhort leg, to the circumference of the
yard, and ferved with fpun-yarn from eye to eye, witha
thimble feized in the bight. The flings have an eye f{pliced
in one end, then wormed, parcelled, and ferved almoit the
whole length, in the houfe.
The long leg of the itrap pafles down the aftfide of the
yard, exactly in the middle, comes up the forefide, meets
the fhort leg, and lathes through the eyes, the thimble to be
upwards. The flings have a large thimble feized to the
bight with a long and fhort leg. The long leg pafles round
the after-part of the matt, and reeves through the eye in the
fhort leg ; it is then returned back, and fecurely feized to
its own part in feveral places. By thefe the yards are flung
at the malt-head by a laniard, that {plices in the thimble in
the flings at the fore-part of the mait, and then reeves through
the thimble in the itrap upon the yard, and alternately till
the laniard is expended; the end then fraps round the
turns, and makes faft with two half-hitches. In time of
action, the yards are flung with chains.
Strapping of Blocks in the Houfe.
A Taste of the Dimenfions of Straps for Lafhing and
Seizing Blocks.
Size of the Size of the Leneth of the
Blocks. Suraps. Straps. |
Inches. Inches. Beer, ,Inchess\"
17 | 5 oe
16 43 6 9
i 15 | 4 6 oO
14 33 | 5y 6
{ 13 gi age | Seo
12 35 4 6
u 3 | Ai 53
10 3 | 3. (9
9 23 AES
8 1 23 5 wo
neren eae 2 9
, 6 | 2 2 6
I
5 } 12 1 9
CR oe ya
The whole length of all the different fizes of block-ftrap.
Ping is gotten upon the itretch, and hove out tight for worm-
ing and ferving ; after that is performed, it is cut into lengths
agreeable to the above table, according to the fize of the
blocks. The fcores of all blocks, if required, are to be
opened, or eafed, fo as to receive the itrap, and then to be
well tarred, and the pin and fheave examined, before the
ftrap is put on (Plate Il. fig. 1.) The block is then fet
well into the ftraps with wedges, thus: the itrapping is
frapped together with rope-yarn under the block, with a
chock between, and the wedges are fet between the breatt
of the block and the chock. The {trap is next nippered,
with a heaver, round the block ; the wedge, chock, and frap-
pings are then removed, and the block hung up, that the
itrap may be well feized together, clofe under the block,
with nine under and eight riding turns; every turn {trained
tight round with a heaver, and crofled each way with two
turns,
Jeer-blocks (Plate Il. figs. 10, 11.) are double feored,
confequently itrapped with a double ftrap, thus: it is {pliced
together at the ends, and when doubled, fhould be the fize
of the block and the circumference of the yard. It is then
doubled, and the block feized in the bight, with a long and
fhort leg, the fplice lying in the arfe of the block. Jeer-
blecks for the malt-heads are {trapped with long-eyes, to
receive many turns of the lafhing.
Blocks trapped with a thimble, or hook. and thimble,
( Plate 11. fig. 3.) have the ends of the itraps fpliced together.
The block 1s fixed in one bight, for the fplice to lay, as
above, and the thimble in the other bight; the feizing is
clapt on, between the block and the thimble, with eight
under and fix riding turns, according to the fize of the block ;
each turn {trained by a heaver, turns double-crofled, and
then Bs t wrth a wall-knot crowned.
ocks {trapped with eyes (Plate Il. fs. 4, 6.), or
thimbles fpliced in the ee a feized oe is ile en
and the legs left long enough to lafh through the eyes, round
their refpective matt, yard, &c. as the topfail, clue-lizes,
clue-garnets, &c.
Blocks {trapped with double tails are feized in the bight as
the former; but thofe with a fingle tail are fpliced in, and
ferved with fpun-yarn over the {plice.
The itrapping of jeer-blocks is wormed, parcelled, aud
ferved. Strapping of four inches diameter, and above,
is wormed and ferved ; and all under four inches is only
ferved with {pua-yarn ; except the {pritfail-brace, buntline,
and leech-line blocks, that are lafhed under the tops, which
are only feryed with {pun-yara over the fplice, and the tail
left half a fathom in length.
Rigging the Topfail- Yards.
The topfail-yards are firit hove on board by the top-rope,
which is faftened to the flings of the yard, and ftopt from
thence with fpun-yarn to the yard-arm, and placed athwart
their re{peéctive matts. 5
Horfes, 1, rig the fame as the lower yards, with the ad-
dition of Flemi/bh horfes, 2, (Plate Il. fg. 18.) which have
an eye {pliced in each end; one eye is put over the eye-bolt
in the yard-arm, and the other is feized round the yard with-
in the arm-cleats, 24, 25, 26, Plute III. fig. 2.
Brace-pendants, 3, (Plate 11. fg. 18.) are next put over
the yards, as on the lower ones. The fore-topfail-braces
reeve through the block in the pendant, and then through a
block lafhed on each fide to the main-itay-collar, a little below
the fore-braces ; the ttanding-part makes faft to the ftay with a
hitch, and is feized below the block. The leadipg-part leads
from the block on the collar, through a block lathed onthe
2 itay,
RIGGING.
itay, over the fore hatchway, and through a block {trapped
with a thimble into an eye-bolt in the aft-part of the fore-
caftle, and belays toa pin in the fkid-beame, 27, 28, P/. III.
ue
Fhe main-topfail-braces reeve through the block in the
pendant, and the ftanding-part makes faft to the mizen-ltay
collar. The leading-part reeves through a block in the {pan
round the mizen-matt-head below the hounds, and through a
fheave-hole in the mizen-topfail-fheet-bitts, abaft the mizen-
matt, and belays there; 29, 30, Plate ILI. fy. 2.
The mizen-topfail-braces reeve through the block in the
pendant. The ftanding-part makes faft round the peek-end,
and the leading-part reeves through fingle blocks at the peek,
and comes down and belays to the fore-fide of the taffarel to a
cleat ; 31, 32, Plate IIL. fig. 2.
Reef-tackle-pendants, 4, (Plate Il. fig. 18.) reeve through
the upper fheave in the //er-block in the topmaft-fhrouds,
thence through a fheave-hole in the yard-arm, and are
ftopt with an over-hand knot, till the fail is bent. A double
block is turned in to the lower ends of the pendants, and
its fall reeves through another double block, that 1s feized
to the after-part of the lower treitle-trees, and the falls lead
down upon deck; 33, 34, 35, 36, Plate 111. jig. 2.
Lift-blocks, 5, (Plate I. fig. 18.) .are flrapt with an
eye to the fize of the yard-arm. The lift reeves through the
lower fheave in the fifter-block in the topmalt-fhrouds, and
through the block on the yard-arm. The ftanding-part hooks
to a becket round the top-maft-cap, and the leading-
part leads down the fide of-the maft, and belays to the dead-
eyes in the lower fhrouds ; 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, Plare III.
o De
Ser bvicks) thofe at the topmaft-heads, lafh clofe up to
the rigging, under the collar of the ftay ; and the blocks
on the yard, 6, (PéateIl. jig. 18.) lafh under the fore-
part of the yard, as the lower ones. The ttanding-part
of the double-tyes in large fhips clinch round the matt-
head, then reeve through the double block upon the yard,
return upwards, and reeve through the block on each fide
the matt-head; 43, 44, 45, (Plate III. fig. 2.) The fly-
blocks are then fpliced in their lower ends, and connected
by their haliards to a fingle block, that is ftrapt with a long
ftrap, with a hook and thimble, that hooks to a {wivel-eye-
bolt in the channel on each fide: the leading-part comes
in-board through a block lafhed on each fide ; the foremoft
enes abaft the forecaftle, and the after-ones on the quarter-
deck. A fingle tye rigs like the lower yards in {mall
fhips.
Boniline blocks are fpliced round the ftraps of the top-
fail-tye-block upon the yard, 7, Plate II. fg. 18.
Clue-line-blocks are {trapt with two lafhing-eyes, and lafh
upon the yard, three feet without the flings, the blocks
hanging under the yard, through which the clue-lines reeve
and lead down upon the deck, 8, Plate II. fg. 18.
Top-gallant-/beet-blocks, 9, (Plate Il. fg. 18.) are ftrapt
with two lafhing-eyes, and lafh upon the yard, clofe within
the clue-line blocks on each fide.
Parral. ( Plate II. fig. 20.) The parral-ropes in the houfe
have an eye {pliced in each end, are wormed and ferved with
fpun-yarn from eye to eye, then doubled, and cut afunder
in the bight. The end of one rope is thruft through the upper
hole in the ribs, and a truck, alternately. The end of the
ether rope is pafled through the lower hole in the ribs and
a truck the reverfe way. The parral is fitted to the aft-
fide of the tepmaft, and the eye in one end paffed under the
yard, and the other over, till both eyes meet and are feized
together on the fore-fide with fpun-yarn. The other ends
of the parral-rope are pafled round the yard and aftfide of
the parral alternately, tillthe latter is well fecured to the
former ; and the whole of the turns are marled together with j
quarter-feizings, to confine them clofe in the cavity on the
aftfide of the ribs. Thus the yard is confined to the matt,
but eafily hoifted or lowered when the matt is kept clean and
greafed.
Jib-boom to be rigged.—The jib-boom is hoifted on board
and laid on the bow{prit, and its fore end pointed through
its hole in the bowfprit-cap. The heel-rope or top-rope may
be reeved through the fheave-hole at the heel, and one end
made faft to the eye-bolt on one tide of the bowfprit-cap,
the other reeved through a fingle block made faft to an eye-
bolt on the oppoiite fide, aad lead in upon the forecattle,
46, Plate I11. fg. 2.
The éraveller is firit put over the outer end of the jib-
boom, and the hook kept inwards ; 47, Plate III. fig. 2.
Horfes are doubled, and ferved with {pun-yarn one fathom
in length in the bight, and knotted with an over-hand knot,
at the diftanee of every yard, in the houfe. On board, the
bight is taken over the outer end of the jib-boom, witha
jambing-knot, ciofe again{ft the ftop, which prevents them
coming in. ‘The inner ends are brought aft and made faft,
with a round turn round the jib-boom, withinthe cap. The
ends are ftopt back. with two or three feizings of {pun-yarn,
to prevent their being caft off by miftake; 57, Plate III.
fig. 1
# Guy-pendants are put over the jib-boom, the fame as the
horfes, and the inner ends reeve through a thimble, on the
quarters of the fpritfail-yard, and turn in to the ftrap of a
double block, with a throat and round-feizing, and its fall
reeves toa fingle block, that hooks to an eye-bolt near the
cut-head, and leads in upon the forccaille ; 49, 50, Plate III.
. 2.
a Jfirap is put over the end of the jib-boom, with three
thimbles feized in it; the middle thimble is the largeft, and
reeves the fore-top-gallant-ftay, and the {maller thimbles on
each fide the fore-top-gallant-bowlines.
The /prit/ail-yard is hove on board, and laid fore and aft
the furecaftle for rigging with its hor/es, 51, 52, (Plaie III.
Jig. 2.) The eye in the outer end is put over the yard-arm
on each fide, and {tops againft the cleats. ‘The eye in the
other end is well feized to the yard, at three feet- beyond the
flings, with /irrups and Flemifh horfes, the fame as the
topfail-yards, 53, Flaie III. jig. 2.
Braces and Pendants. —The eye in one end of each pendant
goes over the yard-arm clofe againft the horfes, and the brace
reeves througha fingle block fpliced in the other end; the
ftanding-part makes fail to the ftay-collar, and the leading-part
reeves through a deuble block, made falt under the fore-top,
and then leads through another, made faft to the aft-part of
the top, and down to the aft-part of the forecallle; 54,
55, Plate Ill. fy. 2.
Lifts.—The blocks are ftrapped with an eye to the fize
of the yard-arm, and driven thereon clofe to the braces.
The lift reeves through a fingle block in the end of a /pan,
which is paffed with a hitch round the cap under the jib-boom,
and through the block on the yard-arm, and the ftanding-
part returns upwards, and.is made fait to an eye-bolt in the
fide of the cap; the leading-part somes in upon the fore-
caftle. They are occafionally ufed for f{pritfail-topfail-
fheets. ;
The fanding-lift has an eye {pliced in one end, and
lafhes to the yard one-fourth from the flings: the other end
has a thimble {pliced in, and is fet up with a laniard to a
thimble fpliced in a ftrap that is hitched round the bow{prit
within the dees ; 56, 57, Plate II. jig. 2.
Clue-line-blocks are itrapped with two eyes, and are
lafhed
RIGGING.
lafhed-through thofe eyes round the yard three feet without
the flings, the lafhing to be upon the yard.
The fap has a thimble feized in the bight, and is {pliced
or feized round the yardin the middle, between the cleats.
Alfo on each quarter of the yard 1s feized a ftrap, with a
thimble, through which are led the jib-guys. The yard may
now be hove out towards its place, and the long-tackle block
of the haliards hooked into an eye-bolt in the after-part of
* the bottom of the bowfprit-cap ; the hook to be moufed with
{pun-yarn, to prevent its flipping loofe. The fingle block is
hooked to the thimble in the itrap at the flings, and the fall
then leading in upon the forecaitle, the yard is hove to its
lace.
B The flings have aneye {pliced in each end, one of which goes
round the yard clofe within the cleats near the middle, and
feizes with a quarter-feizing clofe to the yard ; the other end
goes over the bowfprit before the faddle, and under the
yard, then over the bowfprit again, till the eyes in the ends,
meeting clofe together, are well lathed.
Preventer-flings are ufed when the haliards are taken in.
The outer end has ahook and thimble fpliced in and ferved
down over the fplice, that hooks to the eye-bolt in the bottom
of the cap. The inner end reeves through the thimble in
the ftrap at the flings, and is hitched with two half-hitches,
or {pliced.
The /prit/ail-topfail-yard is hove on board, &c. as the
former, and the
Horfes, having an eye in their outer ends, are put over the
yard-arm on each fide, and ftop againft the cleats; the inner
end has an eye, which is feized to the yard, three feet without
the flings, 58, Plate III. fig. 2.
The éraces have an eye {pliced in one end, that goes over
the yard-arm on each fide; the inner ends lead through a
block made faft to the under fide of the fore-top, from
thence through another at the aftfide under the top, and lead
down to the aft-part of the forecaftle, and there belay ; 59,
Plate ILL. fig. 2. ,
The /ifts have an eye fpliced in their outer ends, and are
driven over the yard-arm clofe to the braces; the inner end
reeves through a thimble, feized on each fidea ftrap hitched
over the ead of the jib-boom, and leads in upon the forecaftle
through a faddle on the bowfprit, and belays to the rack
over the bowfprit, 60, Plate IIL. fg. 2.
The clue-line-blocks are rapped with two eyes, and are
lafhed through thofe eyes round the yard, about two feet
without the flings.
Haliard.—The ftanding-part is made faft with a bend
through the becket of its block, lafhed under the outer end
of the jib-boom ; then reeves through a fingle block, lafhed
round the middle of the yard between the cleats ; then for-
ward, and reeves through the block at the outer end of the
jib-boom, and leads in upon the forecaftle, and belays to a
rack over the bowfprit, 61, Plate III. fg. 2.
Top-gallant Majfis.—The tep-rope reeves for the top-gallant-
matt as it does for the topmait, obferving to ftop it to the
top-gallant-maft-head with {pun-yarn, to keep it fteady till
it has entered the topmatt-cap ; the ftop is then cut, and
the end of the top-rope made faft to the eye-bolt in the
topmatt-cap.
A grommet of rope, fpliced to the fize of the maft, is firft
put over the head, and beat down clofe to the itop of the
hounds.
Shrouds, backflays, and flays, are fitted in the houfe,
and hoitted over the top-gallant-malt-head, the fame as the
topmaits, and the top-gallant-mait is then {wayed up and
fidded.
The /brouds are then thruft through a hole in the end of
I
the topmaft crofs-trees, and between the topmaft fhrouds,
over the futtock-{taff. A thimble is feized in the ends that
fet up with the laniard through a thimble feized in the
bight of a ftrap, made faft round the futtock-plates, clofe
under the dead-eyes, with a turn through the bight, 58,
59, 60, Plate Ill. fg. 1.
Backflays {et up, the fame as the topmatt-backftays, to
a {mall dead-eye in the aft-part of the channel, or in a ftool
abaft the channel, 61, 62, 63, Plate III. fig. 1.
Fore-top-gallant-flay, 64, (Plate 11. fig. 1.) reeves through
a fingle block in large fhips, or a thimble in the {trap. at
the outer end of the jib-boom of frigates and {maller veffels.
The former fets up by its tackle to an eye-bolt in the
head ; the latter with a jigger-tackle occafionally, and is
fecured by a laniard to the gammoning or eye-bolt in the
head. ;
Main-top-gallant-flay, 65, ( Plate II. fig. 1.) is cable-laid
in large fhips, and fitted with a collar and moufed, as the
lower ftays. Smaller fhips are hawfer-laid, have an eye
{pliced in the upper end to the circumference of the mait-
head, and ferved with fpun-yarn over the fplice, in the
houfe. It reeves through a fingle block at the fore-top-
matt-head, has a thimble turned into the end of the ftay,
and fets up to a thimble in a {pan, made faft to the
treftle-trees of the foremaft by its laniard.
Stayfailflay, 1, (Plate 1V. fig. 1.) is fpliced into the
top-gallant-itay, one fathom below the top of the matt, it
then reeves through a block or thimble lafhed to the fore-
top-maft-head, takes a turn round the treftle-trees, and belays
there.
Mizen-top-gallant-flay, 66, (Plate 111. fig. 1.) fets up to
the main-topmaft-head, as the main-top-gallant-ftay fets up
to the fore-topmaft-head.
Flag-/laf-fays go round their refpe€tive top-gallant or
royal maft-heads with a running-eye, and are kept clofe up
under the truck, by a {mall cleat nailed on each fide. The
fore one reeves through a thimble at the jib-boom end, and
belays round the fore-ftay-collar. The main one reeves
through a thimble above the fore-top-gallant rigging, and
belaysinthe top. The mizen one the fame above the main-
top-gallant rigging.
Royal mafts are rigged as top-gallant-mafts, and often
abaft the maft. *
The top-gallant-yards are hove on board, and rig with
horfes, braces, and lifts, over the yard-arm, the fame as the
topfail-yards.
Braces, 1, (Plate Il. fig. 19.) The fore-top-gallant-braces,
56, (Plate II]. fig. 2.) reeve through the block in the
pendant of large hips, or the block in the yard-arm of fmall.
The ftanding-part makes faft with a hitch, and the end
feized back round the collar of the main-topmatt-ftay on
each fide; and the leading-part reeves through a block
lafhed round the collar a little below the flanding-part ;
then leads through a block at the aft-part of the fore-top,
and belays to a pin at the aftfide of the forecaftle.
The main-top-gallant-braces, 57, (Plate Ill. fig. 2.)
reeve as the former. The ftanding-part makes fatt with a
hitch, and the end feized back round the collar of the
mizen-topmaft-ftay, and the leading-part through a block
feized juft below the ftanding-part, and leads down into the
mizen-fhrouds.
The mizen-top-gallant-braces, 58, (Plate III. fig. 2.) are
fingle, and go with a f{plice over the yard-arm. ‘They lead
through a thimble at the mizen-peek, come down, and belay
to a cleat on the fore-fide of the taffrail.
The lifts, 59, 60, 61, (Plate 111. fig. 2.) are fingle, and
go over the yard-arm with an eye; the other end reeves
through
RIGGING.
through a thimble in the top-gallant fhrouds, leads down
into the top, and belays round the dead-eyes.
Clue-line-blocks, 2, (Plate 11. fig. 19.) are ftrapped with
two lafhing-eyes, and lafh upon the yard three feet withput
the flings. The clue-line reeves through the block which
hangs under the yard, which is ftopt with a knot till the
failis bent. The leading-part comes down the maft, and
belays to the fhroud-rack.
The tye, 3, (Plate Il. fig. 19.) reeves through the fheave-
hole in the top-gallant-ma{t hounds, and clinches round the
yard at the flings; in the lower end is turned a double or
jingle block, according to the fize of the fhip, through
which reeves the haliard, and through a fingle block lafhed
to the after-part of the lower treftle-trees, under the top,
and belays round the crofs-piece of the bitts abaft the
matt.
Parral, the fame as the topfail-yard, after the yard is
fwayed up.
Rigying of Royal-Yards.
When they have royal mafts, they rig as the top-gallant-
yards above ; but if there are no royal matts, they fet flying ;
that is, the Aaliard reeves through a fheave-hole clofe up
under the truck; the ftanding-part clinches to the middle
of the yard, and the leading-part comes down and belays
in the top.
Rigging of the Mixen-Yards.
Mizen-yards are now feldom ufed, and that only in line
of battle fhips in the navy, and large Eaft India fhips.
They are hove on board as the lower yards, and the
’ Derrick-block is ftrapt with two eyes, that go round the
yard and Jafh underneath, between the flings and outer
yard-arm or peek. The Derrick-fall reeves through the
double block that is crofs-feized in the ftrap, has an eye
fpliced in each end, and lathes to the mizen-cap; then
through the fingle block upon the yard, The ftanding-
part 1s again taken up and reeved through the block at the
mizen-cap ; an eye is then fpliced in the end to the fize of
the yard-arm, that jambs over the peek-end. The leading-
part comes from the double block at the cap, leads down
through the trettle-trees to a block in the larboard, mizen
channel, and through the fide upon deck.
Brail-blocks ace {trapt together in one ftrap, and lie over
the yard, and feized together underneath ; the throat-
blocks next the cleats near the maft ; the middle-blocks in
the middle between the throat-blocks and the peeks ; the
peek-blocks about three or four feet within the cleats at
the peek. .
Vangs.—The pendants are doubled, and ferved with
fpun-yarn two fathoms long in the bight, and a double
block {pliced in each end, and ferved with. {pun-yarn oyer
the {plice in the houfe. The bight is put over the peek-end
with a hitch. The falls reeve through the double block
in their ends, and a fingle block is hooked to an eye-bolt in
the quarter-piece on each fide. The ftanding-part makes
faft to the becket of the fingle block, and the leading-part
from the double block, belays to a cleat on the taftrail.
Signal haliard-block is lafhed to an eye-bolt in the peek
of the yard.
Jeers.—The fall reeves through a treble or double
block lafhed at the maft-head, and likewife a double or
fingle block lafhed between the fling-cleats, and the leading-
part comes into the mizen-chains on the ftarboard fide as
the derrick did on the larboard fide. The yard is then
fwayed up, and the fall made faft with a hitch, and feized.
Slings go round the maft-head, and round the yard be-
tween the fling-cleats, which are kept abaft the mait-
Bowlines reeve through a fingle block ttrapt with a
thimble into an eye bolt, in the lower end of the yard, and
through a block hooked to an eye-bolt in the fide abrealt
the lower end of the yard, or lafhed to the mizen-fhrouds.
Horfe for the mizen-fheets clinches to an eye-bolt on
each fide the fore part of the taffrail with a thimble, to
which is {trapped the fheet-block.
Gaff.—If the mizen-yard is not ufed, there muft be a
gaff, 20, (Plate lV. fig. 1.) as in fmaller veflels, which is
rigged fimilarly to the mizen-yard, excepting only that it
has a throat-haliard inftead of jeers, which hooks to an eye-
bolt over the jaws: and a {pan inftead of a derrick,
21, Plate lV. fig.'t.
The driver or fpanker-boom rigs with a topping-lift,
25, (Plate lV. fig. 1.) which goes over the outer end of
the boom with a clove-hitch, and ftops againtt the fhoulder ;
the ends are reeved through a fingle block lafhed on each
fide of the mizen-malt-head; then have a double block
{pliced.in each lower end, which reeves with its fall to a
fingle block, hooked to an eye-bolt in each mizen-channel.
The ftanding-part makes faft to the becket of the fingle
block, and the leading-part belays to a cleat on each fide of
the mizen-matt.
Guy-pendants, 26, (Plate 1V. fig. 1.) have a hook and
thimble {pliced in one end, that hook to a thimble on each
fide of a itrap {pliced round the boom, over the horfe at the *
fore-fide of the taffrail; a thimble is fpliced in the inner
ends of the pendants, to which is hooked the tackle on
each fide, that are ufed where moft fupport can be given
to the boom.
Rigging and Bending the Sails.
Rigging and bending the fore-courfe, 5, (Plate IV.
fig. 2.) This fail is hoifted on board by the yard-tackles,
and laid athwart the main-ftay, ready for bending, thus;
the /beet-block is {trapped with an eye, and put over the ©
clue on eaeh fide. The tack is next thruft through the
clue for the knot to come on the aftfide.
Clue-garnet Block.—The eyes of the {trap are put through
the clue, brought up on each fide, and feized on the top.
Tacks ave cable-laid, and tapered in the making. The
biggeft end is opened out long enough to heave the knot
clofe together ; the knot is double-walled and crowned ;
the ends are thruft through the walling, then feraped down,
ferved over with {fpun-yarn, and are wormed, parcelled, and
ferved with {pun-yarn one-fourth of the whole length,
in the houfe. (Plate Il. fig. 14.) Single tacks, as the
above, reeve through the block lafhed round the outer end
of the boomkin, on cach fide ; then lead in upon the fore-
ca{tle or upper deck, and belay round a large cleat upon the
cat-tail, or the bitts near the malt. In double tacks, the
ftanding-part makes faft round the outer end of the boom-
kin, and the leading-part reeves thraugh a fingle block
lafhed to the clue of the fail, then through the block at the
outer end of the boomkin, and leads in as the above,
21, Plate 1V. jig. 2.
Sheets, 23, (Plate 1V. fg. 2.) are reeved through the
fheet-block at the clues, and the itanding-part feizes or
{plices with a thimble to an eye-bolt in the fide a little be-
fore the gangway. ‘The leading-part reeves through a
fheave in the ffde above the eye-bolt, Jeads forwards, and
belays round a large cleat in the fide.
Yard-ropes are temporary, aud are only ufed ta get up
the fail ; they reeve through tail-blocks, that are made fait
round the boom-iron at each yard-arm, and one end comes
down
RIGGING.
down and makes falt to the upper reef-earing cringle.
The leading-part comes in upon deck, through a leading-
block lafhed to a timber-head or eye-bolt. The fail is then
run up to the yard, where the men go and pafsthe
Earings : one end of the earing fplices to the head-cringle
with a long-eye ; the other end paffes over the yard-arm,
without the rigging, and through the cringle alternately,
two or three times, and likewife pafles round the yard,
within the rigging, and.through the cringle, till the earing
is expended, making falt the end with two half-hitches.
The outer turns are to ftretch the head of the fail tight
along the yard, and the inner turns to draw it clofe up.
Reef-carings, when ufed, the fame.
Rope-bands, which faften the head of the fail along the
yard, are braided cordage, with an eye in one end, and one
leg longer than the other. The eye of the long leg is put
over the fhort leg, and the eye of the fhort leg is thruft
through the eye-let hole at the aftiide of the fail, and paffes
through the eye of the fhort leg; and fo of the reft. The
rope-bands, being previoufly reeved through the head of the
fail, faften to the yard as follows. The long lex comes over
the yard from the forefide, with a round tura between the
head of the fail; the fhort leg comes up the aftfide, and
makes faft with a reef-knot upon the yard. The {fail is
then let fall to fee it is clearly bent. =
Points are ufually put in the fail at the fail-loft. See
Satt-Making.
Gafkets are braided cordage, which go round the yard with
arunning-eye, two on each quarter, and one at each yard-arm :
the bunt-gaiket in the middle has two legs, and lafhes to
the yard on each fide of the quarter-blocks. Thefe are
ufed when the fail is fur/ed, to bind it firmly up to the
yard, by pafling the gafket fix or feven times round the
yard and fail, each turn a certain diltance apart, or {pirally,
making faft the end with two half-hitches.
Clue-garnets, 24, (Plate lV. fig. 2.) reeve through their
block upon the yard on each fide, then through the block
at the clue of the fail. The ftanding-part is. carried up,
and made fait round the yard by its block with a timber-
hitch, and the end ftopped. The leading-part comes down
upon deck, and reeves through its fheave-hole in the topfail-
fheet-bitts, and there belays.
Bowlines, 25, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) reeve through a fingle
block lafhed round the collar of the fore-ftay, or the fore-
preventer-{tay on the bowfprit, and the outer part reeves
on the bowline-bridle, with a thimble fpliced in the end, and
the bridle clinches to the cringle on the leech of the fail.
The leading-part comes in upon the forecaftle, and belays
to the fore-topfail-fheet-bitts.
Leech-lines, 26, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) reeve through the
fpritfail-brace-block, under the top, then through the
block upon the yard, and the ftanding-part makes fait with
a clinch to the upper bowline-bridle ; the leading-part then
reeves through a double block, at the aft-part of the top,
and comes down upon the forecattle.
Bunt-lines, 27, (Plate IV. jig. 2.) reeve through the
leg and fall-block, and through a double block at the
aft-part of the top, and through the blocks upon the yard,
and lead down the fore-fide of the fail, and clinch to the
cringles inthe foot. The fall reeves through the leg-block ;
the ftanding-part makes faft to an eye-bolt near the matt,
and the leading-part through a live-block under the crofs-
piece of the breait-bitts.
- Slab-lines, 28, ( Plate 1V. fig. 2.) reeve through a {mall
block lafhed to the ftrap of the quarter-block, and the
ftanding-part clinches with two legs to the middle bunt-
Vou. XXX. :
line cringles. The leading-part leads to the topfail-theet-
bitts, and belays to the crofs-piece. 5
Spilling-lines, 29, (Plate lV. fig. 2.) reeve through blocks
- lafhed on each fide of the quarter-blocks of the lower yards,
then lead down before the fail, return upwards under the
foot of the fail, and make faft round the yard with a
timber-hitch.
Life-lines are fometimes ufed for the prefervation of the
feamen. They are generally of worn hawfer-laid rope, and
are made faft with the two half-hitches round the ftrap of
the lift-block, and jeer or tye-block, in the middle of the
yard.
Rigging and Bending the Main-Courfz, 1, Plate1V. fig.2.
This fail is hoifted on board, and: laid athwart, ready for
bending, as the fore-courfe. Sheet-blocks,» tacks, and
ene gamet anes, are fitted in the elues as the fore-
courfe,
Tacks, fingle, 31, ( Plate IV. jig. 2.) reeve through the
fheave-hole in the cheftree, on each fide, and lead on board
through a fheave-hole in the fide, and belay round a range-
cleat in the wailt.
Tacks, double, 32, (Plate IV. Jig--2-) ‘The ftanding-
part clinches to an eye-bolt before the cheftree, and the
leading-part reeves through a fingle block lafhed to the clue
of the fail; then leads in upon deck, through the cheftree
and fheave-hole in the fide, and belays as the above.
Sheets, 33, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) reeve through the fheet-
block at the clues. The ftanding-part is feized to an eye-
bolt with a thimble on the quarters ; the leading-part comes
on board through a fheave-hole in the fide, and belays to a
range-cleat in the waiit. The prefent cuitom is for the
leading-part of the fheets to reeve through a block lafhed to
the eye of an iron ftay, projecting from the fide, called a
Jpider, and comes in upon deck through a port that has a
roller fitted vertically at its aftfide. —
Yard-ropes and bending, as the fore-courfe.
Earings, rope-bands, points, za/kets, and clue-garnets, as the
fore-courfe.
Bow-lines, 34, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) reeve through a double
block, lafhed round the fore-maft five feet above the fore-
caitle, and the outer part reeves upon the long leg with a
thimble. The lower bridle is the longeft, and ‘clinches to
the lower cringle on the fail. In the other end is fpliced a
thimble, through which reeves the upper leg. that clinches
tothe upper cringle. The ftarboard bow-line belays on the
larboard, and the larboard bow-line leads over and belays on
the ftarboard fide. Four feet from the bridle on each bow-
line is fpliced a thimble, and pointed over, called a izard,
to which is hooked a bow-line tackle that makes faft to the
bitts, and is bowfed upon until the bow-line can be made
fait to the bitts.
Leech-lines, 35, (Plate lV. fig. 2.) reeve through the
block upon the yard, and the outer end makes faft with a
clinch to the upper bow-line bridle. The leadiag-part
reeves through a double block at the fore part of the top,
and another at the aft part of the top. A fingle block is
turned into the lower end, and a whip-fall reeved through it.
The ftanding-part makes faft to an eye-bolt in the deck;
and the leading-part reeves through a block under the crofe-
piece of the bitts, near the matt.
Bunt-lines, 36, reeve as the fore-courfe, and lead forward
upon the forecaitle.
Slab-lines, 37, fpilling-lines, 38, and life-lines, 39; (Plate lV.
fg. 2.) as the fore-courfe:
; Mm Rigging
RIGGING.
Rigging and Bending the Mizen-Courfé, 9, Plate lV. fig. 2.
Laring reeves, with an eye in one end, through the cringle
in the peek of the fail, and makes faft round the peek as
the earings above.
The nock-earings the fame as the peek.
Lacing is {pliced to the peek-earing-cringle, and laces
round the yard or gaff, through the eye-let holes in the head
of the fail, and makes faft to the nock-earing-cringle.
Lacing round the matt is fpliced to the nock-cringle, and
round the fore-fide of the maft, backwards and forwards,
and through each cringle on the fore-leech of the fail, mak-
ing faft to the tack at the lower end.
Tack {ets up with a laniard reeved through the tack-
cringle in the foot of the fail, and through an eye-bolt in
the deck.
Sheet reeves through a block on the horfe, at the fore
part of the taffrail; then through the block that hooks to
the thimble, in the clue of the fail; again through the block
on the horfe, and belays to a cleat on the fide.
Brails, 41, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) throat, middle, and peek,
reeve through their refpective blocks on the yard or gaff,
and make fait to cringles on the after-leech of the fail on
cach fide. The throat-brails lead down by the maft, and
the middle brails lead down to the after-mizen-fhroud on
each fide, and the peek-brails to a cleat on each quarter.
Fancy-line, 42, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) has two fpans, with a
thimble feized inthe bight, and a thimble feized in each end ;
one thimble reeves upon the throat-brail, the other on the
middle brail, on each fide the fail. The fancy-line reeves
through blocks lafhed at the peek end, and each end bends
to the thimble in the bight of the fpan on each fide. When
the mizen is fet, the brails are hauled up by the fancy-line,
that they may be flack, and not girt the lee-fide of the
fail.
Rigging and Bending the Top/uils.
The fore-topfail, 6, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) is fwayed up into
the top by the topfail-haliards, that make fait to flings
round the middle of the fail, and then laid in the fore part
of the top fair for bending.
Sheets, 44, (Plate IV. jig. 2.) are paffed through the fore
part of the clue of the fail, and ftopt with an overhand-knot.
They reeve through the fhoulder-block at the lower yard,
then through the quarter-block, and come down before the
matt ; reeye through the fheave-holes in the bitts, and there
belay.
i Clue-lines, 45, (Plate 1V. fiz. 2.) The ftraps of the
blocks are pafled through the clues of the fail, and brought
round the clue to the fore part, and fecurely feized. The
clue-lines are pafled the fame as the clue-garnets of the
courfes, and fometimes have no block, but bend to the clue
of the fail.
Bow-lines, 46, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) reeve through the
blocks at the bowfprit-cap. ‘The outer part reeves on the
jower bow-line bridle with a thimbie, as the main-courfe.
The leading-part comes in upon the forecaftle, and belays
to the topiail-fheet-bitts.
Bunt-lines, 47, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) yveeve through the
block upon the yard, lead down on the fore-fide of the fail,
and clinch to the cringles in the foot-rope. The leading-
part reeves through a fingle block, lafhed clofe under the.
topmatt crofs-trees, leads down through the fquare hole in
the top, and belays to the fhrouds.
Reef-tackle-pendants, 48, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) reeve through
the upper fheave in the fifter-block in the topmatt-fhrouds,
then through the fheave-hole in the yard-arm, and clinch te
the reef-cringle in the leech-rope of the fail.
Reef-earings reeve through. their bights in each reef-
cringle, and are ftopt to the next cringles and the head of
the fail, till ufed.
Spilling-lines haye two legs, which are each made fatt with
a timber-hitch round the quarters of the topfail-yard, then
lead down on the aftfide, return upwards under the foot of
the fail, and reeve through a block on the fore-fide, lafhed
to the tye-block on the yard, then lead down upon deck
abaft the matt.
Life-lines, earings, rope-bands, and points, as the fore-
courte.
Gafkets.—The yard-arm gaiket reeves with an eye round
the yard-arm, within the cleats. Quarter-gafkets reeve as
the above, between the yard-arm and flings. Bunt-gafkets
have two legs, and lafh to the yard with an eye on each fide
the tye-block, and fatten thereto, when the fail is hauled up
in the bunt. 3
The Main-ropsait, 2, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) is {wayed
up into the top, as the fore-topfail.
Sheets, 51, ‘clue-lines, 52, bunt-lines, 53, reef-tackle pen-
dants, 54, earings, rope-bands, points, and gafkets, as the
fore-topfail. i
Bow-lines reeve through blocks lafhed round the fore-
mait-head, clofe under the cap; the outer part reeves on
the lower bowline-bridle with a thimble, as the fore-topfail.
The leading-part comes down through the fquare hole of
the cap, reeves through a fheave-hole in the bitts upon the
forecaitle, and there belays.
The Mizen-ropsait, 10, (Plate 1V. fg. 2.) in large
fhips, is f{wayed as the foregoing.
Sheets, 56, clue-lines, 57, bunt-lines, 58, reef-tackle pen-
dants, 59, earings, rofe-bands, points, and gafkets, as the
fore-toptail.
Bow-lines, 60, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) bend to the fail as the
fore-topfail, and reeve through a fingle block, feized to the
main-fhrouds on the oppofite fide near the futtock-ftaff ;
then lead down through a feizing-truck to the quarter-deck,
and belay to the rack at the fhrouds.
Rigging and Bending the Top-gallant Sails.
The Forr-rop-GALLAnt-salL, 7, (Plate IV. fg. 2.)
is either f{wayed up to the topmait crofs-trees by the clue-
lines, or bent to the yard upon deck. It is hauled out to
the yard-arm by earings, and bends or laces to the yard, as
before obferved.
Sheets, 62, and clue-lines, 63, are bent to the clues of the
fail, and lead down upon deck, as the fore-topfail.
Bunt-lines, 64, reeve through a {mall block, feized to the
top-gallant-matt-head ; then through a thimble feized to the
tye, clofe down upon the yard, and bend, with legs, to
cringles in the foot of the fail. The leading-part comes
down into the top.
Bow-lines, 65, (Plate lV. fig. 2.) reeve through the
thimbles at the jib-boom-end, and faften to the fail as the
topfail, only with a toggle, to caft off the bow-line readily
for fending the yard down. ‘The leading-part comes down
the forecaitle, and belays to a pin in the hook over the bow-
fprit. :
PiThe jack-block is {trapped with a feizing-eye, through
which reeves a {hort piece of rope, with an eye {pliced in
one end, and a double walnut-knot made at the end, called
a button and loop, which encircles the maft, by thrufting
the knot through the eye, and is triced up and down the
mait by the top-gallant-tye, which bends through the 2
©
4 RIGGING.
of the ftrap. It is ufed for fending the top-gallant-yards
up or down. When the yard is fwayed up, the top-rope
reeves through the jack-block, and makes faft with a hitch
round the yard in the flings, then ftopt at the outer quarter
to the eye-bolt in the yard-arm. When lowered, the fame,
except the ftop at the eye-bolt. The rigging is taken off
or put on by the men at the maft-head, when the yards are
fwayed up or lowered down.
The MAIN-Top-GALLANT-SAIL, 3, (Plate IV. fig. 2.)
rigs and bends as the former. Bow-lines, 67, reeve
through the fheave-holes in the after-ends of the fore-top-
matt crofs-trees, and lead down upon deck. Sheets, 68,
clue-lines, 69, bunt-lines, 70, Plate Il. fig. 2.
The Mizen-Top-GALLANT-SAIL, It, rigs and bends as
the former. Bow-lines, 72, reeve through the fheave-
holes in the after-end of the main-topmatt crofs-trees.
Rigging and Bending the Royals.
Royals, fore, 8, main, 4, and mizen, 12, (Plate IV.
Jig. 2.) are fet flying; the clues lafhed to the top-gallant
yard-arms. :
When royal matts are ufed, the royals rig fimilar to top-
gallant fails.
Rigging and Bending the Jib and Stay/ails.
Jib, 7, (Plate 1V. fig. 1.) bends to its ftay with hank
and feizings.
Stay, 57, reeves through the upper fheave of the cheek-
block at the fore-topmaft-head, from aft on the ftarboard
fide, then through the hanks, and clinches to the traveller
on the boom; a double block is then turned in the lower
end, and its fall reeves through it; and a fingle block,
lafhed to the after-end of the fore-matt treftle-trees, leads
down upon deck, and belays to the bitts abaft the fore-
matt.
Haliards, 58, reeve through the lower fheave of the
cheek-block at the fore-topmatt-head, from aft on the ftar-
board fide, and bend to the head of the fail. The leading-
part leads abaft the top to the aft part of the forecattle.
Large fhips have a fingle block turned into the lower end
of the haliards, and a whip-fall; the itanding-part makes
faft into the fide.
Sheets, §9.—The bight is bent to the clue of the fail, and
a fingle block turned in each inner end, that reeves a whip-
fall. The itanding-part makes into the fide, and the lead-
ing-part leads in upon the forecaitle, and belays to a timber-
“head, or a cleat before the fhrouds on each fide.
Downhauler, 60, reeves through a {mall block lafhed to
the traveller, then leads upwards through the hanks, and
bends to the head of the jib. The leading-part leads in
upon the forecaftle, ~
Outhauler reeves through a fheave-hole at the outer-end of
the jib-boom, and clinches to the fpan-fhackle of the tra-
veller. The inner end hasa double block turned in, which
reeves with its fall to a fingle block, hooked to an eye-bolt
in the fore part of the bow{prit-cap, and the fall leads in on
the forecaftle. :
Inhauler reeves through a fmall block lafhed on the tra-
veller. The ftanding-part makes faft to an eye-bolt in the
fide of the bowfprit-cap, and the leading-part comes in upon
the forecattle.
The Forr-TopMAst-sTAysalL, 6, (Plate lV. fg. 2.)
bends to its ftay with hanks and feizings. Stay, 62, reeves
through the hanks, then makes faft with a running-eye
round the bowfprit, between the collars and the {pritfail-
yard ; then reeves through the upper fheave of the cheek-
block, at the fore-topmatt-head, on the larboard fide ; the
lower end has a double block turned in, and reeves with its
fall to a fingle block lafhed at the after-end of the fore-maft
treftle-trees, leads upon deck, and belays to the bitts abaft
the fore-maft.
Haliards, 63, reeve through the lower fheave of the
cheek-block at the fore-topmait-head, on the larbeard fide,
and bend to the head of the fail. The leading-part leads
down abaft the top to the after-part of the forecaftle, and
belays to a cleat in the fide.
ap mers aa a poe to the clue of the fail,
and leads through a fingle block, lathe 2
each fide of the forecalt ee ' aM Lin
Downhauler, 65, reeves through a {mall block that lathes
at the tack of the fail, then leads up through the hanks, and
bends to the head of the fail; and the leading-part comes in
upon the forecaftle.,
Outhauler reeves through a block lafhed at the outer end
of the bowfprit ; the ftanding-part makes faft to the tack
of the fail, and the leading-part cemes in upon the fore-
caftle.
Fore-sTaysail, 5, (Plate IV.’ fe. 1.) ben
eeoase tee with pal and anne ) ye an
aliards, 67, reeve through a fingle block bent
head of the fail. The Raiding patnckes faft et the
head of the fore-mait ; and the leading-part reeves through
a block lafhed to the rigging under the top, and leads down
abaft the matt.
Sheets, 68, are doubled, and the bight put throu
clue of the fail; and a fingle block Solel in ——
The ftanding-part of the fall is made fait round a timber-
head on the forecaftle or eye-bolt, and the leading-part comes
in a hg? a plone made faft to the faid eye-bolt.
ack, 69, bends to the tack of the fail, an
tack of the fail to the ftay near the heart. =e
Downhauler, 70, reeves up through the hanks, ben
the head of the fail, a eee a upon renee
through a fingle block lafhed near the tack.
_ Marn-staysalz, 1, (Plate IV. fg. I.) is feldom bent
in fhips but at fea, though commonly in brigs. It bends
to the main-ftayfail ftay with hanks and feizings.
‘ aa 725 Pe its upper ath clinched round the main-maft-
ead above the rigging, and the lower 7
luff-tackle rake oa ees a nay
Haliards, 73, reeve through a fingle block lafhed
head of the fail. The Sarinenest makes faft : ee
main-maft-head, and the leading-part reeves through a
block lafhed to the rigging under the top, and leads down
abaft Spit cha cate block is turned in to the end, and
conneéted, by its » to a fingle block, h
bolt in the fide abaft the maft. 5 ee C-
Sheets, 74, are doubled, the bight is put throu
clue of the fail, and the ends fat eg the bight, en
is {pliced into each end, and the ftanding-part of each fall
makes faft on its refpective fide at the fore part of the
quarter-deck, and the leading-part through a fnatch-block.
a sphen: a luff-tackle is clapt on to bowfe the theets
alt.
Tacks, 75, bend to the tack of the fail, and |
tack of the fail to the foremait, or the bitts abaft a on
Downhauler, 76, reeves up through the hanks, bends
to the head of the fail, and belays to the main-top bow-
line bitts.
MAIN-TOPMAST-sTAYSAIL, 2, (Plate IV. fiz. 1. b
to the main-topmatt preventer-ftay with fan Sh a
ings.
Haliards, 78, reeve from the aftfide through the cheek.
block at the main-topmaft-head on the larboard fide, come
Mm 2 down
RIGGING.
down and bend to the head of the fail.
part reeves through a block in the fide.
Sheets, 79, are doubled, the bight is put through the
clue of the fail, and the ends through the bight. A block
is {pliced in each end, and the ftanding-part of each fall
makes faft on its refpective fide to the boat-ikid beam next
before the quarter-deck, and the leading-parts reeve through
a block on the gunwale abaft the gangway, and belays to a
pin in the boat-fkid beam.
Tacks, 80, are doubled, the bight is put through the
tack of the fail, and the ends reeve through the bight, and
lead through a thimble feized to the lower fhrouds on each
fide ; they lead down and belay to a fhroud-cleat.
Brails, 81, reeve through blocks lafhed to the ftrap of
the main-bowline-block, and through blocks feized to the
topmatt preventer-ftay, at the cat-harpins on each fide, and
then make faft on each fide the fail to a cringle on the after-
leech.
Sheets, 82, are doubled, the bight is put through the
clue of the fail, and the ends through the bight.. A-block
is {pliced in each end, and the ftanding-part of each fall is
made faft on its refpeCtive fide to the boat-fkid beam next
the quarter-deck, and the leading-part reeves through a
block on the gunwale on each fide abaft the gangway.
Tacks, 83, ave doubled, the bight is put through the
tack of the fail, and the ends through the bight, and lead
through a thimble feized on the lower fhrouds on each
fide ; they then lead down and belay to one of the fhroud-
cleats.
MippLeE-sTAYSAIL, 3, (Plate lV. fig. 1.)
middle-ftayfail-ftay with hanks and feizings.
The leading-
bends to the
Stay, 85. ‘The ftanding-past reeves through the hanks,
and makes faft to a thimble feized in a ftrap or grommet
made fait round the fore-topmaft-head, below the parral.
The leading-part reeves through the upper fheave-hole at
the main-topmait-head: a double block is then turned into
the end, and conneéts by its fall with a fingle block, that
lafhes to the main-treftle-trees, and the fall by which it is
fet up leads upon deck abaft the matt.
Haliards, 86, reeve through the lower fheave of the cheek-
block at the main-topmatt-head,.and bend to the head of
the fail ; the other end leads upon deck abaft the matt.
Sheets, 87, are doubled, the bight is put through the
claecof the fail, and the ends'through the bight, and lead
dewn through a block on each fide near the gangway.
Tacks, 88, are doubled, the bight is put through the
tack of the fail, and the ends through the bight, and each
end through a thimble feized in the fore-topmaft-fhrouds,
and belays in the top.
Downhauler, 8g, reeves through a fingle block feized to
~the itay at the nock of the fail, then leads up through the
thanks, and bends to the head of the fail, and the lower end
comes down upon deck abaft the matt.
Tricing-line clinches to the grommet round the fore-tep-
mat, and reeves through a block under the fore-topmait-
crofs-trees, and leads down into the top.
MAIN-TOP-GALLANT-STAYSAIL, 4, (Plate IV. fig. 1.)
bends to the ftay, or main-top-gallant-ftay, in {mall hips,
with hanks and feizings.
Stay,.91. The upper end fplices into the top-gallant-
fay below the rigging, and the lower end reeves through a
thimble feized to the fore-topmaft-crofs-trees, leading down
into the top.
fialiards, 92, reeve through a fheave-hole above the
hounds of the main-top-gallant-maft, and bend to the head
of the fail; the leading-part comes down upon deck, and
delays to the bitté abaft the main-maft.
Sheets, 92, and tacks, 93, as the middle’ ftayfail.
Downhauler, 94, reeves up through the hanks, and
bends to the head of the fail; and the leading-part comes
upon deck abaft the fore-maft.
. Mizen-staysaiz, 8, (Plate IV. fig. 1.) bends to the
mizen-{tay{ail ftay with hanks and feizings.
Stay, 96, hitches round the head of -the mizen-matt,
then reeves through a thimble feized in a collar lafhed
round the main-maft, and fets up with a laniard through a
thimble turned in to the ftay, and an eye-bolt in the deck
abaft the maft.
Haliards, 97, reeve through a- block at the head of
the fail, the ftanding-part makes faft round the mizen-
maft-head, and the leading-part reeves through a block
lafhed to the treftle-trees, and through a block in the fide at
the deck.
Sheets; 98, bend to the clue of the fail with a long and
fhort leg, having a thimble fpliced in the latter. The long
leg reeves through a block in the fide, and through the
thimble in the fhort leg, and belays to the rack at the
fide.
Tack, 99, fplices to the tack of the fail, and lafhes it to
an eye-bolt in the deck abaft the mizen-maft. _..
Downhauler, 100, reeves through a block made. faft to
the collar of the ftay, then upwards through the hanks, and
bends to the head of the fail, and belays to the fore-brace
bitts. : :
Brails, 101; reeve through blocks lafhed on each fide
the collar, then through thimbles in a {trap put through
the fail, and make faft to a cringle: on the after-leech,
The leading-part belays a-breaft of the quarter-deck.
M1zEN-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL, 9, (Plate LV. fig. 1.) bends
to the mizen-topmatt-ftay with hanks and feizings.
Haliards, 103, reeve through the fheaye-hole in the top-
ma{t above the rigging, or through a block lafhed round
the maft-head; one end bends to the head of the fail, the
lower end leads down upon deck abaft the mait.
Sheets, t04, are doubled, the bight put through the
clue of the fail, and the ends through the bight; then
through a thimble feized in the mizen-fhrouds on each fide,
and lead down and belay to a pin in the fhroud-rack.
Tacks, 105, are doubled, the bight put through the tack
of the fail, and the ends through the bight, then through a
thimble feized to the main-topmaft-fhrouds on each fide,
and lead down and belay in the top.
Downhauler, 106, reeves up through the hanks, and
bends to the head of the fail; the lower end leads down
upon deck, and belays at the fore part of the quarter-
deck.
MIzEN-TOP-GALLANT-STAYSAIL, 10, (Plate IV. fig. 1.)
bends to the mizen-top-gallant-ftay with hanks and feiz-
ings.
“Haliard: 108, reeves through the fheave-hole above its
top-gallant-maft hounds; one end bends to the head of
the fail, the lower end leads down upon deck abaft the
matt. : :
Sheets, 109, are doubled, the bight put through the
clue of the fail, and the ends through the bight, and lead
down upon deck through a thimble feized in the mizen-
fhrouds, on each fide near the cat-harpins, and belay to a
pin in the fhroud-rack.
Tacks, 110, bend to the tack of the fail as the theets,
and lead down into the top through a thimble feized in the
main-topmatt-fhrouds on each fide.
Doswnhauler, 111, reeves up through the hanks, and bends
to the head of the fail, the lower end comes into the main-
top, and belays to the top-rail.
Rigging
RIGGING.
Rigging and Bending the Studding-Satls.
* Siudding-fails bend their yards at the head with rope-
bands, the fame as other f{quare fails. ;
Lower fludding-fails, main, 15, ( Plate IV. fig. 2.) Outer
haliards, 61, reeve through a fpan-block hitched round
the lower cap, and through a block at the lower yard-
arm or boom-iron, and bend between the cleats of the
fludding-fail-yard ; the other end leads down upon deck.
Inner haliards, 62, bend to the upper inner cringle on the
head of the fail, then reeve through a tail-block made fat
round the quarter of the lower yard, then through another
block made faft round the yard near the matt, and lead
down upon deck.
Sheets, 63, are doubled, the bight is put over, and the
ends through the inner clue on the foot of the fail ; one leads
forward, and the other aft. ae
Fore-fludding-fail, 18, (Plate 1V. fig. 2.) fets flying, or
with setencat the foot. If HSL ee Root of the fail
f{preads on a yard, that rigs with a {pan clinched round
each yard-arm. A guy is bent to an eye that is crofled
in the middle of the f{pan, and leads aft through a block
lafhed to the main-chains, leads in through a port, and belays
round a cleat in the waift. The fail thus rigged has no
tacks. Booms rig as follow: the hook in the inner end
hooks to an eye-bolt between the fore-chains and Cat-head,
and the hook of the main-ftudding-fail-boom ‘in an eye of
an iron ftrap on the fore part of the main channel; the end
is confined down with a lafhing to the chain-plates; the
inner end of the fore-boom is confined down with a tackle,
made faft round the inner end of the boom, and the lower
block is hooked to an eye-bolt in the wale; the guy
clinches round the middle of the boom, reeves through a
block lafhed round the fpritfail-yard, and leads in upon the
forecaitle.
TopMAstT-sTUDDING-SAILS, Main, 16, Fore, 19, (P/.1V.
fig. 2.) Haliards, 90, 91, reeve through a block in
the {pan round the topmatt-head, under the cap, and
through the jewel-block, at the outer end of the top-
fail-yard-arm, and bend to the topmatt-ftudding-fail-yard ;
the other end leads down upon deck, and belays to the
bitts next the maift.
Sheets are doubled, the bight is put through the inner
clue, and the ends through the bight. The after-fheet, 92,
of the fure-topmaft-ftudding-fail leads in abaft the fore-
fhrouds, and the fore-fheet, 93, leads in upon the forecaftle.
The after-fheet, 94, of the main-topmatt-ttudding-fail leads
down to the quarter-deck, and the fore-fheet, 95, upon the
gangway.
Tacks, 73, bend to the outer clue of the fail, reeve
through a block lafhed to the outer end of the boom, and
lead aft through a block at the gangway. Tack, 74,
of the main-topmalt-itudding-fail leads in upon the after-
part of the quarter-deck through a block lafhed upon the
quarter.
Downhauler, 75, reeves through a block lafhed to the
outer clue of the fail, and through a thimble on the outer
leech: itis then made fatt to the topmafl-itudding-fail-yard,
juft within the earing, and leads into the waitt.
The Booms, 76, 77, are run out by the tackles. The
ftrap of the double-block makes fa{t through a hole in the
heel of the boom, and the“outer block to the boom-iron,
and the fall leads along the yard. On the middle of the
boom is faftened a Eines or a ftrap with a thimble, to
which is hooked the top-burton-tackle, to fupport the boom
in the middle.
Tor-GALLANT-STUDDING-SAILS; fore, 20, main,
I7,
(Plate IV. fig. 2.) . Haliard reeves through a block feized
round the, head of the top-gallant-maft, aboye the hounds
or rigging, then through the jewel-block, ftrapt with a
thimble through an eretals at the ends of the top-gallant-
yards, and bends to the top-gallant-{tudding-fail-yard ; the
other end Jeads down the mait into the top. 5
Sheets, 80, are doubled, the bight is put through the
lower inner clue of the fail, and the ends through the bight ;
one end leads forward, and makes faft to the quarter of the
topfail-yard, and the other end leads into the top, and belays.
to the topmait-fhrouds. ;
Tacks, 81, bend to the outer clue of the fail, and reeve
through athimble in a ftrap round the outer end of the top-
mait-ftudding-fail-boom ; and in merchant fhips that have
no boom, through a thimble ina {trap round the outer yard-
arm of the topmaft-itudding-fail. The fore-top-galiant-_
ftudding-fail-tack leads aft to the main-chains, and the main
leads to the quarter-piece.
Downhauler, 82, makes faft to the outer yard-arm within
the earing, and leads down into the top.
Rigging and Bending the Spritfail-Courfe.
The fpritfail-courfe, 13, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) bends to its
yard as the fore-courfe.
Sheets, double, $4, reeve through a block feized to the
clue of the fail; the ttanding-part clinches to an eye-bolt in
the bow, and the leading-part comes in on the forecaitle.
Sheets, fingle, bend to the clue of the fail, and lead in-
board.
Clue-lines, 85, reeve through the blocks upon the yard,
and bend or reeve through a block at the clue of the fail,
and lead in upon the forecaftle.
Bunt-lines, double, 86, reeve through the block on the
yard, and clinch to the cringles at the foot of the fail, and
lead in upon the forecaftle.
Bunt-lines, fingle, reeve through a block in the flings of
the yard, and clinch with legs to the cringles in the foot of
the fail, and lead in upon the forecaftle.
Rigging and Bending the Spritfail-Topfail.
The fpritfail-topfail, 14, (Plate IV. fig. 2.) bends to
the yard with lacing and earings.
Sheets, 88, reeve through the fheet-block at the f{pritfail-
yard-arm, and hook to the clue of the fail, and lead in upon
the forecaftle, through a block lafhed on each fide of the
bowfprit.
Clue-lines, 89, the fame as the fpritfail.
Rigging and Bending the Driver or Spanker-fail, 11,
Plate IV. fig. 1.
This failis only ufed occafionally, and is bent or hoifted
in a temporary manner, thus; it is made faft at the peek, 113,
aad nock, 114, with an earing, as the mizen, and makes fait
to the yard and gaff with four or five pairs of haliards, that
reeve through blocks made faft with tails round the yard
and gaff, one end of the haliard being bent to the head
of the fail. The throat-haliards, 115, reeve with a
double and fingle block: the former is made faft round
the maft-head, and the latter hooks to the nock-cringle on
the fail.
Sheet, 116, reeves through a block or fheave-hole at the
outer end of the boom, and bends to the clue of the fail ;
a luff-tackle is cat’s-pawed to the other end of the fheet ; the
inner block hooks to the taffarel, and the fall leads in upon
the quarter-deck. When this failis bent to the mait, yard,
or gaff; inftead ‘of the mizen, it bends exactly the fame,
only the foot of the fail is extended on the boom, as above.
Tack,
RIG
Tack, 114, is fet tight with 2 luff-tackle, that hooks to
the cringle in the tack of the fail, and to an eye-bolt in the
throat of the boom.
Downhauler, 118, reeves through a block made faft to
the middle of the driver-yard, and leads down to the
taffarel.
Rigging of Snows, Brigs, &c.
A Snow has her fails and rigging on,the fore and main-
ma{t, fimilar to thofe on the fame maft in a fhip. The
braces of the yards on the main-maft Jead forward. The
tryfail abaft the main-maft bends to the tryfail-maft, fimilar
to the mizen of a fhip.
Vellels in the navy refembling {hows have a rope-horfe,
that fets up abaft the main-matt, with dead-eyes and a laniard,
to an eye-bolt in the deck, to which the tryfail is bent by
hanks and feizings, fimilar to the tryfail of a {now.
Brigs.—The rigging of a brig differs little from the fore
and main-maft of a fhip ; the braces of yards on the main-
matt lead forward. The after-main-fhroud is ferved from
the maft-head to the dead-eye, to prevent its being chafed by
the main-boom and gaff. The after-backftay is fitted with a
tackle, that it may be flackened when the main-fail jibes, or
is bow{ed forward by the boom-pendant and tackle.
Boom-ToppiNnG-LirT is taken up on the ftarboard fide, and
reeved through an iron-bound block, hooked to the upper
eye-bolt on the aftfide of the main-maft-head, then leads
down and reeves through a block at the after-end of the
boom: The ftanding-part clinches round, the maft-head, or
hooks to an eye-bolt near the block ; the leading-part comes
down and has a double block fpliced or turned in, that con-
neéts by its fall to a fingle block that hooks to an eye-bolt in
the after-part of the channel. Sometimes it has the addition
of a runner.
Main-fbeet reeves through a double block, ftrapped
round the boom within the taffarel, and through another
double block, {trapped round the horfe infide the taffarel,
and belays to’alarge cleat, or the pin in the fheet-block of
{mall veffels.. Large veflels fometimes have a treble block
on the horfe.
Tack-tackle has the double block faftened to the tack of
the fail, and conneéts with its fall to a fingle block hooked
to an eye-bolt in the deck.
Guy-pendants have a hook and thimble, that hook in a
thimble of a {trap on the boom, juft without the main-fheet-
block. Inthe inner end of the pendant, is a thimble or
long-eye {pliced, to which is hooked a luff-tackle, which is
hooked to an eye-bolt in the fide before the maft, and the
fall leads in-board.
Garr-TOPPING-LIFT rigs fimilar to the boom above, only
it has a {pan upon the gaff, and the block at the maft-head
hooks to the eye-bolt, next below the boom-topping-lift ;
and the
Haliard conneéts it to an eye-bolt in the deck or fide, the>
fame as the boom.
Inner tye is fimilar to the above, and hooks to an eye-
bolt in the jaws of the gaff, then reeves through an iron-
bound block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in the maft-head
below the above. It has a double block fpliced or turned in
to the lower end, and fets up by the haliards, the lower
block hooking to an eye-bolt on the oppofite fide to the tye
above.
Peek-downbauler reeves through a {mall block, ftrapped
with a thimble to the eye-bolt at the outer end of the gaff,
and belays round a cleat under the boom.
Throat-downhauler reeves through a block at the nock of
¢he fail, and leads down the aftfide of the matt.
RIG
Marn-saiL bends at the head to the gaff with lacing
and earings, and is feized to the hoops round the maf,
through the holes in the fore-leech.
Throat-dowrhauler.—The double block hooks to an eye-
bolt under the throat of the gaff, that conneéts by its fall to -
a fingle block hooked to the thimble, feized in the bight of
a ftrap round the matt under the boom faddle.
Sheet-rope {plices in the clue of the fail, and reeves through
a fheave-hole in the boom; and athimble is turned in to the
inner end, to which hooks the fheet or luff-tackle, and the
inner block to a {trap round the boom near the jaws. When
the fail is hove out, it is laflied with an earing through the
clue, and an eye-bolt in the boom-end.
Tricing-line reeves through a {mall block made faft to an
eye-bolt in the throat of the gaff; one end {plices to the tack
of the fail, the other end leads down upon deck, and belays
to a cleat on the matt.
Rigging of Cutters or Veffels with one Maft.
The different articles before the matt rig fimilar to thips
and the fhrouds, boom, &c. as the brigs. :
Garr-Topsait laces to a {mall gaff at the head.
Haliardsreeve througha fheave-holeat the top-gallant-matt-
head, and bend to the inner quarter of the gaff; the leading-
part comes down upon deck.
Topping-lift reeves through a fheave-hole, or fmaill block,
feized to the top-gallant-head, then through a thimble or
{mall block feized at the outer end of the gaff; the ftand-
ing-part clinches round the top-gallant-maft-head above
oF ds aa oo and the leading-part comes down upon
eck. ;
Sheet reeves through a thimble feized at the peek of the
main-fail, and bends to the clue of the fail, and leads down
upon deck, n
‘ Tack makes faft to the tack of the fail, a little above the ~
rigging.
Saveall topfail.—The clues lafh near the lift-block of the
crofs-jack-yard.
Haliards bend to the earings of the fail, and reeve
through a block on each quarter of the topfail-yard, and
lead down upon deck.
RinGTatiL-saiL bends to a fmall yard on the head, and
is hoifted by the peek-downhauler, abaft the main-fail. The
foot is expanded on a {mall boom, or fpar, lafhed to the
outer end of the main-boom.
Warer-sait bends on the head to a {mall yard.
Haliards reeve through a {mall block lafhed under the
outer end of the main-boom, and make faft to the middle of
the yard, and the leading-part belays round a cleat on the
taffarel.
Sheets make faft to the clues of the fail, and lead in over
the quarters.
Mizen is fet: on a {mall maft over the ftern. If a
{quare-fail, it bends to a yard at the head, and is hoifted by
a haliard reeved through a fheave-hole at its maft-head, and
is {pread by /heets at the foot. If a {pritfail, its fore-leech
bends to the maft with. grommets, and is {fpread or peeked
with a {prit, and the foot hauls aft by the fheet to a fmall
boom.
Riaceine, Serving the. See Riccina.
RIGHT, Recrum, in Logic and Ethics.
In this fenfe the word ftands oppofed to wrong, erroneous,
falle, &c.
Ricut, in Geometry, fomething that ‘lies evenly, without
inclining or bending: one way. or another.
Thus, a right line is that whofe feveral points all tend the
fame way, or which lies evenly between its extremes.
9 tn
RiG
In this fenfe, right fignifies as much as /fraight, and ttands
oppofed to curved or crooked.
Rieutr Angle. See ANGLE.
- In this fenfe, the word right ftands oppofed to oblique.
Ricut-Angled is underltood of a figure, when its fides
are at right angles, or ftand perpendicularly one upon an-
other.
This fometimes holds in all the angles of the figure, as in
{quares and re€tangles ; fometimes only in part, as in right-
angled triangles,
Rieutr Cone. See Cone.
Rigur-Lined Angle. See ANGLE.
Ricurt Sine. See Sine. The word here ftands contra-
diftinguifhed to ver/ed.
Ricur Ajeenfion, in Afironomy. See ASCENSION.
Ricur Afeenfion, Angle of. See ANGLE.
Ricut Afeenfion, Parallax of. See PARALLAX.
Ricut Defcenfion. See Descension.
Ricur Defcenfion, Parallax of. See PARALLAX.
Ricurt Sphere is that where the equator cuts the horizon
at right angles : or, that in which the poles are in the horizon,
and the equator is in the zenith.
Such is the pofition of the {phere with regard to thofe
who live dire&ly under the equator. The confequences of
which pofition are, that they have no latitude, nor elevation
of the pole. They can fee nearly both poles of the world ;
all the ftars rife, culminate, and fet, with them; and the
fun always rifes and defcends at right angles to their horizon,
and makes their days and nights equal.
In a right {phere the horizon is a meridian; and, if the
{phere be fuppofed to revolve, all the meridians fucceflively
become horizons, one after another.
Ricut Circle, in the Stereographical Pryedion of the
Sphere, is a circle at right angles tothe plane of projection,
or that which paffes through the eye. See ProsEcTIon.
Ricur Sailing is when a voyage is, performed on fome one
of the four cardinal points.
If a fhip fail under the meridian, that is, on the north or
fouth points, fhe varies not in longitude at all, but only
changes the latitude, and that juft fo much as the number of
degrees fhe has run.
If a thip fail under the equinoétial upon the very eaft or
welt points, fhe alters not her latitude at all, but only changes
the longitude, and that juit fo much as the number of
degrees fhe hath run. ,
If the fail dire&ily eat or weft, under any parallel, fhe
there alfo altereth not her latitude, but only the longitude ;
yet that not according to the number of degrees of the great
circle fhe hath failed in, as under the equinoétial, but more
according as the parallel is remoter from the equinoétial to-
wards the pole. For the lefs any parallel is, the greater is
the difference of longitude. _ 4
Rieur, Jus, in Law, fignifies not only a property, for
which a writ of right lies, but alfo any title or claim, either
“By virtue of a condition, mortgage, or the like, for which
no action is given by law, but only an entry.
Such are jus proprietatis, a right of property ; jus poffe/-
Jfionis, aright of pofleflion; and jus proprietatis et poffe/fionis,
a right both of property and pofleffion.
This laft was formerly called jus duplicatum. As if a
man be diffeifed of an acre of land, the diffeiflee has jus pro-
prietatis ; the diffeifor hath jus poffe/fionis ; and, if the difleifee
“eal the diffeifor, he hath jus preprietatis of poffeffionis.
ee Jus.
Ricut, Hereditary. See HereviTary,
Ricut, Petition of. See Petition.
Ricut, Pretenfed. See PRerENSED.
RIG
Rreut of Reformation. See KevorMation.
Ricut, Writ of. See Writ and Recro.
Rrear in Court. See Recrus in Curia.
Ricur Difillation. See DisvitLarion.
RIGHTING, in Sea Language, denotes the a&t of
reftoring a {hip to her upright pofition, after fhe has been
laid on acareen. This is generally the natural effect of
catting loofe the careening pullies, by which fhe had been
drawn down. But it is fometimes neceflary to apply me-
chanical powers to right the fhip in fuch a fituation; and
the principal of thefe are the relieving tackles.
A fhip is faid alfo to right at fea, when fhe rifes with her
maits ereéted, after having been preft down on one fide by
the effort of her fails, or a heavy fquall of wind. Falconer.
RicuvineG, when exprefled of the Ae/m, implies the re-
placing it amidfhips, after it has been put over to the fide
in tacking or otherwife.
RIGHTS, Bill of, in Law, is a declaration, delivered
by the lords and commons to the prince and princefs of
Orange, February, 13 1688; and afterwards enaéted in
parliament, when they became king and queen. This de-
claration fets forth, that king James II. did, by the affift-
ance of divers evil counfellors, endeavour to fubvert the
laws and liberties of this kingdom, by exercifing a power
of difpenfing with and fufpending of laws; by levying mo-
ney for the ufe of the crown, by pretence of prerogative,
without confent of parliament ; by profecuting thofe who
petitioned the king, and difcouraging petitions; by raifing
and keeping a itanding army, in time of peace; by violat-
ing the freedom of election of members to ferve in parlia-
ment ; by violent profecutions in the court of king’s bench;
and caufing partial and corrupt jurors to be returned on
trials, exceffive bail to be taken, exceffive fines to be im-
pofed, and cruel punifhments inflicted ; all which were de-
clared to be illegal. And the declaration concludes in thefe
remarkable words, ‘¢ And they do claim, demand, and infift
upon, all and fingular the premifes, as their undoubted
rights and liberties.” And the act of parliament itfelf
(1 W. & M. ftat. 2. cap. 2) recogrizes “ all and fingular
the rights and liberties aflerted and claimed in the faid de-
claration to be the true, ancient, and indubitable rights of
the people of this kingdom.”
RIGIACUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Belgic
Gaul, and capital of the Attrebatii. Ptolemy.
RIGID Margie. See Maxsee.
RIGIDITY, among Philofophers, a brittle hardnefs ; or
that kind of hardnefs fuppofed to arife from the mutual in-
dentation of the component particles within one another.
Rigidity is oppofed to ductility, malleability, &c.
RIGLAND, in Geagraphy, a town of Germany, in the
margraviate of Anfpach; 7 miles N. of Anfpach.
RIGLET. See Recuer.
RIGNAC, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Redes; 12 miles W.N.W. of Rodes. The place
contains 851, and the canton 7182 inhabitants, on a territory
of 2024 kiliometres, in 16 communes.
RIGNEY, a town of France, in the department of the
Doubs; 10 miles N.E. of Befargon.
Ricyey /e Seron, a town of France, in the department
of the Aube; 6 miles N.W. of Ervy. N. lat. 48° 12’.
E. long. 3° 43’.
RIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre and Loire; 6 miles N.N.E. of Chinon.
RIGO, a {mall ifland in the Welt Indies, near the N.W.
coalt of Porto Rico. ’
RIGODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bri-
tain,
RIG
tain, in the country of the Brigantes, placed by Camden
and Baxter at Ribchefter in Lancafhire ; but Horfley prefers
Manchefter or Warrington. See RrecHeEsTER.
RIGOLL, or Recats, a kind of mufical inftrument,
confifting of feveral fticks bound’ together, only feparated
by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being well ftruck
with a ball at the end of a ftick.
Such is the account which Graffineau gives of this inftru-
ment. 2
Skinner, upon the authority of an old Englifh diGionary,
reprefents it as a clavichord, or clarichord ; poflibly found-
ing his opinion on the nature of the office of the tuner of
the regals, who {till fubfifts in the eftablifhment of the king’s
chapel at St. James’s, and whofe bufinefs is‘to keep the
organ of the chapel royal in tune; and not knowing that
fuch wind inftruments as the organ need frequent tuning, as
well as the clavichord and other ftringed inftruments.
Sir Henry Spelman derives the word rigol from the Italian
rigabello, a mufical inftrument, anciently ufed in churches
inftead of the organ.
Walther, in his defcription of the regal, makes it to be a
reed-work in an organ, with metal and alfo wooden pipes,
and bellows, adapted to it. And he adds, that the name
of it is fuppofed to be owing to its having been prefented
by the inventor to fome king.
From an account of the regal, ufed in Germany, and
other parts of Europe, it appears to confift of pipes and
keys on one fide, and the bellows and wind-cheft on the
other..
We may add, that lord Bacon (Nat. Hift. cent. ii. § 102.)
diftinguifhes between the regal and organ, in a manner
which fhews them to be inftruments of the fame clafs.
Upon the whole there is reafon to conclude, that the regal,
or rigol, was a pneumatic, and not a ftringed inftrument.
Merfennus relates that the Flemings invented an inftru-
ment, /es regales de bois, confifting of feventeen cylindrical
pieces of wood, decreafing gradually in length, fo as to
produce a fucceflion of tones and femitones in the diatonic
feries, which had keys, and was played on asa fpinnet ; the
hint of which, he fays, was taken from an inftrument in ufe
among the Turks, confifting of twelve wooden cylinders, of
different lengths, ftrung together, which, being fufpended,
and ftruck with a flick, having a ball at the end, produced
mufic. Hawkins’s Hitt. Muf. vol. ii. p. 449. See Recatr.
RIGOMAGUS, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Li-
guria, at a {mall diftance N. of Atta.
RIGOR, in Medicine, a shivering, or the flight convulfive
tremors, attended by a fenfation of cold, which occur either
from aétual expofure to cold, or from that condition of the
body which ufually precedes a paroxy{m of fever, or which,
it fhould rather be faid, conflitutes one of the firft fymp-
toms of a febrile paroxy{m. (See Frver.) There is often
no abfolute diminution of the heat in the body, when this
fenfation of cold, and even actual fhivering, with a difpofi-
tion to fit near a fire, or to be loaded with blankets, occur.
It arifes, therefore, from fome peculiar affeCtion of the brain
and nervous fy{ftem, and not from actual deficiency of heat.
This is farther proved by the circumitance, that a fimilar
tremor, or rigor, is capable of being temporarily excited by
certain impreffions upon the fenforium ; as by certain fights,
or even thoughts, that excite horror: whence, indeed, the
word horror is applied by medical writers in nearly the fame
fenfe with rigor.
Rigor, or chiilinefs, precedes or commences the attack
of almoft all febrile and inflammatory difeafes; whence the
vulgar, miftaking the firft fymptom for the caufe, afcribe
all thefe difeafes to the agency of cold, the operation of
MU AAG,
which they conceive to have been accomplifhed at the time
when the rigor occurred. It takes place at the beginning
of quinfey, pleurify, peripneumony, and all the organic
inflammations ; at the commencement of almoft all fevers ;
and at each fuch fucceflive paroxyfm or even exacerbation
of intermittent, remittent, and heétic fevers: it conftitutes _
the moft ftriking feature, indeed, of the intermittent fever,
which is hence called the ague by the common people, in
contradiftin€tion from the fever, or hot fit, which enfues.
The tremor and clattering of the teeth are often fo great,
indeed, in the cold fit of an ague, as to fhake the bed
and its furniture about the patient. It made even Cefar
tremble.
«© He had a fever when he was in Spain,
And, when the fit was on him, I did mark
How he did hake: ’tis true, this god did fhake.’?
; Shak{peare.
The rigor is a fymptom {till more notorious in pathology,
as having been the foundation of Dr. Cullen’s whole theory
of fever. That phyfician maintained, that the rigor, or
cold fit, having been produced by the fedative influence of
the common caufes cf fever on the brain, became itfelf the
caufe of the fucceeding hot and /weating ftages, by roufing
the heart and arteries to greater ations, in order to throw
back the load of blood into the extreme veffels, which had
been driven to the centre by the conitriction of the latter,
while the rigor lated. The reader will find this doétrine
ftated, and refuted, under the article Fever, and the head
Cullenian Theory. It is not difficult to thew, refpetiing this,
as well as the vulgar opinion, that the rigor, like the heat,
and the fweating, is one in the chain of eféés, and not a
caufe of the phenomena which enfue. But it would be
equally difficult to explain the immediate caufe of any of
them.
RIGOSA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Serio; 3 miles N.N.W. of Bergamo.
RIGOURISTS, in Leckfiaftical Hiffory. See Jan-
SENISM.
RIGUSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonenfis, belonging to the Carpetani. Ptolemy.
RIK, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Trak ; 12 miles N. of Ifpahan.
RIKEBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Bregentz ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Bregentz.
RIKIKES, a town of Thibet; 35 miles S. of Deu-
rag.
: RIL, a town of Africa, in Darfur; 60 miles S.S.E. of -
Cobbé. !
RILANDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Upland; 28 miles N.E. of Stockholm.
RILEY, Joun, in Biography, a portrait painter, and the
beft which England had produced prior to fir Jofhua Rey-
nolds. He was born in London in 1646. After the death
of Lely he obtained very confiderable efteem and em-
ployment. He painted the portraits of king Charles II.,
James II. and his queen, and was appointed by James ftate~ -
painter. His ftyle is compofed from Vandyke and Lely,
and his execution is free and maiterly, and bears‘an air of
originality. He died in 1691, at the age of 45.
RILL, or Rivurer. See River.
Ritz, in Agriculture, a {mai! runlet of water, moftly
rifing on the fides of {mall hills or declivities. In many
fituations they may be converted to ufeful purpofes in huf-
bandry, fuch as the irrigation of pafture or meadow lands
that he below their levels; the fupplying of grafs grounds
with water, for the purpofes of live-ftock; and the afford.
3 ing
RILLS.
ing it to towns and villages, in dry or other fituations where
itt fcarce. See Tense ioe Warerine of Land, and
following article.
ao “Ariifcials fuch as have been formed or made by
means of art. It has been remarked, that the practice of
conttruéting rivulets of this fort for f{upplying water is pe-
culiar to a few diftri€ts of this country, as Yorkfhire and
weft Devonfhire, in the latter of which they have been
made ufe of time immemorial in bringing what, in the fimple
language of the diftriét, is termed “ pot-water”’ to the
farm-houfes, and the hamlets of cottages in upland fituations ;
an excellent expedient, which is fuppofed applicable in many
other parts of the ifland, but which, except in the cafe of
Yorkshire, has hitherto been confined to that extreme part
he country.
ef pee in fomsind thefe forts of rills in their original diltrict,
it is obferved by Mr. Marfhall, that one which fupplies the
houfe with water, alfo a drinking-pool near the yard, and
in the natural courfe of it conveying it through a ftraw
yard, a trough is placed acrofs it for the ufe of the yard
cattle ; and which has, likewife, been for a vaft length of
time led over fome grafs land, which lies below the yards,
on the principle of the float and drain. But that although
this rill is feldom, if ever, dried up, leading it along the fides
of the valley, through upland inclofures, which are deftitute
of water for ftock, and their value of courfe thereby much
depreciated, does not appear to have been thought of. In
the courfe of the fummer of 1792, being defirous to know if
this rill could be carried through an intended fuite of yards
on the fide of the valley, he took the level, and found not
only that object to be attainable, but alfo that it might be
led with eafe into two waterlefs fields which lie above thefe
yards 5 and, through them, into four or five more (equally
in want of water for ftock) fituated beyond them. It is
added that, in afcertaining thefe facts, he made ufe- of a
mafon’s long level inverted, a plummet-hole being previoufly
cut in the head of the itandard; the crown of which being
fet upon the ground, the arms of the level were fteadied by
rods in the horizontal pofition; and a carpenter’s rule held
acrofs another rod, fet up, at as great a diftance as a clear
fight would admit of, and at a height upon the ftaff equal
to the height of the level. Finding this a moit fimple and
perfe& initrument, but difficult to adjuft, by reafon of its
inftability, he has fince had a frame-/evel made on the fame
principle ; namely, with a ttraight edge, or top rail, anfwer-
ing to the bafe-board of the long level, with a broad piece
falling down from the middle of it, anfwering to the ftandard ;
and with two end-pieces or legs, to fuperfede the ufe of the
rods, together with a bottom rail, eight or nine inches from
the ground, and with diagonal braces to keep the whole
firm, and prevent the middle or plumb-line from getting out
of the {quare with the {traight edge of the top rail ; which
is feven or eight feet long, and the height about four feet.
He thinks that half a rod long, and a quarter of a rod
high, are eligible dimenfions when great accuracy is required,
But a fhorter length, as one-third of a rod, is more handy.
And, as an improvement of the rule and rod, he has con-
trived a cro/s-/laf/; namely, a flip of thin deal, abput five
feet and a half long, with a crofs-piece about two feet long
and three inches wide, fixed in the edge of it, at the exact
height of the level; the top of the itaff rifing twelve or
eighteen inches above the upper edge of the crofs-piece, that
the hand of the perfon who holds it up may not interfere
with the view. This crofs-piece fhould be of white wood, as
deal, or be painted white, that it may be more diftinétly
feen at a diftance. With this implement the flowing level
may be well afcertained.
Vou, XXX. ,
And it is obferved that, in order to afcertain the proper
fall of a rill of this intention, he previoufly took the run
ning level of the ancient floating /eat of the meadow, and
finding its fall irregular, he took it in two places where the
variations were greateft. In the firft, the fall was twenty-
feven inches in one hundred and ten feet ; which is nearly
one inch; or one foot of fall to ft y inches, or fifty feet, m
length. In this part the current is in a degree rapid ; the
fall much too great for the general intention. ‘The fall in
one hundred and ten feet of the other part is barely ‘fix
inches ; which is only one meafure of perpendicular height
to two hundred and twenty of horizontal length. © But in
this part the motion is too fluggifh; the furface of the
water is nearly {mooth ; barely dimpling 3 No ripple or agi-
tation appears. The fall is evidently too little for a water
courfe, nm which there is not a conitant {tream. He has
therefore fixed upon one meafure in a hundred, as the
proper fall of a water-courfe, into which water is occa-
fionally thrown for the purpefes of watering lands, filling
drinking-pools, citterns, and other fimilar purpofes. And
in order to adjuit the level to this defcent, he meafured one
hundred feet in length, and having nicely afcertained the
dead level, he deprefled the range of the top bar one foot
below the upper edge of the crofs-piece of the {taff, and,
while in that pofition, he marked the fituation of the
plumb-line on the face of the level, the plummet-hole being
made wide for this purpofe ; thus fixing the flowing level.
And with this defcent, he has traced a line from an intended
refervoir, and from point to point, through the fields of one
fide of the farm, and finds that it reaches, even with this
defcent, within every field; and that three-fourths, or a
larger proportion, of the furface are capable of being
floated from this intended pool. With the view of feeing
the actual motion of water falling one in a hundred, he has
had fifty yards of the upper end of the line opened, and finds
the current fully fufficient ; a lively rippling ftream, more
active, perhaps, than is neceflary. But the leakage bein
the lefs the quicker the water moyes, it may, he thinks, be
fafely concluded that one foot of fall in a hundred feet
length is nearly the proper degree that is required.
And in the fame cafe he has, by the fame means, alfo
found that, from a fimilar refervoir formed near the fource
of the rill, water might be conveyed to every field, and
almoft every acre of the oppofite fide of the farm, which
is a matter of great confequence. It is fuggetted, that the
ufes of thefe refervoirs will be thofe of having in readinefs,
during the fummer months, when the rill is weak, a body
of water to throw into drinking-pools, cifterns, &c. ; a weak
current turned into a dry trench is abforbed by its per-
forations and fiffures, for fome time, at leaft, after it is
turned in ; whereas a body of water, rufhing quickly along
it, not only in part efcapes abforption, but tends to fill u
the leaks ; and, in winter, thefe refervoirs will be ufeful in
{couring the trenches, and in hoarding up bodies of water
for the purpofe of irrigation, or other fimilar ufes. In the
fetting out of thefe rills, he has laid the head or upper end of
each, from two to three feet below the intended furfaces of
their refpective refervoirs, when full. Hence, by the means
of a portcullis flood-gate, a body of water two or three
feet deep, and the whole extent of the furfaces of the
bafons, may be poured into the rills, fafter or flower, as
may be requifite. And in a fubfequent minute it is ftated,
that difficulties were met with in conduCiing a rill through
an open grove of trees, but which were overcome in the
following manner ; having, by means of the frame level and
crofs, aicertamed the general defcent, or flowing level,
‘through the whole extent of the grove ; and having, in this
Nn operation,
RILLS.
operation, gained a general idea of the requifite direGtion of
the rill, by means of {takes placed at the feveral itations of
the crofs-{taff, wherever clear views could be caught through
the openings between the trees, the intermediate {paces
between the {takes were traced by the eye, fo as to endeavour
to follow the natural level of the ground, without forming
abrupt bends in the channel: parrying between the two.
And that the fuppofed line being thus fet out, the furface
of the ground was cleared two or three feet wide on either
fide of it, from leaves and other incumbrances, and the
top foil removed for manure; thus making a hollow path-
way through the grove, four or five feet wide. The next
operation was to level this pathway, which was likewife
done by the eye, from {take to ftake; paring off the pro-
tuberances, and cafting or wheeling them into the hollows
to fillthemup. Then in order to come at the true line, and
to render the flowing level perfectly uniform, a narrow
athlet, the width of the {pade, was formed on the upper
fide of the broad pathway. ‘This pathlet was formed with
the frame level in hand, finking trenches in the full protu-
berating parts, and raifing banklets in the hollows; thus
fixing the exaét flowing level at each level’s length, and, at
the fame time, forming the face or lower fide of it, in fuch
manner as to eafe the bends, and give a fmooth flowing line
to the rill or runlet of the water. And further, in order to
bring the bufinefs of forming the bed of the rill to a cer-
tainty, and thereby to render any further fuperintendance
unneceflary, yet to. prevent error in the execution, he formed
a gauge for the labourers to work by ; which confifted of a
board, forming the fegment of a circle; the chord or
greateft length being three feet, the greateft depth twelve
inches. This gives the dimenfions of the bed of the rill.
To keep the bottom of it exaétly true to the flowing level,
fo that the current ftream may be perfectly uniform, it 1s
fixed under a mafon’s fhort level; the end of one of the
arms projecting three or four inches beyond one end of the
auge. And the trench being funk to nearly its proper
depth, by the eye kept on the adjulted margin, the pro-
jecting end of the level is placed on the fame marginal guide,
and the plummet-line being brought to the perpendicular,
(and the bafe of the level of courfe rendered horizontal, )
the bottom of the trench is finifhed with certainty.
Upon having the water turned into the upper part of the
trench thus formed, by two common labourers, who never
before, perhaps, took a level in their hands, the current was
found not only defirable as to defeent, but perfectly unt-
form, without alteration. And hence the practicability and
certainty of this method of forming the channels of rills,
as well as the eligibility of one meafure in a hundred, for
the defcent or fall, are fully afcertained. It is obferved
that the above dimenfions are the moft proper for the part
palling under trees, as being liable to fill up, by leaves and
{mall twigs; but in open land, liable to be trodden by cattle,
four feet in width, and eight inches deep is better, the lower
fide being made broad and flatly convex to prevent treading
in, being turfed over with the {ods removed.
But in refpect to the Yorkfhire rills, the fame writer re-
marks that the heights of the northern margin have neither
fprings nor rivulets (fome very few inftances excepted), nor
any other natural waters than the brooks which wind at the
bottom of the deep vallies that divide them, and the rivulets
which generally run at the feet of the precipices that ter-
minate them. That formerly thefe brooks and rivulets were
the only refources which the villages that are {cattered on
thefe heights had for water, bcsh for the ufe of cattle and
for domeltic purpofes. But that in procefs of time wells
were funk, but they are of fuch a depth as to make the
labour of raifing the water little lefs than that of fetching
it from a moderate diftance. Of courfe that this kind of
natural neceffity has led to an expedient which, though not
new in principle, is perhaps entirely fo in fimplicity of exe-
cution, and might be pra¢tifed with great advantage in many
fimilar fituations. Foras the moorland mountains rife witli
generally an eafy afcent, from the beds of the rivulets laft-
mentioned, to a height much exceeding that of the hills té
be watered, frequently abounding with {prings almoft to
their higheft fwells, thefe fprings are colleéted and con-
ducted by a narrow channel down the flope of the mountain
fides, and along the face of the precipice, until the fummit
be gained; the waters being thence conveyed to the place
or places defired. It is ftated that, in planning an artificial
rill, alevel, and fome little knowledge of the country are.
as has been feen, the requifite guides. ‘The furveyor begins
at the place.to which the water is required to be brought
and afcertains the loweft part of the brink of the prec taiee
from which water can be conduéted. ‘The face of the pre-
cipice 1s traced in like manner ; and, if neceflary, the afcent
of the moorland hills, until {prings, or their natural rills, can
be commanded. And that if his level bring him to the
bottom of the fteep foon enough to catch the rivulet which
runs at its foot, the work is readily completed. If not, he
goes above its higheft bend, generally to the head or higheft
part of the valley (between the heights and the moorlands)
and winds along the fide of the oppofite {well to fome more
elevated fource. And if, when he arrives on the moorland
hills (or, by an obfervation from the top of the precipice, )
he finds that nature does not furnifh the requifite quantity GE
water high enough to give the neceflary fall, the work is, of
courfe, impracticable. i
But inregard tothe manner of executing an artificial rill
in this part, an opening fhallow channel, of a width pro-
portioned to the quantity of water to be conduéted, is the
main operation. In making ftagnant pools, it has been
found that much art is neceflary to make them retentive
but in forming the bed of a rill no fuch art is requinte.
It is the nature of running waters to render the furface a
which they run firm and retentive. Sand is, he believes
the chief material ufed in forming the channels of thefe rills 4
and this only in places where an open rock or other porous
ftratum is croffed. But much depends on the quantity of
fall and the quantity of water. If the fall be but little
and the quantity of water at the fource be fuch as not is
admit of much wafte, great care is requifite in forming the
bed of the rill. he fall is therefore regulated in a great
degree by the quality of the ground. On good ground the
channel is nearly level. Over faulty ground the water runs
with a current for the double purpofe of getting quickly
over it, and rendering its channel more retentive. Phe cir-
cumftances from which injuries are produced in thefe rills
are leaves in autumn and f{nows in winter. To remove the
obftru€tions which thefe not unfrequently caufe, and to
repair fuch breaches as time will always make in the work
of art, a fuperintendant is neceflary to every artificial rill.
And it is obferved that the rill of Kirby moorfide is, he
believes, the largeft, and was the firft which was brought
upon thefe heights. This rill was brought to the villages
of Gillimore and Fadmore near forty years ago; and ise
been extended to Kirby about thirty years, by Jofeph Ford
a felf-taught engineer of great ingenuity and fome judg-
ment ; aman to whom the country owes much. Since the
introduction of this, feveral others have been raifed; and
fome few unfuccefsful attempts have been made ; the channel
was, in one in{tance, (that of Newton,) extended a con-
fiderable way before the impracticability of completing it
was
RIM
was difcovered ; apiece of mifcondu& which nothing but a
want of accuracy in the ufe of the level can lead to. The
mifecarriage, in this cafe, was not owing to a want of ele-
vation in the fource, but to a depreffion of the channel at the
foot of the ileep ; the head of the valley (if fuch it may be
called) being lower than the top of the precipice at the
given point. This fhews the neceflity of tracing the entire
channel with fufficient accuracy before any other expence is
incurred. The mode of doing which has been fhewn
above.
It is likewife further ftated, that in the cafe of Kirby the
channel is raifed fomewhat by a bridge-like mound of earth
thrown acrofs the crown of the valley. And that the fame
mound ferves the purpofe of conduéting another rill acrofs
the fame difficult pafs; from whence the Kirby rill takes an
eaftward, the rill of Welburn (applied principally to the
watering of pafture grounds) a weftward direction. y
Alfo in regard to the expence, it is ftated that the firft
colt of the Kirby rill was not altogether one hundred pounds.
The diftance about ten miles, watering (befides the town of
Kirby) two villages and a line of cultivated waterlefs up-
land country about four miles in length. Befides the firit
coft, which was raifed by fubfcription, a fuperintendant had
ten pounds a-year for beeping: it in repair and free from
obitruétions ; which yearly falary is paid by the contri-
butions of the perfons benefited ; each being rated agreeably
to the eftimated beneiit received.
It may be noticed, that from the va{t advantages that have
been derived from the conftruétion of thefe forts of rivulets,
in thefe few cafes of upland dry fituations, the attention of
the land proprietor and farmer in other diftriéts where there
isa prevalent fcarcity of water, either for domeftic purpofes,
or the ufe of cattle ftock, fhould be direéted to the exe-
cution of them, on fuch cheap and beneficial plans as may
be the moit convenient in the particular fituations. See
Ponp.
Thefe kinds of rills fhould, in all cafes where they are
capable of it, be turned tothe purpofe of watering land, as
well as the ufes noticed above.
RILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Maine and Loire; 9 miles E. of Baugé.
—Alfo, a river of France, which runs into the Seine, fix
miles below Quilbeeuf.
RILLY, a town of France, in the department of the
Marne; 6 miles S. of Reims.
RILSK, atown of Ruflia, in the government of Kurfk,
on the Sem; 52 miles W.S.W. of Kurfk. N. lat. 51°30).
E. long. 34° 54.
RIM, in a watch or clock, the circumference or circular
part of a wheel. ;
Rims, in Ship Building, compafs-pieces of timber, which
form the quarter-galleries between the {tools.
Rims, a fkirting of elm-board round’ the upper fide of
fhips’ tops.
Rim, a catt-iron frame, m which the dropping-palls of
the capitan traverfes, and palls, or counteraéts the efforts of
the capitan.
RIMA literally denotes a fiffure or chink. See Fissure,
and RHAGADEs.
Hence, it is applied to feveral parts of the body, that
bear a refemblance thereto ; as rima pudendi, fiflura magna,
the fame with vulva: and rima laryngis, the aperture of
the larynx, called the glottis.
Ria is alfo ufed for a narrow aperture of a {mall cavity
under the fornix, opening into the infundibulum ; called alfo
the third ventricle of the brain,
RIM
Rima, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which runs
into the Arles ceae eles ae
RIMAC, a river of Peru, which pafles by Lima, in a
valley to which it gives name, on which Lima is built, and
runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 12°.
RIMAGIONE, atown of Genoa; smiles $.S.W. of
Spezza.
RIMASZOMBAT, a town of Hungary; 14 miles
E.S.E. of Altfol.
RIMBA, a province of Benguela, in Africa, on the
banks of the Morano.
RIMBACH, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 3
miles S. of Volckach.
RIMBU, a town of Thibet; 71 miles W. of Lafla.
N. lat. 30°35’. E. long. 89° so’.
RIME, in Poetry. See Ruyme.
Rio, in Rural Lconemy, afort of hoary or white frofty
appearance, fometimes on the ground in the autumnal win-
ter and early {pring mornings.
RIMENANT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Two Nethes ; two miles E. of Ma-
ines.
RIMERS are moveable bars to fupport the fluices and
over-falls in opening-weirs.
RIMFORSA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Welt Gothland ; 17 miles S. of Linkoping.
RIMINI, a fea-port town of Italy, capital of the de-
partment of the Rubicon, late in the Romagna ; formeriy
tituated on the fea, but the fea has for fome centuries receded
to adiftance. The harbour on the river Marechia, on which
the city is built, is now fo choaked up with fand, as fcarcely
to admit of {mall barks. This city was once very flourifhing,
but befides other calamities which have befallen it, it fuf-
fered extremely from an earthquake in 1671. It is the fee
of a bifhop, fuffragan of Ravenna. This is the ancient
Ariminun, the firft town of which Czfar took poffeffion,
after paffing the Rubicon. In the market-place there is a
kind of ftone pedeftal, with an infcription, declaring, that
upon it Cefar had ftood and harangued his army ; but the.
authenticity of this is not afcertained to the fatisfaétion of
antiquaries. Befides this fuggeftum of doubtful antiquity,
here is atriumphal arch, ereéted to the emperor Augutftus,
and the remains of an amphitheatre. This city is faid to
have been built 500 years earlier than Rome itfelf, and to
have been made a colony in the year of Rome 483. It de-
rived its name from the river Arminus, which wafhed its
walls, and feparated the Via Flaminia from the Via Emilia.
Two councils were held here, one of orthodox bifhops, in
the year 358, and another in the following year, of Arian
prelates. Vitalien, governor of the city for the emperor
Juitinian, defended it againft Vitiges, king of the Goths,
with fuch vigour, as to oblige the Goths to raife the fiege.
Some time after it became fubje€&t to the Lombards ; but
when their lat king, Didier, was conquered and taken pri-
foner by Charles the Great, Rimini returned to the alle-
giance of the weftern emperors. The liberality of Otho III.
conferred the dominion of it on the Malatefta family : at
lait the Venetians gained pofleffion of it, and by a treaty with
pope Julius II. gave it to the holy fee. The eh at Ri-
mini was eH famous, being covered with marble, and
of fuch extent, as to contain a confiderable fleet ; but its
mouth being filled up with fand, Sigifmond Pandolfo Mala-
telta deftroyed it, and with the marble ftones, raifed out of
its ruins, built the Francifcan church, which is the fineit in
Rimini ; 57 miles S.E. of Bologna, N. lat. 44° 4!. E.
long, 12° 38. '
; Nnz RIMIS,
RIN
RIMIS, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, near the coaft of
Pomerania, N. lat. 54° 11! E. long. 13° 26'.
RIMNIK. See Risyik.
RIMONT, a town of France, in the department of the
Arriege; 8 miles W.N.W. of Tarafcon.
RIN, in Rural Economy, a provincial word ufed to fignify
brine.
-RINZUS, in Anatomy. See Nasatis.
RINALDI, Oneric, in Biography, a learned Italian
ecclefiaftical hiftorian in the 17th century, was a native of
Trevifo, and entered the eftablifhment belonging to the
priefts of the congregation of the Oratory at Rome, of
which Baronius had been a member. After the death of
that cardinal, Rinaldi undertook the laborious tafk of con-
tinuing his ‘“ Ecclefiaftical Annals,’ from the year 1198,
with which the work of Baronius terminated, to the year
1564, when the council of Trent had been diffolved. It
abounds with many curious and valuable documents, taken
from the archives at the Vatican, and other colleGtions. It
confifts of ten large volumes in folio, which made their ap-
pearance in Rome at different periods, from 1646 to 1677.
Rinaldi publifhed a fufficiently copious abridgment, in Ita-
lian, of the whole annals, compiled both by Baronius and
himfelf.
RINALDO pr Capua, an eminent Neapolitan com-
pofer, who flourifhed in the middle of the laft century, and
whofe ftory is fomewhat fingular.
He was the natural fon of a perfon of very high rank in
that country, and at firft only learned mufic as an accom-
plifhment ; but being left by his father with only a fmall
fortune, which was foon diflipated, he was forced to make it
his profeffion. He was but feventeen when he compofed his
firft opera at Vienna.
In the courfe of along life, Rinaldo experienced various
viciflitudes of fortune, fometimes in vogue, fometimes ne-
gle&ted. However, finding old age coming on, he collected
together his principal works, fuch as had been produced in
the zenith of his fortune and fancy, thinking thefe would be
a refource in diftrefsful times ; thofe times arrived; various
misfortunes had happened to him and his family ; when, be-
hold ! this refource, this /o/e refource, the accumulated pro-
duce of his pen, had by a gracelefs fon been fold for watte
paper !
This compofer, whofe productions were, during many
years, the delight of all Europe, in 1770 was reduced at
Rome to the utmoft indigence. Diogenes the Cynic was
never more meanly clad through choice, than Rinaldo
through neceflity: a patched coat, and ftockings that
wanted to be patched or darned ! We, having often received
great pleafure from his works, courted h’s acquaintance and
converfation, which was very lively and intelligent; but
though a good-natured man, his opinions were very fingu-
lar aad fevere on his brother compofers.
He thought they, at that time, “ had nothing left within
the reach of their invention to entitle them to reputation for
novelty, but the refufe of thoufands, which had been often
tried and reje€ted, either as impracticable or difpleafing.
‘Yhe only chance which a compofer has for introducing new
modulation in fongs, was in a fhort fecond part, (every jerious
fong then ended with a da capo,) in order to fright the hearer
back to the firft, to which it ferves as a foil, by making it
comparatively beautiful.’? He included himfeli in the cen-
fure, and frankly confefled, that though he had written full
as much as his neighbours, yet out of all his works, per-
haps not above one new melody could be found, which had
RIN
not been wire-drawn in different keys, and different mea-
fures, a thoufand and a thoufand times.
We fubfcribed to thefe opinions at the time, till we heard
Haydn’s quartets aud fymphonies, Paefiello’s yocal compo-
fitions, and Mozart’s latter works, vocal and inftrumental.
Rinaldo cenfured, with great feverity, the noife and tumult
of inftruments in modern fongs ;—what would he fay now
to our double-drums and tromboni ?
Rinaldo had the reputation at Rome of being the inventor
of accompanied recitatives; but in fearching for old com-
pofitions in the archives of San Girolamo della Carita, at
Rome, we found an oratorio of Aleflandro Scarlatti, which
was compofed at the latter end of the 17th century, before
Rinaldo di Capua was born, and in which there are accom-
panied recitatives. But he did not, himfelf, pretend to the
invention ; all that he claimed was the being among the firlt
who introduced ritornels, or inter{titial fymphonies, in reci-
tatives of {trong paflion and diftrefs, which exprefs or imi-
tate what it would be ridiculous for the voice to attempt,
There have been fince many fine fcenes of this kind in the
works of Jomelli, Perez, Galuppi, Sarti, Piccini, Sacchini,
and Paetiello.
Rinaldo feems to have been a fuccefsful compofer frem
1737 to1758. His firft f{erious opera at Rome was “Il
Ciro Riconofciuto,” in 1737 ; and ‘ Adriano in Siria,” the
laft, in 1758.
A very fine air from “* Vologefo”’ was fung by Monticelli
in England, and ‘printed by Walfh among the favourite
fongs in the opera of Gianguir,—* Nell’ orror di notte
ofcura,’’—to which we refer as a {pecimen of his ferious
ttyle. Indeed the whole fcene in that opera, beginning by
the accompanied recitative, ‘ Berenice, ove fei ?”’ and ter-
minated by the air, “ Ombra che pallida,” is admirable,
and a proof to what perfection dramatic mufic was brought
in Italy fifty or fixty years ago; and the curious will do
well to procure a copy of this feene whenever they have an
opportunity.
It has been faid, perhaps with fome truth, that the {cience
of this compofer was not equal to his genius ; for being edu-
cated as a dilettante, he probably did not fubmit to all the
drudgery of dry ttudy, which one intended for the profeffion
of mufic is obliged to undergo.
RINAR, a word ufed by the chemifts, to exprefs filings
of any thing.
RINAUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in My-
fore; 25 miles E. of Chinna Balabarum.
RINCADROLEAN Point, a cape on the W. coalt
of Ireland, in the county of Kerry. N. lat. 52°44’. W.
long. 10° 13!.
RIND, a fin of any fruit that may be cut off, or pared.
The outer coat of the chefnut, fet with prickles, is parti-
cularly called the urchin-like rind.
Rinp is alfo ufed for the inner bark of trees; or that
foft, whitith, juicy fubftance, adhering immediately to the
‘wood.
Through this it is that the fap has been fuppofed to return
from the extremities of the branches to the root: the vef-
fels hereof are by fome alfo fuppofed to do the office of
arteries ; whenee Mr. Bradley calls them artcria/ veffels.
See PLants.
Rinp, Grafting in the. See ENGRAFTING.
Rinp-Gal/, a damage a tree receives when young, fo
that the bark or rind grows in the inner fubitance of the
tree.
RINDE, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, which
runs into the Jumna, 15 miles S.E. of Corah.
RIN-
RIN
RINDERA, in Botany. See CynoGiossuM levigatum,
n. 14.
RINDGE, or Rince, in Geography, a town of America,
in the county of Chefhire, New Hamphhire, fituated on the
Maflachufett’s line, about 80 miles W. of Portfmouth, and
70 N.W. of Bofton. This town was incorporated in 1768,
and contains 1226 inhabitants. Thistownfhip has 13 ponds
of water of different fizes, in which are perch, trout, eels,
&c. It has alfo, towards the northern part, a mine of ochre
of a Spanifh brown. One half of the water of this town
runs to the Merrimack, and the other to the Conneéticut
river.
RINDOMS, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 11 miles
N.W. of Tarragona.
RINDSAKER, a town of Norway; 60 miles N.N.E.
of Chriftiania.
RINEKENBERG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
6 miles E. of Wolkenmarck.
RINEUS Marinus, a name given by fome botanical
writers to the crithmum, or famphire, a fea-plant, ufed as
a pickle.
RING, Ansutus, alittle moveable, put on the finger,
either by way of ceremony, or of ornament.
The bifhop’s ring makes a part of the pontifical appa-
ratus ; and is elteemed a pledge of the fpiritual marriage be-
tween the bifhop and his church.
The epifcopal ring is of a very ancient ftanding. The
fourth council of Toledo, held in 633, appoints that a
bifhop condemned by one council, and found afterwards in-
nocent by a fecond, fhall be reftored, by giving him the
ring, ftaff, &c.
From bifhops, the cuftom of the ring has pafled to car-
dinals, who are to pay a very great fum, pro jure annuli car-
dinalitii.
Rives, Origin of. Pliny (lib, xxxvii. cap. 1.) obferves,
that we are in the dark as to the perfon who firft invented,
or wore the ring ; becaufe what is faid of Prometheus, as
alfo of Midas’s ring, are fables. The firlt people among
whom we find the ring in ufe, are the Hebrews, (Gen.
xxxviii.) where Judah, Jacob’s fon, gives Tamar his ring,
or fignet, as a pledge of his promife ; but the ring appears
to have been in ufe at the fame time among the Egyptians,
from Gen. xli. where Pharaoh puts his ring upon Jofeph’s
hand, as amark of the power he gavehim. And in the firit
book of Kings, chap. xxi. Jezebel feals the warrant fhe
fent for the killing of Naboth, with the king’s ring.
The ancient Chaldeans, Babylonians, Perfians, and
Greeks, had likewife the ufe of the ring; as appears from
feveral paflages in Scripture, and from Quintus Curtius,
who tells us, that Alexander fealed the letters he wrote into
Europe with his own feal ; and thofe in Afia with Darius’s
ring.
The Perfians will have Guiamfchild, the fourth king of
the firft race, to have firft introduced the ring, for fealing
his letters and other aéts. The Greeks, Pliny thinks, knew
nothing of the ring in the time of the Trojan war ; the rea-
fon he gives is, that we find no mention of it in Homer, but
‘that when letters, &c. were to be fent away, they were tied
up, and the ftrings knotted.
The Sabines had rings in Romulus’s time; and it is to
them, probably, the practice firlt came from the Greeks ;
and from them that it pafled to the Romans; though it was
fome time before it got footing there. Pliny cannot learn
which of the kings of Rome firft adopted it ; but there are
no figns of it in any of their ftatutes, before thofe of Numa
and Servius Tullius. He adds, that it was alfo in ufe
among the ancient Gauls and Britons,
RIN
Rincs, Matter of Ancient. There were fome of one
fingle metal, and others of a mixture, or two. For the
iron and filver were frequently gilt; or at leaft the gold
part was fixed within the iron, as appears from Artemidorus,
lib. ii. cap. 5. The Romans were contented with iron
rings a long time; and Pliny affures us, that Marius firit
wore a gold one in his third confulate, which was in the
year of Rome 650. Sometimes the ring wasiron, and the
feal gold ; fometimes it was hollow, and fometimes. folid ;
fometimes the ftone was engraven, and fometimes plain ;
and the graving fometimes was in relievo, and fometimes in
creux : the laft were called gemma e&@ype ; the former gemme
Jculptura prominente.
Rina, the manner of wearing the, has been various, From
Jeremiah, chap. xxii, it appears, that the Hebrews wore it
on their right hand. Among the Romans, before they came
to be adorned with ftones, and while the graving was yet on
the metal itfelf, every one wore them at pleafure, on what
hand and finger he pleafed. When flones came to be added,
they wore them altogether on the left hand; and it would
have been held an exceflive foppery to have put them on the
right.
Splits fays, they were at firft worn on the fourth finger ;
then on the fecond or index ; then on the little finger ; and
at lait on all the fingers, excepting the middle one.
The Greeks wore them altogether on the fourth finger of
the left hand, as we are informed by Aul. Gellius, lib. x.
andthe reafon he gives for it is, that having found from
anatomy, that this finger had a little nerve that went ftraight
to the heart, they efteemed it the mott honourable, by rea-
fon of this communication with that noble part. Pliny
fays, the Gauls and ancient Britons wore the ring on the
middle finger.
At firlt they only wore a fingle ring, then one on each
finger, and at length feveral on each finger. (Martial,
lib. xi. epig. 60.) At lait one on each joint of each finger.
(Ariftoph. in Nub. &c.) Their foppery at length arofe
to that pitch, that they had their weekly rings.
Juvenal, Sat. vii. {peaks of annuli femefires; as alfo of
winter and fummer rings. But of all others, Lampridius,
cap. 32. obferves, that. Heliogabalus carried the point
fartheit, who never wore the fame ring, or the fame fhoe,
twice.
Rings have been alfo worn in the nofe, and as pendants in
the ears. Bartholin has an exprefs treatife, * De Annulis’ Na-
rium,” Of Rings of the Noffrils. St. Augustine affures us,
it was in his time the fafhion of the Moors ; and Pietro della
Valle obferves the fame of the modern orientals.
In effect, there is no part of the body where rings have
not been worn. Several Eaft India travellers affirm, that
the natives now commonly wear them on their nofe, lips,
cheeks and chin. Ramufio tells us, that the ladies of Nar-
finguay, in the Levant, and Diodorus Siculus, lib. iii.
that thofe of Ethiopia ufed to adorn their lips with iron
rings.
As to the ears, the cuftom itill obtains of wearing rings
in them, both of men and women, almoit all over the world.
See PenpanrT.
The Indians, particularly the Guzzarats, have worn
rings on their feet. And when Peter Alvarez had his firit
audience of the king of Calicut, he found him all covered
with ftones fet in rings, having bracelets and rings both on
the hands and fingers, and evenon the feet and toes.
Louis Bartome reprefents a king of Pegu as ftill more
extravagant, having rings fet with precious ftones on
every toe.
Rines, U/e of.—The ancients had three different kinds ;
the
RIN
the firft ferved to diftinguifh conditions or quality. Pliny
affures us, that the fenators at firft were not allowed to
wear the gold ring, unlefs they had been ambafladors at
fome foreign court. Nor was it even allowed them to
wear the gold ring which was given them in public, ex-
cept on public occafions; at other times they wore an
iron one. And thofe who had a triumph obferved the
fame rules.
At length the fenators and knights were allowed the
common ule of the gold ring ; but Acron on Horace, lib. il.
fat. vii. obferves, they could not do it unlefs it were given
them by the pretor.
In after days the gold ring became the badge of the
knights, the people wearing filver rings, and the flaves
iron ones; though the gold ring was fometimes alfo
allowed the people, and Severus granted it to his common
foldiers, Auguitus allowed it to the liberti or freedmen ;
and though Nero made a regulation to the contrary, yet it
was foon fet afide.
A fecond kind of rings comprehended the anauli /ponfa-
iitii, wedding-rings. Some carry the origin of this cuftom
as far back as the Hebrews, on the authority of a text in
Exodus, xxxv. 22. Leo of Modena, however, maintains,
that the ancient Hebrews did not ufe any nuptial ring.
Selden, in his Uxor. Ebraica, lib. ii. chap. xiv. owns, that
they gave a ring in the marriage, but that it was only in
lieu. of a piece of money of the fame value which had
ufed to have been given before. The Greeks and Romans
did the fame, and trom them the Chriftians took it up very
early, as appears from Tertullian, and in fome ancient
liturgies, where we find the form of blefling the nuptial
ring.
The third kind of rings included thofe ufed as feals, called
cerographi or cirographi ; an account of which, fee under the
article SEAL. f
Richard, bifhop of Salifbury, in his Cenftitutions, anno
1217, forbids the putting of rufh rings, or any the like
matter, on women’s fingers, in order to the debauching
them more readily ; and he infinuates the reafon of his pro-
hibition, that there were fome people weak enough to
believe, that what was thus done in jeit was a real marriage.
De Breveil, in his Antiquities of Paris, fays, it was an
ancient cuftom to ufe a rufh-ring in the nuptials of fuch
as had had an affair together before their marriage.
Rive, in Angling, an inftrument intended to free the hook
when accidentally entangled among weeds. See ANGLING,
Rina, in Afronomy. ‘The ring of Saturn is athin, broad,
~ opaque, circular arch, encompafling the body of that planet,
like the horizon of an artificial globe, without touching it,
and appearing double, when feen through a good telefcope.
The. difcovery of it is owing to M. Huygens, who,
after frequent obfervation of Saturn, with telefcopes which
magnified two or three times more than any that had been
before made, perceived two lucid points, or anf, arifing
out from the body in a right line. i
Hence, as in fubfequent obfervations, he always found
the fame appearance, he concluded that Saturn was encom-
pafled with a permanent ring ; and accordingly produced
his new fyftem of Saturn in 1659.
However, Galileo firft difcovered that the figure of Sa-
turn was not round. It appeared to him like a large
globe between two {mall ones ; and he announced this dif-
covery in the year 1610. Profecuting his obfervations till
the year 1612, he was then furprifed to find only the middle
globe; but in procefs of time he again difcovered the
globes on each fide, which appeared to change their form ;
fometimes appearing round, fometimes like an acorn, fome-
RIN
times femicircular, then with horns towards the globe in the
middle, and growing by degrees fo long and wide as to
encompa{s it, as it were, with an oval ring. Huygens,
who, as we have faid, completed the difcovery, makes the
{pace between the globe of Saturn and the ring equal to,
or rather bigger than, the breadth of the ring; and the
greate{t diameter of the ring, in proportion to that of the
globe, as g to 4. But Mr. Pound, with an excellent mi-
crometer, applied to the Huygenian telefcope of 123 feet
in length, determined this proportion to be as 7 to 3.
Mr. Whitton, in his ‘* Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Clarke,’’
informs us, that the doétor’s father once faw a fixed ftar
between the ring and the body of Saturn. M. Caflini,
in 1675, obferved upon the ring a dark elliptical line,
dividing it, as it were, into two rings; the inner of which
appeared brighter than the other. He alfo perceived a
dark belt upon the planet, parallel to the greater axis of the
ring. Mr. Hadley obferved, that the outer part of the
ring feemed narrower than the inner part, and that the dark
line was fainter towards its upper edge ; he alfo faw two
belts, and obferved the fhadow of the ring upon Saturn.
In O@ober, 1714, when the plane of the ring very nearly
paffed through the earth, and was approaching it, M. Ma-
raldi obferved, that, while the arms were decreafing, both
in length and breadth, the ealtern arm appeared a little
larger than the other for three or four nights, and yet it
vanifhed firft ; for after an interruption for two nights by
clouds, he faw the weltern arm alone. This inequality
of the ring made him fufpe& that it was not bounded by
exatly parallel planes, and that it turned about its axis.
In the fequel of this article we fhall give the fubftance of
Dr. Herfchel’s obfervations, which, on account of his ac-
curacy as an obferver, and the fuperior excellence of his
telefcopes, are much more important than any others, as
he has difcovered many circumftances which had efcaped
all other obfervers. 2
This ring, feen from Saturn, appears like a large lumi-
nous arc in the heavens, as if it did not belong to the
planet. When we fee the ring moft open, its fhadow upon
the planet is broadeft; and trom that time the fhadow
grows narrower, as the ring appears to do to us; until,
by Saturn’s annual motion, the fun comes to the plane of
the ring, or even with its edge ; which, being then dire&ted
towards us, becomes invifible, on account of its thinnefs.
The principal phenomena of Saturn’s ring are familiarly
illuttrated by a view of Plate XIX. Afronomy, fig. 14-
Let S be the fun, ABCDEFGH Saturn’s orbit, and
IK LMNO tthe earth’s orbit. Both Saturn and the
earth move according to the order of the letters ; and when
Saturn is at A, his ring is turned edgewife to the fun S,
and he is ther feen from the earth as if he had loft his ring,
let the earth be in any part of the orbit whatever, except
betwnen N and O; for whilit it defcribes that fpace, Sa-
turn is apparently fo near the fun as to be hid in his beams.
As Saturn goes from A to C, his ring appears more and
more open to the earth; at C the ring appears moft open
of all; and feems to grow narrower and narrower as Sa-
turn goes from C to E; and when he comes to E, the-
ring is again turned edgewife both to the fun and earth:
and as neither of its fides is illuminated, it is invifible to
us, becaufe its edge is too thin to be perceptible ;
and Saturn appears again as if he had loft his ring.
But as he goes from E to G, his ring opens more and
more to our view on the under fide; and feems juit as
open at G as it was at C3; and may be feen in the night-
time from the earth in any part of its orbit, except about
M, when the fun hides the planet from our view. As
Saturn
RIN
Saturn goes from G to A, his ring turns more and more
edgewife to us, and therefore it feems to grow narrower
and narrower ; and at A it difappears as before. Hence,
while Saturn goes from A to E, the fun fhines on the
upper fide of his ring, and the under fide is dark ; and
whillt he goes from E to A, the fun fhines on the under
fide of his ring, and the upper fide is dark. The ring dif-
appears twice in every annual revolution of Saturn, viz.
when he is in roth degree of Pifces and of Virgo, and
when Saturn is in the middle between thefe points, or in the
rgth degree either of Gemini or of Sagittarius, his ring ap-
pears mott open to us ; and then its longeft diameter is to
its fhorteft, as g to 4. Fergufon’s Aftr. feét. 204.
Dr. Herfchel (Phil. Tranf. for 1790, vol. Ixxx. pt. 1.)
obferves, that the black difc, or belt, upon the ring of
Saturn, which we have already mentioned, is not in the
middle of its breadth ; and that the ring is not fubdivided
by many fuch lines, as fome aftronomers have reprefented ;
but there is one fingle, dark, confiderably broad line, belt,
or zone, which he has conftantly found on the north fide
of the ring. (See Plate XIX. <Aftronomy, fig. 15.)
«« Since the year 1774, to the prefent time,’’ as Dr. Herf-
chel fays (Phil. Tranl. for 1792, vol. Ixxxii. pt. 1.) «I
can find only four obfervations where any other black
divifion of the ring is mentioned, than the one which I have
conitantly obferved : thefe were all in June, 1780.”’ As this
dark belt is fubje& to no change, it is probably owing, as
the doctor remarks, to fome permanent conftru@ion of the
furface of the ring. This belt cannot be the fhadow of a
chain of mountains, fince it is vifible all round on the ring ;
for at the ends of the anf there could be no fhade vifible
on account of the dire¢tion of the fun’s illumination, which
would be in the line of the chain ; and the fame argument
will hold againft any caverns or concavities. It is, more-
over, fully evident, that this dark zone is contained between
two concentric circles, as all the phenomena anfwer to the
projection of fuch a zone. Thus in fig. 16, we may fee
that the zone is continued all round the ring, with a gra-
dual decreafe of breadth towards the middle, anfwering to
the appearance of a narrow circular plane, projeGted into
an ellipfis. ‘The matter of the ring is undoubtedly no lefs
folid than the planet itfelf; and it is obferved to caft a
{trong fhadow upon the planet. The light of the ring is
alfo generally brighter than that of the planet; for the
ring appears fufficiently bright when the telefcope affords
fearcely light enough for Saturn. From many repeated
obfervations, which we cannot here detail, Dr. Herfchel
eftablifhes the fact of the extreme thinnefs of the ring. He
farther obferves, that there may be a refraction through a
very rare atmofphere on the two planes of the ring, by
which the fatellite may be elevated and depreffed, fo as to
become vifible on both fides of the ring, even though the
ring fhould be equal in thicknefs to the diameter of the
{malleft fatellite, which may amount to 1000 miles. From
a feries of obfervations upon luminous points of this ring,
(Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxx. pt. 2.) he has difcovered that
it has a rotation about its axis, in 10" 32! 15"'.4.
The ring is invifible when its plane pafles through the
fun, or the earth, or between them: in the firft cafe, the
fun fhines only upon its edge, which is too thin to reflect
fufficient light to render it vifible; in the fecond cafe, the
edge only being oppofed to us, itis not vifible, for the fame
reafon ; in the third cafe, the dark fide of the ring is ex-
pofed to us, and therefore the edge being the only luminous
part which is towards the earth, it is invifible, for the fame
reafon as before. Obfervers have differed ten or twelve
days as to the time of its becoming invifible, owing to the
5
RIN
difference of the telefcopes, and of the ftate of th -
f{phere. The difappearance of the ring feems to ee a
with the telefcopes in common ufe among aftronomers ; for
Dr. Herfchel, with his large telefcopes, has been able to
fee it in every fituation. He thinks the edge of the ring
is not flat, but {pherical, or {pheridical. He obferves, that
the ring was feen in his telefcope, when we were turned
towards the unenlightened fide; fo that he either faw the
light refleGted from the edge, or elfe the refle@ion of the
light of Saturn upon the dark fide of the ring, as we fome-
times fee the dark part of the moon. He cannot, however
1ay which of the two might be the cafe ; efpecially as there
are very {trong reafons for thinking, that the edge of the
ring is of fucha nature as not to refle& much light. M. de la
Lande thinks, that the ring is jult vilible, with the bet tele-
{copes in common ufe, when the fun is elevated 3! above its
plane, or three days before its plane paffes through the
fun ; and when the earth is elevated 2! 20]! above the plane
or one day from the earth’s pafling it. In the Phil. Tranf.
for 1790, Dr. Herfchel ventured to fuggeit a fufpicion that
the ring was divided; this conje€ture was ftrengthened by
fubfequent obfervations, after he had an Opportunity of
feeing both fides of the rmg. His reafons are thefe«
ift, the black divifion upon the northern fide of the ring is
in the fame place, of the fame breadth, and at the lone
diftance from the outer edge, that it always appeared upon
the northern fide ; 2dly, with his feven-feet refle@or and an
excellent fpeculum, he faw the divifion in the ring, and the
open {pace between the ring and the body, equally dark
and of the fame colour with the heavens about the planet 2
3dly, the black divifion is equally broad on each of the rings,
From thefe obfervations, Dr. Herfchel thinks himfelf au.
thorifed _to fay, that Saturn has two concentric rings,
fitwated in one plane, which is probably not much inclined
to the equator of the planet. The dimenfions of the ring
are in the following proportions, as nearly as they could
be afcertained.
Infide diameter of the fmaller 11) = at
Outfide diameter - = x Sheet 7510
Infide diameter of the largeft ring - Zs 7740
Outfide diameter = E - - - 8300
Breadth of the inner ring - - = 7 805
Breadth of the outer ring “ = é 280
Breadth of the {pace between the rings = 115
M. de la Place, in the «Mem. de l’Acad. at Paris,’’
Auppofes that the ring may have many divifions ; but Dr.
Herfchel remarks, that no obfervations will juftify this fup-
pofition, i
From the mean of a great many meafures of the diameter
of the larger ring, Dr. Herfchel makes it 46".677, at the
mean diftance of Saturn. Hence, its diameter : the dia-
meter of the earth :: 25.8914: 1. From the above pro-
portions, therefore, the diameter of the ring mutt be up-
wards of 204,883 miles; and the diftance of the two rings
2839 miles.
The ring being a circle, appears elliptical from its oblique
pofition ; and it appears moit open, when Saturn is go?
from the nodes of the ring, upon the orbit of Saturn: or
when Saturn’s longitude is about 2* 17°, and 8s 17°. ; In
{uch a fituation, the lefler axis is very nearly equal to half
the greater, when the obfervations are reduced to the fun ;
confequently the plane of the ring makes an angle of about
30° with the orbit of Saturn.
The breadth of the ring (as {tated by Dr. Herfchel, Phil.
Tranf. vol. xcvi. pt. 2. p. 467.) is to the {pace between
the ring and the bedy of Saturn as about 5 to 4.
Kepler,
R IN
Kepler, in his Epitom. Aftron. Copern., and after him
Dr. Halley, in his Inquiry into the Caufes of the Variation
of the Needle, Phil. Tranf. N° 195, fuppofe our earth may
be compofed of feveral crufts or fhells, one within another,
and concentric to each other. If this be the cafe, it is pof-
fible the ring of Saturn may be the fragment or remaining
ruin of his former exterior fhell, the reft of which 1s broken
or fallen down upon the body of the planet.
Rive is alfo the name of an inftrument ufed in navigation,
for taking the altitudes of the fun, &c.
It is ufually of brafs, about nine inches diameter, fuf-
pended by a little fwivel, 45° from the point of which is a
perforation, which is the centre of a quadrant of go°, di-
vided in the inner concave furface.
To ufe it, they hold it up by the fwivel, and turn it
to the fun, till the fun-beams, falling through the hole,
make a {pot among the degrees, which marks the altitude
required.
This inftrument is preferred to the aftrolabe, becaufe the
divifions are here larger than on the altrolable. See As-
TROLABE,
Rivc is alfo ufed for the found or tone of a de//; which
fee.
The ringing of bells, though now a recreation chiefly of
the lower clafs of people, is a very curious exercife. As
for the tolling of a bell, this is nothing more than the pro-
ducing of a found by the ftroke of the clapper again{t the
fide of a bell; the bell itfelf being in a pendant pofition,
and at reit. In ringing, the bell, by means of a wheel and
rope, is elevated to a perpendicular: in its motion to this
fituation, the clapper ftrikes forcibly on one fide, and, in
its return downwards, on the other fide of the bell, pro-
ducing at each ftroke a found. The mufic of bells is alto-
gether melody ; but the pleafure arifing from it confitts in
the variety of interchanges, and the various fucceflion and
general predominance of the confonances in the founds pro-
duced.
The practice of ringing bells in change is faid to be pe-
culiar to this country, which for this reafon is called the
ringing ifland; but the antiquity of it is not eafily afcer-
tained. There are in London feveral focieties of ringers,
particularly one known by the name of the College Youths.
Merfennus has {aid nothing of the ringing of bells in
changes; and Kircher has only calculated the poffible com-
binations arifing from a given number. See ALTERNA-
TIONS. :
In England, the praétice of ringing is reduced to a
fcience ; and peals have been compofed, which bear the
names of the inventors. Some of the mott celebrated peals
now known were compofed about fifty years ago, by Mr.
Patrick, fo well known as the maker of barometers.
For the method of ringing in the Low Countries, fee
CARILLONS.
Rive, or Anaulus, in Geometry. See ANNULUS.
The area of the ring included between the circumferences,
ABPA,DEQD, of two concentric circles, ( Plate MII.
Geometry, fig. 12.) is obtained by the rule given under AN-
NULUS: viz. Multiply the fum of the diameters by their
difference, and the produét by .7854, and the ultimate
produét will be the area required: for the ring being equal
to the difference of the two circles, if the diameters be called
D, d, and .785398, &c. = a, we fhall have the ring =
aD?—ad*=axD+dxD—d. Hence if DW
be a perpendicular to the radius CD A, DW?” will be
equal te AD x AC + CD=D—d x D+4d, and
aD W?, orthe area of a circle whofe radius is DW, will
LIN
be = aD’ — ad? = the area of the ring. Hence alfo it
appears, that the ring is equal to an ellipfe whofe axes are
D+dandD—d. See Exvripse.
The area of the ring may alfo be had, by multiplying
half the fum of the circumferences by half the difference of
the diameters, the produét being the area. For the cir-
cumferences are equal to 4aD, 4ad: therefore a x
D+d=4C + 4c; which, by fubftitution in the laft
rule, will give 2 x D+dx D—d=iCidic x
D—d=4£C+4e x $D—$d, as intherule. The
{ame rule will ferve alfo for a part of the ring, ABE DA,
included between the parts, AD, BE, of two radii,
ufing for C and c the lengths of the intercepted ares.
Another rule for finding the area of the ring is as fol-
lows: Multiply the perpendicular breadth of the ring, that
is, the difference of the radii, by the circumference R S T,
(or part RS for the part A BED A,) having the fame
centre with, and equally diftant from, the bounding arcs.
For this circumference, being equally diftant from the other
two, will be equal to half their fum. Hence the whole
ring, or any part of it ABE D A, included between two
radii, is equal to a parallelogram on the fame bafe A D,
and whofe altitude is equal to RS, the middle circum-
ference.
Rive, Solid, is a folid returning into atfelf; of which
every fection perpendicular to the axis, or line pafling
through the middle, of the folid, is every where the fame
figure, and of the fame magnitude.
To find the Surface of a folid Ring.—Multiply the axis by
the perimeter of a feétion perpendicular to it, and the pro-
dué& will be the furface. £. gr. a workman having made
for a jeweller a circular ring, or a ring whole axis forms the
circumference of a circle; it is required to find the expence
of the gilding, at a penny the fquare inch; the thicknefs of
the ring, or the diameter of a fection of it, being 2 inches ;
and the inner diameter, acrofs from fide to fide, 18 inches.
Here 18 + 2 = 20 = the diameter of the circle formed by
the axis; and confequently 20 x 3.14159 = the length of
the axis. But 2 x 3.14159 = the circumference of a f{ec-
tion of it; therefore 20 x 3.14159 X 2 X 3.14159 = 4o
X 3.141597 = 394-785 {quare inches, nearly, = 394.785
pence = 1. 12s. 104d. nearly, the expence required.
To find the Solidity of a Ring-—Multiply the axis by a
feGtion perpendicular to it, and the produét will be the fo-
lidity. £. gr. required the price of a ring of iron, whofe
dimenfions are the fame with thofe in the laft example, at
four-pence a pound; acubic inch of iron weighing 4.423
ounces avoirdupois. Here the area of a fection being 2° x
-785398 = 3.14159, which exprefles half the circumference,
and the axis being the fame as before, the folidity will evi-
dently be exprefled by half the furface in the laft example ;
i.e. the folidity = 197.3925 cubic inches, which multiplied
by 4-423, gives 873.065 ounces = 54.56657 pounds;
which, at 4d. each, will amount to 18s. 24d., the price re-
quired.
It is needlefs to multiply examples, as the mode of opera-
tion is the fame in all forms, with thofe for prifms, both
with regard to the furfaces and folidities: for it is evident
that any ring is equal to a prifm, whofe altitude and end
are refpectively equal to the axis and {ection of the ring,
both as to furface and folidity, and, therefore, the rules for
them both muft be the fame; and, on this account, any de-
monttration of the rules for rings is unneceflary. Hutton’s
Menfuration.
Rings of Colours, in Optics, a
9
phenomenon firft obferved
2
in thin plates of various fubitances, by Mr. Boyle, and Dr.
Hooke, but afterwards more fully explained by fir Ifaac
Newton. Mr. Boyle having exhibited a variety of colours
in colourlefs liquors, by fhaking them till they rofe in
bubbles, as well as in bubbles of foap and water, and alfo
in turpentine, procured glafs blown fo thin as to exhibit
fimilar colours ; and he obferyes, that a feather of a proper
fhape and fize, and alfo a black ribband held at a proper
diftance between his eye and the fun, fhewed a variety of
little rainbows, as he calls them, with very vivid colours.
Boyle’s Works by Shaw, vol. ii. p. 70.
Dr. Hooke, about nine years after the publication of
Mr. Boyle’s Treatife on Colours, exhibited the coloured
bubble of foap and water, and obferved, that though at
firft it apppeared white and clear, yet as the film of water
became thinner, there appeared upon it all the colours of
the rainbow. He alfo defcribed the beautiful colours that
appear in thin plates of Mufcovy glafs; which appeared,
through the microfcope, to be ranged in rings furrounding
the white fpecks or flaws in them, and with the fame order
of colours as thofe of the rainbow, and which were often
repeated ten times. He alfo took two thin pieces of glafs,
ground plain and polifhed, and putting them one upon
another, prefled them till there began to appear a red co-
loured {pot in the middle; and preffing them clofer, he ob-
ferved feveral rings of colours encompafling the firft place,
till, at laft, ail the colours difappeared out of the middle of
the circles, and the central {pot appeared white. The firft
colour that appeared was red, then yellow, then green,
then blue, then purple, then red again; yellow, green,
blue, and purple; and again in the fame order, fo that he
fometimes’ counted nine or ten of thele circles, the red im-
mediately next to the purple; and the laft colour that ap-
peared before the white was blue ; fo that it began with red,
and ended with purple. Thefe rings, he fays, would
change their places, by changing the pofition of the eye, fo
that, the glafles remaining the fame, that part which was
red in one pofition of the eye, was blue in a fecond, green
in the third, &c. Birch’s Hilt. of the Royal Society,
vol. ili. p. 54
Sir Ifaac Newton, haying demonftrated that every dif-
ferent colour confifts of rays which have a different and fpe-
cific degree of refrangibility, and that natural bodies appear
of this or that colour, according to their difpofition to re-
fle& this or that fpecies of rays (fee Corour), purfued
the hint fuggeited by the experiments of Dr. Hooke, al-
ready recited, and cafually noticed by himfelf, with regard
to thin tranfparent fubftances. Upon comprefling two
prifms hard together, in order to make their fides touch one
another, he obferved, that in the place of conta& they were
perfectly tranfparent, which appeared like a dark {pot ; and
when it was looked through, it feemed like a hole in that
air, which was formed into a thin plate, by being impreffed
between the glaffes. When this plate of air, by turning the
prifms about their common axis, became {fo little inclined to
the incident rays, that fome of them began to be tranf{mitted,
there arofe in it many flender arcs of colours, which in-
ereafed, as the motion of the prifms was continued, and
bended more and more about the tranfparent f{pot, till they
were completed into circles, or rings, furrounding it; and
afterwards they became continually more and more con-
tracted.
By another experiment with two objeé-glafles, he was
enabled to obferve diftinétly the order and quality of the
colours from the central fpot, to a very confiderable dif-
tance. Next to the pellucid central fpot, made by the con-
tact of the glaffes, fucceeded blue, white, yellow, and red,
VoL. XXX.
RIN
The next circuit immediately furrounding thefe confifted of
violet, blue, green, yellow, and red. The third circle of
colours was purple, blue, green, yellow, and. red. The
fourth circle confilted of green and red. All the fucceed-
ing colours became more and more imperfeé and dilute,
till, after three or four revolutions, they ended in perfeé&
whitenefs.
In order to determine the thicknefs of the plate of air,
by which he fuppofed the colours were produced, he mea-
fured the diameters of the firft fix circles, at their moft
lucid parts, and found their {quares to be in the arithmetical
progreffion of the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 113 and hence
he concluded, that the intervals of the glaffes at thefe cir-
cles muit be in the fame progreffion. He alfo meafured the
diameters of the dark or faint rings between the more lucid
colours, and found their fquares to be in the arithmetical
progreflion of the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12; and he
concluded, after an accurate menfuration, the thicknefs of
the air at the darkeft part of the firit dark ring, made by
perpendicular rays, to be in the neareft round numbers
sytooth part of an inch, half of which, multiplied by the
progreflion 1, 3, 55 7, 9, 11, &c. gives the thicknefs of the
ar at the moit luminous parts of all the brighteft rings,
their arithmetical means being its thicknefs at the darkeft
parts of all the dark ones. In examining the under fide of
the thin plate, in order to obferve what light was tranf-
mitted, he found that the central {pot was white, and the
order of the colours was yellowifh-red ; black, violet, blue,
white, yellow, red; violet, blue, green, yellow, red, &c.;
but thefe colours were very faint and dilute, except when
the light was tranfmitted very obliquely through the glaffes.
When he put water between the glailes, and meafured the
rings again, he found the proportion of their diameters‘to
the diameters of the like circles made by air, to be about
7 to 8; fo that the intervals of the glafles, at fimilar cir-
cles, caufed by water and air, were about 3 to 4.
When thefe rings were examined in a darkened room, by
the coloured light of a prifm calt on a fheet of white paper,
they became more diftin@, and vifible to a far greater num-
ber than in the open air. He fometimes faw more than
twenty of them, whereas in the open air he could not dif-
cern above eight or nine.
From other curious obfervations on thefe rings, made by
different kinds of light thrown upon them, he inferred, that
the thicknefles of the air between the glaffes, where the
rings are fucceffively made, by the limits of the feven co-
lours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet,
in order, are one to another as the cube roots of the {quares
of the eight lengths of a chord, which found the notes in
an octave, fol, la, fa, fol, la, mi, fa, fol; that is, as the cube
roots of the fquares of the numbers 1, 8, 3, 3, 2, SLES
Thefe rings appeared of that prifmatic colour with which
they were illuminated ; and by projecting the prifmatic co-
lours immediately upon the glafles, he found that the light,
which fell on the dark places between the coloured rings,
was tran{mitted through the glaffes without any change of
colour. From this circumftance he thought that the origin
of thefe rings is manifeft ; becaufe the air between the erie
is difpofed, according to its various thicknefs, in fome places
to reflect, and in others to tranfmit the light of any particu-
lar colour, and in the fame place to reflect that of one co-
lour, where it tranfmits that of another,
In examining the phenomena of colours made by a denfer
medium furrounded by a rarer, fuch as thofe which appear
in plates of Mufcovy glafs, bubbles of foap and water, &c.
the colours were found to be much more vivid than the
others, which were made with a rarer medium furrounded
Oo by
RIN
by 2 denfer. From the preceding phenomena it is an ob-
vious dedu@ion, that the tranfparent parts of bodies, ac-
cording to their feveral fizes, reflect rays of one colour, and
tranimit thofe of another; on the fame account that thin
plates, or bubbles, reflect or tranfmit thofe rays; and this
Newton fuppofed to be the reafon of all their colours.
Hence alfo he has inferred, that the fize of thofe component
parts of natural bodies that affe&t the light, may be conjec-
tured by their colours. See Corour and REFLEcTION.
Sir Ifzac Newton, purfuing his difcoveries concerning the
colours of thin fubftances, Bihaa that the fame were alfo
produced by plates of a confiderable thicknefs, divifible into
jeffer thicknefles. The rings formed in both cafes have the
fame origin, with this diference, that thofe of the thin
plates are made by the alternate refleGtions and tran{miffions
of the rays at the fecond furface of the plate, after one paf-
fage through it; but that, in the cafe of a glafs {peculum,
concave on one fide, and convex on the other, and quick-
filvered over on the convex fide, the rays go through the
plate, and return before they are alternately refleGted and
tranfmitted. Newton’s Optics, p. 169, &c. or Newton’s
Opera, Horfley’s edit. vol. iv. p. 121, &c. p. 184, &c.
The abbé Mazeas, in his experiments on the rings of co-
jours that appear in thin plates, has difcovered feveral im-
portant circumftances attending them, which were ‘over-
looked by the fagacious Newton, and which tend to invali-
date his theory for explaining them. In rubbing the flat
fide of an object-glafs againit another piece of flat and
fmooth glafs, he found that they adhered very firmly to-
gether after this friction, and that the fame colours were
exhibited between thefe plane glafles, which Newton had
obferved between the convex objeét-glafs of a telefcope,
and another that was plane; and that the colours were in
proportion to their adhefion. When the furfaces of pieces
of glafs, that are tran{parent and well polifhed, are equally
prefled, a refiftance will be perceived ; and wherever this is
felt, two or three very fine curve lines will be difcovered,
fome of a pale red, and others of a faint green. If the
friftion be continued, the red and green lines increafe in
number at the place of conta& ; the colours being fometimes
mixed without any order, and fometimes difpofed in a regu-
lar manner; in which cafe the coloured lines are generally
concentric circles, or ovals, more or lefs elongated, as the
furfaces are more or lefs united. When the colours are
formed, the glaffes adhere with confiderable force 5 but if
the glafles be feparated fuddenly, the colours will appear
immediately upon their being put together, without the leait
friion. Beginning with the flightett touch, and increafing
the preflure by infenfible degrees, there firft appears an oval
plate of a faint red, and in the centre of it a {pot of light
green, which enlarges by the preffure, and becomes a green
oval, with a red fpot in the centre; and this enlarging, in
its turn, difcovers a green {pot in its centre. Thus the red
and green fucceed one another in turns, affuming different
fhades, and having other colours mixed with them. The
greateft difference between thefe colours exhibited between
plane furfaces, and thofe by curve ones, is, that, in the
former cafe, preflure alone will not produce them, except
in the cafe above-mentioned. In rubbing together two
prifms, with very {mall refrating angles, which were joined
fo as to form a parallelepiped, the colours appeared with a
furprifing luftre at the places of contact, and differently
coloured ovals appeared. In the centre there was a black
fpot, bordered by a deep purple; next to this appeared
violet, blue, orange, red tinged with purple, light green,
and faint purple. The other rings appeared to the naked
eye to confift of nothing but faint reds and greens. When
2
RIN
thefe coloured glafles were fufpended over the flame of a
candle, the colours difappeared fuddenly, though they {till
adhered ; but being fuffered to cool, the colours returned
to their former places, in the fame order as before. At firlt
the abbé Mazeas had no doubt but that thefe colours were
owing to a thin plate of air between the glaffes, to which
Newton has afcribed them; but the remarkable differences
in the circumftances attending thofe produced by the flat
plates, and thofe produced by the object-glaffes of Newton,
convinced him that the air was not the caufe of this appear-
ance. The colours of the flat plates vanifhed at the ap-
proach of flame, but thofe of the objeét-glaffes did not.
Nor was this difference owing to the plane glaffes being lefs
comprefled than the convex ones; for though the former
were compreffed ever fo much by a pair of forceps, it did
not in the leaft hinder the effe&t of the flame. Afterwards
he put both the plane glafles and the convex ones into the
receiver of an air-pump, fufpending the former by a thread,
and keeping the latter comprefled by two itrings; but he
obferved no change in the colours of either of them, in the
moft perfeét vacuum that he could make. SufpeGing {till
that the air adhered to the furface of the glafles, fo as not
to be feparated from them by the force of the pump, he had
recourfe to other experiments, which rendered it itill more
improbable that the air fhould be the caufe of thefe colours.
Having laid the coloured plates, after warming them gradu-
ally, on burning coals; and thus, when they were nearly
red, rubbing them together, he obferved the fame coloured
circles and ovals as before. When he ceafed to prefs upon
them, the colours feemed to vanifh; but they returned, as
he renewed the friction. In order to determine whether the
colours were owing to the thicknefs of fome matter inter-
pofed between the glafles, he rubbed them together with
fuet and other foft fubftances between them; yet his endea-
vours to produce the colours had no effect. However, by
continuing the friction with fome degrees of violence, he ob-
ferved, that a candle appeared through them encompafied
with two or three concentric greens, and with a lively red
inclining to yellow, and a green like that of an emerald ;
and at length the rings aflumed the colours of blue, yellow,
and violet. The abbé was confirmed in his opinion that
there muft be fome error in Newton’s hypothetis, by con-
fidering that, according to his meafures, the colours of the
plates varied with the difference of a millionth part of an
inch ; whereas he was fatished that there muit have been
much greater differences in the diftance between his clafles,
when the colours remained unchanged. From other experi-
ments he concluded, that the plate of water introduced be-
tween the glafles was not the caufe of their colours, as
Newton apprehended; and that the coloured rings could
not be owing to the compreffion of the glaffes. After all
he adds, that the theory of light, thus reflected from thin
plates, is too delicate a fubject to be completely afcertained
by afmall number of obfervations. Berlin Mem. for 1752,
or Memoirs Prefentes, vol. ii. p. 28—43.
For M. du Tour’s experiments and obfervations, fee
Mem. Pref. vol. iv. p. 288.
M. Mufchenbroeck is alfo of opinion, that the colours of
thin plates do not depend upon the air; but as to the caufe
he is not fatisfied. Introd. ad Phil. Nat. vol. 1. p. 738.
See on this fubje& Prieitley’s Hit. of Light, &c. per. 6.
fect. 5. p- 498, &c.
Sir Ifaac Newton’s explanation of the appearance of the
above-mentioned coloured concentric rings, who accounts
for the produétion of them by afcribing to the rays of
light certain fits of eafy refleGion and eafy tran{mifficn
alternately returning and taking place with each ray at
certain
a
RIN
certain ftated intervals, not being fatisfactory to Dr. Rerf-
chel, he inftituted a feries of experiments with a view of
inveltigating the caufe of thefe phenomena. Newton’s
hypothefis appears to him not eafily reconcileable with the
minutenefs and extreme velocity of the particles of which
thefe rays, according to the Newtonian theory, are com-
pofed. The detail of this celebrated aftronomer’s experi-
ments would far exceed our limits; we muft therefore con-
tent ourfelves with referring for an account of them to
the Phil. Tranf. for 1807, vol. xcviil. pt. 2. and with
merely ftating the confequences which he has deduced from
them.
It is evident, fays our author, that the phenomena of
concentric rings muft have an adequate caufe, either in the
very nature or motion of the rays of light, or in the modi-
fications that are given to them by the two effential fur-
faces that a€t upon them at the time of the formation of
the rings. Hence he infers, that the true caufe may be
reduced to an alternative that may be determined for if
it can be fhewn, that a difpofition of the rays of Nght to
be alternately reflected and tranfmitted cannot account for
the phenomena which this hypothetis is to explain, a pro-
pofal of accounting for them by modifications that may be
proved, even on the principles of fir Iiaac Newton, to have
an exiftence, will be readily admitted. Accordingly Dr.
Herfchel offers fome arguments for removing an obitacle
to the inveftigation of the real caufe of the formation of
the concentric rings ; for after the very plaufible fuppofition
of the alternate fits, which agrees fo wonderfully well with
a number of faéts that have been related, it will hardly be
attempted, if thefe fhould be fet afide, to afcribe fome
other inherent property to the rays of light, by which we
might account for them: and thus we fhall be at liberty to
turn our thoughts te a caufe, that may be found in the
modifications arifing from the action of the furfaces, which
have been proved to be the only effential ones in the forma-
tion of rings. Our author proceeds to obferve, that con-
centric rings cannot be formed by an alternate reflection
and tranfmiffion of the rays of light; for if we adopt one
of the moft fimple methods of obtaining a fet of concen-
tric rings, which is that of laying a convex lens upon a
plain metalline mirror, we can im this cafe have no tranf-
miffion of rays, nor confequently any alternate refleGtion
and tran{miffion of them. He further obferves, that alter-
nate fits of eafy reflection and eafy tranimiffion, if they
exilt, do not exert themfelves pia hg the various thick-
nefles of thin plates of air. In the following experiment,
he placed a plain well-polifhed piece of glafs 5.6 inches
long, and 2.3 thick, upon a plain metalline mirror of the
fame length with the glafs, and in order to keep the mirror
and glafs at a diitance from each other, he laid between
them, at one end, a narrow {trip of {uch paper as is com-
monly put between prints. The thicknefs of that which
was ufed in this cafe was the 640th part of an inch. Upon
the glafs was put a 39-inch double convex lens; and hav-
ing expofed this combination to a proper light, two com-
plete fets of coloured rings were vifible in this arrange-
ment. The rays which convey the fecondary fet of rings
to the eye muit pafs through a thin wedge of air, and if
thefe rays are endowed with permanent fits of eafy reflec.
tion and eafy tranfmiffion, or abforption, their exertion,
according to fir I. Newton, fhould be repeated at every dif-
ferent thicknefs of the plate of air, which amounts to the
eeisrd part of an inch, of which he fays, “ hee elt
craflitudo aeris in primo annulo obfcuro radiis ad perpen-
diculum incidentibus exhibito, qua parte is annulus obicu-
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riffimus eft.” The length of the thin wedge of air, rec.
Koned from the line of contaét, to the beginning of the
interpofed ftrip of paper, is 5-2 inches, from which, by
calculation, it will have the above-mentioned thicknefs at
ath of an inch from the conta&; and therefore at <1,
Sp <5 x5 st dh &c. we fhall have the thicknefs of
air between the mirror and glafs equal to +-s'sey Se.
aes0009 +es5009 &c. of which the fame author fays that
they give ‘ craflitudines aeris in omnibus annulis lucidis,
qua parte ill lucidiffimi funt.”” Hence it follows that, ac-
cording to the above hypothefis, the rings of the fecon
fet, which extended over a {pace of .14 of aninch, fhould
fuffer more than feven interruptions of fhape and colour
in the direction of the wedge of air.
In order to afcertain whether fuch an effe& had any ex-
iftence, Dr. Herfchel viewed the fecondary {et of rings
upon every part of the glafs-plate, by moving the convex
lens from one end of it gradually to the other; and his at-
tention being particularly directed to the third, fourth, and
fifth rings, which were extremely diftin@, he faw them re-
tain their fhape and colour all the time without the fmalleft
alteration.
The fame experiment was repeated with a piece of plate-
glafs inttead of the metalline mirror, in order to give room
for the fits of eafy tranfmiffion, if they exiited, to exert
themfelves, but the refult was ftill the fame; and the con-
ftancy of the brightnefs and colours of the rings of the
fecondary fet plainly proved, that the rays of light were
not affected by the thicknefs of the plate of air through
which they paifed.
Our author next proceeds to fhew, that alternate fits of
eafy refleGtion and eafy tran{miflion, if they exiit, do not
exert themfelves according to the various thickneffes of thin
plates of glafs. In proot of this he feleGted a well-polifhed
plate of coach-glafs 17 inches long, and about 9 broad.
Its thicknefs at one end was =3,3,ths, and at the other zs'sths
of an inch; fo that in its whole length it differed -3,th of
an inch in thicknefs; and it was regularly tapering from
one end to the other. This plate, with a double convex
lens of 55 inches laid upon it, being placed upon a {mall
metalline mirror, and properly expofed to the light, ex-
hibited the ufual two fets of rings. In the fecondary fet,
which was the obje& of attention, 12 rings were counted, and
the central {pace between them was eitimated te be about
1} times as broad as the {pace occupied by the 12 rings on
either fide; fo that the whole {pace taken up might be
reckoned equal to the breadth of 40 rings of a mean fize;
for the 12 rings, as ufual, were gradually contraG@ed in
breadth as they receded from the centre, ard by a meafure
of the whole {pace thus occupied, it was found that the
breadth of a ring of a mean fize was aboyt the 308th
part of an inch.
According to fir I. Newton’s calculation of the a@ion
of the fits of eafy refleétion and eafy tran{miffion in thick
glafs-plates, an alternation from a reflecting to a tran{mitting
ht requires a difference of +;;4,¢th part of an ineh in
thicknefs (Newton’s Optics, p. 277.) ; and by calculation
this difference took place in the glafs-plate, that was ufed
at every Soth part of an inch of its whole length, The
12 rings, as well as the central colour of the fecondary
fet, fhould confequently have been broken by the exertion
of the fits at every Soth part of an inch; and from the
{pace over which thefe rings extended, which was about. 3
inch, it.was found, that there muit have been more than
19 fuch interruptions or breaks in a fet of which the. 308th
part was plainly to be diftinguithed, But when the glafs.
Oo2 plate
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plate was drawn gently over the {mall mirror, keeping the
fecondary fet of rings in view, their fhape and colour were
found to be always completely formed.
This experiment was alfo repeated with a {mall plain
glafs, inftead of the metalline mirror put under the large
plate. In this manner it {till gave the fame refult, with no
other difference but that only fix rings could be diltin@ly
feen in the fecondary fet, on account of the inferior reflec-
tion of the fubjacent glafs.
Our author next fhews, that coloured rings may be com-
pletely formed without the affiftance of any thin or thick
plates, either of glafs or of air. Sir I. Newton placed a
concave glafs mirror at double its focal length from a chart,
and obferved, that the reflection of a beam of light admitted
into a dark room, when thrown upon this mirror, gave
« four or five concentric irifes or rings of colours like rain-
bows’? (Optics, p. 265.) 3 and he accounts for them by
alternate fits of eafy refletion and eafy tran{miffion, exerted
in their paflage through the glafs-plate of the concave mirror.
Ibid. p. 277.
The duke de Chaulnes concluded from his own experi-
ments of the fame phenomena, that thefe coloured rings
depended upon ‘ the firft furface of the mirror, and that
the fecond furface, or that which refle€ts them after they
had pafled the firft, only ferved to colleét them, and throw
them upon the pafteboard, in a quantity fufficient to make
them vifible.” (Prieftley’s Hift. &c. p. 515.) Mr.
Brougham, after having confidered what the two lalt-men-
tioned authors had done, fays, ‘“ that upon the whole there
appears reafon to believe, that the rings are formed by the
firft furface out of the light, which, after reflection from the
fecond furface, is fcattered, and paffes on to the chart.”
Phil. Tranf. for 1796, p. 216.
Dr. Herfchel’s experiment is as follows. He placed a
highly polifhed feven-feet mirror, but of metal inftead of
glafs, that he might not have two furfaces, at the diftance
of fourteen feet from a white fcreen, and through a hole
in the middle of it, one-tenth of an inch in diameter, he
admitted a beam of the fun into his dark room, fo directed
as to fall perpendicularly on the mirror. In this arrange-
ment the whole fereen remained perfeCtly free from light,
becaufe the focus of all the rays, which came to the mirror,
was by refle€tion thrown back into the hole through which
they entered. After this preparation, an affiftant ftrewed
fome hair-powder with a puff into the beam of light, while
he kept his attention fixed upon the fcreen. As foon as
the hair-powder reached the beam of light the fcreen was
- fuddenly covered with the moft beautiful arrangement of
concentric circles, difplaying all the brilliant colours of the
rainbow. A great variety in the fize of the rings was ob-
tained by making the affiitant itrew the powder into the
beam at a greater diftance from the mirror; for the rings
contra&t by an increafe of the diftance, and dilate on a
nearer approach of the powder. ‘This experiment, fays our
author, is fo fimple, and points out the general caufes of
the rings which are here produced in fo plain a manner,
that we may confidently fay, they arife from the feCtion
of the rays of light on the particles of the floating powder,
modified by the curvature of the refleting furface of the
mirror. From this experiment our author concludes, that
the principle of thin or thick plates, either of air or glafs,
on which the rays might alternately exert their fits of eafy
refle€tion and eafy tranfmiflion, muft be given up: and that
the fits themfelves of courfe cannot be fhewn to have any
exiftence: It will hardly be necefflary to add further, that
the whole theory relating to the fize of the parts of natural
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bodies arid their interftices, which fir I. Newton has founded
upon the exiftence of fits of eafy refle€tion and eafy tranf-
miffion, exerted differently, according to the different thick-
nefs of the thin plates of which he fuppofes the parts of
natural bodies to confift, will remain unfupported ; for if
thefe fits have no exiftence, the whole foundation on which
the theory of the fize of fuch parts is placed, will be
taken away, and it will be neceffary to explore another
bafis for a fimilar edifice. This bafis, our author conceives,
is to be found in the modifying power, which the two fur-
faces that have been proved to be effential to the formation
of rings, exert upon the rays of light. *
Our author having pointed out. a variety of methods
that ferve to produce coloured concentric rings between
two glafles of a proper figure applied to each other, and
having proved that only two furfaces, namely, thofe that
are in contaét with each other, are effential to their -forma-
tion, proceeds in the inveftigation of the fubjeét to fhew,
that prifmatic phenomena aflume the fhape of rings, in con-
fequence of the fole ufe of {pherical curves in producing
them. Our author found, by an appropriate experiment,
that, as. fpherical curves gave circular rings, cylindrical
forms produce ftreaks; that cylindrical and {pherical fur-
faces combined produce coloured elliptical rings ; and that
irregular curves produce irregular figures. Hence he in-
fers, that the curvature of furfaces is the caufe of the ap-
pearance, as well as of the fhape of the coloured pheno-
mena which are produced. If we can invariably predidt,
from the nature of the curves that are employed in an ex-
periment, what will be the appearance and form of the
colours that will be feen, it certainly muft prove the
efficacy of thefe curvatures in the produétion of fuch phe-
nomena. ‘This conclufion is further confirmed by the con-
fideration, that coloured appearances cannot be produced
between the plain furfaces of two parallel pieces of glafs
applied to one another.
Having proved that no more than two furfaces are effentiai
to the formation of Newton’s coloured rings, and that the
configuration of the coloured phenomena arifes from the
curvature of one or both of the two effential furfaces, Dr.
Herfchel infers from thefe principles, that we are to diftin-
guifh between the production of the colours and that of
their configuration when produced. The caufe of the con-
figuration has been already explained ; and our author next
proceeds to inveftigate the production and arrangement of
the colours. The order of the colours is prifmatic; that is,
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Dr.
Herfchel’s experiments for afcertaining this arrangement are
too numerous and various to be here recited. We fhall there-
fore ftate the general propofition, and {pecify the refults of the
experiments by which it 1s eftablifhed. The general propofi-
tion is, that the critical feparation of the colours, which takes
place at certain angles of incidence, is the primary caufe
of the Newtonian coloured rings between optic glafles.
The refults of the experiments are as follow ; thefe experi-
riments (for which we refer to Phil. Tranf. for 1809, vol.
xcix. pt. 2.) explain in what manner a critical feparation of
the colours, which takes place at certain angles of incidence,
is the caufe of the appearance of the blue and red bows;
fince the different reflexability of the rays of light, by which
Newton has accounted for the blue bow, brings on a critical
feparation of the blue colours, and fince alfo the different
intromiffibility by which the author has explained the red
bow, occafions an equally critical feparation of the red ones.
Dr. Herfchel has not only proved that all the various appear-
ances, which were produced by convex glafles, may be
equally
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equally well obtained by the ufe of a prifm, but he has alfo
fhewn, that the great fimplicity of this valuable optical
inftrument has cleared up great difficulties, by pointing out
to us that the colours which are modified into fuch various
fhapes, are in all prifmatic experiments exclufively produced
by the critical feparation of the rays of light. As this fact
mutt be admitted, it certainly will not be philofophical to look
for a different caufe of the fame or fimilar effects, when convex
glaffes, which have all the required prifmatic properties, are
ufed to produce them. In order to fhew the great fimila-
rity, or rather the identity of thefe effects, it will be fufficient
to take the molt fimple cafe of each, namely, the coloured
rings that are produced when a plano-convex lens is laid with
its convex fide upon a plain refleCting furface: and the co-
loured ftreaks which are produced when the bafe of a right-
angled prifm is in the fame manner placed upon fuch a furface.
The refults of the experiments, with the reafonings annexed
to them, are contained in the following propofitions. The
form of rings arifes from the fpherical figure of the lens; the
right-lined appearance of the ftreaks is owing to the ftraight
figure of the plain furface of the prim. The colour of the
rings may fuddenly be changed; the colours of the blue
bow-ftreak may as inftantly be converted into thofe of the
red bow. The caufe of the fudden change of the rings has
been fhewn to be that the fets of one colour are feen by reflec-
tion, and thofe of the other by tranfmiflion ; it has alfo been
fhewn, that the blue bow-ftreaks are feen by reflection, and
thefe of the red bow by tranfmiflion. In a lens we may, at
the fame time, fee, in half the fet, the colours of the reflected,
and in the other half, the colours of the tranfmitted rings ;
and ina prifm held before an open window, when the eye is
clofe to it, and when half the bow falls on the fide of the
room, we may fee blue itreaks by reflection from half the
blue bow, and green ftreaks by tran{miffion from half the
red bow. When deep convex, or concave, glafles are laid
upon the firft furface of a lens, the rings are not affected by it ;
and when the fame glaffes are laid upon the firft furface of a
prifm the ftreaks remain unaltered. When the convexity of
the lens, which is placed on the reflecting furface, is changed,
the fize of the rings is alfo changed ; and when the angle of
the prifm is increafed or diminifhed, the diltance of the ftreaks
undergoes a proportional alteration. When the lens is
preffed upon the plain glafs, the rings increafe in diameter ;
and bya preffure of the plain glafs againit the prifm the
diftance of the ftreaks grows larger. To form rings by a
lens, {cattered rays only are required :- and the fame light is
beft for the production of ftreaks by a prifm. Many other
inftances of fimilarity might be adduced, but it is needlefs.
Now, as it has been clearly proved, that the critical fepara-
tion of the colours, which takes place at certain angles of
incidence, occafions al] the phenomena of the blue and red
bows, and of the ftreaks, rings, and other regular or ir-
regular appearances, that may be feen in a prifm, it cannot
be doubted that the Newtonian rings obferved between
object-glafles are owing to the fame caufe.
Dr. Herfchel concludes an elaborate paper on this fubje&
with the following remarks on the Newtonian alternate fits
of eafy reflection and eafy tranfmiffion.
“« In attempting to refcue the fcience of optics from what
has been fo long confidred as unfatisfaétory for explaining
the great queftion about the caufe of the coloured rings,
I have made ufe of a principle, the effe€ts of which have fo
near a refemblance to thofe of the fuppofititious fits of eafy
refleGtion and eafy tran{miffion, that the author of them might
eafily be mifled by appearances. But although the principle
ef a critical feparation of the colours, fubitituted for thefe
fits, admits the reflection of fome rays at the fame angles of
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incidence at which others are tranfmitted, yet fince the
Newtonian different refrangibility of light will account
for thefe critical refletions within glafs, and equally critical
intromiffions from without, we can have no longer any reafon
to afcribe original fits to the rays of light, which in the firft
part of this paper they have already been proved not to pof-
fefs, and which now, in all prifmatic experiments, I have
fhewn are not neceflary for explaining appearances that may
be accounted for without them.’’
In the Philof. Tranfactions for 1810, vol.c. pt. 2, we
have a third paper, as a fupplement to the other two papers,
containing additional obfervations on the caufe of coloured
concentric rings between object-glaffes, and other appearances
of a fimilar nature, in which Dr. Herfchel further explains
what fome may have thought ob{cure, and obviates certain
objections againit his theory. His fundamental principle
for explaining the colour of the rings, which he has illuftrated
both by reafoning and experiment, is this: that the colours
in all prifmatic phenomena are produced either by the inte-
rior critical feparation arifing from the different reflexibility
of the rays which caufe the blue bow, or by the exterior
critical feparation arifing from the different intromiflibility
of the rays which caufe the red bow. In this paper he fub-
joins fome additional arguments to thofe before given, in
order to prove, that there are two primary prif{matic bows,
a blue one and ared one; and he maintains, that the red
bow 1s a phenomenon of equal originality with the Newtonian
blue bow, and that as one of thefe bows cannot be the con-
verfe of the other, we have two critical feparations effentially
different, viz. the refleGtive and intromiflive. But we muft
refer to the author’s own account, uli /upra.
For an account of the rings of colours produced by elec-
trical explofions, fee CoLours of Natural Bodies, CincuLAR
Spots, and Fairy Circles.
Rings of Flies, in Natural Hiflory, the feveral rounds or
circular portions, of which the bodies of thefe and other
infeéts are compofed.
In the fly kind thefe are cru{taceous or cartilaginous, and
confequently of a matter little capable of extention ; many
actions of thefe infe€ts require, however, that their bodies,
or a part at leaft of their bodies, fhould be able to inflate or
diftend, and contraét their fize occafionally. Were every
ring of the body one entire fcale, or fhelly fubftance, thefe
changes could not be eafily effected; nature has therefore
fo provided, that the tender bodies of thefe little creatures
are fufficiently defended, and yet all the neceffary motions
may be performed.
Rive, in Agriculture, a fort of hoop made of iron,
which is ufed for various purpofes, as faitening horfes and
cattle by in the ftalls. In thefe cafes they fhould be made
large and ftrong.
Rinc, in Commerce, a term ufed in reckoning at Ham-
burgh, and is equivalent to 240 of things that are fold by
number. Staves are fold in rings of 4 {choaks (a {choak
being 60) and 8 pieces: 3 rings of hogfhead ftaves, or 6
rings of barrel ftaves, are reckoned equal to 2 rings of pipe
{taves.
Rive, a ftout circle of iron in the upper part of the fhank
of an anchor, to which the cable is bent.
RuivGs are alfo circles of iron or other metal, let over the
points of bolts, whereon they are clenched, to prevent their
drawing. Hatch-rings, or ring and ftarts, are thofe which
are fixed in the hatches or fcuttles to open or fhut them
with.
Rinesin Timber, in Rural Economy, the concentric layers
by which the wood is formed. ‘Thele rings are, -according
to Dr. Darwin, annually produced from the alburnum, and
are
RIN
are fuppofed to be thicker on that fide of the trunk of
the tree which has a fouthern afpe&t than on the con-
trary, and thicker in thofe fummers moft favourable to
vegetation than in others. It is added, that thefe rings,
as they lofe their vegetable life, and at the fame time a part
of their moifture, by evaporation or abforption, gradually
become harder and of a darker colour, infomuch, that by
counting their aumber, It is faid, that not only the age of
the tree, but the mildnefs or moifture’ of each fummer,
during the time of its growth, may be eltimated by the re-
fpective thicknefs of the rings of timber.
RinG, Bafe. See Base.
Rinc-Bolf, in a Ship, is an iron bolt with an eye at one
end, in which is fitted a circular ring, and ufed for various
purpofes; particularly for hooking the tackles, by which
- the cannon of a fhip is managed and fecured. They are
driven by the fides of the gun-ports in fhips for fecuring
the guns; and in the deck for ftopping the cable, and are
therefore called ftopper-bolts. The rings are fometimes
“made angular, to receive many turns of lafhing; fuch are
the ring-bolts driven through the fhip’s fide along the waitt
for lafhing the booms and {pare anchors.
Rinc-Bone, among Farriers, &c. a hard callous fubftance,
growing in the hollow circle of the little paftern of a horfe,
above the coronet.
It fometimes goes quite round, like a ring, whence its
name ; fometimes it is hereditary, derived from the ftallion
or mare ; but it oftener comes by accident, as from a ftrain,
a blow of a horfe, &c.
Rinec, Corniche. See CoRNICHE.
Rinc-Dial. See Drat.
Rinc-Dove. See Dove, and CotumBa Palumbus.
Rive, Fairy. See Farry.
Rinc-Head, an engine ufed in ftretching of cloth.
Rine, Natal. See NATAL.
Ring Ouzel or Amfel. See Ouzer, and Turnus for-
quatus.
Rine, Reinforce. See REINFORCE.
Rinc-Ropes, ina Ship, fhort pieces of rope, tied occafion-
ally to the ring-bolts of the deck, to faften the cable more
fecurely, when the fhip rides in atempelt, or turbulent fea,
or rapid current. They are ufed more particularly in
veering away the cable gradually in thofe circumitances, in
order to frefhen the haute.
Rinc-Scalpel. We have a defcription and a figure of a
ring-{calpel, for affilting the delivery of women in child-
birth, by Dr. Thomas Simfon, in the Medical Eflays of
Edinburgh, vol. v. art. 39.
Rinc-Lail, in Ornithology, the Englifh name for the /ud-
buteo, or pygargus accipiter ; which has been generally fuppofed
to be the female of the hen-harrier ; but males have lately
been found of this {pecies. See Fatco Pygargus.
The ring-tail isa moderately large bird. It has a fort of
ring, or chain of feathers, round the back part of its head,
reaching to its chin on each fide, which ftand erect, and are
brown inthe middle, and of a reddifh-white at the edges,
and make a fort of crown, which furrounds the head; on
the top of the head and cheeks the feathers are dufky,
bordered with ruft-colour ; under each eye is a white {pot ;
the back is dufky, the rump white, with oblong yellowifh
fpots on each fhaft ; the tail islong, and its tip white ; the
breaft and belly are of a yellowifh-brown, marked with
oblong dufky {pots ; its legs are yellow, and the infide of
its mouth is black; it feeds on {mall birds, and its eggs are
of a reddifh hue, with very little clear white appearing in
them. Thefe birds fly higher than the hen-harrier, and
fometimes perch on trees. :
RIN
Rine-Tail Eagle. See White-tailed Eacur,and Farce
Albicilla. 5
Rine-Tai/, in a Ship, is a quadrilateral fail, occafionally
hoifted abaft the after-leech of the boom-mainfails, to which
the fore-leech is made to correfpond. The head is bent to
a fmall yard at the outer end of the gaff, and the foot is
{pread on the boom, which is prolonged by a piece lafhed
to the outer end. A triangular fail of this fort is ufed in
light favourable winds, extended on a {mall matt, occafi-
onally ereéted for that purpofe on the taffarel of {mall
vellels.
Rivne, Trunnion. See TRuNNION.
Rinc-Walk, among Hunters, around walk. See Hunt-
ING.
Rinc-Worm, in Medicine. See Rincworm.
Rine Jfland, in Geography, a {mall ifland off the coatt
of Maflachufetts, oppofite to Newbury port, to the eaft-
ward. Z
RINGAN, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; 14 miles S. of Culmbach.
RINGANDEE, a town of Bengal; 30 miles W. of
Rogonatpour.
RINGELBERGIUS, Joacuim-Fortius, in Biogra-
phy, vernacularly Sterck, an eminent Flemifh philofopher
and mathematician, who flourifhed in the 16th century, was
born at Antwerp. He was patronized by the emperor
Maximilian I., in whofe palace he.had an apartment, and
he there received his frft inftru€tions in the rudiments of
learning. When he was feventeen years of age, he was fent
to the univerfity of Louvain, where he {tudied the learned
languages, philofophy, and the mathematical fciences. He
became a public profeffor in that univerfity, and taught rhe-
toric, colmography, the mathematics, and the Greek
language, with very high reputation. »So numerous were
the clafles which attended his lectures, that they frequently
occupied his attention twelve hours every day, for amonth
together. In the year 1528 he went into Germany, and
taught the mathematical fciences and the Greek tongue in
various feminaries of that country. From Germany he
went to France, where he filled the profeffor’s chair at
Paris, Orleans, Bourdeaux, and other places. He died
about the year 1536. He wrote a number of eiteemed
works, which were publifhed at Bafil, Antwerp, and other
places, and reflected honour on his learning and judgment.
The titles of fome of them are, “ De Ratione Studii ;”
« De Ufu et Differentiis vocum quarundam apud Latinos ;’’
« De Ulu Vocum gue non fle€tuntur ;”? « Grammatice
Grece Elementa ;’’? “ Dialectica, et Tabule Diale@ice ;’’
* De confcribendis Epiftolis Lib.;’? «* Rhetorice, et que ad
eam fpectant;”? ‘* Sententie;’? ‘ De Formis dicendi,
Lib.;”? « De Periodis ;”? “* Synonyma;” « Sphezra, five
Inftitutionum Aftronomicarum, Lib. iii.;?? © Cofmogra-
phia ;”? “ Optica ;’? ‘Chaos Mathematicum ;?? « Arith-
metica.”? The whole of his works were colleéted and pub-
lifhed at Leyden, in 1531.
RINGELSLOFF, in Geography, a town of Auttria ;
4miles E.N.E. of Zilter{dorff.
RINGEN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Riga; the birth-place of the emprefs Catharine I., near
Dorpat.
RINGENDORF, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Rhine; 7 miles W. of Haguenau.
RINGENT Corotra, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfio-
/ogy, named from its refemblance to the mouth and fnout of
fome ‘animal; fee CoronLa, Certain Englith authors, li.
terally tranflating the original word (ringens), ufe the ludi-
crous term of 4 grinning corolla.
RIN-
RIN
RINGENTHAL, in Geography, atown of Saxony, in
the circle of Erzgebirg; 1 mile N. of Mitweyda.
RINGERIKE, a town of Norway ; 24 miles N.N.E.
of Chriftiania. &
RINGES, in Rural Economy, a provincial term, figni-
fying rows of hay, mown corn, quicks, &c.
RINGKIOBING, in Geography, a town of Denmark,
on the coaft of a large gulf of the North fea, to which it
gives name. The inhabitants are almoft wholly employed
in trading to Holland and Norway. The bay affords
plenty of good fith, particularly oytters. It is of a good
depth, and fecure, except at the entrance, which is rendered
dangerous by fand-banks ; 48 miles N.W. of Ripen. N. lat.
6° 2'. W. long. 8° 18!
RINGLEBEN, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Eifenach, 6 miles N. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 6’. E. long.
ch Ae
RINGO’s Town, a town of America,\in Hunterden
county, New Jerfey ; 15 miles N.W. of Princeton.
RINGSTED, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of
Zealand, anciently a large city, but reduced by fires into
a {mall town: but it is itill famous for its court of judica-
ture, to which lies an appeal from almoft all the courts of
Zealand, whereas no appeal lies from this but to the fu-
preme court at Copenhagen; 29 miles S.W. of Copenha-
en. N. lat. 55° 28'. E. long. 11° 48!.
RINGWOOD, a town of America, in Hunterden
county ; 25 miles N. of Morriftown, containing 2605 inha-
bitants. :
* Rincwoep, a market-town and parifh in the hun-
dred of Ringwood, New Foreft, weit divifion, county of
Southampton, England, is fituated on the eaftern bank of
the river Avon, at the diftance of 14 miles W. by S. from
Southampton, and go miles S.W. by W. from London.
This town is of great antiquity, and is fuppofed by Cam-
den to have been the Regnum of the Romans, which others,
however, have fixed, with greater probability, at Chichefter,
in Suffex. But whatever it may have been during the Ro-
man government, it unqueftionably attained confiderable im-
portance in the time of the Saxons; and in Domefday book,
it is eftimated at a higher value than Thuinam, or Chrift-
ehurch.
Ringwood is noted for its breweries ‘of {trong beer and
ale. A market is held here on Wednefday, weekly ;
and there are fairs on the roth of July, and r1thof De-
cember. The petty feffions for New Foreft, welt divifion,
are holden in this town. The unfortunate duke of Mon-
mouth is very generally ftated to have been taken in a field
near Ringwood, after his defeat at Sedgemoor ; but this
{tatement is erroneous, that prince having been actually
feized in the woodlands in Dorfetfhire. According to the
parliamentary returns of 1811, the town and parifh’ con-
tained 658 houfes, and a population of 3269 perfons.
North from Ringwood is the village of Ellingham, where
formerly was a religious houfe, founded by William de Sa-
lariis, in the reign of Henry II., and appropriated as a cell to
the abbey of St. Saviour le Vicompte, in Normandy. When
the alien priories inthis country were diffolved, Henry VI.
granted Ellingham and its pofleffions to the college at Eton.
Some remains of the buildings of this eftablifhment are
fuppofed to form the nave of the prefent church, and the
pinion is certainly not improbable, as it is more ancient
than the reft of the fabric. The altar-piece here is a painting
of the Day of Judgment, prefented to the parifh by the late
lord Windfor, whofe cea brigadier Windfor, brought
it from Port St. Mary, in the bay of Cadiz, among the
trophies of an expedition againft that city in the year 1702.
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In the church-yard is.a plain itone, to the memory of dame
Alicia Lifle, whom the blood-thirity Jeffreys condemned to
be executed in her old age, on a charge of harbouring
known rebels in her manfion at Moyles-Court. This manfion
is ttill ftanding, furrounded by a very pleafant, but {mail,
park. Its former pofleffors, the Lifles, were originally
fettled in the Ifle of Wight, where they had large ettates,
and whence they derived their name. Colonel John Lifle,
hufband to the above-mentioned Alicia, was one of the
judges who pafled fentence on king Charles I. and alfo
one of the lords commiffioners of the great feal during the
prote€torate of Cromwell. On the eve of the reltoration
he fled to the continent, was pro{cribed by the parliament of
Charles IL., and aflaffinated at Laufanne, in Switzerland, by
three villains, hired for that purpofe by fome of the royal
family, or their friends. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol, vi. by John Britton, F.S.A. and E. W. Brayley,
Lond. 1805.
RINGWORM, in Medicine, a popular appellation, ap-
plied to various fuperficial affections of the fkin, which
aflume fomewhat of acircular form. But the fact is, that
almott all the partial cutaneous difeafes haye more or lefs a
tendency to the annular figure, and rife in fomewhat irregu-
lar patches, approximating to the oval or the circle, which
is fometimes perfect, and fometimes broken. It is only by
referring to an intelligible nomenclature, fuch as that pro-
pofed by tht late Dr. Willan, that any difcrimination can be
clearly made in the varieties of thefe eruptions. If we ex-
amine thefe ringworms according to this fyitem, we thall
find, that there are feveral difeafes, to which the term is
applicable, and daily applied, and confequently the fame
remedies recommended for their cure, which are, neverthe-
lefs, very different in their nature, and therefore require
very different modes of treatment. Thus there isa circular
eruption, which confilts of patches of pimples, the lichen
circumfcriptus of Dr. Willan; even the /caly lepra occurs
in circles of various fizes, and is fometimes called ringworm :
the puflular difeafe, called impetigo figurata, or moiift tet-
ter, and the veficular eruption termed herpes circinatus,
(fee Dr. Bateman’s Praét. Synopf. of Cutan. Difeafes,) are
alfo diftinguifhed by their circular form, and it is to thefe
two lait that the term ringworm is moit popularly applied.
And above all, the contagious difeafe of the fcalp, the por-
rigo {eutulata, is fo diftinétly circular in its form, as to be
diftinguifhed from the other f{pecies of the fame diforder, by
the appellation of ringworm, or by fome the ringworm of
the fcalp. See the fame Synopfis, ord. v. gen. 2. See alfo
Porrico, Licuen, Herpes, &c. above.
The general treatment recommended for ringworms by the
vulgar, is the application of common ing; and this, by its
aftringency, which is flight, may be partially ufeful in the
decline of the herpetic ringworm, above-mentioned, or in
the mildeft forms of that of the fcalp: but it will be cer-
tainly injurious if applied to the moitt fe/ter, or to the lichen
in its early ftage; and the fame effect can be produced by
fimilar aftringents, in a more manageable and lefs dirty
form; as by folutions of the fulphate of iron or zinc in
rofe-water or other diftilled water. But in fa&, the ring-
worm of the fcalp requires much more attive remedies, on
the one hand; and on the other, the herpetic ringworm dif.
appears in a fhort time {pontaneoully ; fo that the remedy
may be deemed in both cafes ufelefs. It is obvious, then,
that difeafes, which are puttular, dealy, veficular, and pa-
pular refpeGtively ; fome of which are inflamed, and others
not ; fome contagious, and others not ; fome difappearing
{pontaneoufly, and others refilting the moit a¢tive applica-
tions; fome connected with diforder of the conititution, and
others
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others merely local, cannot be treated with advantage, or
even withimpunity, by the fame fet of medicines, and ought
not to be confounded under the fame appellation ; but po-
pularly, the ame of a difeafe is alone inquired for, and the
remedy is appropriated to the name. By difcarding the
term ringworm, or uniting with it the epithets puftular, ve-
ficular, or herpetic, porriginous, &e. this pra¢tical error
may be avoided.
RINLING, or Arnurne, in Geography, atown of Ba-
varia; 8 miles N.N.W. of Aicha.
RINNE, a river of Thuringia, which runs into the
Saale, two miles below Rudelftadt.
RINOREA, in Botany, aname of uncertain derivation,
but probably beitowed on this genus by Aublet, from its
“native appellation in Guiana.—Aubl. -Guian. 235. Juff.
287. Lamarck Did. v. 6. 211. Mluftr. t. 134.—Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Berberides,
Ju.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, villous,
cloven into five, oblong, acute fegments. Cor. Petals
ten, concave, ovate, oblong; the five inner ones f{maller ;
all inferted below the germen. Svam. Filaments tive, fhort,
inferted at the bafe of the outer petals; anthers oblong,
two-celled, with two valves buriting trom the bafe to the
top. Pift. Germen fuperior, roundifh, villous; {tyle ob-
long, villous; ftigma obtufe. Peric. unknown.
Obf. Juffieu defcribes Rinorea as having five longer pe-
tals, each furnifhed with an inner one at its claw or bafe.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals ten, the five inner ones
fmaller. Style one Stigma one.
r. R. guianenfis. Aubl. Guian. t. 93.—Native of culti-
vated ground in Guiana, where it flowered in January.—A
tree fix or feven feet high, whofe trunk is branched very
thickly, to the very fummit, in a {ftraight alternate man-
ner. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate-oblong, acute,
toothed. Svipulas fhort, deciduous. F/owers white, in axil-
lary, terminal clufters, each placed on a fhort ftalk, which
is furnifhed with two fcales at its bafe.
RINTELN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the county of Schauenburg, fituated on the S. fide of the
Weer. The univerfity of Stadthagen was removed to this
town inthe year 1621 ; its profeflors of divinity are Lu-
theran, but thofe of the other faculties are Calvinifts. The
town church belongs to the Lutherans; the Calvinifts and
garrifons ufe the univerfity church for their fervice. The
ramparts, ditches, and bulwarks, that environ the town,
were begun in 1665, and finifhed in 1668. The inhabitants
are chiefly employed in agriculture, breeding of cattle, and
‘brewing; g miles S.S.E. of Minden. N. lat. 52° 11/.
E. long. 9° 8!.
RINUCCINI, Orravio, in Biography, an Italian
poet of, Florence, who went into France in the fuite of
Mary of Medicis, queen to Henry IV. He was the in-
ventor of the mufical drama or opera, that is, of the man-
ner of writing or reprefenting comedies or tragedies in
mufic, to which the firft recitative was applied. (See Rr-
cITATIVE.) ~Others give this invention to a Roman gen-
tleman of the name of Emilio del Cavaliere, who was more
properly the inventor of the facred drama or oratorio, in a
fimilar {pecies of mufic or recitative, fo nearly at the fame
time, that it is difficult to determine which was firft : both
had their beginning in 1600. See CAVALIERE, and Ora-
TORIO.
It is certain that Rinuccini was author of three lyric
pieces, ‘ Daphne,” ¢ Euridice,”’ and “ Ariadne,”? which all
Italy applauded. Euridice, written for the nuptials of
Mary of Medicis, was firft performed with great {plendour
4
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and magnificenee at Florence, at the court and expence of
the grand duke.
The poetry of Rinuccini is truly lyrical, fmooth, po-
lifhed, and mellifluous. He died in 1621, at Florence; and
his works were publifhed in 1622, in the fame city, in 4to.
by his fon, Pietro Francefco Rinuccini. The family is
noble, and was fubfifting in 1770.
RINVEEL Pornt, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, in
the county of Galway, N. of Ballinakiel bay. N. lat. 53°
4i!. E. long. 9° 58’.
RINUM, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan
or Seiftan; 60 miles E.N.E. of Zareng.
RIO de los Anzuelos, a river of Mexico, which runs into
the Spanifh Main, N. lat. 11° r0'".—R.. dos Apoflolos, ariver
of North America, which runs into the northern part of
the gulf of California.—R. de Bogota, ariver of New Gra-
nada, which colleéts all the waters of the valley of Bogota,
the bottom of which valley, according to Humboldt, is no
lefs than 7460 feet above the level of the fea, and finds its
way through the mountains to the S.W. of the town of
Santa Fe. (See Bocora.) | The perfect level of the
plain, its geological ftruture, and the form of the rocks,
which refemble {mall iflands in the middle of the Savannahs,
appeared to M. Humboldt to indicate the exiftence of an
ancient lake. If the fingle outlet of the river were to be
flopped, the valley would again be cbnverted into a lake, *
The river, where it leaves the valley, is about 144 feet
wide, half the breadth nearly of the Seine at Paris, be-
tween the Louvre and the Palace of the Arts. It then en-
ters into a narrow rocky channel, not more than 40 feet
wide, which appears, fays the fame intelligent and inftruc.
tive traveller, to have been formed by an earthquake.
After running for a little way in this crevice, the river preci-
pitates itfelf, at two bounds, to the depth of 574 feet. After
this tremendous fall, it purfues its way to the Magdalena,
about 50 miles, {till defcending with great rapidity, and at
the rate of 150 feet toa mile. Although this is not the
greateft fall in the globe, there is not probably any which,
from fo great a height, precipitates fo large a body of water.
Bouguer makes the height between 1500 and 2000 feet ;
but he fpeaks only from the information ef others who had
feen the fall, and pointed out to him fuch heights as they
thought might be nearly equalto it. The accompaniments
of this waterfall, upon which the effect fo much depends,
are an aflemblage of every thing that is fublime, beautiful,
and picturefque. Independent, fays M. Humboldt, of
the height and the fize of the column of water, the figure of
the landfcape, and the afpeét of the rocks; the peculiar
charaéter ftamped on thefe great {cenes of nature is owing
to the luxuriant form of the trees and herbaceous plants,
their diftribution into groups, or into feattered thickets, the
extent of the craggy precipice, and the frefhne{s of vegeta-
tion. . Another feature in the charatter of this extraordi-
nary cataraét is probably quite peculiar to it:—the water
defcends from a cold region to a warm one. The plain of
Bogota, efpecially near the fall, is extremely fertile, and is
fuppofed to owe fome of its fruitfulnefs to the irrigation oc-
cafioned by the great quantity of water from the fall, which
is diffolved in the air, and afterwards precipitated. The
fine crops of wheat, the oak, the elm, and other plants,
recall to mind the vegetation of Europe. Looking down
from this terrace, one fees, with furprife, at the bottom, a
country producing the palm, the banana, and the fugar-
cane. This cannot arife from the difference of height ; as
it is known, that no very great change of temperature can
be produced by a difference of level ot 57ofeet. M. Hum-
boldt fuggefts,- that it is probably owing to the fhelter
} which
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which the high country affords to the low. It is one of
the circumftances that has added much to the marvellous
height of the cataract; as the height is naturally fuppofed
to be great, that carries one at once from the temperature
of Europe, and one where the thermometer is fometimes at
the freezing point, to that of the torrid zone. Although
the river lofes a great part of its water in falling, which is
reduced into vapour, the rapidity of the lower current
forces the obferver to keep at the diftance of 150 yards from
the bafin dug out by the fall. The folitude of the place,
the richnefs of the vegetation, and the dreadful roar that
ftrikes the ear, contribute to render the foot of the cataraét
of 'Tequendama one of the wildeft fcenes that can be found
in the Cordilleras. (Humboldt’s Refearches, &c. tranflated
by Helm M‘Williams, Lond. 1814.)—R. Buenb, ariver of
the ifland of Jamaica, which runs into the fea on the north
coaft, N. lat. 18° 30! W. long: 77° 19!.—R. de Cedros,
ariver of South America, which runs into the Pacific ocean,
N. lat. 2°30'.—R. Cobre, a river of Jamaica, which paffes
by Spanifh Town, and runs into the fea, 4 miles N.W. of
Kingfton.—R. del Conches, or de Salinas, ariver of Mexico,
which joins the Brava at its mouth.—R. Dole, or Frefh-
quater river, ariver of Brazil, which runs into the Atlan-
tic, S. lat. 19° 20'..—R. Dolce, or Dulce, a river of South
America, in the province of Tucuman, formed by the con-
fluence of feveral rivers. After pafling by St. Yago del
Eftero, &c. and purfuing a courfe of about 300 miles, it
lofes itfelf in a falt lake, S. lat. 30° 40!.—R. de los Deraces,
a river of Mexico, which runs into the Spanifh Main,
N. lat. 9° 45'.—R. dos Efmeraldas, a river of America, on
the ifthmus of Darien, which runs into the Pacific ocean,
N. lat. 2° 42!.—R. dos Efmeraldos, a river of Peru, which
runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 0° 57!.—R. Fri/co, a river
of Africa, which runs from the Ivory coaft into the Atlan-
tic, N. lat. 5° 8'. W. long. 5° 55!.—-R. dos Galinas. See
Maauarrart.—R. Grande, a river of South America,
which runs into the Spanifh Main, between Carthagena and
St. Martha.—Alfo, a river of the ifland of Jamaica, which
runs into the fea, on the N. coaft, N. lat. 18° 15’. W. long.
76° 14'.—R. Grande, or Civdad Nova, a town of Brafil,
in the jurifdiGtion of Fernambuco, formerly the feat of a
jurifdiGtion. -S. lat. 5° 44—R. Grande, ariver of Brafil,
icarcely deferving the name, the mouth of which is fituated
in S. lat. 3° 2'—Alfo, a river of Africa, which paffes the
coaft of Zanguebar, and runs into the Indian fea, forming
the iflands of Patta and Lamo at its mouth. S. lat. cone
E. long. 41° 30'.—Alfo, a river of Africa, navigable for
boats near 400 miles from the mouth, which lies on the At-
Jantic, N. lat. 11°. W. long. 14° 36'.—Alfo, a river of
America, which rifes in the ifthmus of Darien, “and runs
into the Pacific ocean, three miles W. of Panama. “See
alfo Vermeso, Patixa, and Hacua.—R. Hondo, a river
of Yueatan, which runs into the bay of Honduras,
Rio de Janeiro, a jurifdiétion or independent serie
of Brafil, fo called by the Portuguefe when they became
matters of the country, from the river Janeiro, which runs
through the middle of it; and the river probably derived
its name from its having been difcevered on the day of the
feaft of St. Januarius, or on the rit day of January, in 1516,
by Solis. The province and the river are called by the
natives ‘*Genabara.’? At the mouth of the river, on the
eaft fide, isthe fort of Santa Cruz, andon the wett, that of
St, Jago, together with the capital, The rivers in this go-
vernment are few, and none of them laapes except the Ja-
neiro, which is rather a falt bay or gulf than a river, and
two rivers that difcharge themfelves into this bay. At the
mouth of it are feveral {mall iflands, that render its entrance
Vor. XXX,
nro
fomewhat difficult and dangerous. Although the foil of
this province is for the greateft part rich and fertile, the
inhabitants manifeft little induftry either in the cultivation
of the foil or the improvement of the country. It con-
fifts chiefly, at leaft near the capital, in railing garden
vegetables for the whites, and rice and manioc for the blacks.
Wheat is fond to grow in other parts of the Brafils,
with an increafe beyond what is known in Europe. A corn-
mill, dittinguifhed by the fimplicity of its ttru@ure, at-
traGted the notice of fir George Staunton; and he has
thought it worthy of being defcribed. A wheel, a few
feet only in diameter, was placed horizontally, much below
the current of a ftream, as it fell from a fteep bank, and
was received in hollows, 10 or 12 in number, fo obliquely
{colloped into the upper rim of the wheel, as to impel it to
a quick rotatory motion, while its upright fhaft, paffin
through an opening in the centre of an immoveable mill-
ftone above the wheel, but of a narrower diameter, was
fixed to a fmaller mill-{tone, which, forced round with the
motion of the wheel and dependent fhaft, crufhed between
it and the larger {tone beneath, the grain infinuated between
them from a hopper. Thus that effeét was produced by
one wheel only, which is generally the refult of a much
more expenfive and complicated machinery. A fimilar mill,
it is faid, is in ufe in the Crimea. A foreft, not far from
the capital, was found, by fir George and his affociates, to
abound in palms and maftic wood ; alfo mango and gouyava
trees are found growing to the fize of trees, befides many
other vegetables, never obferved before by thofe who were
then travelling through it. The ipecacuanha plant is faid
to grow at St. Catharine’s within the government of Rio.
The fize and vivid hue of many of the flowers throughout
the foreft, and the gaudy plumage of the birds, which came
occafionally in fight, were very ftriking. The woods, it is
faid, abound in {nakes, fome of which are extremely large
and formidable. But their hiffing noife puts thofe who hear
it on their guard, and they feldom, without provocation,
advance to an attack. The foreft now mentioned led to
the cultivated valley of *'Tijouca,”’ fituated, as it were, in
the bottom of a funnel, being furrounded on all fides by
mountains, excepting to the fouthward, where a fmall
opening admitted an arm of the fea. The valley was watered
by a clear ftream, which, upon firft entering it, was preci-
pitated down’a fteep and broad rock of granite, forming a
magnificent cafcade. Very little labour appeared neceflary
in the plantations of Tijouca. Indigo, manioc, coffee,
cacao, and chocolate-trees, fugar-canes, os and
orange and lime-trees, were commonly feen al growin pro-
mifcuoufly, and fome {pontaneoufly, in the {pace of 20 {quare
yards, Coffee and indigo were the principal objeéts of at-
tention. The temperature of the valley was exceffively
hot, on account of its confined fituation, and the refle&ion
of the fun’s rays from the fides of the mountains, which in
many places were very rocky. Fahrenheit’s thermometer,
about four in the afternoon, {ftood, in the fhade, at 88°.
Several diftri&ts of the government of Rio produced cotton,
fugar, coffee, and cacao or chocolate, rice, pepper, and
tobacco, in great abundance. That of Rio Grandé yielded
plenty of excellent wheat. The vine grew in great per-
fection ; but the grape is not fuffered to be prefled for wine,
as fuch a procefs might interfere with the fale of the fame
article from Portugal. But probably lefs caution may be
exercifed in this refpeét fince the removal of the Portuguefe
government to the Brafils Mott of the land, as far as Cook
and his companions had an opportunity of obferving it, war .
laid down in grafs, upon which cattle were paftured in great ©
plenty ; but they were fo lean, that an Englifhman would
Pp fcarcely
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fearcely eat their flefh: the herbage of thefe paitures con-
fifts chiefly of crefles, and confequently is fo fhort, that
though it may afford a bite for horfes and fheep, it can
hardly be grazed by horned cattle in a fufficient quantity
for keeping them alive. For other particulars relating to
the climate, produétions, commerce, and inhabitants of this
province, fee BRrasiL, and the next article.
Rio de Janeiro, a city of Brafil, and capital of the above-
mentioned government, and alfo of the whole country, and
the Portuguefe dominions.in America, fituated on a river, or
rather an arm of the fea, of the fame’ name. Formerly
Bahia dos Todos, or Santos, was the principal feat of go-
vernment, and chief mart for commerce in the Brafils ; but
the difcovery and improvement of the gold and diamond
mines, within about 100 leagues of Rio de Janeiro, and
communicating immediately with it, gave a decided pre-
ponderancy to the latter. The city ftands on a plain, clofe
to the fhore, on the W. fide of the bay, at the foot of feveral
high mountains which rife behind it. It is neither ill-de-
figned nor ill-built ; the houfes in general are of ftone, and
two ftories high; every houfe having, after the manner of
the Portuguefe, a little balcony before its windows, and a
lattice of wood before the balcony. Its circuit was com-
puted by lieutenant, afterwards captain, Cook, to be about
three miles, and it appeared to be equal in fize to the largett
country towns of England, Briftol and Liverpool not ex-
cepted ; the ftreets are {traight, and conveniently broad, in-
terfe&ting each. other at right angles; moft of them, how-
ever, lie in a line with the citadel, called St. Sebaftian,
which ftands on the top of a hill, that commands the town.
The harbour is fafe and capacious, and very convenient for
commerce. Captain Mackintofh, from experience, recom-
mends to fhips bound for this harbour, after getting in with
cape Frio, inftead of fteering along fhore, to fhape their
courfe between S.W. and S.W. by W. for 12 or 14 leagues.
‘To this diftance the land wind extends. The forenoons in
general are calm, but almoft every afternoon a frefh fea-
breeze fets in from the S.W. It is proper to fteer, in a
dire& courfe, from hence to the {mall iflands lying under
the great inclining Sugar-loaf on the weltern fide of the en-
trance into Rio harbour. From thefe {mall iflands the wind
will carry the fhip to the oppofite fide of the harbour’s
mouth, where the fort of Santa Cruz is fituated, and which
may be approached within 50 yards, and from thence, fafely
and quickly, into harbour. The entrance of the harbour,
as fir Erafmus Gower obferves, will fhew itfelf by difco-
vering the caftle or fort of Santa Cruz, and a {mall fortified
ifland, called? Fort Lucia, nearly abreaft of it. Between
thefe is the channel into the harbour, near a mile wide ; both
fhores are fteep ; that of Santa Cruz is perpendicular, there
being fix fathoms in the wafh of the fea. The narrownefs
of the channel caufes ftrong tides; but as the fea-breeze
blows frefh, they do not impede entering into the harbour.
In going in it is beft to keep mid channel, or even nearer to
Santa Cruz. About four miles outfide the harbour’s mouth,
the depth of water is 18 and rg fathoms, which will decreafe
gradually to 8 or 73 and this, being the fhalloweft part,
may be called the bar, which is about two miles outfide the
fort. The water again deepens, on approaching to Santa
Cruz, to 17 and 18 fathoms, nor will lefs be found in the
fair way of the great road. Large fhips may moor in
fhoaler water, but that depth, or thereabouts, is more ad-
vifeable, as fucha fituation affords the fulladvantage of the
fea-breeze, as well asthat of avoiding the infeéts, which are
very troublefome when nearer to the fhore. In the inner
harbour, formed by an ifland called ‘ Ilheo dos Cobras,”’ or
Serpent ifland, are proper whasfe for heaving {hips down by ;
5
RIO
but the mode of doing it alongfide hulks is now preferreds
In the fame harbour will fhips anchor, which are loading or
unloading goods, or want repairing; but the outer is the
more healthy fituation. Rio is fituated in S. lat. 22° 54/,
and W. long. 42° 44!. The variation of the compafs is
4° 55! W. of the pole. The tide flows 74 hours, and rifes
about 54 feet perpendicular. Fahrenheit’s thermometer,
during fir G. Staunton’s ftay, was between 77° and 82°.
The entrance into the harbour, from the fea, is bounded,
on one fide, by the leaning cone already mentioned, mea-
furing 700 feet in height, and by the huge mafs of granite,
fupporting the caftle of Santa Cruz, on the other; and is
interrupted, near the middle, by the little ifland on which
Fort Lucia is ereted. On entering into the harbour it was
found to enlarge to a width of three or four miles, and to
penetrate, in feveral branches, farther than the eye could
reach. It is interrupted with many iflands, fome entirely
green, and fome covered with batteries or habitations. The
fhores of the harbour were diverfified and embellifhed with
villages, farms, and plantations, feparated by rivulets, ridges
of the rocks, indentures of little fandy bays, or the {kirtings
of a forelt; the whole terminated, in diftant profpe@, by
an amphitheatre or fcreen of mountains, rifing in a vatt
variety of rude and fantallic forms, but covered with trees
to their very fummits.
Within four miles of the harbour’s mouth is fituated, on
the W., the city of St. Sebaftian, ufually called Rio, built
on a projecting tongue of land; but all the ground behind
itis broken into hills and rocks, with woods, houfes, con-
vents, and churches on their tops. A convent of Bene-
diétines, and alfo a fort commanding the town, are fituated
upon the extreme point jetting into the harbour ; oppofite
to this point is Serpent ifland, between which and the town
is a narrow channel, fufliciently deep, however, for the
paflage of the largeft fhips. Upon the ifland are, a dock-
yard, magazines, and naval ftore-houfes; and round its
fhores are the ufual anchoring places for the fhipping which
frequent this port. Beyond the town the harbour begins to
widen confiderably, and refembles a large lake with many
iflands upon its furface. In the late improved ftate of the
town, the itreets are paved, with the addition of foot-paths,
and though fome of them are narrow, they are convenient in
a hot climate by the fhade which they afford. In the
f{quares are refrefhing fountains, which fupply the water
conveyed to them by an aqueduct of confiderable length ;
a circumftance of moment, as Rio has no river clofe to it of
any note. This aqueduct is carried over vallies by a double
row of arches, one placed above another ; and thus prefents
a ftructure that adds great ornament to the town. A guard
conftantly attends at the fountains throughout Rio, to re-
gulate the diftribution of the water, which is, probably,
{canty, as there are people who wait a long time with
buckets for their fhare. A. fufficient proportion of the
water from the fountain upon the quay oppofite to the
palace, is allotted for the ufe of the fhipping, and is con-
veyed to the cafks, remaining in the boat, by means of a
woollen or canvas tube, called a hofe, ftretching from the
fountain to the cafk. Capt. Cook complained that the
water was not good; but this circumitance fir Erafmus
Gower afcribes to fome accidental impurities that mult have
remained in the cafks which he filled with it.
' The fhops of Rio, fays Staunton, were full of Manchefter
manufactures, and other Britith goods, even to English
prints, both ferious and caricature. A. .Portuguefe mer-
chant adverting to thefe fupplies of goods, and the advan-
tages gained by the country that furnifhed them, obferved
that the profperity both of Portugal and its dependencies
redqunded
RO
redounded ‘chiefly to the benefit of England. ‘The benefit
has probably been reciprocal; and, it is hoped, will thus
continue. The exterior appearance of the inhabitants indi-
cated eafe and comfort ; their dwellings were generally in
good condition, many of them large, and well adapted to
the climate ; the magazines and markets well ftored with
merchandize ; new buildings, private and public, erected ;
tradefmen bufily employed; and befides the aquedu& and
fountains, which adorned the city, it had fome public
walks, and a fpacious quay of granite, of which material,
found upon the fpot, many of the chief edifices were con-
{tru@ed. The place, however, is faid to be unhealthy ;
and inftances of longevity are rare. This infalubrity may
be owing, perhaps, to local and temporary circumitances,
more than to the neceflary influence of the climate. The
fituation of the town upon a plain, almoft wholly furrounded
by hills thickly covered with foreit trees, deprives it of a free
circulation of air, and expofes it to the morning and evening
damps of humid nights, preceded by feorching days, and of
courfe putrid and intermitting fevers muit often be the con-
fequence. Water is alfo fuffered to ftagnate in marfhes near
_the town; and to thefe difadvantages we may add the tor-
menting influence of infinite fwarms of mufquitoes, or large
gnats, which attack ftrangers for fome time after their ar-
rival. But none of thefe real, or any imaginary, evils re-
{train the propenfity of all clafles of fociety towards gaiety
and pleafures. See Brasit.
The inhabitants of Rio are very numerous, and confift of
Portuguefe, Negroes, and Indians, the original natives of
the country. This townfhip, which is but a {mall part of
the capitanea, or province, is faid, according to Cook, to
contain 37,000 white perfons, and 629,000 blacks, many
of whom are free, amounting together to 666,000, in the
proportion of 17 to 1. The Indians, who are employed to
do the king’s work in this neigbourhood, can fearcely be
confidered as inhabitants; their refidence is at a diftance,
from whence they come by turns to their tafk, which they
are obliged to perform for a {mall pay. The guard-boat
was conitantly rowed by thefe people, who are of a light
copper colour, and have long black hair. See BRasIL.
When walking abroad, men of the lower clafles generally
wear cloaks; and thofe of the middling and higher ranks
never appear without fwords. The ladies wear their hair
hanging down in trefles, tied with ribbands, and adorned
with flowers; their heads being uncovered. In their vifits
to the churches, both at matins and vefpers, they are re-
gular ; at other times they are generally feated at their win-
dows or balconies. Many of them have fine dark eyes,
with animated countenances. In the evenings they amufe
themfelves by playing on fome kind of mufical inftrument,
chiefly the harpfichord or guitar. At this time the “doors
and windows are thrown open for the admiffion of cool air.
If a ftranger fhould happen to ftop to hear the mufic, it
often happens that the father, hufband, or brother of the
lady that is playing, iteps out and politely invites him into
the houfe ; and the ladies, not unfrequently, having bunches
of flowers in their hands, exchange them with gentlemen as
they pafs by. This praétice may perhaps be an imitation
of that of the ladies of Lifbon, who on particular days,
called « days of intrufion,”’ throw nofegays from their bal-
conies upon perfons walking under them. Captain Cook
charges the fame indelicate want of referve on the ladies of
‘Rio; but we truft the accufation which fome perfons have
brought againft them, that there is not one modeft woman
among them, is not only too general, but founded on a mif-
reprefentation of what they may conceive to be an allowable
practice, founded in cuftom and courtefy. Some of the
RIO
men, however, have been accufed of much worfe practices,
in yielding to depraved and unnatural appetites.
Among the more innocent pleafures of both fexes are
operas, plays, and mafquerades. Company often affembles
at a garden, fituated near the fea, at one extremity of the
town, and laid out in grafs plats, fhrubberies, and par-
terres, ornamented in various ways. In thefe receffes the
gay fociety of Rio, after taking the exercife of walking in
the evening, and after hearing fois and mufic, fit down to
partake of banquets, occafionally accompanied by mufic and
fire-works. On the fide of this garden next the fea is a terrace,
and at the extremities of the terrace there are two neat f{quare
buildings, like Englith fummer-houfes. In one the walls
are decorated with paintings, reprefenting views of the har-
bour, and particularly of the whale-fifhery, which was for-
merly carried on in it; until the large black whale, which for-
merly frequented it, was difturbed and driven away, in con-
fequence of the increafed concourfe of fhipping. The cieling
of this and the other fummer-houfe are covered with various
appropriate devices, in fhell or feather work ; and the walls
of the latter are decorated with eight large paintings, de-
{criptive of the principal produétions to which the country
is indebted for its opulence, including views of the diamond
and gold mines, with the operations performed in them; of
the cultivation of the fugar-cane, and the procefles by which
Its juice 1s extracted and granulated into fugar ; of the man-
ner of colleéting the {mall animals which produce the cochi-
neal, and preparing the rich dye from them ; of the culture
of the manioc, with the procefs of making caffada and ta-
pioca; and of the culture and preparation of coffee, rice,
and indigo. Near the town is another garden, originally in-
tended for promoting the progrefs of botany, but now
chiefly curious for a {mall manufaéture of cochineal; but
the garden at Rio does not produce annually above 30
pounds of this commodity. The preparation of cochineal,
however, is now encouraged by the trade being laid open,
which was formerly a monopoly to the crown. Another
{pecies of manufaéture is carried or. in the vicinity of Rio ;
an exclufive privilege having been given to a company, upon
paying one-fifth of its profits to the crown. To this har-
bour was brought, for the purpofe of converting it into oil,
the blubber or firm fat of the black whales. ‘The whale-
bone or cartilages of the jaw were alfo properly feparated
and cleanfed here, before they were fent to Europe. In
another part of the harbour of Rio, called Val Lengo, are
warehoules for the reception and fale of flaves. See
Brasit.
The eftablifhment for the defence of Rio confifts of two
{quadrons of cavalry, two regiments of artillery, fix regi-
ments of infantry, two battalions of difciplined militia, be-
fide above 200 difciplined free Negroes; making, in the
whole, a body of at leaft 10,000 men, exclufively of a very
numerous regiftered but undifciplined militia, of whom a
confiderable proportion is in the city and its neighbourhood.
The entrance of the harbour, which is fcarcely a mile from
point to point, is crofled in every direétion by heavy bat-
teries. The fort of Santa Cruz is a work of fome ftrength,
and the principal defence of the harbour. But the defence
of the city of Rio is fuppofed to depend chiefly on the works
erected on the Serpent ifland, which is about 300 yards
long; it mounts 46 guns, 20 facing the fouth and fouth-
ea{t, and the remainder looking to the oppofite points.
The parapet, along the front of the town, ‘recently con-
ftructed, will afford a good line for mufquetry and light
guns.
The high conical rocks at the entrance of the harbour of
Rio, and the furrounding hills, are all of granite, in which
Pp2z the
RIO
the only remarkable circumftance is the large proportion of
feld-{path contained in it. About two miles within the har-
bour, on the fouth-weft fide, is one high rock, entirely
compofed of columnar mafles, bearing the refemblauce of
bafaltes: it refts upon clay. In all the quarries of granite
it is found incumbent upon clay and fand. Here are three
fpecies of granite : the firft, red-coloured, foft, and fhining ;
the fecond, deep blue coloured, harder, and of a clofer tex-
ture; and the third of a whitifh fhining colour, containing
much mica, and little feld-{path; its texture foft, and in-
capable of a good polifh.
The government of Rio is, as to its form, mixed; and
yet, in fact, very defpotic. It confifts (we are now {peaking
of its ftate before the removal of the Portuguefe government
thither) of the viceroy, the governor of the town, and a
council. To reftrain the people from travelling into the
country, and penetrating into any diltri€t where gold or
diamonds may be found, certain bounds are prefcribed to
them, at the difcretion of the viceroy, fometimes at a few,
and fometimes at many, miles diftance from the city. On
the verge of thefe limits a guard conftantly patroles, and
any perfon that goes beyond it is feized and thrown into
rifon.
: The riches of this place confift chiefly in the mines, that
lie at a confiderable diftance in the country, from which
much gold is brought, at the expence of many lives. Pre-
cious {tones are alfo found here in fuch plenty, that a certain
quantity only is allowed to be colleéted in a year: they are
diamonds, topazes of feveral kinds, and amethyfts. The
mines called ‘‘ general’? are.the neareft to the city, at the
diftance, according to the ftatement of M. Bougainville, in
his account of his voyage round the world, of about 75
leagues. They yield to the king every year, for his right
of fifths, at. leaft 112 arrobas of gold: in 1762 they yielded
119g. Under the captaincy, the Minaus Geraes (which
fee) are comprehended thofe of Rio de Morte, of Sabara,
and of Serro-frio. ‘The lait, befides gold, produces all the
diamonds that come from Brafil. They are found at the
bottom of a river, of which they turn the courfe, in order to
feparate from the pebbles in its bed the diamonds, topazes,
chryfolites, and other ftones of inferior quality. Of all
thefe ftones, the diamonds alone are contraband: they be-
long to the undertakers, who are obliged to give an exact
account of the diamonds found, and to place them in the
hands of the intendant appointed by the king for this pur-
pofe, who depofits them immediately in a cafket encircled
with iron, and fhut with three locks. He has one of the
keys, the viceroy another, and the aflayer of the royal
treafury the third. This cafket is enclofed in a fecond,
fealed by the three perfons above-mentioned, and which
contains. the three keys of the firft. The viceroy has not
the power of vifiting its contents: he only configns the
whole to a third ftrong coffer, which he fends to Lifbon,
after having fet bis feal on the lock. They are opened in
the prefence of the king, who choofes what diamonds he
pleafes, and pays the price to the undertakers at the rate
fixed by their agreement. The undertakers pay to his
moft faithful majetty the value of a pialtre Spanifh money,
for every flave employed. in fearching for diamonds; and
the number of thefe flaves may amount to 800. Of all
kinds of contraband trade, that of diamonds is the mott fe-
verely-punifhed.
The gold drawn from the mines cannot be carried to Rio
de Janeiro, without being firft brought to the {melting houfes
eftablifhed in each diftriét, where the right of the crown is
received. What, refults to private perfons is remitted in
bars, with their weight, number, and the royal arms.
RIO
Thofe bars belonging to individuals are regiftered in the fac-
tory of La Prayburia, 30 leagues from Rio de Janeiro. In
this ftation are a captain, lieutenant, and 50 men; here is
paid the right of fifths; and, befides, a toll of a real and a
half per head on men, cattle, and beafts of burthen. Half
of the produé& of this duty belongs to the king, and the
other half is divided between the detachment according to
rank. As it is impoffible to return from the mines without
pafling by this office, all perfons are there ftopped, and
fearched with the greateft feverity. Individuals are after-
wards obliged to carry all the gold in bars, which belongs
to them, to the mint of Rio de Janeiro, where the value is
given in coin, commonly in half doubloens, each worth eight
Spanifh dollars. Upon each of thefe half doubloons the
king gains a dollar, by the alloy and the right of coinage.
The mint of Rio Janeiro is one of the moft beautiful which
exift 5 it is furnifhed with every convenience to work with
the greateit celerity. As the gold arrives from the minee
at the fame time that the fleets arrive from Portugal, it is
neceflary to accelerate the work of the mint, and the coin-
age proceeds with furprifing quicknefs. The arrival of
thefe fleets renders the commerce of Rio Janeiro very flou-
rifhing, but chiefly that of the Lifbon fleet. The mines of
St. Paolo and Parnaqua yield to the king four arrobas for
the fifths every year. The moft diftant mines, as thofe of
Pracaton and Quiaba (Cuyaba), depend on the captaincy of
Matogroio. ‘The fifth of the above mines is not received at
Rio Janeiro, but that of the mines of Goyas is deduGed.
This captaincy alfo pofleffes diamond mines, the working
of which is prohibited.
The whole of the expence of the king of Portugal at
Rio Janeiro, for the payment of the troops and civil officers,
and for the charges of the mines, the maintenance of the
public buildings, the careening of vetlels, amounts to about
600,000 dollars. The expences of building fhips of the
line and frigates there ftationed are not included.
Recapitulation, and Amount of the Average of different
Objects of royal Revenue.
150 arrobas of gold, the average produced by _ Dollars.
the royal fifths, are in Spanifh money - 1,125,000
The duty on diamonds “ = : 240,000
The duty on coinage - - > = 400,000
Ten per cent. from the cuftom-houfe - - 350,000
Two and a half per cent. of free gift - 87,000
Right of toll, fale of employments, officers, and
generally all the profits of the mines - 225,000
Duty on flaves o > - - 110,000
Duty on fith-oil, falt, foap, and the tenth on the
provilions of the country - - 130,000
Total
2,667,000
From which, dedu€ting the above expences, it will appear
that the king of Portugal draws from Rio Janeiro a revenue
exceeding 10,000,000 of French livres, or 416,666/.
The coin that is current here, is either that of Portugal,
confifting chiefly of 36s. pieces, or pieces both of gold and
filver, which are ftruck at this place: the pieces of filver,
which are very much debafed, are called patacks, and are of
different value, being eafily diftinguifhed by the number of
rees marked on the outfide. Here is alfo a copper coin,
like that in Portugal, of five and ten ree pieces. See Ree,
Upon the whole, Rio de Janeiro is a very good place for
fhips to put in at that want refrefhment: the harbour is fafe
and commodious; and provifions, except wheaten bread and
flour, may be eafily procured: as a {uccedaneum for bread,
here
RIO
here are yams and caflada in plenty: beef, both frefh and
jerked, may be bought, fays Cook in 1768, at about 23d.
a pound, but it is very lean, The people here jerk their
beef by taking out the bones, cutting it into large but thin
flices, then curing it with falt, and drying it in the fhade:
it eats very well, and if kept dry, will remain good a long
time at fea. Mutton is fcarcely to be procured, and hogs,
and poultry, are dear. Of garden-ftuff and fruit there is
abundance; but none can be kept at fea except the pumpkin:
rum, fugar, and molafles, all excellent in their kind, may
be had at a reafonable price ; tobacco is alfo cheap, but not
ood. Cook’s Voyages by Hawkefworth, vol. ii. Staun-
ton’s Embafly, vol. 1.
Rio Jnfanta. See Great Fisu river.
Rio de Jimones, a river of the ifland of Cuba, which
runs into the Spanifh Main, N. lat. 20° 21’. W. long. 78°.—
R. Mino, a river of Jamaica, which runs into the fea, on
the W. fide of Carlifle bay.
Rio das Mortes, a town of Brafil, in the jurifdiction of
Minaes Geraes, fituated onariver of the fame name, which
runs into the Parana.
Rio Negro, a confiderable river of South America, which
runs from the river Oronoko, in the kingdom of Granada,
and enters the river of the Amazons, near Fort Rio Negro.
S. lat. 3° 15/. W. long. 61° 31..—R. Nuevo Bay, a bay on
the N. coaft of Jamaica. N. lat. 18° 26’. W. long. 76° 46’.
—R. de Oro, a river of the ifland of Chiloe, which runs
into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 42° 45'.—R. de Ours, a river
of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 23° 52’.
W. long. 16°.—R. de las Palmas. See Parmas.—R. das
Palmas. See ScHerwro.—R. de Ja Plata. See PLrata.—
R. des Patos, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic,
S. lat. 28° °30!.—R. des Pedras, a river of Africa, which
runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 9° ro!.—R. de Pinos, a river
of the [fthmus of Darien, which runs into the Spanifh Main,
N. lat. 9° 12! W. long. 80° 25'.—R. de Puercos, a har-
bour on the N. coalt of Cuba, S.W. of Bahia Honda.—
R. de los Rabados, a river of Chili, which runs into the Pa-
cific ocean, S. lat. 45° 10'—R. dos Ramos, a river of
Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 14° 37/.—R.
Real, a river of Brafil, which divides the captainfhip of Ser-
gippe from that of All-Saints. This river, if it were not
for the bar at the entrance, on which there is but ten feet
of water, would be an inlet to the moft fertile and pleafant
part of the Brafils. Over the bar there is room enough,
and depth of water fufficiest, for the whole navy of England
to ride in fafety. About four leagues above the mouth,
this river divides itfelf into four large branches, one running
N.N.W. called Rio Fundo, another N.W. navigable for
any veffel that can get near the bar, as far as the towns of
St. Lucia and St. Euttatia, from the latter of which it
takes its name, a third, called Rio de Pao Grand, or Great
Timber river, which runs W.N.W. The main branch,
which runs W.S.W. is alfo navigable as far as the town of
Bahia, about 20 leagues from its mouth. On the banks of
thefe branches there are many fine plantations, and {mall vil-
lages, which fend great quantities of fugar, tobacco, and
mandioc to Bahia or Fernambuco, as the wind permits.
This river runs into the fea through four channels, formed
by three {mall fandy iflands, lying inthe mouth of it. About
12 leagues to the S. of Rio Real is a fmall harbour, called
Torre Garcia de Avilla, defended by four pieces of cannon ;
the town lies about a mile above the port, on the higheft
land on this coaft ; and it is the beft for a fhip to make, that
ts bound to Bahia, while the N.E. wind blows.—R. de/ Rey,
er River Real, a river of Africa, which rune into the At-
RIO
lantic, N. lat. 4°30’, E. long. 8° 5’. This river may be
diftinguifhed by the extreme high lands of Amboyes, be-
tween it and the river Camarones, fituated S.E. from the
mouth. Tt appears like a deep large bay running N., 21
or 24 miles wide at the entrance, where the ground is oozy ;
the channel being exaétly in the middle, free from fhoals
and fands, except near the E. fide, which is foul ; the fhore
on both fides is low and marfhy. The river which comes far
from the N., is wide for a long interval into the country,
and receives feveral confiderable rivers in its courfe: the ad-
jacent lands are populous and full of villages. The princi-
pal trade confiits in flaves and large elephants’ teeth, and
akkori or blue coral. The inhabitants are called Calbongas
(which fee).—R. dos Reyes Magos, a river of Brafil, which
runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 19° 20'.—R. St. Balardo, a
river of New Albion, which runs into the Pacific ocean, N.
lat. 34° 44!.—R. St. Andre, a river of Chili, which runs
into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 35° 40’W—R. St. Maria, a
river of Chili, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat.
51° 36'.—R. de Sal, a river of Mexico, which rifes in the
province of Culiacan, on the borders of New Bifcay, and
runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 23° 40!.—R. Salado, a
river of South America, in the province of Tucuman, which
rifes about 60 miles W. of Salta, and firit bears the name
of « Rio del Paflage,”” but being joined by feveral {maller
{treams, it changes its name to Salado, and runs into the
Parana at Santa Fé, in the province of Buenos Ayres ; its
whole courfe being about 500 miles.—R. Salado, or R. des
Apaches, a river of North America, one of the branches of
the river Bravo, which joins the main itream, about N. lat.
30° 40!. W. long. 86°.—R. Salado, a river of South Ame-
rica, which in the latter part of its courfe, divides Chili
from Peru, and runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 26° 15!
—R. de los Sauces, a river of South America, which rifes
in Patagonia, and runs into the Atlantic by two ftreams,
forming between them a confiderable ifland aad the fouthern
mouth of the bay of Anegada, S. lat. 39° 45’.
Ria Seco, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira,
on the borders of Spain; 7 miles S.S.E. of Almeida. —R.
Seco, a river of Peru, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S.
lat. 7° 6,
Rio Secundo, a town of South America, in the province
of Cordova, on the river Secundo ; 30 miles S. of Cordova.
—R. Selbola. See Scuersro.—R. Sin Fondo, a river of
Chili, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 43° 50’.—
R. del Spirttu Santo. See Manica.—R. das Tromletas, a
river of Brafil, which runs into the river of the Amazons
at Pauxi.—R. de Vacas, a river of Mexico, which runs into
the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 14°.—R. Verde, a river of Peru,
which runs into the Pacilic ocean, N. lat. 1°
Rio Verde, a town of Mexico, in the province of Guaf-
teca ; go miles N.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.
RIOBAMBA, a jurifdiGtion of South America, in the
viceroyalty of New Granada and audience of Quito;
fituated to the fouth of the afliento of Latacunga. This
jurifdiétion is divided into two departments ; the corregidor,
who refides at Riobamba, appointing a deputy, who lives at
the afliento of Hambato, fituated between the capital and
Latacunga. The firft department contains 18 principal
villages. The productions and manufactures of the province
of Riobamba excel all the reit of the provinces of Peru.
In various parts it has rich mines of gold and filver. The
jurifdiétions of Rigbamba, Alaufi, and Cuenca, by means
of the warehoufes at Yaguache and Noten carry on a
confiderable trade with Guayaquil. ‘This trade, in the ma-
nufactures of the country, which confilt only of three forts,
cloth,
RIO
cloth, bags, ‘and linen, is attended with confiderable profit
to the dealers, and advantage to the country, as all the poor
people, who are remarkably numerous, and perfons of fub-
ftance, except thofe of the capital, wear the goods manu-
faétured in the country. Part of the wheat produced in the
jurifdiGtion of Riobamba and Chimbo is fent to Guayaquil.
"This jurifdiction is (by miftake) defcribed under Hambato
(which fee). We thall here fubjoin an account of Hambato.
This affiento ftands in a wide plain at the bottom of a moun-
tain, N. of Riobamba. On its N. fide runs a large river,
which has a bridge ; the river having never been fordable on
account of its depth and extreme rapidity. It is finely
fituated, and in extent of populoufnefs nearly equal to
Latacunga; the number of its inhabitants amounting to
eight or nine thoufand. The houfes are built of unburnt
bricks, well planned, and make a good appearance. They
are of low elevation, for the purpofe of avoiding the deftruc-
tive effeéts of earthquakes. Here are a parifh church, two
chapels of eafe, and a convent of Francifcans. The earth-
quake which made fuch terrible havock in the afliento of
Latacunga proved alfo fatal to this, the horrors of which
were augmented by the terrible eruptions from mount Car-
guarifo, in confequence of which a muddy torrent, formed
of afhes, cinders, and fnow melted by the flames of the
aperture, precipitated down the fides of the mountain, over-
flowing the fields, {weeping away the cattle, and every thing
elfe in the way by its violence. The inhabitants, in their
manners and cuftoms, refemble thofe of Quero; but it has
fewer families of diftin@ion than Riobamba. The bread
made at this afliento is famous all over the province, and ac-
cordingly it is fent to Quito and other parts, without being
deteriorated by length of time. It has fix villages. The
Indian inhabitants of the village of Quero make all forts of ,
cabinet work ; that of Petate is equally famous for abundance
of fugar-canes and the excellent quality of its {ugar ; and
that of Santa Rofa de Pilaguin, which, with its fields, lies
on the fide of Carguarifo, is famous for the goodnefs of. its
barley, asthe diftriét bordering on the affiento is for its ex-
quifite fruits; and to this diftrict Quito owes mott of the
European kinds fold in that city. See Quiro and Gra-
NADA.
RrosamBa, the capital of the jurifdi€tion above-men-
tioned, and defcribed under Hampato. This elegant town,
by the devaftation occafioned by the terrible earthquake on
the 4th of February 1797, became a heap of ruins, and
foon totally difappeared ; for the peak of Sicalpa falling on
the town, and {topping the two rivers which pafs by it,
formed a lake, fo that even the ruins were not vifible. Of
gooo inhabitants, only about 400 efcaped. Although
Quito fultained little damage, Latacunga, and all the ham-
lets in its corregiamento, were utterly deftroyed. Many
perfons perifhed, and the furvivors were infeted by the
putridity of the dead bodies. Near Hambato many moun-
tains {plit, and by their fudden fall occafioned {till more
awful deftruéion among the human race. Quero, men-
tioned in the preceding article, with all its people were
buried, in an inftant, under a cliff which fell on the town.
Pelileo was overwhelmed by a ftream of water and mud ;
the circumjacent lands were all tran{pofed; anda deadly
filence indicated the general ruin. Alaufi and Guaranda
alfo fuffered greatly. The fate of Cuenga, Loja, Jaen,
and Guayaquil, was, at that time, unknown ; but the fhocks
do not feem to have extended fo far. The caufe of this de-
folation feems to have proceeded from the volcano Tanga-
runga or Tangurugua, between Latacunga and Riobamba ;
as the tremendous fubterraneous thunders all proceeded from
RIO
that quarter, and the greateft ruin was in its vicinity ; to-
wards the N. the earthquake was faintly perceived at Patto.
Riobamba is diftant go miles S. from Quito. S. lat. 1° 20!
W. long. 78° 30! See Quiro.
RIOCHICO, a town of New Mexico, in the province
of Hiaqui, on the river Hiaqui; 800 miles N.W. of Mexico.
N. lat. 29° 4’. W. long. 111° 36!.
RIOFRIO, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile; feven
miles S. of Segovia.
RIOJA, atown of South America, in the province of
Tucuman; 240 miles W.S.W. of St. Yago del Efteros.
N. lat. 29° 15'. W. long. 70°.
RIOLAN, Joun, in Biography, an able French phy-
fician, was born at Amiens. He was greatly diftinguifhed
by his attainments both in literature and fcience, and is faid
not only to have written and {fpoken the learned languages
with facility, but to have been thoroughly intimate with the
contents of almoft all the writings of the ancients. He
gave leffons in natural philofophy at the college of Boncour,
at Paris, where he took his degree in the year 1574. Little
is recorded refpeéting his life, but that he was ele¢ted dean
of the faculty in 1556, and continued in that office in the
following year. He died on the 18th of O&tober 1606.
He was one of the greateft ornaments of the profeflion at
Paris in his time; and was a ftrenuous advocate for the
doétrine of Hippocrates and the ancients, whom he de-
fended with great ardour againit the chemilts. His works
are indicative of genius; they were colleéted and pub-
lifhed, together with fome pofthumous traéts, at Paris, in
1610, under the title of “‘ Opera Omnia.’’ Separately, we
find the following ; ** De Primis Principiis Rerum Natu-
ralium, Libri tres,’ Paris, 1571. ‘Ad Impudentiam
quorundam Chirurgorum, qui Medicis equare et Chirur-
giam publicé profiteri volunt; pro veteri dignitate Medi-
cine Apologia philofophica,”’ ib. 1577. This was a fort.
of declaration of war againft the furgeons, whom he at-
tacked for attempting to teach without any knowledge of
literature ; it was followed by-feveral pieces on both fides.
« Commentari in fex pofteriores Phyfiologie Fernelii
Libros,”? 1577. ‘* Ars bene Medendi,” Lugd. 1589. “ Ad
Libros Fernelii de abditis rerum caufis Commentarii,’? Par.
1598. ‘ Univerfe Medicine Compendium,”? 1598. “Ad
Libavii Maniam Refponfio, pro Cenfura Schole Parifierfis
contra Alchymiam lata,’? 1600. ‘* Chirurgia,’’ Lipf. 1601.
“ Prelectiones in Libros Phyfiologicos et de abditis rerum
caufis. Accefferunt Opufcula quedam Philofophica,’?
1602. ‘De Febribus,’’ 1640.
Rioran, Joun, the fon of the preceding, was born at
Paris in the year 1577. His father did not fail to afford
every encouragement and opportunity for the cultivation of
his rifing talents, and his mind was naturally turned to the
ftudy of medicine by the reputation, zeal, and love of the
profeffion, which the former poffetled ; his early ftudies were
alfo greatly facilitated, and many difficulties removed, by
the domettic inftruétion’ which-he thus received. His pro-
grefs accordingly was uncommonly rapid; and a very few
years after he had received his degree in 1604, he came
forward as an author ina way that laid the foundation of his
fubfequent reputation. In 1613 he was appointed royal
profeflor of anatomy and botany by Louis XII1.; and in
this latter capacity he petitioned the king for the eftablifh-
ment of a botanic garden in the univerfity of Paris. He
fubfequently held the appointment of phyfician to queen
Mary de Medicis, and accompanied that princefs in her
travels ; he arrived at Cologne, after her death, in July
1642, and returned to Paris, where he relumed the practice
of
ee
.
RIO
of his profeffion. After having twice undergone the ope-
ration of lithotomy, he lived to the age of eighty years,
and died at Paris in February 1657.
Riolan was devoted to the ftudy of anatomy, and was
one of the moft expert and learned anatomitts of his time ;
his learning, indeed, was rather an obftacle in the way of
his progrefs as a difcoverer, or perhaps we fhould fay his
devotion to the ancients; for, in many cafes, he feemed to
fee only through their eyes. Yet he was arrogant in his
claims to originality, and by his pertinacity and farcattic
contempt of others, he raifed himfelf many opponents and
enemies. He publithed feveral original obfervations, how-
ever, refpecting many parts of anatomical fcience, efpe-
cially refpecting the i{truéture of the colon, the biliary
duéts, the uterus and vagina, the tongue, os hyoides, &c.
None of his anatomical works contain any engravings; as
he maintained that no reprefentations could fuperfede the
ftudy of nature. All his itudies, however, were not con-
fined to anatomy, as the following lilt of his works will
evince. ‘ Brevis excurfus in Battologiam Quercetani, quo
Alchemiz principia funditus diruuntur, et Artis veritas
demonttratur,’’? Par. 1604. ‘‘Comparatio veteris Medicine
cum nova, Hippocratice in Hermetica, Dogmatice cum
Spagyrica,”’ 1605. ‘ Difputatio de Monitro Lutetie
1605 nato.”? <‘Incurfionum Quercetani depulfio,”” id.
« Cenfura demonftrationis Harveti pro veritate Alchymiz,”’
1606. ‘Schola Anatomica novis et raris obfervationibus
illuftrata. Adjunéa eft accurata foetus humani hittoria,’’
1607 ; enlarged by the author with the title of « Anatome
corporis humani,’’? 1610. “In Librum Cl. Galeni de
Offibus, ad Tyrones explanationes apologetica pro Galeno,
adverfus novitios et novatores Anatomicos,”’ 1613. ** Gi-
gantomachie,”? 1613, written in refutation of Habicot’s
account of the difcovery of the bones of the giant Teuto-
bochus. Riolan publifhed two other traéts, or more, upon
this controverfy, which ended with the appearance of his
“ Gigantologie; difcours fur la grandeur des Géants, Sew?
in 1618. ‘* Olteologia ex veterum et recentiorum pre-
ceptis defcripta,”? 1614. ‘ Difcours fur les Herma-
phrodits, ot il eft démontré, contre l’opinion commune,
quwil n’y a point de vrais Hermaphrodits,”’ 1614. « Ana-
tomica, feu Anthropographia,”? 1618.‘ Enchiridium
anatomicum et pathologicum,’’ 1648, and many times re-
printed; the beft edition is of Paris, 1658. ‘ Opufcula
anatomica nova,’’ Lond. 1649, containing remarks on the
anatomical works of the moit celebrated phyficians, and
an attack upon Harvey, and his doétrine of the circulation,
of which Riolan was a great antagonift. ‘ Curieufes Ré-
chérches fur les écoles de Médécine de Paris et de Mont-
pelier,””? 1651. He alfo publifhed three different works,
entitled ‘Opufcula anatomica,’’ in 1650, and. the three
following years, oppofing the doétrines of Bartholine and
Pecquet, refpecting the abforbents and laéteals, and Har-
vey’s on the circulation ; and two more on the fame fub-
jects, with the titles of « Refponfio prima, et altera,” 1652
and 1655. Eloy Dict. Hift. de la Med. ;
RIOLI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ;
1x miles S. of Manfredonia.
RIOLO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Amone; nine miles W. of Faenza.
RIOM, a town of France, in the department of the
Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG of Mau-
riac; 15 miles E.N.E. of Mauriac. The place contains
14, and the canton 7498 inhabitants, on a territory of 210
iliometres, in 12 communes. :
Riom, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri,
in the department of the Puy-de-Déme ; eight miles N. of
RIO
Clermont-Ferrand. The place contains 13,328 inhabitants
in both its E. and W. divifions; the canton of the former
includes 12,433, and the latter 12,441 inhabitants; the
territory of the former being 70, and that of the latter
244 kiliometres, the former having feven, and the latter five,
communes. N. lat. 45° 43'. E. long. 3° 11/,
RIONDO, in Jchthyology, a name ufed by fome for the
fifth more commonly called aper, a {mall fith, of the fhape
of the faber or doree, caught in the Mediterranean.
RIONE, or Rrowi, in Geography, a river of Afia, an-
ciently called “ Phatfis,”? which rifes in the principality of
Georgia, and forming the fouthern boundary of Min-
grelia, runs into the Black fea, N. lat. 42° 15'. E. long.
Aiezst
RIONS, atown of France, in the department of the
Gironde ; three miles N.W. of Cadillac.
RIOPA, a town of Spain, in New Cattile ;
of Alcaraz.
RIOS, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Saone, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Vefoul. The place contains 578, and the canton 9028 in-
habitants, on a territory of 230 kiliometres, in 34 com-
munes.
Rios, a town of Chili; go miles N.N-E, of Valparayfo.
RIOSECO, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon;
96 miles N.N.W. of Madrid. N. lat. 41° 524. W. long.
°o nl
13 miles S,
RIOT, in Law, the forcible doing of an unlawful thing,
of a private nature, by three or more perfons aflembled
together for that purpofe ; either with or without a com-
mon caufe or quarrel (3 Inft. 176.): as if they beat a
man; or hunt and kill game in another’s park, chafe,
warren, or liberty ; or do any other unlawful aé with force
and violence; or even do a lawful a@, as removing a nui-
fance, in a violent and tumultuous manner.
The word is formed from the Latin riota, of arietare, to
run at each other as rams do. Though, from an ancient
Gaulifh verfion of the bible, quoted by Skinner, riot
fhould rather feem originally to fignify luxury and excefs ;
whence our law riot might proceed ; becaufe thefe are fre-
quently attended with quarrels.
For the difference between a riot, rout, and unlawful
aflembly, fee Rour, and Untawrut Afembly.
The punifhment of riots and reuts, where a number of
perfons from three to eleven are concerned, is, by the com-
mon law, fine and imprifonment only ; to which, in very
enormous cafes, the pillory has been fometimes fuperadded,
(1 Hawk. P.C. 159.) And by the flat. 13 Hen. IV. c. 7.
any two juitices, together with the fheriff or under-fheriff
of the sounty, may come with the pofle comitatus, if need
be, and fupprefs any fuch riot, aflembly, or rout, arreft
the rioters, and record upon the fpot the nature and cir-
cumitances of the whole tranfa@ion; which record alone
fhall be a fufficient conviétion of the offenders; and it is
held that any battery, wounding, or killing the rioters,
that may happen in fupprefling the riot, is juitifiable. The
riotous aflembling of twelve perfons or more, and not dif-
perfing upon proclamation, was firft made high treafon
by itat. 3 & 4 Edward VI. c. 5. but repealed by ftat.
1 Mary, c. 1. Neverthelefs, the offence was made a
fingle felony by 1 Mar. ftat. 2. c. 12. and by 1 Eliz.
c. 16, with whom the law expired. However, it was re-
vived, in order to {upport the execution of the aét of fettle-
ment, and made perpetual by « Geo. I. c. 5. which enaéts,
that if any twelve perfons are unlawfully aflembled to the
difturbance of the peace, and any one juftice of the peace,
fheriff, under-fheriff, or mayor of a town, fhall think
proper
ae Oe
proper to command them by proclamation to difperfe, if
th@y contemn his orders, and continue together for one hour
afterwards, fuch contempt fhall be felony, without benefit
of clergy. And farther, if the reading of the proclama-
tion be by force oppofed, or in any manner wilfully
hindered, fuch oppofers and hinderers are felons, without
benefit of clergy ; and all perfons concerned, knowing of
fuch hindrance, and not difperiing, are felons, without
benefit of clergy. And the act indemnifies the peace
officers, and their affiitants, if they kill any of the mob in
endeavouring to difperfe them. Moreover, if any perfons,
fo riotoufly aflembled,. begin, even before proclamation,
to pull down any church, chapel, meeting-houfe, dwelling-
houfe, or out-houfes, they fhall be felons, without benefit
of clergy. Blackit. Comm.-book iv. ch. xi.
RIOU, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Mediterra-
nean, near the coait of France. N. lat. 43° 11/. E. long.
6225 h6
Riow’s Jfland, or Rovahoga, an ifland in the Pacific
Qcean, about 24 miles in circumference; difcovered in the
year 1792, by lieutenant Herget, commander of the Dedalus
ttorefhip. S.lat..8° 50! E. long. 220° so’.
RIOXA, a province cf Spain, fituated in Old Cattile,
on the borders of Bifcay, on the banks of the Ebro.
RIPA CanpiTa, a town of Naples, in the province of
Bafilicata ; fix miles S.W. of Venola.
Riva Limofara, a town of Naples, in the county of
Molife ; nine miles E. of Molife.
Ripa Tranjfona, a town of the marquifate of Ancona,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Fermo; 12 miles N.E.
of Afcoli. N. lat. 42°58’. E. long. 13° 4o!.
RIPAILLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Leman lake, onthe S. fide of the lake of Geneva, with
a convent; one mile N. of Thenon.
RIPEN, a fea-port of Denmark, in North Jutland, on
the Gram; the fee of a bifhop, and capital of the diocefe.
This town was probably built about the time of the intro-
duGion of Chriftianity into this kingdom, and, next to
Wiborg, is deemed the moit ancient towr in North Jut-
land. It was formerly one of the moft celebrated and
flourifhing cities in the North; as it had four parifh
ehurches and five chapels, befides the cathedral, four con-
vents with their churches, a itrong caftle, and between 600
and 700 free burghers. A confiderable number of fhips
traded to Norway, France, England, Holland, &c. from
this port ; and the city had the privilege of coining money.
But its grandeur and opulence were almoft annihilated by a
dreadful fire in 15So0, and other conflagrations, by inunda-
tions, and by the ravages of war. The merchants’ old
Exchange is converted into a town-houfe. Some litle
trade is. fill carried on at this place, in grain, horned
cattle, horfes, &c.; but the fhallownefs of the river ad-
mits only {mall yeilels to come up to the city, and thefe
only at high water; 77 miles S. of Wiborg. N. lat. 55° 21'.
E. long. 8° 46'.
RIPENERS, in Medicine, a fort of topical remedies,
called alfo drawers, dige/lives, maturantia, /uppuratives, &c.
See MATURATION.
RIPENING of Fruit, in Gardening, may be forwarded
feveral ways. See Capriricarion, Hor-Beds, and Forc-
(XG.
RIPERA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Perar; 25 miles N.E. of Notchegong.
RIPERTNAU, a town of Weftphalia, in the county
of Lippe; three miles E,N.E. of Lemgow.
RIPIENO, ftal. in Mufic, implies full, in oppofition
to folo. {n Corelli’s concertos, the folo parts are faid te
RIP
be del concertino, the little concert ; and the ‘uti parts, or
ripicno, del concerto groffo, of the great concert. The firft
eight of Corelli’s concertos were compofed for the church,
a due sori, for two bands or choirs, which are often in dia-
logue. By ripieno is always meant a fubordinate part, to
which few difficulties are entrufted ; being what the French
call compliffage, or parts to fill up and complete the har-
mony.
RIPIERS, Ruieraru, in our Old Writers, thofe that
bring fifh from the fea-coaft to the inner parts of the
land.
They were thus called a ficella, qua in devehendis pifct-
bus utuntur, Anglice, a rip.
RIPLEY, in Geography, a. market-town and parifh,
partly in the lower, and partly in the upper divifion of the
wapentake of Claro, Weit-riding of Yorkfhire, England, is
five miles N.W. from Knarefborough, and214 milesN.N.W.
from London. The town had formerly a caitle attached to
it, fome part of whichis yet ftanding. The market here is
held on Monday, weekly; and there are annual fairs on Eafter
Monday, and the 25th, 26th, and 27th days of Ausuit,
for horfes, horned cattle, and fheep. A free-fchool at this
place, as appears from an infcription over its entrance, was
built and endowed in the year 1702, by Mary, and Catha-
rine Ingilby, daughters of fir William Ingilby, then lord
of the manor. ‘The church is ancient, and contains many
monumental erections in memory of that family. In the
church-yard itands the pedeital of an ancient crofs, which-
contains eight niches curioufly ornamented, but the effigies
are gone, as likewife the fhaft of the crois. This parifh, ac-
cording to the parliamentary returns of 181i, contains 222
houfes, and 1053 inhabitants.
Ripley-caftle, the feat of fir John Ingilby, baronet, ad-
joinsthe town. The chief part of it was built by fr William
Ingilby, in the reign of Philip and Mary, but the great
tewer is far more ancient, having belonged to a former
ftru€ture. It has been much enlarged of late years; and
is now a ftately and commodious family manfion. Some of
the apartments are finifhed with great elegance; and the
ftaircafe difplays a large Venetian window of itained glafs,
on which is reprefented a feries of fhields, fhewing the
quarterings and inter-marrizges of the Ingilby family, fince
their fettlement at Ripley, towards the clofe of the fourteenth
century.
Eaftward from Ripley is Copgrove, an elegant manfion
belonging to H. Duncombe, efq. which contains an excellent
collection of paintings, buits, and prints from the moft cele-
brated maiters. The pleafure-grounds are extenfive, and are
ornamented with a fine lake. Near this feat is that of Al-
lerton-Mauleverer, the property of lord Stourton. The houfe
is amodern edifice, built by his royal highnefs the duke of
York. It is furrounded by a park, cortaining 400 acres of
land, chequered by hills and dales. At this place was
formerly a priory of Benedictines, fubjeét to the abbey of
Marmontier in France. Jt was founded by Richard Maule-
verer in the reign of Henry. II., and was diffolved by
Henry VI. who fettled its revenues on King’s college, Cam-
bridge. Beauties of England Wales, -vol. xvi. by John
Bigland.
RIPOGONDUM, in Botany, io called by Foriter, from
pl, jiroc, a flender twig, and you, a joint, becaule of its
flender, jointed, twining habit, was referred by the fon of
the author, as well as by the younger Linnzus, to SMILax 3
(fee that article.) Mr. Brown, neverthelefs, retains Ripo-
gonum, in Prodr. Nov. Holl. vy. 1. 293, becaufe of its her-
maphrodite flowers, the two bracteas at the bafe of each,
and the racemofe inflorefcence. Two fpecies are mentioned,
3 R. album
ya og
R. album and parviflorum, the latter of which is Fortter’s
plant, Smilax Ripogonum, Fortt. Prodr. Oo. os
RIPOLL, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ;
14 miles N. of Vique. :
RIPON, or Rippon, amarket and borough town in the
lower divifion of the wapentake of Claro, liberty of Ripon,
_ Welt-riding of Yorkfhire, England, is fituated at the
diftance of 11 miles N. from Harrowgate, and 222 miles
N.N.W. from London. It occupies the declivity of a
gentle eminence, between the rivers Ure and Skell, and not
far from their confluence. Over thefe rivers are fix bridges,
within a mile of the town. One of thefe is a very hand-
fome ftru€&ture of ftone, and has feventeen arches. The
town is large, and the buildings are in general good ; par-
ticularly in the principal ftreet. According to the parlia-
mentary returns of 1811, the parifh contains 452 houfes.
and 2346 inhabitants, but this does not appear to include the
borough, which is omitted in the reports.
The origin of Ripon is to be referred to a very remote
era. By Salmon, it is fuppofed to have been the Roman
I{urium, but this opinion is erroneous. The probability on
the fubje& is, that it owes its foundation to the monaltery
which was eftablifhed here in the year 661, by Eata, abbot
of Melrofs, in Scotland. About that period we find it firft
mentioned in hiftorical record, when it is faid to have con-
fifted only of thirty houfes. This town was deftroyed by the
Danes, andremained a heap of ruins for feveral years. At
length, however, it was rebuilt ; and in the year 886, king
Alfred is faid to have incorporated it as a royal borough,
to be governed bya vigillarius, or wakeman, twelve elders,
and twenty-four affiftants. Ripon was deftroyed a fecond
time by king Edred in revenge of a revolt of the Northum-
brian Danes. Tliis event occurred in the year 950; after
which Ripon was again rebuilt and began to flourifh, but did
not long remain ina itate of tranquillity. In the year 106g it
once more fhared in the fatal confequences of a revolt of the
Northumbrians againft the Norman Conqueror ; and fixteen
years later, at the time of the general furvey, the town, and
the country around it, ftill remained wafte and uncultivated.
Peace having been reftored, however, Ripon again revived
from its embers, and continued ina profperous condition, till
the wars between England and Scotland, in the reign of Ed-
ward. II. fubjeGted it to new misfortunes. Inthe year 1323,
Robert J. king of Scotland, having driven Edward and his
army out of his kingdom, invaded England, laying wafte the
country with fire and {word to the very walls of York.
Ripon fuffered in the general devattation, the houfes having
been deftroyed by fire, and moft of its inhabitants put to the
fword. No fooner, however, had the victorious career of
Edward III. freed the country from the invaders, thar it was
reftored to a prof{perous condition, princrpally through ‘the
exertions of the archbifhop of York, and the liberality of the
neighbouring gentry, many of whom fixed their refidence
here. Since that time Ripon has been occafionally honoured
by royal vifits. Henry IV. retired hither, with his whole
court, in 1405, when the plague ragedin London. In the
year 1604, a fimilar caufe occafioned the removal of the
lord prefident’s court from York to this town.
Ripon firft fent members to parliament in the 23d year
of Edward I., but this privilege was foon after difcontinued,
and was not revived till the reign of Edward VI. The
patronage of the borough is vefted in: Mifs Laurence, of
Studley-Royal, who pofleffes all the burgage tenements to
which the right of ele@tion is attached. The number of
voters is 146, and the mayor is the returning officer. The
corporation, by virtue of a charter granted by king James L.,
and’ fince confirmed, and, in fome degree, extended, by
Vor. XXX.
RIP
fucceeding monarchs, confifts of a mayor, recorder, 12
aldermen, 24 affiftants, a town-clerk, and other inferior
officers. Ripon was formerly celebrated for its manufaéture
of fpurs, which were, indeed, fo highly efteemed, that it be-
came a proverbial expreffion to fay ‘* As true fteel as Ripon
rowels,’” when {peaking of a man of fidelity, honefty, or
intrepidity. The manufacture of woollens likewife flou-
rifhed here, in former times, but this branch of bufinefe is
now completely decayed. The archbifhop of York has his
court and prifon here for the liberty of Ripon. On the
uomination of the archbifhop, and by his majefty’s com-
miffion, juftices are appointed, who, in conjunétion with the
inayor and recorder, hold feffions for the town and liberty.
The dean and chapter of Ripon minfter have likewife a prifon
here, and hold a court for the decifion of canfes arifing
within their manor. The market day here is Thurfday ;
and there are fairs on Thurfday after 13th January, 12th
and 13th May, firit Thurfday in June, firft Thurfday after
22d Auguit, and 22d November. The market-place is a
handfome and fpacious fquare, furrounded by well-built
houfes, and having in the centre an obelifk go feet high,
erected, in 1781, by William Aiflabie, efqe of Studley, who
reprefented this borough in parliament during the lo
period of fixty years. Here alfo ftands the town-hall, built
in 1801, from defigns by Mr. Wyatt, and at the expeace of
the late Mrs. Allanfon of Studley. A theatre was ereéted
here in 1792, by the late George Haffell, efq. The free-
grammar fchool was founded by king Edward VI., and
was finifhed, and amply endowed, by his fucceffor, queen
Mary, int553. The other public eftablifhments belongi
to the town are, a difpenfary, Sunday f{chools, a fchool of
induftry, and four hofpitals, viz. that of St. Mary Mag-
dalen, for fix poor women ; ¥ St. John, a fmall building,
appropriated to two poor women; St. Anne, which fup-
ports.eight women ; and Jepfon’s hofpital, in which twelve
poor boys are maintained, clothed, and educated. This
hofpital was founded, in 1672, by Zacharias Jepfon, a
citizen of York.-
The monaftery, previoufly mentioned as the probable
nucleus which gave rife to the town, appears to have been
of confiderable celebrity. After the deftru€tion of the
original buildings in the reign of Alfred, king of Northum-
bria, it was re-ereéted in a ftyle of more magnificence than
was ufual in that age, by the famous Wilfrid, archbifhop of
York. William of Malmefbury mentions the new ftru@ure
as remarkable “for its curious arches, its fine pavements,
and winding entries.” The fame author fays it was much
reforted to by the northern nobility, and was endowed with
very extenfive poffeffions. The memory of St. Wilfrid is
ftill honoured by an annual feaft and proceffion at this town.
His monattery received extraordinary marks of royal muni-
ficence. The great king Athelftan granted to it many im-
munities, and particularly the privilege of fan@tuary. From
that period hiftory records few particulars refpe@ting this
eftablifhment, except its deftru€tion by the Scotch in the
reign of Edward II., when it ceafed to be a monattic
foundation. The church, however, was rebuilt and made
collegiate by archbifhop Melton, from whofe time, till the
reignof Henry VIII., it had {even prebends, with diftin
revenues, attached to it; befides nine chantries within the
church, which were diffolved by Edward VI. King
James I. renewed the collegiate privileges of this church,
by the eftablifhment therein of a dean and fix prebendaries, to
whom he granted “divers lands, prebends, chantries, and
reétories, belonging to the faid church before the diffolution.”’
In 1607 the fame monarch added a fubdean, and thus com-
pleted the college as it {till exifts.
Qqg Ripor
RP
Ripon church is dedicated to St. Peter and St. Wilfrid,
and has, attached to it, a peculiar jurifdiGtion, under the
archbifhop of York. The king is patron of the deanery ;
and the fubdean is nominated by the dean from among the
prebendaries. When a vacancy occurs in the number of the
latter, the dean and chapter prefent three perfons to the
archbifhop, who collates one of them. As a building, this
church has confiderable claims to the notice of the anti-
quary, though its appearanee has been much injured by ad-
ditions and alterations executed at different periods and in
different ftyles of architecture. Its general form is that of
a crofs, having two uniform {quare towers, each 110 feet
high, at the welt end, and a third, called St. Wilfrid’s great
tower, in the centre of the tranfept. From the laft, there
formerly rofe a very noble fpire, which was blown down
Dec.*8th, 1660.
The fepulchral monuments in the church are too numerous
to be mentioned in detail. There are many in commemo-
ration of different branches of the principal families in the
neighbourhood, efpecially the Blackets; the Kitchenmans ;
the Ridfdales; the Wanleys; the Oxleys; the Nortons, of
Sawley ; the Weddels, of Newby ; the Mallories and
Aiflabies, of Studley ; and the Markenfields, of Marken-
field. Among thefe may be noticed a beautiful monument
to the memory of W. Weddel, efq. the defign of which
was taken from that curious relic of antiquity, the Lantern
of Demofthenes, at Athens. An altar-tamb, of grey marble,
fituated in the fouth aifle of the nave, is {aid to commemo-
rate an Irifh prince, who died at Ripon on his return from
the Holy Land. On the entablature are reprefented the
{culptured figures of aman and alion in a grove of trees.
The environs of Ripon are rich, fertile, well wooded, in
a high ftate of cultivation, and interfperfed with villages,
and feats of the nobility and gentry. Among the latter the
principal are, Studley-Royal, and Newby-Hall. The firlt
is the property of Mifs Laurence, and is fituated at the
diftance of nearly three miles §.W. from Ripon. The
houfe is commodious and elegant, and contains many ex-
cellent piétures, and portraits by the beft mafters. But
the chief objects of attention here, are the park and plea-
fure-grounds, which are generally ranked among the fineft in
England. The park, which is fituated neareft the houfe, 1s di-
verfified with gentle {wells and declivities, and is adorned with
ranges of lofty trees. The entrance to the pleafure-grounds
difplays a mafs of the moft luxuriant foliage, and the widely
extended plantations which compofe them, are judicioufly
varied, and finely adapted to the different fituations. On one
hand the hills gradually afcend with tufts of fhade, interfperfed
over the verdure; on the other fide they precipitately rife with
lofty woods covering their brows, below which the rivulet,
in one place, glides with a filent {tream, and in another falls
in cafeades. Near the entrance is a building, called the
Cold Bath, which is conftantly fupplied by a {pring of
pure water. Adjoining is the figure of a dying gladiator,
and further on is a fine ruftic bridge with the river rufhing
through it, and the back-ground fo darkened by trees as
to excite the idea of a cafcade foaming through a cavern.
Near this is aftatue of Hercules deftroying Antrus. The
view now opens with a beautiful aflemblage of new objects,
* moft charmingly diverfified. From a little grotto not far
diftant a fine expanfive lake is feen winding round the bafe
of an eminence, called Tent Hill, encircled by a magnih-
cent amphitheatre of hanging wood. ‘The lawn is laid out
with exquifite tafte, and here the water divides itfelf into
various and beautiful forms, embellifhed at different points
by ftatues of Neptune, Bacchus, Galen, a dying gladiator,
and Roman wreitleys. On rifing grounds are fituated a
RiP
temple of Piety, a Chinefe temple, a temple of Fame, 2
banquetting-houfe, and various other ornamental buildings.
Near Studley-Royal are the venerable ruins of the once
celebrated Abbey of Fountains, which was founded in the
year 1132, for the monks of the Ciftertian order, but foon
afterwards fuffered total demolition by fire. It was rebuilt.
however, in 1204, in the early pointed ftyle of architeéture,
which then began to prevail; this houfe continued to flourifh
till the general diffolution in the reign of Henry VIII.,
when its annual revenues, according to Speed, were valued
at 1073/. os. 74d. This abbey, with all its offices and ap-
pendages, covered about twelve acres of ground, The
church, the walls of which are itill almoft entire, appears
to have been a very large and magnificent ftru€ture. The
nave, in particular, is a moft majettic {pecimen of building,
uniting fimplicity with lightnefs and elegance. The An-
cient and Modern Hittory of the Loyal Town of Rippon,
by Thomas Gent of York, 8vo. 1733. Hiftory of Ripen,
12mo. 1801. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi.,
by John Bigland. Drake’s Eboracum, folio.
RIPOSTE, in the Manege, is the vindi€tive motion of
a horfe that anfwers the {pur with the kick of his foot.
RIPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
cirear of Gohud; 40 miles 8.S.W. of Gwalior.
RIPPACANOT Creek, a river of America, near the
weitern branch of the river Wabafh.
RIPPERDA, Joun Wit11AM, in Biography, baron of,
was born in 1680, of a noble family, in the province of Gro-
ningen. He was educated in the principles of the Catholic
religion, but upon marrying a Proteftant heirefs, he con-
formed to the Proteftant faith. He appears to have en-
tered the army while he was young, and for fome time he
was in the fervice of the States-General as colonel of the
infantry, which poit he occupied in the year 1715, when he
was fent from the States to the court of Spain, to negociate
a commercial treaty. Having ingratiated himfelf with the
king, Philip V., he returned to the Catholic religion, and
took up his abode at Madrid. His firft wife being dead,
he married, in 1721, a Caltilan lady of high birth, and
rapidly rofe in the confidence of the king. In 1725 he
was fent to Vienna to negociate an accommodation with
the imperial court. In the fame year he figned a treaty at
Luxembourg with the emperor’s plenipotentiaries ; and on
his return to Madrid he was created a grandee of the third
clafs, and duke of Ripperda. He alfo obtained the office
of fecretary of itate for foreign affairs; and the manage-
ment of the war, marine, and financial departments, was
entrufted to him, fo that he had all the power, without the
name, of prime minilter. In a fhort time he was not only
difmiffed from his employments, but confined in the eallle
of Segovia, where he remained two years, when, having
found means to make his efcape into Portugal, he pafled
from thence into England, where he remained till 1730,
when he went to the Hague, and refumed the Proteitant
relision. After this he formed a connection with an envoy
from Morocco, and in 1731 embarked for that country.
He was favourably received by the fovereign, Muley Ab-
dallah, to whom he propofed a {cheme’of uniting the Bar-
bary {tates againft Spain, and of invading that country.
He engaged the Moors to undertake the fiege of Centa,
and having declared himfelf a convert to the Mahometan
religion, and aflumed the name of Of{man, he was nomi-
nated to the chief command of the army employed for that
purpefe. By his military talents he infpired the Moors
with confidence in their enterprize, when the arrival of a
Spanifh army in Africa, which laid fiege to Oran, difeon-
certed his plans. Neverthelefs, he perfilted in the fiege of
Ceuta,
RIS
Ceuta, and defeated the garrifon which had {allied out
againtt him. But a noéturnal furprife of the Moors in
the trenches broke up the fiege, and Ripperda, who fied in
his fhirt to Tetuan, was reeeived fo coldly at the court
of Morocco, that he meditated an efcape to fome other
country. He was ftopped by the emperor, and fully expected
to pay the forfeit of his life, on account of his fuccefs ;
~ but he pleaded his caufe with fo much effect, that he was,
after a fhort imprifonment, fet at liberty. He now formed
a new project, which was a confolidation of different re-
ligions, efpecially the Mahometan and Jewifh, which he
endeavoured to render compatible by admitting the pro-
phetic character of Mahomet, and inculcating the expecta-
tion of a future Meffiah. He made fome converts to his
opinions; but at length became fufpected of difhonett mo-
tives, and was obliged to retire. His projeGting {pirit
continued to the lal, and he advanced confiderable {ums
to Theodore for his attempts on the crown of Corfica.
He died at Tetuan, in 1737. Univerfal Hiltory. Gen.
Biog.
RIPPERS, in the Wire-works, are the people who
attend in the mills, take the prepared {mall rods of iron,
and work at the barrels where they are drawn into wire.
RIPPIN, or Rupuraw, in Geography, a town of Hun-
gary; eight miles N.N.E. of Leopolditadt.
RIPPINICA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 25
miles N. of Wladiflaw.
RIPPLE, in Agriculture, a flight fcratch or tear, fome-
times applied to very flight ploughings, hence called rip-
lings.
. ie in Rural Economy, an implement of the comb
kind, conftruéted with feveral upright triangular prongs,
fet near together in a {trong piece of wood, for the purpofe
of rippling flax and hemp.
RIPPLING, in Sea Language, a broken and interrupted
noife, produced by a current on or near the fea-coaft.
' Rippiine of Flax, in Rural Economy, the operation of
taking off the feed from the flax by drawing it through
aripple or large comb. See Frax, and Rippre.
RIPPON, in Geography. See Riroy.
RIPRAPPS, a narrow fhoal in the Englifh channel,
between Folkitone and Boulogne, S.W. and N.E. about
ro miles; with a ftrong bottom, and at a low {pring-tide
not covered above 14 feet with the fea.
RIPRESA, Ital., the fame as reprife in French, and
repeat in Englifh ; which fee.
RIPSA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Suder-
manland ; 13 miles N. of Nykoping.
RIPTON, a townfhip of America, in the county of
Addifon and ftate of Vermont ; containing 15 inhabitants.
RIQUEVILLE. See Ricnenveir. 4
RIQUEURIA, in Botany, a name in the Flora Peru-
viana, deftined to commemorate Lewis Riqucur, apothe-
cary to king Philip V. of Spain. De Theis.
RIS, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy-de-Déme, near the Ailier; nine miles N.
of Thiers,
RISACO, atown of Dalmatia, in the bay of Cataro;
zo miles N.N.W. of Ragufa.—Alfo, a river of Iitria,
which runs into the gulf of Triefte, about three miles from
Capo d’Iffria.
RISARD, Francis, in Biography, a French mathema-
tical writer in the eighteenth century, publifhed feveral
eiteemed elementary works for the inftruétion of the young
in the fciences. He was a native of Neufchateau, in Lor-
rain, and was made profelior of philofophy ia the college
of Beauvais; he died at Paris in the year 1778. His pro-
RIS
dutions confift of « Elements of the Mathematics,” in
4to., of which the author publifhed an abridgment, in
8vo.; “ A Treatife on the Sphere,” in 8vo.; “A Trea-
tife on Gnomonics,’’ in 8vo.; * Tables of Sines,” in 8vo. ;
“* Rectilinear Trigonometry,” 8vo.; «« Elements of Geo-
pa a in 4to.; and ‘ Inftitutiones Philofophicz,’”’ ia
2 vols.
RISBOROUGH, or Paince’s Risporovucn, in Geo-
graphy, a market-town and parih in the fecond divifion of
the three hundreds of Aylefbury, county of Buckingham,
England, isfituated at the diftance of 5 miles S.W. from Wen-
dover, and 37 N.W. from London. © The right of holding a
market was granted to the inhabitants by king Henry IIL,
who, at the fame time, beitowed upon the townfmen many
privileges. The market day is Saturday, weekly; befides
which there is an annual fair on the 6th of May. The
manor here was anciently vefted in the families of Gifford
and Humet ; but having fubfequently become vefted in the
crown, it was granted to Richard, earl of Cornwall, and
king of the Romans, whe died in 1272. It was afterwards
the property of Edward the black prince, who is faid “to
have had a palace here, fuppofed to have ftood within the
{cite of a {pacious moat, now dry, which is in a field ad-
joining the church-yard.”” In the reign of Henry V.. this
manor was afligned to his queen, Catharine, in dower.
Charles I. fold it to certain citizens of London, who, in
1637, conveyed it to the family of the Chibnalls ; one of
whom gave a confiderable fum of money to the parifh to
fupply clothing annually to 24 poor women. Since the
Chibnalls, it has been occupied fucceflively by the families
of Abraham, Adeane, Pelham, Panton, and Grub, the
prefent poffeffors. According to the parliamentary returns
of 1811, this parifh contains 324 houfes, and 1644 inha-
bitants.
Adjoining to Prince’s Rifborough is the village of Monk’s
Rifborough, at which place, it is faid, there was for-
merly a cell of BenediGtine monks, fubject to the monattery
of Chrift-church, in Hampfhire. The church here is 2
handfome building, in the later pointed ftyle of archi-
te€ture, and contains many monuments. Lyfons’s Magna
Britannia, vol.i. Bucks, gto.
RISBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Fin-
— near the gulf of Bothnia; 32 miles N. of Biorne-
org.
RISCHEBACH, a river of Saxony, which runs into
the Elbe, near Wittenberg.
RISCHIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Rako-
nitz; 30 miles S.E. of Rakonitz.
RISCLE, a town of France, in the department of the
Gers ; fix miles S. of Nogaro.
RISCUS, among the Romans, fometimes fignifies a
cheit or trunk covered with fkins; fometimes it is ufed for
ahamper, made of twigs or rufhes to hold lint; and fome-
times for a hollow place in the wall of a houfe, ufed like-
wife for holding lint, or the like.
RISEBERGA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the prevince of Skone; 28 miles N. of Lund.
RISENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 12 miles E. of Marienwerder.
RISENKIRCH, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland; 14 miles E. of Marienwerder.
RISENTITO, in the Jtakan Mufic, a brifk, lively, or
expreflive manner of playing.
RISHI, in Hindoo Mythology, is a general name for
ancient fages or faints. Confiderable aicnlcy Occurs in
determining, with any exa¢titude, who they were, whether
they had aay hiitorical exiftence, er are merely the crea-
Qq2 tures
RIS
tures of the imagination. Seven of therm ate moft fre-
quently {poken of; by fome faid to be the firft rational
beings created by Brahma. Each has a wife, and a nume-
rous offspring. ‘I'he names of thefe feven differ in different
authorities; but the following lift is that ufually received.
tr. Kasyapa; 2. déri; 3. Vasisura; 4. VISWAMITRA 5
5. Gautama or GoDAMA 3; 6. JAMADAGNI; 7. Bha-
radwaja. (The names diltingaifhed by capitals have fur-
nifked articles in this work.) The wives of thefe patriarchs
have been transferred to the heavens, and are the {tars
called by weltern aftronomers the Pleiades; by the Hin-
doos, Kririka, under which word will be found fome in-
formation re{pecting them, fhewing that the altronomical
fabulifts of both races have common legends. The Rifhis
are faid to be the bright {tars in the great bear. How they
became fo diftant from their {parkling fpoufes is explained
in the article juft referred to, In feveral languages of
India, a bear is called Rifh ; and there may be fome allu-
fion both to the conftellation and the fages in queltion.
Sometimes the feven Rifhis, and the feven Menus, are con-
founded. (See Menu.) Another race of patriarchal fages
is alfo fometimes confounded with both. Thefe are the
Munis. See Munrs in which article the reader is re-
qnefted to correct a typographical error, in_the fecond
column, third line from bottom, for many-mothered, for,
‘end many-mothered fon. Jamadagni, for inftance, is ufnally
called a Rifhi; yet in our article given under the name of
his wife, RuneKA, he is, on Puranic authority, called “a
great Muni.” The Rifhis, as the immediate production of
Brahma, are femetimes called Brahmadikas, of whom like-
wife there are feven; but they. are not ufually fuppofed to
be the fame with the Rifhis: fome lifts have ne names
in commen with thefe of the Rifhis; others have feveral,
As the produétion of Brahma, there is another fet of feven
deings of different names from any of the above-named lifts,
but employed in early days in peopling the world; thefe are
called Sanakadikas, of whom fomething is faid under the
name of their principal, Sanaka. The Hindoo books
differ very much in their accounts of thefe varieties of per-
fons interpofed between the Supreme Being and the created
world; and it is not eafy, if at all practicable, to reconcile
their difagreements ; nor perhaps worth the pains were it
otherwife.
We fhall not attempt to notice the difagreements, that
could be picked out from high Hindoo authorities, refpect-
ing the equivocal perfonages named in this article. It may
be briefly obferved, that although the /even Rithis are very
commonly adverted to, the appellation is by no means con-
fined to that number. In the Siva Purana, Brahma is faid
to have produced Brighu and the feven Rifhis, and after
that Nareda, from his thigh, Kardama the Rithi from his
fhadow, and from the fore-finger of his right-hand, Dakfha.
Thefe perfons are fometimes called Rifhis, Brahmadikas,
Maharfhis, Devarfhis, &c. A faze of the name of Da-
dichi occurs in tke Skanda Purana, as having {wallowed the
facred books, for their fecurity, at a period of great wicked-
nefs and tumult. He is called a Rifhis as is another named
Uddalaka, who. was half betrothed to Lakfhmi, the god-
defs of wealth; but efpoufed her filter Jyefhta, goddets of
poverty. Thefe allegories may be explained. (See Uppa-
LAKA, and Karpama.) Other Puranas feem to identify
in fome parts the Rifhis and Munis, calling both ‘ the vir-
ruous fages, who delight in protecting the people.”’ In
other parts diftin@tions are made. In the beginning of this
article we have dtated the term Rifhi to be, as it were,
generic; meaning fages, faints, patriarchs. This feems
authorifed by the Ramayana, where this note occurs.
RIS
“ There are four kinds of Rifhis, or fages ; the Rajarfhi,
or royal fage; the Maharthi, or great fage; the Brah-
marfhi, or facred fage; and the Devarfhi, or divine fage.
Of thefe the firlt is efteemed the loweft, and the latt the
higheft.””. Thefe appear to be the fpecific varieties. In
addition to the articles already referred to, fome farther
points connected with the fubjeéts of this will be found
noticed under the following: Manuarsuis, Marsyava-
TARA, PixeswArs, Pirris, Pucana, Putasrya, Ra-
JARSHI, Ravena, RuNEeKa.
RISIBILITY, the faculty of /aughter ; which fee.
Rifibility is commonly fuppofed an attribute peculiar to
man ; as being the only creature capable of judging what is
ridiculous.
Some philofophers go fo far as to aflert, that the degree
of judgment is always feen in that of laughter ; fools always
either have too little or too much of it.
Authors do not agree as to the peculiar mechanifm in
man, by which laughter is raifed. It is ufually attributed
to the communication between the plexus nervofus, and the
diaphragmatic nerves. See Lunas.
RISIGALLUM, inthe Materia Medica.
GAR.
RISING, in Afronomy, the appearance of the fun, a
{tar, or other luminary, above the horizon, which before
was hid beneath it.
By reafon of the refraction of the atmofphere, the hea-
venly bodies always rife before their time; i e. they are
{een above the horizon, while they really are below it. See
Rerracrion of the Atmo/phere.
There are three poetical kinds of rifing of the ftars.
be Acrenychal, Cofmical, and Heliacal ; which fee refpec-
tively.
To find the rifing, &c. of the fun and fiars by the globe, fee
LOBE.
Risinc, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied to
yealt, or barm ufed for the purpofe of fermenting different
matters.
Rising, 1n Ship Building, a term derived from the figure
of a fhip’s bottom in general, which gradually narrows or
becomes fharper towards the item and ftern-poit. Qn this
account it is that the floors, towards the extremities of the
fhip, are raifed or lifted above the keel ; otherwife the fhape
would be fo very acute, as not to be obtained from timber
with fufficient ftrength in the middle or cutting-down.
The flooretimbers forward and abaft are therefore gra-
dually lifted or raifed upon a folid body of wood, called
the dead or rifing-weod, which mutt of courfe have more or
lefs rifing as the body of the fhip aflumes mere or lefs full-
nefs or capacity.
Ristne of Boats, is a narrow ftrake of board faftened
withinfide to fupport the thwarts.
Risinc-IVoors are the foremoft and aftermoft floors,
which, on account of the rifing of the body, are the moft
difficult to be obtained, as they increafe in the acutenefs of
fhape3 and to preferve itrength in the throat, tke cutting-
down mutt be deeper.
Risinc-Line, an elliptical line drawn in the plan of ele-
vation, by which line, with its correfponding half-breadth or
narrowing line, the figure of the bottom near the floor-heads
is determined.
Ristnc-Sguare, a {quare ufed in whole moulding, upoa
which is marked the height of the rifing-line above the
upper edge of the keel.
Rusine-Straight, is acurve line ufed in whole moulding
drawn in the fheer plan, at the interfeCtion of the ftraight
part
See Rrar-
RIS
part of the beud mould, when continued to the middle line
at each timber.
RisinG-Wood, that part of the bafis of a fhip’s body,
forward and abaft, which is formed by folid pieces of timber
fearfed together lengthwife on the keel. The rifing-wood
mutt be fufficiently high to feat the floors; and afore and
abaft the floors, it is continued up to the cutting-down or
upper fide of the floors, for the purpofe of fecuring the
heels of the cant-timbers, and there left fufficiently broad to
admit of a ftepping or rabbit for the heels of thofe tim-
bers, that they may not be continued dowuwards to fharp
edges.
RISK, or Risque, the hazard or chance of a lofs, da-
mage, &c.
There is a great rifk run in letting goods go upon credit
to great lords, wives not authorized by their hufbands, and
young people not yet arrived at the age of majority.
Skinner derives the word from the Spanifh ri/co, /leep ;
Covarruvias, from rigeo. In the barbarous Greek, they
fay, fadixcren'y for periclitor, I hazard; and faCsxor for Jot or
chance ; which words, as well as ri/gue, Skinner thinks,
may: be deduced from fizrw, for aixpirtw rox Cor, I cuff
the dye.
To prevent any rifk in invoices of merchandizes by fea, it
is ufual to infure them.
Accordingly the rifk isa fubje& of primary confidera-
tion in cafes of marine infurance. All the rifks or perils,
that are incident to fea-voyages, may be provided againtt
by infurances, with certain exceptions founded on public
policy and the interefts of humanity. Thus, the infurer
can, inno cafe, upon principles of natural juttice, make
himfelf anfwerable for any lofs or damage, proceeding di-
reGtly from the fault of the infured. No infurance can be
made, even again{t the perils of the fea, upon illegal com-
merce. In moft foreign countries, infurances on the lives
of men are prohibited. In France they have been always
deemed illegal, and are exprefsly forbidden by the ordinance
of Lewis XIV. ; neverthelefs, French writers have held that
this does not apply to Negro flaves. According to Valin,
who has, by curious reafoning, attempted to vindicate this
doétrine, the difpofition to fuicide is zatural in Negro flaves,
and imputable, as he expreffles himfelf, to the ‘ inherent
vice of the article ;” and, therefore, their death, proceeding
from this caufe, muft be deemed natural death. But the
killing of them, or the throwing of them overboard in a re-
volt, is a lofs incident to this trade, and a peril within the
policy. tis to be lamented, that, whilft the flave trade
was countenanced and carried ondn this country, the objects
of this cruel traffic have ‘been too much confidered as mere
merchandize ; and the infured upon this trade formerly re-
covered, under the common policy, for any lofs fuftaied in
the voyage by the mortality of the flaves, whether they
were thrown overboard, in cafes of fuppofed neceflity, or
died-a natural death, or perifhed by the perils of the fea.
The legiflature, however, while this infamous and favage
traffic fubfifted, interpofed, and ‘by an annual act, pafled
with a -view to interef the perfons concerned in this trade in
the prefervation-of the lives and health of the flaves, de-
clared, that though the policy remained in the fame form as
before, it cannot protec the infured againtt lotles occafioned
by natural death, ill treatment, throwing overboard, or by
rellraints of princes proceeding from attempts to get flaves
by force. (See ftat. 30 Geo. IIT. c. 33. § & 34 Geo. IIT.
‘c. 80. § 10. and Fe Geo. IIT. c. 80. § 24.) But we trult
the provifions of thefe and fimilar itatutes are become
wholly unneceflary in'this country, and that the trade, .of
RLS
which we fhall give fome account in its proper place, is abo-
lifhed never to revive.
The words of an Englifh policy, which {pecify the va-
rious rifks againit which infurances are ufually made, are
thefe: ‘* Touching the adventures and perils which we, the
affurers, are contented to bear, and do take upon us in this
voyage, they are of the feas, men of war, fire, enemies, pi-
rates, rovers, thieves, jettifons, letters of mart and counter-
mart, furprizals, takings at fea, arreits, reftraints, and de-
tainments, of all kings, princes, and people, of what na-
tion, condition, or quality foever; barratry of the matter
and mariners; and of all other perils, lofles, and misfor-
tunes, that have or fhall come to the hurt, detriment, or
damage of the faid goods and merchandizes, and fhip, &c.
or any part thereof, without prejudice te this infurance.’*
‘The latter claufe feems to be fufficiently comprehenfive to
embrace every fpecies of rifk to which fhips and goods are
expofed from the perils of fea-voyages. However, by the
agreement of the parties, the general words of the policy
may be altered or qualified; and any of the rifks may be
wholly or in part excluded, and the infurance may be made
only again{t fome particular rifks, or up to, or beyond cer-
tain degrees, or upon particular articles. In England, it
is now conttantly {tipulated in all policies, that upon certain
enumerated articles of a quality peculiarly perifhable, the
infurer fhall not be anfwerable for any partial lofs whatever ;
that upon certain others, liable to partial injuries, but lefs
difficult to be preferved at fea, he fhall only be liable for
partial lofles above five per cent. ; and that, as to all other
goods, and alfo the fhip and freight, he {hall only be liable
for partial lofles above three per cent. This ftipulation is
made by a memorandum, in the form of a warranty, inferted
at the bottom of all Englifh policies. It was firit intro-
duced here about the year 1749; betore which time the in-
furer was liable for every injury, however {mall, that hap-
pened to the thing infured. ‘This claufe prevented the ne-
ceflity of adapting the premium to the nature of the com-
modity. Neverthelefs our policies indemnify the infured
againit every lofs, let it be ever fo inconfiderable, arifing
from any caufe affeGing the general fafety of the fhip and
cargo. Lofles-of this fort, being of the nature of «¢ general
average,”’ are fo called in the memorandum ; and there is,
therefore, annexed to each of the provifions above-mentioned,
an exception of general’ average. In the policies of private
infurers, the cafe of the «¢ itranding of the fhip”? is likewife
excepted. In the common policies, ufed in London by
private underwriters, the memorandum runs thus: “ Corn,
(comprehending every fort of grain, and alfo peafe and
beans,), fifh, falt, (excluding falt-petre,) fruit, flour, and
feed, are warranted free from average, unlefs general, or
the fhip be ftranded: fugar, tobacco, hemp, Ae hides,
and tkins, are warranted free from average, under five per
cent.; andall other goods, alfo the fhip and freight, are war-
ranted free from average, under thre per cent., unlefs ge-
neral, or the fhip be ftranded.”’
This form of the memorandum was generally ufed, not
only by private underwriters, but alfo by the two infurance
companies, from its firft introduétion in 1749, till the year
£7543 when, in confequence of a particular cafe that oc-
curred, the London infurance Company left out of the
memorandum in their policies the words, “ or the fhip be
itranded;”” and the fame alteration was foon after adopted
by the Royal Exchange Affurance Company. Private un-
derwriters have, however, continued the memorandum in
the old form. Many queflions have arifen as to the true
meaning of the words, “ free from average, unlefs general,
or
RISK.
or the fhip be ftranded.”? The word “ unlefs’ has been
held to make an eaception, and not a condition ; and cafes
have occurred in which judges of the higheft eminence have
put a different conftruétion upon the fore-mentioned claufe.
It is now fettled, that if the {hip be f{tranded, the infurer is
liable for any partial lofs in any of the articles in the me-
morandum, though fuch lofs did not arife from the ftrand-
ing, but from fome other caufe. Notwithftanding the num-
ber of cafes, which have been decided upon the conttruétion
of the memorandum, it ftill remains a queftion, whether the
partial lofles, from which the infurer is exempted by it,
comprehend the ¢oral lo/s of .an entire individual, as well asa
partial injury to the whole of the {pecies of goods exempted
by the memorandum from {mall average lofles ; as, ¢. gr. if
out of ror hogfheads of fugar of equal. value, five are fo
completely {poiled in the voyage, as to be worth nothing,
and therefore fofally Ioff. If this lofs be calculated upon the
whole 101 hogfheads, it will not amount to five per cent.
In fuch a cafe, it has been thought, that the infurer would
be proteéted by the memorandum, and not liable for the
lofs. But the queftion has not been decided.
There are certain injurics or loffes, to which goods on
fhip-board are liable, that do not arife from the perils of the
fea; and for thefe the owners are liable. Thete may be
owing to fome fault or defeét of the fhip: in this cafe the
infurer is not liable, becaufe, in every contrat of infurance,
there is an implied warranty, that the fhip is fea-worthy ;
and if it appear otherwife, the contraét is void. In many
cafes, the matter alfo, as well as the owners, is anfwerable.
He is bound to deliver goods in the fame ftate in which he
received them; and of courfe he, as well as the owners, is
liable for all lofs or damage not proceeding from fome ine-
vitable misfortune. They are anfwerable for lofs or damage
eccafioned by bad ftowage, wet, theft, embezzlement,
rats, &c. This is the rule of the marine law, and agrecs
with the common law. At common law, the owners and
matter were liable to the full value of the goods loft; but
now by 7 Geo. II. c. 15. they fhall only be lable to the
value of the fhip and freight for any aét done by the mafter
or mariners. he mafter’s liability, and that of the ma-
riners, remains the fame. But as this provifion only ex-
tended to the cafe of embezzlement, &c. by the mafter or
mariners, it did not afford a fufficient prote€tion to fhip-
owners. ‘Therefore the 26 Geo. IIT. c. 86. limits the lia-
bility of the owners to the value of the fhip and freight,
though the mafter or mariners fhould not be privy to fuch
robbery, &c.; and they are exempt from all liability for
any lofs by fire. But though the owners are ref{ponfible to
the amount of the value of the fhip and freight, for lofles
occafioned by external thieves; yet, under the policy, the
infurers are alfo liable; and, therefore, in fuch cafes, the
proprietor of the goods, or the infurers in his name, may
recover againft the owners.
In order to charge the infurer, the lofs muft happen
during the continuance of the rifk. This brings under con-
fideration a fubje&t of importance. Every voyage infured
muft have a fixed commencement and termination. It is
proper, therefore, to inquire what is the duration of the
rifk, with reference to infurances upon goods, upon the /hip,
and upon freig/t. In France, and moft other countries, it
is provided, that if the time of the rif be not regulated by
the contraét, it fhall commence, as to goods, from the time
they are put on board the fhip, or put into barges, to be con-
veyed on board, that is, from the moment of their leaving
the fhore ; and it continues till they are fafely landed at the
place of their pea It is alleged, that the perils of
)
the fea commence from the moment in which the goods are
on the water. In our policies, the words ufually employed
to exprefs the commencement and end of the rif on goods
are thefe: “ Beginning the adventure upon the faid goods
and merchandize from the loading thereof aboard the faid lhip,
and fo fhall continue and endure until the faid fhip, with the
faid goods, fhall be arrived at (her port of delivery),
and until the fame be difcharged and fafely landed.’ With
us, therefore, the rifk does not commence until the goods
are actually on board the fhip ; and, therefore, the infurer
is not anfwerable for any lofs or damage which may happen
to them, while they are on their paflage to the fhip. And
it may be laid down as a general rule, that-the rifk on goods
continues no longer than they are actually on board the fhip
mentioned in the policy ; and that if they be removed from
on board that fhip, and landed, or put on board another
fhip, without the confent of the infurers, the contract is at
an end, and the infurers are difcharged from all fubfequent
re{ponfibility.
To this rule, however, there are feveral exceptions: as
where the fhip is difabled, and the goods are put on board
another veffel, to be forwarded to their port of delivery ; fo,
if it be agreed, that the goods fhall be removed into another
fhip, at a particular place in the voyage, and no fhip being
there, they are put on board a itore-fhip. The infured is
protected by the policy in carrying the goods in lighters to |
any part of the port of delivery, where fuch goods are
ufually landed. It is a general principle, that policies
ought to be conftrued according to the ufage of trade; and
in doubtful cafes, in favour of the infured. Although the
general rule is, that the infurance on goods fhall continue
“till they are difcharged and fafely landed,”’ yet it has been
holden by a very eminent and learned judge, that if the in-
fured take goods from on board the fhip in his own lighter,
the infurer is difcharged. Where goods are put into a
public lighter, for the purpofe of being landed, the rifk
continues; but if the merchant fend his own lighter, this
will be a delivery to him, and the infurer is difcharged.
Although the rif on goods, according to the ufual words
of the policy, is to continue till they are difcharged and
fafely landed at the port of delivery, this is not to be under-
{tood as an authority for prolonging the rifk, after the fhip’s
arrival at her port of delivery, for any indefinite length of
time, at the pleafure of the infured; but the fair conftruc-
tion of the claufe is, that the goods fhall remain under the
protection of the policy for a vea/onable time, till they can be
conveniently landed, and no longer.
As to the infurance of the /Bif, the riflc, in fome countries, is
made to commence from the time fhe begins to take in her firft
goods, or ballaft, and to continue till after fhe arrives at her
place of deftination, and is entirely difcharged. In others, the
rifk is made to end twenty-one days after the fhip’s arrival , or
fooner, if fhe be unloaded. In France, if the time of the rifle
on the fhip be not regulated by the contract, it runs from
the time fhe fets fail, till her arrival at her port of deftina-
tion, and till fhe be there anchored and moored at the quay.
In England, the commencement of the rifk on the fhip varies
in almoft every cafe. In outward-bound voyages, it is gene-
rally made to commence from her beginning to load at her
port of departure. Sometimes privateers on a cruize, fhips
engaged in the coafting trade, or in fhort voyages, are in-
fured for a limited period of time ; and, in fuch cafes, the rifle
commences and ends with the term, wherever the fhip may
then happen to be. Ifa fhip be infured “ from’? the port
of London to any other port, and before fhe breaks ground,
an accident happen to her, the infurers are not anfwerable ;
for
RISK.
for the rifk does not commence till fhe fets fail on her de-
parture from the port of London: but if the infurance be
“ at and from’ the port of London, the infurers are liable
for any accident that may happen to her, from the time of
Jubjiribing the policy. When a fhip, expeéted to arrive ata
certain place abroad, is infured * at and from’? that place,
or from her arrival’’ there, the rifk begins from the firit
moment of her arrival at the place {pecitied ; and the words
‘¢ firft arrival’? are implied, and always under{tood in po-
licies fo worded. In iuch cafes, the rifk continues there as
long as the fhip is preparing for the voyage infured ; but if
all thoughts of the voyage be laid afide, and the fhip be fuf-
fered to lie there for a length of time, with the owner’s
privity, the infurer is not liable ; for this would be to fubjeét
him to the whim and caprice of the owner, who might choofe
to let the fhip lie and ret there. In Englifh policies, the
rifk on the fhip is ufually made to continue ‘ until the fhip
hath moored at anchor twenty-four hours in good fafety,”’
and the infurer is anfwerable for no lofs after the expiration
of that time. Ifthe fhip, before the twenty-four hours are
expired, be ordered to the proper place to perform quaran-
tine, the rifle continues, though fhe do not leave her moor-
ings till long after the expiration of the twenty-four hours.
Upon the fame principle, if the fhip, on her arrival at her
port of deftination, be fubjeé&t to feizure under an embargo,
and a declaration of reprifals, ard fhe be in faé& feized within
the twenty-four hours, though fhe be permitted afterwards to
load her cargo, the infurer is liable. The rifk on the rig-
ging, tackle, furniture, and provifions of the fhip infured,
continues no longer than they are attached to, or remain on
board, the fhip. But if it be neceflary to put thefe articles
on fhore during a repair, which is the ufual practice in fuch
cafes, the rifk continues on them while on fhore, and if they
are loit or damaged by any of the perils mentioned in the
policy, the infured is liable. An infurance upon an India
voyage includes the rifk of the country voyage by the ufage
of the trade, with which, in this and other initances, the
underwriter is prefumed to be fully acquainted. Thus an
infurance was made on a fhip “ at and from Bengal to any
ports or places in the Eatt Indies, China, Perfia, or elfewhere
beyond the Cape of Good Hope, forwards and backwards,
and during her ttay at each place, until her arrival at Lon-
dou.’ In an aftionon this policy, tried before lord Mansfield,
the plaintiff obtained a verdiێt. Upon amotion for a new trial,
the court determined that, under all the circumftances, the
plaintiff was entitled to recover. The reafons were, that the
underwriters are prefumed to know the courfe of the Ealt
India trade, the terms of the charter-party, and the deftina-
tion of the India fhips, (which are under the dire¢tion of
the company and not of their owners): that the charter-
party is a printed form of very long {tanding: that, befides
the liberty thereby given, to prolong the fhip’s itay for a
year, it is very common, by anew agreement, to detain her
a year longer; for no fhip comes home in ballaft, and the
longer a fhip is kept, the more beneficial to the owners :
that the words of the policy are adapted to this ufage, being
without limitation of time or place, and without any refer-
ence to the firft voyage particularly mentioned in the charter-
party : that the terms of the policy precifely deferibe the
rifk in its utmolt latitude, and neceflarily extend to every
prolongation of {tay, and every country voyage: that the
ufage of the India trade, and the courfe of the voyages in
it, were notorious to infurers, who muft be fuppofed fuf-
ficiently conufant of them, and the obligation of the policy is
taken irom the ufage, and the words of the charter-party,
which refer to that ufage, in the fame manner as if it were
exprefsly inferted in the policy ; whereas if every perfon
infured fhould be obliged to ftate to the infurer all the
grounds of his expe€tations, as to the fhip’s continuance in
India, or her returning to England, it might produce preat
litigation and confufion in cals arifing upon thefe policies:
befides, it would be contradiétory to the policy, to fay that
the underwriter did not infure for a country voyage.
Ifin a policy on an India voyage, there be liberty “ to
touch, flay, and trade at any ports or places ;’’ this covers the
rifk, even of a /écond country voyage. In a like policy, the
liberty was only to touch and flay at any port, &c. in the
voyage, by the ufage of the trade. This covered the rifk on
the intermediate voyages. Neverthelefs, the general rule is,
that a liberty to touch and ftay at any ports and places,
means only places in the ufual courfe of the voyage. A
liberty to ouch and flay does not authorife the Ffeel to
break bulk and trade. If the voyage defcribed in the policy
has really been commenced, though at a time, and under cir-
cumltances very different from thofe which were in the con-
templation of the parties at the time when the policy was
effected ; yet if there be no fraud, mifreprefentation, or con-
cealment on the part of the infured, this fhall be a good
commencement of the rifk. Although the fhip, through
neceffity, change the order of the places at which fhe is to
touch, yet if the do not abandon the original voyage, the
rifk continues.
In an infurance upon freight, the rifk generally begins from
the time when the goods are put on board. If an accident
happen to the fhip before any goods are put on board, which
prevents her from failing, the infured cannot recover for the
lofs of freight, which the fhip might have earned, if the acci-
dent had not happened; but if part of the cargo be put on
board, and the reft be ready to be fhipped, the infured may
recover for the whole freight, upon a valued policy. If the
fhip be loft on her way to her port of loading, or to a diftant
place where fhe is to take in her cargo, the infurer is liable
for the whole freight.
If, after the infurance is efle&ted, any thing be done by the
infured to alter the nature of the rifk, this mult be done with
the confent of the infurers, otherwife it will avoid the cen-
tract. Ifa fhip infured as a private trader afterwards takes
letters of marque, without the confent of the underwriters,
they are thus difcharged, although no ufe be made of the
letters of marque.
In connedtion with the fubje€t of this article, we may add
a few words on the lofs, i. e. the injury, or damage, which
may be incurred by thofe perils of the fea that conftitute the
rik, againft which the infurer undertakes to indemnify the
infured. ‘This lofs may be either total or partial ; the total
lofs fignifying, in a natural fenfe, the abfolute deftruétion of
the thing infured; but, in a legal fenfe, it means not only the
total deitruétion, but likewife fuch damage to the thing in-
fured, though it may {pecifically remain, as renders it of little
or no value to the owner. A lofs is alfo faid to be total,
when, in confequence of the misfortune that has happened,
the voyage is loft, or not worth purfuing ; or, if the value
of what 1s faved be lefs than the freight, &c. A partial lofs
is any lofs or damage not amounting toa total lofs. Partial
lofles are fometimes denominated average’? lofles, becaufe
they are fuch as are the fubjeéts of average contributions ;
and they are diftinguifhed into general and particular aver-
ages. Thefe lofles may be incurred by the perils of the fea,
fuch as the fhip’s foundering, itranding, or ftriking fuddenly
againft a rock, by running foul of another veflel, by fire, by
capture, (fee Recarrure and Ransom), by arreit and de-
tention of princes, by barratry, (fee BARRATRY), by average
contributions, by expence of falvage, or they may be wilful
and fraudulent. The term average, derived from averagium,
formed
RISK. ji
formed from the verb averare, to carry, has been explained
under that article. It is here ufed to fignify a contribution
made by the owners of the fhip, freight, and goods on board,
in proportion to their refpe€tive interefts, towards any pat-
ticular lofs or expence fuftained for the general fafety of the
fhip and cargo 5 fo as that the particular lofer may not be
a greater faire than the owner of the fhip and the other
owners of goods on board. This juft and equitable contri-
bution is called general or grofs average, becaufe it falls gene-
rally upon the whole or gro{s amount of the hip, freight, and
cargo; and alfo to diftinguifh it from what is often, though
improperly, termed particular average, but what, in reality,
means a particular, and not a general lofs, and has no affinity
to average properly fo denominated. The petty and accu/-
tomed averages are fuch as pilotage, towage, light-money,
beaconage, anchorage, bridge-toll, quarantine, river-charges,
fignals, inftru¢tions, caftle-money, pier-money, digging the
fhip out of the ice, &c. When thefe petty charges are in-
curred in the ufual courfe of the voyage, they are not con-
fidered as a /o/s within the meaning of the policy, but oly
a neceflary and ordinary expence ; but if incurred for any
extraordinary purpofe in the voyage, as to provide againit
any impending danger, or in conlequence of the fhip’s being
driven out of her courfe by ftrefs of weather, they will then
be deemed grofs or general average, for which the infurer
will be liable. A contribution upon a general average can
only be claimed when the facrifice, occafioning the lofs, was,
after due deliberation, found to be indifpenfably neceflary for
the prefervation of the fhip and cargo, whenever it appears
to have conduced to this purpofe, and when the fhip and
reft of the cargo were a¢tually faved. If goods put into
lighters to enable a fhip to get up a river be loft, the reft
fhall contribute ; but if the fhip be loft, the goods in the
lighters fhall not contribute. It has been faid that the
wages and expences of the crew during the detention of a
fhip unjuftly captured, as well as the charge of reclaiming
her, and that the charges of wages, &c. upon a fhip that 1s
obliged to go into port to refit after a ftorm, fhould be
brought into a general average. This point has never been
decided in a court of juftice, but the principle feems to
have been allowed by judges of great authority in cafes that
have occurred.
No injury occafioned by mere fea-damage can be the
proper fubject of a general average: asif the fhip be da-
maged in her hull or her rigging, the goods on beard fhall
not contribute ; alfo, if a fhip {pring a-leak ina florm, by
which goods on board are fpoiled, this is a fimple damage,
or particular lofs; and cannot be the fubjeét of au average
contribution.
The rule with regard to average contribution feems to be,
that the fhip, freight, and every thing remaining on board
that can properly be deemed a part of the cargo, fhall be
fubje&t to this charge; and therefore money, plate, and
even jewels, mutt contribute according to their value. But
the perfons on board, their wearing apparel, and alfo the
jewels and ornaments belonging to their perfons, fhall not
contribute ; neither are feamen’s wages liable to contribu-
tion. When the captain arrives at his port of deftination,
it is his duty to fettle the contribution; and the average, if
not fettled before, fhould be paid before the cargo is landed :
for the owners of the fhip have a /ien on the goods on board,
not only for the freight, but alfo to an/wer all averages and
contributions that may be due. _ If he negle¢t his duty in this
refpeét, Mr. Serjeant Marfhall conceives that an action
weuld lie againft him, or againft the owners. If the lofs
was in money paid, an ation on the cafe for money paid
would unqueitionably he againft each perfon bound to con-
9
tribute for his fhare ; if in goods, a fpecial aétion on the
cafe, founded on the cuftom of trade, would lie againit each
perfon liable to contribute; or a bill in equity might be
filed againft them all. The mode of afcertaining each per-
fon’s contribution, though not very accurately defined, is
ufually effected by afcertaining, after the fhip’s arrival at
her port of difcharge, the neat value of the fhip, freight,
and cargo, as if nothing had been loft; and valuing thefe
at the price they would fetch in ready money at the port of
difcharge; and the neat amount, after deducting all charges,
is the fum which is fubjet to the contribution ; and each
perfon’s fhare of the lois will bear the fame proportion to
the value of his property, as the whole lofs bears to the
aggregate value of the fhip, freight, and cargo. In Eng-
land, fome perfons make the fhip contribute for her full
value and the freight ; others, for half her value and one-
third of the freight ; and others, again, for half the value
of the fhip and freight; and fhe fhall be valued at the priee
fhe was worth on her arrival at her port of delivery. The
freight is valued at the fum the fhip has earned on her ar-
rival there.
As to the mode of valuing the jettifon, it is now the
fettled practice with us to eftimate the goods loft at the
price they would’have fetched at the port of delivery, on
the fhip’s arrival there; freight, duties, and other charges
being deduéted. ‘Thefe contributions, under the generak
words of the policy, are a charge which the infurer is bound
to pay; and it makes no difference whether the infured pay
towards, or receive, this: he ought, in either cafe, to bear
the proportion of the general lofs, and that muft fall on the
infurers. For the lofs by expence of falvage, fee Sax-
VAGE.
With regard to cafes of wilful and fraudulent loffes, the
ftat. x Ann. ft. 2. c.g. § 4 and 5. makes it a fimple felony
to deftroy any fhip, to the prejudice of the owners of the
fhip or goods on board; and takes away clergy, if com-
mitted on the high feas. And the 4 Geo. I. c. 12. ex-
tends this to the cafe of the owner or mafter who fhall de-
{troy any fhip, to the prejudice of the owners of, or under-
writers upon, goods. The 11 Geo. I. c. 29. takes away
clergy from fuch offenders in all cafes. See Pirarer.
In cafes where the infured is entitled to call upon the in-
furer as for a total lofs, he muit ‘* abandon ;’” that is, he
muit renounce and yield up to the infurer all his right, title,
and claim to what may be faved, and leave it to him to
make the moft of it for his own benefit. The infurer then
ftands in the place of the infured, and becomes legally en-
titled to all that can be refcued from deftruG@tion. The idea
of * abandonment,”’ therefore, prefuppofes a total lofs in
this latter fenfe, and implies that fomething remains which
may be faved, and which may be given up, or abandoned
to the infurers. for if the infured could only abandon, in
the cafe of a total lofs, in the ftri& and natural fenfe of the
words, there would be nothing to abandon, and abandon-
ment would then be only an ufelefs form. Some have faid
that the practice of abandoning dates its origin from the
period when the contraét of infurance itfelf firft came into
ufe ; and yet it does not feem to be a right which neceflarily
refults from the nature of the contraét. It feems more pro-
bable that abandonment arofe from the pra¢tice of occa-
fionally introducing into policies particular ftipulations, that
if the thing infured fhould be {poiled, or greatly damaged,
by any of the perils infured againft, it fhould be abandoned
to the infurers, who fhould be thereupon obhged to pay
the entire fum infured ; and that fimply making good the
damage fhould not be fufficient to ditcharge them: and
fuch Hipulations, being frequently introduced into the con-*
tract,
RISK.
tra, became at length the foundation of general rules,
which have been eftablifhed in fome countries by pofitive
law, and adopted in others as part of the general law of in-
furance. In the firft cafe of abandonment, that came before
lord Hardwicke in tke court of chancery, in the year 1744,
he determined that where a recaptured fhip and cargo were
_ fold to pay the falvage, the infured had a right to abandon
the furplus, and claim as for a total lofs.
By the law of infurance, as underftood in England, the
infured may abandon in every cafe, where, by the happen-
ing of any of the misfortunes or perils infured againft, the
voyage is loft, or not worth purfuing, and the projected
_ adventure is fruftrated ; or where the thing infured is fo da-
maged, as to be of little or no value to the owner ; or where
the falvage is very high; or where what is faved is of lefs
value than the freight; or where further expence is necef-
fary, and the'infurer will not undertake, at all events, to
pay that expence, &c. The ordinance of the marine of
Lewis XIV. confines abandonment to the following five
cafes: capture, fhipwreck, ftranding, arreft of princes, or
the entire lofs of the effeéts infured. By the French law,
the right to abandon feems to depend on the “ {pecies of
misfortune’ which has happened: with us, it depends ra-
ther on the “ degree of lofs’”” fuftained in confequence of it.
Thefe general principles have been exemplified in cafes com-
prehending lofles by capture and arreft of princes, and alfo
other lofles. Capture, or arreft of princes, is, primd facie,
a total lofs; and immediately upon the capture, or mere
arreft, or at any time while the fhip continues under deten-
tion, the infured may abandon, and give notice to the in-
furer of his intention to do fo; and thus entitle himfelf to
claim as for a total lofs from the infurer. There is, how-
ever, this difference between a policy upon interefl, and a
wager policy, that, in the one cafe, the infured may, if he
think proper, abandon the moment he has notice of a cap-
ture or detention ; and this will bind the underwriters, what-
ever may be the ultimate fate of the fhip. But in the cafe
of a wager policy, there can be no abandonment, becaufe
the infured has nothing to abandon. Neverthelefs, a cap-
ture or arreft does not neceflarily terminate in a total lofs :
for if a captured fhip be retaken, and permitted to proceed
on her voyage, fo that fhe fuffers but a {mall temporary in-
convenience, this would only be a partial, and not a total
lofs. Neither does a recapture neceffarily deprive the in-
fured of the right to abandon. The rule is, that if the thing
infured be recovered before any lofs is paid, the infured is
entitled to claim as for atotal, or a partial lofs, according
to the final event ; that is, according to the ftate of the cafe
at the time he makes his claim. But if, after a total lofs
has been aétually paid, the thing infured be recovered, the
infurer cannot oblige the infured to refund the money he has
received ; but he fhall ftand in the place of the infured: thus
no injuftice is done. Two cafes are adduced to fhew that,
though a captured fhip be recaptured, yet if the voyage be
loft, the lofs will be total, and the infured will have a right
to abandon. In one cafe, a fhip is taken and retaken, and
fold in a diftant country to pay the recaptors for the falvage,
and the refidue of the produce of the fales remains in the
court of admiralty there; and in this cafe the infured may
abandon, and recover as for a total lofs. In the fecond
cafe, a fhip, after throwing part of the cargo overboard in
a ftorm, and being difabled from proceeding on her voyage,
till refitted, was captured, and her crew taken out; but,
after being eight days in pofleflion of the enemy, was re-
captured, and carried into an Englifh port; upon which
the infured gave notice to abandon. Before the fhip could
Vor. XXX.
be refitted, the reft of the cargo was fpoiled. This was a
total lofs, and the infured entitled to abandon. Ai title to
reftitution, arifing from recapture, cannot take away a
velted right to abandon, if the fhip is unfit to perform the
voyage. Serjeant Marfhall obferves, that he cannot find a
fingle book, a.cient or modern, which does not fay that,
in cafe of a fhip being taken, the infured may demand as for a
total lofs, and abandon ; and the propofition is proved more
ftrongly by the general law which warrants him to abandon,
in the cafe merely of arreft, or an embargo, by a prince not
anenemy. If, indeed, the capture proves but a {mall tem-
porary hindrance, the infured cannot abandon. The in-
{ured is in no cafe obliged to abandon; but he may abandon,
if the voyage be defeated, or not worth purfuing : never.
thelefs he cannot, merely by abandoning, turn a partial
into a total lofs. It is not univerfally true, that becaufe a
fhip has once been captured, the infured may abandon at
any time afterwards. The rule is, that if the thing infured
be recovered before any lofs is paid, the infured is only en-
titled to a partial or a total lofs, according to the final
event. By the marine law, the property was not changed
by the capture, till after condemnation; but fince the
29 Geo. Il. c. 34. the * jus poitliminii’’ continues for
ever. While the fhip is in the hands of the enemy, the is
confidered as totally loft; yet the property is not changed,
but reverts to the original owner, upon a recapture. But
a recapture does not, in all cafes, prevent the lofs being
total. .If the voyage be abfolutely loft, or not worth pur-
fuing ; if the falvage be very high; if further expence be
neceflary ; if the infurer will not engage, at all events, to
bear that expence, though it fhould exceed the value, or
fail of fuccefs:—under thefe, and many other fimilar cir-
cumftances, the infured may difentangle himfelf, and aban-
don, notwithftanding a recapture. Upon a recapture, the
property returns to the original owner, pledged for the fal-
vage. Although there has at one time been a total lofs,
yet the infured cannot abandon, after the Jial event has de-
termined it to be only a partial lofs at the time of the aétion
brought. There is no vefted right to recover as for a total
lofs, till the infured, having a right to abandon, eleéts to do
fo. If the thing infured be recovered before the lofs is
paid, the infured can only recover according to the final
event. If a fhip be recovered after a long detention, it is
not a total lofs, even upon a wager policy. When the fhip
is fafe, and the voyage is not loft, the infured ought not to
be permitted to abandon. The infurer ought never to pay
lefs than the value of the lofs, nor the infured receive more.
The infured can only recover an indemnity for his lofs, at
the time of the aétion brought, or offer to abandon. If,
after a total lofs has been paid, the fhip be reftored, the in-
fured fhall not be obliged to refund the meney, and take the
fhip or goods. If, upon a recapture, the captain fell the
fhip and cargo, as being the beft courfe to take for all
parties concerned, the infured may abandon, and recover as
for a total lofs. If the captain purchafe the fhip from the
captors, for account of his owners ; the money paid, being
in nature of a falvage, is only a partial lofs.
There are other cafes, befides capture arid arreft of princes,
in which the right of abandoning may be confidered, Ship-
wreck is generally a total lofs; but the mere ftranding of
the fhip is not, of itfelf, deemed a total lofs, fo as to en-
title the infured immediately to abandon. It is a rule that,
to entitle the infured to abandon, there muft have been, at
fome period of the voyage infured, or during the con-
tinuance of the rifk, a’total lofs, and cafes have occurred,
from which it appears that no partial lofs, however great,
be occa
RISK.
occafioned by the perils of the fea, can be turned into a total
lofs. But if the voyage be leit, from whatever caule, it_is
a total lofs, not only of the fhip and freight, but alfo of the
cargo, if no other fhip can be procured to carry it to its
port of deftination. Ifa cargo be damaged fo as to be re-
duced in value to lefs than the freight, it will be a total
lofs. :
Another circumftance to be here confidered is the time
within which the infured may abandon. In France, Spain,
and Holland, the times are limited by law, according to the
diftange of the place where the lofs happens, within which
the abandonment muft be made. In England no time is
limited by law for abandoning ; but our courts have laid
down arule, which feems better fuited to the practice of
commerce, and more likely to prevent frauds than thofe juit
alluded to.. This rule is, that as foon as the infured has re-
ceived advice of a total lofs, he muft make his ele€tion whe-
ther he will abandon or not ; if he determines to abandon,
he muft give the underwriters notice of this ‘ within a rea-
fonable time’’ after the intelligence arrives; and any un-
neceflary delay in giving this notice will amount to a waver
. of his right to abandon, for unlefs the owner does fome act,
fignifying his intention to abandon, it will be only a partial
lofs, whatever may be the nature of the cafe, or the extent
of the damage. When the infured has determined to
abandon, and to demand as for a total lofs, he is not obliged,
as in fome foreign countries, to make a formal proteit, but
merely to give notice of the lofs to the underwriters, and of
his determination to abandon. But there is no particular
form for this purpofe ; in whatever form an abandonment is
declared, it muft be explicit, and it is not to be taken as
matter of inference from an equivocal a&. The notice may
be given either to the underwriter himfelf, or to the agent
who has fubfcribed for him. If the infurance be entire,
the infured cannot abandon for part only ; butif different
articles be feparately infured, or feparately valued, any one
of them may be abandoned. The abandonment mutt be
fimple and unconditional, otherwife it will not transfer the
entire property to the infurers, which conititutes the eflence
of the abandonment. If, therefare, I abandon a captured
fhip, on condition that in cafe fhe fhall be releafed, the {hail
continue my property, and I fhall repay with itereft the
tum which the infurers fhall have paid me, fuch an abandon-
ment would be vaid.
As to the effe&t of an abandonment, we obferve that it
transfers the property infured to the infurers in proportion
to their refpetive fub{criptions; and this transfer relates
back to the commencement of the voyage. As in England
freight is infurable feparately from the fhip, the abandonment
of the fhip does not, as in France, transfer to the infurer
the freight fhe has earned. Where the intereit of the in-
fured is not entirely covered by the infurance, he may
abandon to the extent of the fum infured; for heis his own
infurer for the refidue. If goods be partly infured, and
money borrowed on refpondentia for the refidue, the in-
furer will have the legal title to what is abandoned, andthe
lender only an equitable claim to his proportion. If there
be three infurances; one on the fhip and cargo, one on the
tkip only, and one on the cargo only; Emerigon thinks,
that the infurers on the fhip and cargo have an equal claim
on the effeéts faved, with the infurers on the cargo only, and
that they have alike claim on the freight, andthe remains of
the fhip, with the infurers on the fhip only, in proportion to
their refpeCtive. fub{criptions ; e.g. If a fhip be valued at
sooo0/., the cargo 5000/., making a total of 10,0c9/., and
thefe are infured by different policies, thus:
5
On fhip and cargo - - £3000
On the fhip only - - 3000
On the cargo only - - 3000
Uninfured - - - 1000
10,000
A fhipwreck happens, and the net proceeds of the wreck
of the fhip are 5o00/., and of the cargo 500/., total 1000/. ;
Emerigon would adjuit the claims of all parties thus: _
To the owners for their part of fhip and cargo un-
infured, - - Sg - - £Lico
To the infurers on fhip and cargo, a moiety of the
produce of the eae - - - 225
The like tothe infurers on the fhip, —- - 225
To the infurers on the cargo, a moiety of the pro-
duce of the goods faved, - - = 225
The like to the infurers.on the fhip and cargo, - E225
1000
By this adjuftment the infurers on the fhip and cargo
would have a double fhare of the effets abandoned, which
is manifeftly unjuft! An Englifh merchant would, we con-
ceive, adjuit the different claims thus :
To the owners for their part of fhip and cargo un-
infured, : - - - ~ L100
To the infurers on fhip and cargo, a moiety of three-
fifths of the produce of the wreck, - = 150
To the infurers on the fhip, three-fifths of the pro-
duce of the wreck, -- = - = . 300
To the infurers on the cargo, three-fifths of the pro-
duce of the goods faved, - = = 300
To the infurers on the fhip and cargo, a moiety of
three-fifths of the produce of the goods faved, - 150
1000
The abandonment does not only entitle the underwriters
to all that can be faved of the effects infured; but if com-
penfaticn be made to the infured for the injury from which
the lofs arofe, this compenfation fhall go to the under-
writers ; for when they have paid the lofs, they, and not
the infured, are the real fufferers. > ; :
If, after a total lofs happening, the fhip be abandoned,
but fhe afterwards arrives fafe, this fhall not avoid_the
abandonment ; but the infurers fhall have all the profit of |
the voyage. But they cannot compel the infured to take
back the thing infured and refund the money.
An abandonment once properly made upon a fufficient
ground, and accepted by the infurers, is abfolute and
binding upen both parties; nor can it be revoked but by
mutual confent ; but if it be not upon fufficient ground, it
will be void.
Tn cafe of misfortune, the infured is bound to ufe his en-
deavours to fave as much as pofiible ; and to enable him to
do this, without prejudicing his right of abandonment, our
policies make feveral provifions for certain aéts to be per-
formed for this purpofe, without prejudice to the infurance,
“¢ to the charges of which, the infurers agree to contribute,
each according to the rate and quantity of his fubfeription.’?
The captain, im particular, is to exert himielf to the utmoft
of his power in the prefervation both of the fhip and cargo ;
and for whatever is recovered of the effects infured, he is
accountable to the infurers.
We
RIS
We fhail here fubjoin a few remarks on the adjuftment of
loffes. In the adjuftment of a lofs, the firft thing to be
confidered is how to afcertain the “ quantity of damage’’
for which the underwriters are liable ; and the next point to
be fettled is by what rule this fhall be “‘appretiated,’’? In
order to afcertain the quantity of damage, the infured ought
to know whether the lofs be total or partial; if it be total,
and the policy is a valued one, the infured is entitled to re-
ceive the whole fum infured, fubje& to fuch deduétions as
may have been agreed, by the policy, to be made in cafe of
Jofs. On a valued policy, the value is admitted, and the
infured has only to prove, if the infurance was on goods,
that the goods valued were of board. Upon an open policy,
it fs moreover neceflary to prove the value of them, for which
value (not exceeding the fum infured) the infurers are
refponfible. But in the cafe of a partial lofs, the indemnity,
fecured by either fort of policy, is, that if the thing in-
{ured do not come fafe to the deftined port, but is leflened
in value by damage received in the voyage, the lofs fhall be
borne by the infurer. When the lofs confifts in the total
lofs of one entire individual parcel of the goods infured, and
this is capable of a diftin& valuation ; as if, out of 100 hog-
fheads of fugar, 10 are loft, the infurer muit pay the value
of the ro. When a part of the goods iniured is faved, and
this exceeds the amount of the hoon the praétice is to
' deduét the freight from the falvage, and to make up the
lofs upon the ificrente. But where the freight exceeds the
falvage, then it is a total lofs. Where the goods infured
are damaged in the whole or in part, it is neceflary to
afcertain the quantity of fuch damage, by taking the value
of the damaged goods from the prime coft, and the re-
mainder will be the amount of the lofs. If feveral articles
be infured for one entire fum, but with a diftin@ valuation
tg each, and only one be put in rifk; if that one be loft,
the infured fhall recover fuch a proportion of the fum in-
fured as the value of the article bore to the value of the
whole. If there be a claufe in the policy, to be free of
average from a particular rifk, under fo much fer cent., and
a lofs occafioned by that rifk takes place, the proportion
which the lofs bears to the cargo mutt be calculated upon
the cargo which was on board when the lofs happened, not
_upon that which was on board at any other time. ‘
In appretiating the lofs, averages are fettled according to
the price of the articles at the time of fettling. This is the
rule of the Rhodian law, and of the laws of Wifbuy. In
France, where almott all policies are valued, the infured has
his election to fix the previous valuation, either at the prime
coft, or at the current price at the time and place of loading.
’ The fame rule that applies to goods, applies alfo to the fhip,
which is always valued at the fos fhe is worth at the time of
her departure, or at leait at the commencement of the rifk.
Goods brought from a diftance, may: be valued at their im-
proved price; but in France it is ufually ftipulated in the
policy, that the fhip fhall remain of the fame value during
the voyage. ;
In England, if the policy be an open one, it is an in-
variable rule to eftimate a total lofs at the prime coft of the
goods ; that is, the invoice price, and all duties and ex-
pences till they are put on board, together with the pre-
mium of infurance. A fhip is valued at the fum fhe is
worth at the time the fails on the voyage infured, including
the expences of repairs, the value of her furniture, pro-
vifions and ftores, the money advanced to the failors, and,
in general, every expence of the out-fit, to whichis added
the premium of infurance. 2
A partial lofs, upon either fhip or goods, is that propor-
tion of the prime co{t, which is equal to the diminution
RIS
in value occafioned by the damage. And in a cafe which
occurred with regard to a valued policy upon goods, it was
determined that the diminution in value was that proportion
of the value, in the policy, which the difference between
the price of the found, and the price of the damaged, bore
to the price of the found in the port of delivery. An in-
furer is never to be involved in the rife or fall of the market.
An adjuftment being indorfed on the policy, and figned by
the underwriters, with a promife to pay in a given time, is
prima facie evidence again{t them, and amounts to an ad-
million of all the faéts neceffary to be proved by the infured
to entitle him to recover in an a¢tion on the policy. It is
like a note of hand, and being proved, the infured has no
occafion to go into proof of any other circumftance. An
adjuftment, however, may be impeached by fhewing that
the underwriter was induced to fign it by fome fraud or con-
cealment, or by fome mifconception of the law or fa@.
Marfhall’s Treatife on the Law of Infurance. See Pouicy,
Recarrure, and WARRANTY.
In matters of infurance, it is a maxim, that all is never
to be rifked on one bottom, ar in the fame veffel ; to denote,
that affurers muft aé& with difcretion in the figning of poli-
cies, and not hazard too much on each veffel; there being
more to be expeéted from feveral than from one.
RISKUPITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Znaym; 9 miles W. of Krumau.
RISOER, a fea-port town of Norway, in the province
of Chriftianfand, on a peninfula proje¢ting into the North
fea; 52 miles N.E. of Chriftianfand. N. lat. 58° 43’. E.
long. 9° 29!.
RISOLUTIONE, Ital. in Mujfic, the refolution of 2
difcord. See Discorp, and PREPARATION.
RISOLUTO, Ital. refolved folution, as of a clofe
canon by putting it in fcore, or by figns.
RISORIUS Novus, in Anatomy, a name given by San-
torini to a mufcle, formed of that’ part of fy quadratus
enz which arifes from the cheek. See QuapRAtus Gene.
RISPOSTA, or Riposta, Ital. an anfwer, whether
in a dialogue or to a regular fugue. For the bringing. in
the anfwer to a fugue agreeable to the rigid laws eftablifhed
by the fathers of the fcience, the old ecclefiaftical compofers,
there are many rules to be obferved. See Fucur.
RISS, or Russ, in Geography, a river of Germany,
which paffes by Biberach, and runs into the Danube, about
fix miles above Ulm.
RISTI, a town of Sweden, in the province of Cajana ;
25 miles N.E. of Cajanaborg.
RISTIGOUCHE River, a river of Canada, which
runs into Chaleur bay, navigable for {hips 20 miles from its
mouth. It abounds with falmon and wild fowl . On its N.
bank, near its mouth, is an Indian village.
RISTORFF, atown of Auttria, near Schwannattadt,
RISVIGLIATO, Ital. in AMu/ic, when applied to a
gay and lively movement fucceeding one that is forrowful,
implies vivacity and {pirit.
RISUM, in Geography, a town of Eaft Friefland; 6
miles W. of Emden.
RISUS. See Laucurer, and Lunes.
Risus Caninus is a kind of laughter in which the lips are
contracted, fo as to fhew all the teeth.
Risus Sardonius, Sardonian laughter, is a forced, {pitefui
laughter ; or a laughter that does not go beyond the teeth.
The phrafe is by fome faid to be founded on this, that in
Sardinia there is a venomous plant, which occafions fuch a
contraction of the mufcles of the face in perfons it kills,
that they feem to die laughing in this manner,
Ric 2 RISZOW,
‘
RIT
RISZOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Kiev; 30 miles N.E. of Bialacerkiev.
RITA, a town of Brafil, in the government of Goyas ;
80 miles E. of Villaboa.
RITARDATO, and Rrrarpanpo, Ital. in Mufic, is
relaxing the meafure ; better exprefled now by rallentando,
which fee. 5
RITCHEL, in Geography, a branch of the river Indus,
which feparates a little above Tatta, and: runs into the
Arabian fea, N.'lat. 24°15’. E. long. 66° 43'.
RITE, Ritus, in Theology, denotes the particular man-
ner or form of celebrating or performing the. religious cerc-
monies, which obtains in this or that place.
The eaftern people, Armenians, &c. celebrate divine fer-
vice according to the Greek rite. The weftern world follow
the Latin rite ; or that of the Roman church.
The Englith obferve the rite of the church of England,
refcribed in the book of Common Prayer, &c. ;
RITHER, or River, in Mining, isa ftone or thin clift
that lies in the vein; the ore fometimes runs on both fides it.
Sometimes the rither is fo thick, that it parts the vein, and
makes one vein two. i
RITIA, in Ancient Geography, Sheebah, a town of the
interior of Africa, in Mauritania Crefarienfis, fituated S. of
Vitoria. It is mentioned by Ptolemy; and ftill exhibits
fome fragments of Roman walls.
RITORNELLO, or Rurret, in Mujic, the burden of
afong, or a repetition of the firft or other verfes of the
fong, at the end of each {tanza or couplet.
The word is Italian, and fignifies properly a /it#le return, or
a fhort repetition, fuch as that of an echo, or of the laft
words of a {ong ; efpecially when the repetition is made after
avoice, by one or more inftruments.
But cuftom has extended the ufe of the word to all fym-
phonies, played before the voices begin, and which ferve by
way of prelude or introduétion to what follows.
ie the partitions or fcore of the Italian mufic, we fre-
quently find the ritornellos fignified by the words f /uona, to
few that the organ, harpfichord, piano-forte, or the like,
are to repeat what the voice has been finging. ;
~ In accompanied recitatives, the ritornels, or interftitial
{ymphonies, are not repetitions of vocal paflages; but are.
often beautiful and picturefque periods of fymphony, ex-
prefflive of the fentiments and fituation of the finger.
RITRO, in Botany, corrupted, as it feems, from the
pureoy of Theophrattus, as far as can be conjectured, appears
to have been fome plant of the thiftle kind. The name is
now ufed as the {pecific appellation of a kind of Ecuinops;«
fee that article. |
RITROGRADO, Ital. in Mufic. See ReTRoGRADC.
RITSCHA, in Geography, 'a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Kaurzim; 12 miles S.E. of Prague.
RITSCHENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg ; 3 miles §.S.E. of Meinungen.
RITSCHIEN, a river of Stiria, which runs into the
Laufmitz, 4 miles S.E. of Furftenfeld.
RITSON, Tristram, in Biography, born about the
year 1580, at Winfcott, in Devon, was educated at Great
Torrington, and by his rapid progrefs in learning he very
{oon became fitted tor the higher improvements of the uni-
verfity of Oxford, of which he was admitted a member,
being entered probably of Exeter or Pembroke college, about
the latter end of the reign of queen Elizabeth. At Oxford
he was much diftinguifhed for his learning, and his accom-
plifhments as a gentleman. He, however, appears to have
left college without taking any fcholaftic degree, and re-
tired into his own gountry, which, according to his biogra-
RIT
pher, was probably owing to the death of a fitter, upow
which he became poffeffed of the eftate of Winfcott. Here
he drew up a large volume, entitled ‘* The Chorographical
Defcription or Survey of the County of Devon, with the
City and County of Exeter, containing Matter of Hiftory,
Antiquity, Chronology, the Nature of the Country,’’ &c.
It-was begun in 1605, and finifhed in 1630.
The author did not print this Defcription, but a great
many manufcript copies were long in circulation in the
county. A mutilated edition of it was printed in two vo-
lumes 8vo. in 1714: it was afterwards printed from the ori-
ginal in one volume 4to. in 1735. But the moft perfeé and
valuable edition was publifhed in 1811, from a manufcript
edition in the pofleffion of John Coles, efq. of Stonehenge ;
to which the editors made fome important additions, and pre-
fixed, as an introduétion, which renders the volume much
more interefting, “* Remarks on the prefent State of the
County of Devon,” the objeét of which was to compare the
prefent and paft conditions of the county in thofe particulars
to which the author directed his attention, and to add a brief
account of fuch fubjects as either efcaped his notice, or have
acquired their exiftence or importance fince his time.
Mr. Ritfon lived to a great age, dying in the year 16403
he was interred at St. Giles Winfcott, without tomb or mo-
nument. ‘¢ He,’’ fays Prince in the. Worthies of Devon,
“that with great expence of money, time, and labour,
fought to perpetuate the memory of many perfons and fami-
lies, hath no monument to continue his own; unlefs that
lafting one his “* Survey of the County of Devon.’?” See
Chorographical Defeription, ed. 1811.
Rirson, JoserpH, was born in 1752, at Stockton on
Tees, in the county af Durham, and was brought up to
the profeflion of the law. As a confulting barrifter and
conveyancer he was very much diltinguifhed ; but his literary
enquiries were by no means confined within the limits of his
profeffion ; he very fuccefsfully inveftigated the old Englifh
literature, particularly of the feventeenth century. He died
in the year 1803. His works are ‘* Obfervations on John-
fon’s and Stevens’s Edition of Shak{peare ;”? * Curfory Criti-
cifms on Malone’s Edition of Shak{peare ;”’ «* Obfervations
on Warton’s Hittory of Englith Poetry ;” Defcent of
the Crown of England; “ Colleétion of Englith Songs,
3 vols. and of Scotch Songs, in 2 vols. ;” « Enghth An-
thology ;”” “¢ Metrical Romances,” 3 vols. ; «* Bibliographia
Poetica ;”’ * A ‘Treatife on Abftinence from Animal Food ;’”
and other pieces. As an hiftorian, he was rigidly accurate 5
as a critic, he was uncharitable and fevere. The language
of his writings ts harfh, rugged, and barren; and all his pub-
lications are farther disfigured by the affected fingularity of
their orthography. Monthly Mag. Noy. and Dec. 1803,
and Gent. Mag.
RITTANGEL, Joun-JosEern, a learned profeflor of
the Oriental languages, at Konigfberg, in the 17th cen-
tury. According to fome writers he was born of Jewith
parents, and educated in the religion of his fore-fathers, but’
afterwards became a convert to Chriftianity ; others aflume
that he was a German by birth, and educated in the princi-
ples of Popery, and that he became a convert to the inftitu-
tions of Mofes, and received circumcifion at Hamburgh, but
that in more mature life he embraced the Proteftant religion,
becoming at firft a Calvinift and afterwards a Lutheran.
On the authority of a letter given by Bayle, he was a native
of Forcheim in Franconia, in the diocefe of Bamberg, and
brought up to the Roman Catholic faith. Having become a
proficient in claffical learning, his attention was direéted to
the fludy of the oriental languages, and he went to Conttan-
tinople, where he remained twelve years, and during that
time
RIT
time had much intercourfe with the learned Jews in that
city. Upon his return into Germany he embraced the Lu-
theran religion, and went to Konigfberg, where the eleGtor
of Brandenburg appointed him profeffor extraordinary of
the Hebrew tongue. He devoted himfelf now to the illuf-
tration of the antiquities of the Jews, and the produétion
of evidence from their writings in fupport of the truth of
Chriftianity, or of doétrines commonly reputed orthodox.
His writings contain feyere criticifms on the produétions of
Kircher, Scaliger, Vorltius, the Buxtorfs, and other learned
men, whofe proficiency in the Hebrew tongue he affected to
hold in low eftimation. The time of his death is uncertain,
but by a dedication to one of his pieces, it is known that he
was living in the year 1652. He was author of the following
works: ‘ Liber Jezira, qui Abrahamo Patriarchz adfcribi-
tur, una cum Comment. ;”’ ‘¢ Liber Veritatis, &c.’’ intended
to prove that the ancient Jewifh church believed the myttery
of the Trinity, and the eternal divinity of the Mefliah; and
feveral others. .
RITTEBURG, in Geography, a town of the county
of Mansfeld; 2 miles S.S.E. of Artern.
RITTENHOUSE, Davn, in Biography, a diftin-
gnifhed American philofopher and mathematician in the
18th century, was a native of Pennfylvania, and born in
the year 1732. By the dint of genius and application, he
was enabled to mingle the purfuits of fcience with the ative
employments of a farmer and watch-maker. The latter of
thefe occupations he filled.with unrivalled eminence among
his countrymen. Some of its nicer operations continued to
be his favourite mode of relaxation during all the fubfequent
perieds of his life. In the year 1769, he was invited by
the American Philofophical Society to join a number of
gentlemen who undertook to obferve the tranfit of Venus ;
when he particularly diftinguifhed himfelf by his obferva-
tions and calculations. He afterwards conftru&ted an ob-
fervatory, where he made fuch valuable obfervations and
difcoyeries, as tended to the general diffufion of fcience in
the weitern world. During the American war, the philofo-
pher did not claim an exemption from the duties of pa-
triotifm ; he thought, fpoke, and aGted like a free man. Af-
ter the conclufion of it, he fucceflively filled the offices of
treafurer of the ftate of Pennfylvania, and direftor of the
national mint: in the firft of which he manifefted incor-
ruptible integrity, and in the lait, the rare talent of com-
bining theories in fueh a way as to produce correét practical
effets. He fucceeded the illuftrious Franklin in the office
of prefident of the American Philofophical Society ; but
towards the clofe of his days he withdrew from public life,
and {pent his time inretirement. ‘* There,’? fays one of his
eulogiits, ** we behold him the obje& of love, admiration,
and reverence. In his intercourfes of friendfhip, fincerity
and fimplicity went hand in hand. A ftranger to the too
common arrogance of high pretenfions, he met every man
on the ground of friendly reciprocity. Feeling a fuperior
attachment to thofe who propagated {cience, he did not con-
ceal the eftimation in which he held them. He was among
the firft to welcome to America the perfecuted philofopher of
England (Priettley), and formed with him an intimacy
which only required time to be cemented into a latting friend-
fhip.”” After a very fevere illnefs of a few days’ continuance,
he died on the roth of July 1796, about the age of 64. He
had the degree of L.L.D. conferred upon him. To the
«« TranfaGtions” of the American Philofophical Society he
contributed feveral excellent papers, chiefly on aftronomical
fubje&ts. Gentleman’s Mag. Sept. 1796. Monthly Mag.
O&. 1796.—M.
RITTERA, in Botany, named by Schreber in honour
RIT
of Dr. John James Ritter, a native of Berne in Switzer-
land, who praétifed as a phyfician, in Silefia, during the
middle of the 18th century, and who was the author of va-
rious traéts upon Natural Hiftory. Schreb. 364.—It is
now referred to SwArTziA ; fee that article.
RITTERSHUYS, Conran, in Biography, a learned
jurift and* philologift, was born at. Brunfwick in 1560.
After having made a te progrefs in the learned lan-
guages, he went to Helmftadt for the itudy of theology,
but his inclination led him to prefer jurifprudence. He re-
moved to Altdorff for the further purfuit of this ftudy, and
thence to Ingolftadt. He took the degree /of doétor of law
at Bafil in 1591, and was nominated profetlor in that {cience
at Altdorff, where he died in 1613. He was the author of
¢ Jus Juftinianeum, five Novellarum Methodica explicatio,”
1615, 4to. His philological labours were notes on “ Petro-
nius”’ and ** Phedrus ;?? commentaries on “ Salvianus ;’? en
«¢ Oppian de Venatione et Pifcatione,”? with a Latin ver-
fion; ‘* Guntheri Ligurinus ;” ‘* Sacrarum Leétionum,
Lib. viii.”
RirrersHuys, Nicuoras, fon of Conrad, born at Alt-
dorff in 1597, was alfo a man of learning and a juriit, and
particularly applied to hiftorical and genealogical enquiries.
He~ftudied at Helmitadt, and afterwards travelled into
various countries of Europe. On his return he took a doc-
tor’s degree in 1634, and was appointed profeflor of feudal
law at Altdorff.. Hediedin 1670. Nicholas edited feveral
of his father’s works, and in 1638 publifhed an oration on
‘« Hanno’s Periplus.”? He was the author of a large folio,
entitled ** Genealogie Imperatorum, Regum, Ducum, Co-
mitum, &c. ab Anno 1400 ad Annum 1664.” Several of
his letters are printed in the * Epiftole celebrium Virorum,”’
1705.
RITUAL, Rirvate, a church-book, dire€ting the
order and manner of the ceremonies to be obferved in cele-
brating divine fervice in a particular church, diocefe, reli-
gious order, or the like.
The ancient heathens had, likewife, their rituals, or ri-
tuales libri; thofe of the Etrurizns were much famed.
See Aruspici Libri.
Thefe books contained the rites and ceremonies to be
obferved in the building of a city, in the confecrating of a
temple or an ‘altar, in facrificing and deifying, in dividing
the curie, tribes, centuries, and, in general, in all their re-
ligious ceremonies.
There are feveral paflages in Cato’s books, De Re Ruf-
tica, which may give us fome idea of the rituals of the
ancients.
“© The principal difference (fays bifhop Stillingfleet,
Orig. Brit. p. 287.) between the Roman and Gallic ritual
of St. Germanus, which the Britons had adopted before
the arrival of St. Auftin, was in the church mujic, in which
the Romans were thought to excel other weitern churches
fo far, that the goodnefs of their mufic was the principal
incitement to the introdution of their offices.’’
RITZEBUTTEL, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Bremen, on a {mall river, which runs into the German
ocean, between the mouths of the Elbe and the Wefer; 38-
miles N. of Bremen. N. lat. 53° 52’. E. long. 8° 37!.
RITZENBUTTEL, a town of the duchy of Bremen.
RitzenBuTrec, or Ritzbuttle, is a {mall town, contain-
ing about 200 houfes, half a mile from Cuxhaven, with a
caltle garrifoned by Hanoverians. The road for foot-paf-
fengers, from Ritzbuttle to Cuxhaven, is on a caufeway,
railed about eight feet from the carriage-road ; but being
made of clay, it is, In wet weather, extremely dirty and
fippery. The road for carriages is very bad. The port
: ot
RIV
of Cuxhaven having only two or three {mall hovels, and a
wind-mill, the paffengers by the packets refide during their
ftay at Ritzbuttle.
RIVA, or Rirr, a town of the county of Tyrol, at
the end of the Garda lake; 16 miles W.S.W. of Trent.—
Alfo, a river of the Tyrolefe, which runs into lake Garda,
near the town of the fame name.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Po, feated on an eminence, in the
middle of a plain, which extends’to the W. and S., and is
nearly furrounded with water, over which are two bridges,
one of wood, the other of ftone. The adjacent hills are
covered with vines and fruit-trees, and the plain produces
abundance of grain ; mott of the houfes within the walls are
furnifhed with gardens ; two miles E. of Chieri.—Alfo, a
town of Italy, in the bailiwick of Lugano; 8 miles S. of
Lugano.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Valteline; 6
miles §. of Chiavenna.—Alfo, a town of Italy, inthe de-
partment of the Mela; 14 miles N.N.W. of Brefcia.—
‘Alfo, a town of the Ligurian republic ; 6 miles N.N.E. of
Savona. i :
RIVAGE, Rivacium, a toll anciently paid to the
king on fome rivers, for the paflage of boats or veflels
therein. .
RIVAL, Rrvatis, a term of relation applied to two
perfons who have the fame pretenfion.
It is properly ufed for a competitor, in love ; and figura-
tively, for an antagonift in any other purfuit. The intrigues
of comedies and romances ufually turn on the jealoufies of
rivals, who difpute for the fame mittrefs.
The’ lawyers derive the word from the Latin rivus, /tream,
quod ab eodem rivo aquam hauriant.
Donatus fuppofes it to have been formed hence, that
beafts coming to drink at the fame brook, or fountain, fre-
quently quarrel.
Czlius fays, that rivales were originally fuch whofe fields
were parted by a brook or rivulet, the courfe of which being
liable to be varied feveral ways, occafioned frequent difputes
and law-fuits. ;
RIVALTA, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Po, on.the Sangon; 6 miles S.W. of
Turin.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Olona; 15 miles E. of Milan. °
RIVANNA, a river of Virginia, which unites with the
Fluvanna, to form James river, about two miles above Elk
ifland. Itis navigable for canoes and batteaux, to its inter-
fe@tion with the S.W. mountains, about 22 miles.
RIVAROLI d Fuori, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mincio; 20 miles S.W. of Mantua.
RIVAROLO, a town of France, in the department of
the Po, on the Orco; 15 miles N. of Turin.
RIVAULT, Davin, in Biography, a French man of
letters and various writer, was born at Laval, in the pro-
vince of Perche, about the year 1571. He was brought
up in the family of the count de Laval, and for fome time
followed the military profeffion, ferving in Italy about the
clofe of the 16th century, and in Holland in the year 1602.
During the following year, Henry IV. appointed him one of
the gentlemen of his bed-chamber. In 1605 he accompa-
nied the young count de Laval into Hungary, and entered
into the fervice of the emperor againft the Turks. On his
return to his native country, he devoted himfelf to literary
and fcientific ftudies, in, which he had before made confi-
derable progrefs. In 1611 he was appointed fub-preceptor
to the young king Lewis XIII., and hada penfion of 3000
livres fettled upon him. © The office of principal preceptor
becomiug vacant during the next year, he received that ap-
pointment, and was honoured with the title of counfellor of
RIY¥
flate. In 1614, the king conferred on him letters of no-
bility. He died at Tours, in 1616, about the age of 45.
He is fpoken of with high efteem by feveral- of the moft
celebrated writers of his time, particularly by Cafaubon,
Scaliger, Voflius, Erpenius, and Menage. His works
confilt of ** The States, or a Difcourfe concerning the Pri-
vileges of the Prince, the Nobles, and the third Eftate,’’
&c. ; “ Elements of Gunnery,”? which is a curious and
very fcarce work ; ** Archimedis Opera que extant, Gr.
et Lat. novis Demonttrationibus illuftrata ;’? &c. folio,
and other pieces.
RIVE de. Gier, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Loire, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri€t of St. Etienne; 4 miles N.E. of St.
Etienne. The place contains 4263, and the canton 15,089
inhabitants, on a territory of 160 kilometres, in 13 com-
munes.
RIVEL de les Semals, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aube; g miles W.N.W. of Quillan.’
RIVELLES, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 12 miles
N. of Cervera.
RIVELLO, a town of Naples, in the province of Ba-
filicata ; 12 miles S.E. of Lauria.
RIVER, Fruvius, or Flumen, a f{tream or current of
frefh water, flowing in a bed or channel, from a fource or
{pring, into the fea.
If the itream be not large enough to bear boats, or {mall
veffels, loaden, it 1s properly called, in Englifh, by the di-
minutive rivulet, or brook; by the Latins rivus; and by
the French riviere, If it will only bear fuch vefléls, the
Latins call it amnis. If it be confiderable enough to carry
larger veffels, it is called by the general name river ; by
the Latins fluvius, and flumen; and by the French flewve ;
peace all which the difference is only as to greater and
efs.
Some will have none to be properly rivers, except
thofe which bear.the fame name from their fource to their
mouth. :
Others, none but thofe which empty themfelves imme-
diately into the fea ; and not.into any other river.
Rivulets have their rife, fometimes from great rains, or
great quantities of thawed fnow ; efpecially in mountainous
places ; asin the long ridges of Africa, India, Sumatra, &c.
But the generality ae rivulets arife from fprings.
Rivers themfelves all arife either from the confluerce of
feveral rivulets, or from lakes ; nor is there any great river,
fate asthe Rhine, Elbe, &c. known to flow from a fingle
pring. ;
The Volga, e. gv. confilts of above two hundred rivulets,
alP flowing into it, before it reaches the Cafpian ; and the ~
Danube receives as many.
. The Rhine and the Po receive each above a hundred
others, great and {mall ; and the river of the Amazons re-
ceives into its large bed a prodigious number, fome of which
are five or fix hundred leagues in length, and are of fuch a
depth and breadth as render them principal rivers. ;
Pliny, indeed, and Cardan, fay, that the Nile receives
none; but the later travellers into Abyffinia aflure us of the
contrary.
The Rhine, Rhone, Danube, Boryithenes, &c. arife
originally from fprings in the mountains; and the Nile,
ihe Volga, the great river of St. Laurence, &c. from
akes. .
’ It has been held by many, that all fprings and rivers owe
their origin to rains and dews ; but there are fome fprings
which cannot be accounted for on this principle, though
others very well may. The intermitting f{prings, which
flow
RIVER.
flow violently in rainy feafons, and are dry in fummer,
are probably owing to rains; but there are fome fprings
which difcharge more water annually than all that falls
in rains and dews in the neighbouring country. The
great perennial fpring, at Willowbrig, in Staffordfhire, is
of this kind, and that of the Sorgne, in France, is much
more eminently fo; the river of that name being, accord-
ing to Gaffendus, navigable up to the very {prings which
are its fource.
But if fuch fprings as thefe difcharge tow great a quantity
of water for the fupply of rains and dews, how is it poflible,
that fuch {mall fupplies of water as thefe can afford the con-
ftant currents of the larger rivers? The Volga alone, ac-
cording to Ricciolus, pours forth as much water ina year’s
time into the Cafpian fea, as would fuffice to drown the fur-
face of the whole earth. The river of St. Laurence, in
America, pours forth nearly as much as this. If either of
thefe rivers alone do, as has been affirmed, from calculations,
difcharge annually as much water as falls in the fame time in
rains and mifts upon the furface of the whole earth; from
whence are all the reit tobe fupplied, according to the fyftem
of their all being made by rains; and, particularly, where
is left the fupply for the Rio de la Plata, which Ricciolus
affirms to be larger than the Nile, the Ganges, and the Eu-
phrates, put together? its mouth being ninety miles wide,
and running with that violence into the fea, that it makes it
frefh for two hundred miles together. Thefe, and the other
rivers of the feveral parts of the globe, upona very moderate
calculation, difcharge.at leaft five hundred times as much
water into the fea, as falls upon the whole furface of the
earth, in rains, mifts, dews, {nows, &c. in a like {pace of
time.
Ass it is evident, therefore, that thefe cannot be fupplied
by rains, fo neither is it poffible that the feveral hot {prings
and the falt {fprings can be fupplied that way : the origin ef
{prings alfo in places where there falls little or no rain, and
where the confervatories mutt needs be too {mall to contain a
fupply, are great proofs that rain and mifts are not the
origin of fprings, at leaft not in all places. The ifles of
Mago, Rotunda, and the Strophades, and the rock on which
the Maiden Tower ttands in the Thracian Bofphorus, cannot
be fupplied with, or retain a fufficiency of rain-water to
fupply conftant f{prings, yet fuch are always found running
there.
It cannot be otherwife but that there are fubterranean
communications between the fea and the fources of fountains,
rivers, and the larger {fprings, by which thefe are fupplied ;
and there ure certainly charybdes which {wallow the fea for
thefe purpofes ; and when thefe happen to be ftopped, the
largeit rivers have been dried up, and wholly ceafed to run
for a confiderable time: this we have accounts in hiftory
has happened to the Thames, the Trent, and Medway, in
England ; the Elve, the Motala, and Gulfpang, in Sweden,
and other rivers in other countries. If, on the other hand,
thefe charybdes happen to be too open, frefh-water {prings
depending upon them will become falt. This we have in-
ftance of in hiftory alfo; and even fo old a writer as Pliny
has faid that this once happened in Caria near Neptune’s
Temple. (Plot. de Origine Fontium.) See Evaporation
and SPRING. | :
Rivers, Phenomena and Variations of. Rivers are found
fubject to great alterations, at different feafons of the year,
day, &c. ain frequent rains and melted fnow. Thus in
Peru and Chili many of the rivers are almoft infenfible in the
night-time, and only flow by day, as being then augmented
by the diflolution of the fnow on the mountains Andes.
Thus the Volga abounds-in water in May and June, fo as
to cover the fand-banks, &c. which all the reft of the year lie
bare, fo as fearcely to allow a paflage to the loaded fhips.
Thus alfo the Nile, Ganges, Indus, &c. are frequently fo
increafed, as to overflow; and that either in the winter,
frem rain, or inthe fummer, from the melting of the fnow.
Some rivers bury themfelves under ground in the middle of
their courfe, and break out again in other places, like new
rivers. Thus the Niger, which fome cofmographers erro-
neoufly derive by a fubterraneous channel from the Nile;
becaufe it {wells at the fame time with the Nile, without
any other apparent caufe—the Niger itfelf has been fup-
pofed by fome to be hidden under the mountains of Nubia,
and to rife again on the weftern fide of thofe mountains ;
whereas, in reality, it is loft in lakes or fands. Thus, alfo,
the Tigris is loft in the mountain Taurus, &c.
Anitotle, and the poets, mention feveral fuch rivers about
Arcadia : Alpheus, a river of Arcadia, is particularly
famed. This, being {wallowed up in the ground, is fuppofed,
by the Greek authors, to continue its progrefs under the
earth, and under the bottom of the fea, into Sicily ; where,
breaking up near Syracufe, it forms the river Arethufa.
The great reafon of this Opinion was, that, every fifth
fummer, the river Arethufa, in Sicily, caft up the dung of
cattle about the time of the celebration of the Olympic
games in Achaia, when the dung of victims was ufed to be
cait into, the Alpheus.
Some rivers empty themfelves into the fea by one mouth,
fome by feveral. Thus, the Danube opens into the Euxine
fea by {even mouths ; the Nile by feven ; and the Volga by at
leaft feventy. The caufe of this variety of mouths Varenius
attributes principally to the banks of fand, &c. accumulated
inthem ; which, gradually increafing, form iflands, by which
the channel is divided into feveral branches. Indeed, the
ancients tell us, that the Nile formerly only emptied itfelf at
one mouth, called the offium Canopicum ; and add, that the
other fix are adventitious, or artificial.
The channels of rivers, except fuch as were formed at the
creation, Warenius endeavours to prove to be all artificial,
and dug by men. His reafons are, that, when a new {pring
breaks forth, the water does not make itfelf a channel, but
{preads over the adjacent land; fo that the people have been
neceflitated to cut it a channel, to fecure their grounds; and
that a great number of channels of rivers are certainly known,
from hiftory, to have been dug by men, &c.
As to the queftion, whether thofe rivers which run into
others, have made themfelves that way by their own
motion, or have been turned thither in canals cut by men?
he takes the latter to be the more probable ; and concludes
the fame of the arms, or branches, of rivers, and of the
turns by which iflands are formed in the Tanais, Volga,
&e.
To the queftion, why we have no falt rivers, when there
are fo many falt {prings? he anfwers, that it is becaufe men,
having no occafion for falt water, have not dug channels to
conduct the water of falt {prings ; falt being procurable at
lefs expence.
_The water of moft rivers carries with it particles of metals,
minerals, fands, or oily and fat bodies, &c, Thus, fome
rivers bring fands intermixed with grains of gold; of
which kind is, 1. A river in Japan. 2. Another in the
ifland of Lequeo, near Javons 3. A rivulet in Africa,
called Arroe, breaking out of the foundation of the moun-
tains of the moon, in which there are golden mines, 4. A
river in Guinea, where the negroes feparate the gold-duit
from the fand, and fell it to the Europeans, who traffic thither
for that very purpofe. 5. In fome rivulets near the city
of Mexico, there are grains of gold takea up, efpecially
after
RIVER.
after rain; which is alfo to be underftood of all the other
rivers, none of which yield any thing confiderable, except
inrainy feafons. 6. In Peru, Sumatra, Cuba, Hifpaniola,
and Guinea. Liaftly, there are feveral brooks in the
countries about the Alps, efpecially Tyrol, out of the fedi-
ment of whofe waters gold has been drawn, though there
be no grains confpicuous in them. Add to this, that the
Rhine alfo, in many places, has afforded a golden mud.
As to rivers that bring grains or particles of filver, iron,
copper; lead, &c. we find no mention of them in authors,
though, doubtlefs, there are. great numbers of each ; and
many of the medicinal effects of mineral waters are, doubt-
lefs, owing to particles of thefe kinds.
We mutt not here omit a water in Germany, which is
ordinarily fuppofed to change iron into copper. The truth
is, there isno real converfion of the metal; all that is done
is, that the cuprine and vitriolic particles in the’ water
corrode the iron ; and, detaching parts of them by means of
the motion of the water, coppery particles fucceed in their™
room.
From this variety in the mixture of river-water refult
various qualities, different {pecific gravities, different co-
lours, &c.
Some rivers, at certain feafons of the year, fwell fo as to
overflow their banks, and drown the neighbouring lands.
Of thefe-the moft eminent is the Nile, which rifes fo as to
cover all Egypt, ‘except the hills. The inundation begins
about the feventeenth day of June, and increafes for the
{pace of forty days, and decreafes for as many ; during which
period, the cities of Egypt, which are all built on hills,
appear as fo many iflands.
To thefe inundations Egypt owes all its fertility; the
heavens there affording no rain, or at leaft none in any refpect
confiderable. Hence, as the inundation is great or {mall,
Egypt, for that year, is fruitful or barren.
The ancient Greeks, &c. were much perplexed in affign-
ing the caufe of this inundation. From the modern Englhifh
and Portuguefe traders into Congo, Angola, Monomotapa,
&c. we learn, that the fource of the Nile is in a large lake
called Zaire, round which are the mountains of the moon,
which being about 10° to the fouth of the equator, inftead
of being covered with fnow in their winter, have rain every
day, at lealttwo hours before, and two hours after noon.
So that their tops are always covered with clouds; and the
rains are, at the proper feafon, almoft continual. Hence
torrents are conftantly defcending from the mountains into
the lake of Zaire; whence they flow into the channel of the
Nile, and other rivers arifing from the fame lake; and
hence the inundation of the Nile. See Nite and Nito-
METER.
_ Mr. Bruce is the firft perfon who, in his “ Travels to Dif-
cover the Source of the Nile,’? has defcribed, from his own
obfervations, the fpot in which he apprehends that the Nile
fprings.
Tracing one of the ftreams, that run into the lake Tzana,
to a{wamp in the 11th degree of N. lat. he there remarks the
head of the Nile, as our modern map-makers had actually
done before he vifited this dreary region. Whether his
guide deferved credit, and whether he could juitly infer
that this rivulet was the Nile from the refpe& paid to
it by the barbarous natives, it is not neceflary_ particularly
te enquire. The moft important object in inveftigating
the fource of the Nile is to account for its extraordinary
inundations.
In doing this, Mr. Bruce has felected from the various
opinions enumerated by Diodorus Siculus (1.3. c. 24.) that
of Democritus of Abdera, and Agatharcides of Cnidus,
which agrees in the main with that of Herodotus (1. ii-c. 8.)
and has well explained the manner in which the fun, con-
tinuing nearly flationary for fome days in the tropic of
Capricorn, rarefies the air, and collects a quantity of vapours
from the Atlantic on the weft, and the Indian ocean on the
eaft ; and then, in its progrefs north towards the tropic of
Cancer, draws thefe vapours after him. So that as he
advances, the rainy feafon begins upon his arrival at the zenith
of every place, and the rains continue and increafe after he
has paffed it in his progrefs northward.
In April many rivers join the Nile, and enable it to force
its way through the ftagnant lake Tzana, without mixing
with it. In the beginning of May many other ftreams pour
themfelves into the fame lake, and furnifh the Nile with an
additional fupply of water. In the beginning of June, the
fun having paffed over Abyflinia, the rivers are there full,
and the time of the greateft rains in this country is during the
fun’s being almoft {tationary in the tropic of Cancer.’ Thefe
rains are colleCted by the four great rivers of Abyffinia,
of which the Nile is ene, which derives alfo a very copious
fupply from the White river, that rifes in a country of -
almoft perpetual rain.
As the vapours meet with no mountains to interrupt their
progrefs in the flat country that lies between Gerri and
Syene, the tropical rains extend no farther north of the line
than 16°.
When the fun declines towards the equator, he reverfes
the effe&ts which he produced in his paflage northward;
and after his arrival at the line in the autumnal equinox, his
influence ceafes on the fide of Abyffinia, and extends itfelf -
to the fouthern hemifphere. Thus on thé 25th of September,
three days after the equinox, the Nile is generally found at
Cairo to be at the higheft, and then begins to decreafe.
Mr. Bruce explains the inundations that take place fouth of
the equator. The ancients were not unacquainted with this
caufe of the inundations of the Nile. The tropical rains
falling to the extent of 16° on each fide of the line gave
rife to the Nile and to its tributary ftreams which flowed
northward, through the kingdom of Sennar, &c. as well
as to the Zebee, and many large rivers which flow fouthward
into Ethiopia, and according to the defcent of the countries
into the Indian or Atlantic ocean. Homer gives to the
Nile'the epithet dieresns gui calitus defcendit, a river produced
and fed by rains. See NIL.
The other rivers which have any notable ftated inundations,
are the Gambia, and the Niger, which overflow at the fame
time with the Nile, and “lofe themfelves in fands or lakes.
(See Nicer.) Leo Africanus fays, it begins on the 15th
day of June, increafes for forty days, and decreafes as long.
The Zaire, a river of Congo, is affe€ted inthe fame manner
with the Nile. (See Zarre.) The Rio de la Plata, in Brafil,
as Maffeus obferves, overflows at the fame time with the Nile.
(See Rio dela Prata.) Of the fame kind of rivers is the
Ganges (which fee) ; and the Indus, both which laft over-
flow in June, July, and Auguft; at which times the
natives fave great quantities of the water in ponds to ferve
them the reit of the year ; feveral rivers flowing out of the
lake Chiamay into the bay of Bengal, which overflows in
September, O&tober, and November : thefe all bring a very
great fertility with them to the ground; the river Macoa,
in Camboia; the river Parana, or Paranguafa, which fome
will have to be the fame with the Silver river ;_ feveral rivers
in Coromandel, a part of India, which overflow in the
rainy months, from the great quantity of water ifluing from _
the mountain Gatis; the Euphrates, which overflows Me-
fopotamia certain days in the year; and, laftly, the river
Sus, in Numidia.
The
RIVER.
The rivers moft celebrated for their length, breadth, {wift~
nefs of current, &c. are, the Nile, which runs almoft in a
ftraight courfe two thoufand five hundred and twenty geo-
graphical miles; the Niger, which runs two thoufand four
hundred miles ; the Ganges, two thoufand miles; the Bur-
rampooter, the fame diltance; the Ob, fixteen hundred
miles ; the Jenniflee, in Afia, about the fame length with the
Ob; the river Orellana, in America, fixty miles broad at its
mouth, and five thoufand miles long ; the Rio de la Plata,
about ninety miles broad at the mouth; the Omarannan,
another river of Brafil ; and the great river of St. Laurence,
near two thoufand five hundred miles long. See the account
of each river under its refpective name.
Major Rennell, in his ** Memoir,” has eftimated the pro-
portional lengths of courfe of fome of the moit noted rivers
in the world by the following numbers :
European Rivers.
Thames
- - - - I
Rhine = ss rs & st
Danube . = u 3 7 i
Volga - 2 1 s, gt
Afiatic Rivers.
Indus - - (probably ) 62
Euphrates x = 4 er ee
Ganges e . = . J
Burrampooter = a é 94
Nou Kien, or Ava = Z iS 9
Jenniflee - = - m 10
Oby - = = = - 104
AAmoor - - - < Ir ;
Lena - = a : irk
Hoanho (of China) - = s 134
Kian Keu (of ditto) - a 2 154
. African River.
Nile - : . E oh rae
American Rivers.
Miflifippi = - = 2 s
Amazons - - = = 154
By the ftatute of Weitm. 2. cap. 47, the king may
grant commiffions for perfons to take care of rivers, and the
fihery in them ; and the lord mayor of London is to have the
confervation in breaches and ground overflown as far as the
water ebbs and flows in the river Thames. (4 Hen. Vil.
cap. 15.) Perfons annoying the river Thames, making
thelves there, cafting dung in it, or taking away itakes,
boards, timber-work, &c. of the banks, incur a forfeiture
of 5/. by ftat. 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 18. Commiflioners were
appointed to prevent exactions of the occupiers of locks,
weirs, &c. upon the river Thames, weftward from the city
of London, to Cricklade, in the county of Wilts, and for
afcertaining the rates of water-carriages on the faid river,
by ftat. 6 & 7 W. III: and this ftatute is revived, with
authority from the commiflioners to make orders and con-
ftitutions to be obferved, under penalties, &c. by 3 Geo. II.
ap. Il.
: By ftatutes 8 Geo. II. cap. 20, and 4 Geo. III, cap. 12,
it is made felony, without benefit of clergy, malicioufly to
cut down any river or fea-bank, by which lands may be
deftroyed, and to deftroy fluices or locks upon navigable
rivers. See Nusance, and Larceny.
River, in Phy/ics, denotes a ftream of water running by
its own gravity from the more elevated parts of the earth
VoL. XXX.
towards thofe which are more depreffed, in a natural bed
or channel open above.
if this channel is artificial, it is called a canal 3 of which
there are two kinds, wiz. that whofe channel is every where
open without fluices, called an artificial river, and that whofe
water is kept up or let off by means of fluices, which is
properly a canal.
Rivers, Hydraulic Theory of. —The theory of moving
waters is certainly one of great importance, and has there-
fore, for a long time, excited confiderable intereft, as well
among prattical engineers, as {peculative mathematicians ;
yet it muft be acknowledged that it is but very lately any
thing approaching to a well-founded theory has béen efta-
blifhed. One of the firft and mo diftinguifhed of thofe
who attempted to reduce the motion and difcharges of
rivers to correét principles, was Guglielmini; and if his
theory was falfe and hypothetical, yet he was the means of
drawing the attention of philofophers to thefe inquiries ;
and his deduétions, though in many refpeéts incorreét,
are neverthelefs entitled to a place in an article on this
fubjeé.
This author obferves, that rivers have ufually their
fources in mountains or elevated lands, and that it is in their
defcent from thefe they acquire their velocity, or accele
ration, which maintains their future current. In propor-
tion as they advance farther, this velocity diminifhes, on
account of the continual fri€tion of the water againit the
bottom and fides of the channel, of the various obftacles
they meet with in their progrefs, and of their arriving, at
length, in plains, where the defcent is lefs ; and their in-
clination to the horizon, of confequence, greater, Thus
the Reno, a river of Italy, which gave occafion, in fome
meafure, to thefe {peculations, is found, near its mouth, to
have {carcely a defcent of fifty-two feconds.
If the acquired velocity be quite f{pent, through the
many obitacles, fo that the current becomes horizontal,
nothing will then remain to propagate the motion, and
continue the ftream, but the depth, or the perpendicular
preffure of the water, which is always proportional to the
depth. And happily for us, this refource increafes, as the
occafion for it increafes; for, in proportion as the water
lofes of the velocity acquired by the defcent, it rifes and
augments in depth.
fe further appears, fays he, from the laws of motion per-
taining to bodies moved on inclined planes, that when
water flows freely upon an inclined bed, it acquires a
velocity, which is always as the {quare root of the quantity
or declivity of the bed. But in an horizontal bed, opened
by Jluices or otherwife, at one or both ends, the water
flows out by its gravity alone; and the flowing is quicker
or flower in a dire& ratio of the refpeGtive heights of the
water, by reafon of the weight of the fuperior waters upox
the inferior. Hence it follows, firft, that as much as the
declivity of the bed or channel of a river is greater, fo
much alfo will the velocity of the flowing waters be pre-
portionably increafed.
Secondly, as much as the water in an horizontal bed is
deeper, fo much will the velocity of the current be in-
creafed ; and this velocity will diminifh in proportion to
the decreafing depths of the water in the bed.
Thirdly, abftraGting from the refiftance caufed by the
bottom and fides of the bed, as much nearer as the water is
to the bottom, fo much will its motion be accelerated ;
not only becaufe the inferior waters are more compreifled
by the fuperior in- proportion to their greater depth; but
alfo becaufe the inferior ones have a greater declivity than
the fuperior, by reafon of ~ greater depth in the bed,
where
RIVER.
where they are more depreffed with refpect to the elevation
of their common fource or fpring.
The upper parts of the water of a river, and thofe at a
diftance from the banks, may continue to flow, from the
fingle caufe, ‘or principle of declivity, how {mall foever it
be; for, not being detained by any one obftacle, the minuteft
difference of level will have its effet ; but the lower parts,
which roll along the bottom, will fcarcely be fenfible of fo
{mall a declivity ; and will only have what motion they
receive from the preffion of the fuperincumbent waters.
The natural cohefion of the particles of water, and their
implication, as it were, with one another, make the lower,
which are moved by means of the depth, carry along with
them the upper, which, in an horizontal channel, would have
no motion at all: or, in a channel very little inclined, next to
none; fo that the lower, in this cafe, communicate to the
upper a part of the motion they have received from the
preffure of it. Hence, from the preflure, it frequently
happens that the greateft velocity of a river is about the
middle of its depth, or that point, which is the fartheft pof-
fible from the furface of the water, and from the bottom
and fides of the bed; fuch middle parts having the advan-
tage of being preffed with half the depth of the river, and
of being free, at the fame time, from the friction of the
bottom ; whereas, on the contrary, the leaft velocity of the
water is at the bottom and fides of the bed, becauie there
the refiftance refulting from fri€tion is the greateft, which
is communicated to the other parts of the fection of the
river, in an inverfe duplicate proportion of the diftances
from the bottom and fides combined together.
To find whether the water of a river, almoft horizontal,
flows by meanis of the velocity. acquired in its defcent, or
by the preflure of its depth, fet up an obitacle perpen-
dicular to it ; if the water rife and {well immediately againft
fuch obftacle, it runs in virtue of its fall; or, if it flop a
little while firft, in virtue of its preffion.
Rivers, according to this author, almoft always make
their own beds. If the bottom have originally been a
large declivity, the water, in confequence of it, sont
with a great deal of force, will have {wept away the mot
elevated parts of the foil, and carrying them lower down,
will gradually render the bottom horizontal ; where the
ftream is fwifteft, there will the earth be moft dug up;
and, confequently, there the greateft cavity willbe made.
The water having made its bed horizontal becomes fo
itfelf, and confequently rakes with the lefs force againft
the bottom, till at length that force becomes only equal to
the refiftance of the bottom. ‘The bottom is now arrived
at a ftate of permanency, at leaft for a confiderable time :
and the longer, according to the quality of the foil, clay
and chalk refifting longer than fand or mud.
On the other hand, the water is continually wearing away
the brims of its channel, and this with the more force, as,
by the direGtion of its flream, it impinges more perpen-
dicularly againft them. By this means it has a continual
tendency to render them parallel to its own courfe; and
when it has arrived as near that as poffible, it ceafes to have
any effect that way. At the fame time that it has thus
rectified its edges, it has enlarged its own bed ; that is, it
has loft of its depth, and confequently of its force and
preffure : this it continues to do till there is an equilibrium
between the force of the water and the refiftance of its
banks, upon which they will remain without farther muta-
tion. And it is evident, from experience, that thefe equi-
libriums are all real, inafmuch as we find that rivers only
dig and widen to a certain pitch.
he very reverfe of all thefe things happens on other oc-
cafions. Rivers, whofe waters are thick and muddy, raife
their bed, by letting. part of the heterogeneous matters
contained in them fall.to the bottom: they alfo contra@
their banks, by acontinual appofition of the fame matter, in
brufhing over them. This matter, being thrown afide far
from the ftream of water, might even ferve, by reafon of
the obfcurenefs of the motion, to form new banks.
Now thefe oppofite effeéts feem almoft always to concur,
and are differently combined, according to the circumftances,
whence it is very difficult. to judge of the refult ; yet muft
this combination be known yery accurately, before any
meafures can be taken about rivers, efpecially as to the
diverting of their courfes. The Lamona, which emptied
itfelf into the Po, being turned another way, to make it
difcharge itfelf into the Adriatic, was fo altered, and its
force fo far diminifhed, after its waters were left to them-
felves, that it raifed its bed a great height, by continual
depofitions of mud, till it became much higher than the
Po, in its utmoft accretions, and needed very high banks,
or dykes, to keep it from overflowing.
If various caufes of refiltance to the motion of flowing
waters did not exift, fuch as the attra€tion and continual
friction of the bottom and fides, the inequalities in both,
the windings and angles that occur in their courfe, and the
diminution of their declivity the farther they recede from
their {prings, the velocities of their currents would be ac-
celerated to twelve, fifteen, and, in fome cafes, even to twenty
times more than they are at prefent in the fame rivers, by
which they would become abfolutely unnavigable.
A little river may be received into a large one, without
either augmenting its width or depth. This feeming pa-
radox arifes hence, that the addition of the little river may
only go towards moving the waters, before at reft near the
banks of the large one, and thus augmenting the velocity
of the ftream, in the fame proportion as it does that of the
quantity of water. "Thus the Venetian branch of the Po
{wallowed up the Ferrarefe branch, and that of Panaro,
without any enlargement of its own dimenfions. And the
fame may be concluded proportionably of all other accef-
fions to rivers, and, in the general, of all new augmentations
of water.
A river offering to enter into another, either perpendi-
cularly, or in an oppofite direction, will be diverted by
degrees from that dire€tion, and obliged to make itfelf a
new and more favourable bed towards the mouth.
The union of two rivers into one makes the whole flow
the fwifter, becaufe, in lieu of the fri€tion of four fhores,
they have only two to furmount; and that the ftream,
being farther diftant from the banks, goes on with the lefs
interruption; befides, that a greater quantity of water,
moving with a greater velocity, digs deeper in the bed,
and of courfe retrenches of its former width. Hence alfo
it is that rivers, by being united, take up lefs {pace on the
furface of the earth, and are more advantageous to low
grounds, which difcharge their fuperfluous moilture into
them, and have likewife lefs occafion for dykes to prevent
their overflowing.
Thefe advantages are fo confiderable, that S. Guglielmini
thinks them worthy of nature’s having had a view to them
in her contriving to make the confluences of rivers fo fre-
quent as we find them.
Such were the views and dedutions of this author, in
which he has been’ followed by feveral mathematicians of
the firft eminence; but certainly without coming to any -
very accurate and eftablifhed principles, on which to found
a computation of the quantity of water that would be dif-
charged, in any new cafe that prefented atfelf for determina-
tion ;
6 ti | RIVER.
tion ; or what flope, and what magnitude of current, was
neceflary for producing any required fupply. Thus, a
{mall aquedu@, which was carried to Paris in the beginning
of the laft century, on a plan prefented to the academy,
and, with fome alteration, approved of by that learned
body, was found, when completed, to yield very little more
than half the quantity of water which they had computed.
A fimilar circumftance happened at Edinburgh, when that
city was fupplied by water, under the direCtion of Defa-
guliers ; the quantity of water actually furnifhed being only
about one-fixth of the quantity which he had computed it
would be, and but one-eleventh of what Maclaurin had
eftimated it at from the fame plan.
Nothing can fhew more clearly the inadequacy of the
theory, as it exifted at that time, than that the firit mathe-
maticians of their age, and we might almott add of any age,
fhould differ fo widely from each other ; the eftimate of the
one being but about one-half of the other, and the neareft
to the truth not agreeing with the actual fupply by five parts
out of fix.
It required but a few inftances of this kind to point out
the neceffity of a more precife and definite theory ; and the
fubje& was accordingly foon after undertaken by Miche-
lotti at Turin, the abbé Boflut at Paris, and by the che-
valier du Buat ; of whom the latter is generally admitted to
have met with the mott complete fuccefs. Michelotti made
a great number of experiments, both on the motion of water
in pipes and in open canals. ‘They were performed at the
government expence, and nothing was {pared’ to render
them complete. A tower of fine mafonry was built, to
ferve as a veflel from which the waters were to iffue, through
holes of various fizes, and under various preflures, from
5 feet to 22 feet. © The water was received into bafons con-
itruéted of mafonry, and accurately lined with ftucco, and
of various forms and declivities. Thefe experiments on the
expence of water through pipes are, of all that have yet
been made, the moft numerous and exaé, and may be ap-
pealed to on every occafion. Thofe made on open canals
are {till more numerous, and are no doubt equally accurate ;
but they have not been fo contrived as to be fo generally
ufeful, being moftly very unlike the important eaten which
will occur in praétice ; and they feem to have been contrived
chiefly with a view of overturning or eftablifhing certain re-
ceived hydraulic principles of that time. ‘The experiments
of Boffut are alfo very numerous, and of both kinds, viz.
on pipes and canals; fome particulars of which will be
found under our article DiscHarce of Fluids. But thofe
of the chevalier du Buat are the moit conclufive, and his
theory of rivers the moft perfe& of any with which we are
yet acquainted. A few of the leading principles of this
author’s theory will be.found in the fubfequent part of this
article.
It is certain that the motion of open ftreams muit, in
fome refpeéts, refemble that of bodies fliding down inclined
planes, perfectly polifhed ; and that they would accelerate
continually, were they not obftruéted: but they are ob-
itructed, and frequently move uniformly. “This can only
arife from an equilibrium between the forces which promote
their defcent and thofe which oppofe it. Hence M. Buat
aflumes his leading propefition, viz.
1. “ When water flows uniformly in any channel or bed,
the accelerating force, which ‘obliges it to move, is equal
to the fum of all the refiftances which it meets with, whether
arifing from its own vifcidity, or front’ the fri€tion of its
bed.”
From this propofition, ingenioufly combined with the re-
fult of hisown and Boflut’s experiments, he then draws thefe
fundamental propofitions, viz.
2. The motion of rivers depends entirely on the flope
of their furfaces.
3. “ Since the velocity of the water depends wholly upon
the flope of the furface, or of the pipe through which it is
conveyed, it follows that the fame pipe will be fufceptible
of different velocities, which it will preferve uniform to any
diftance, according as it has different degrees of inclinations ;
and each inclination of a pipe, of given diameter, has a cer-
tain velocity peculiar to itfelf, which will be maintained
uniform to any diftance whatever. But this velocity
changes continually, according to a certain funétion of its
inclination for all degrees between its vertical and horizontal
politions.”’
It is obvious that, confidering the number of caufes that
may give rife to inequalitiesin the motion of water, whether
in pipes or canals, it would have been vain to attempt the
determination of the fun@tion above-mentioned from theory
only : the refults of the feveral experiments were, therefore,
examined with the mott fcrupulous attention, and pene-
trating ingenuity, and from which at length the author de-
rived the following theorems, viz.
Let V be the velocity of the ftream, meafured by the
inches it moves over in a fecond; R a conftant quantity,
viz. the quotient obtained by dividing the area of the tran{-
verfe feGtion of the ftream, exprefled in f{quare inches, by
the boundary or periphery of that feétion, minus the
breadth of the itream, expreffed alfo in inches, viz. R =
Aen where qw is the mean width of the feGtion, 4 the
6+ 24
mean height or depth, and 4 the breadth at bottom.
The line R is called by du Buat the radius, and by Dr.
Robifon the dydraulic mean depth.
Laftly, let S be the denominator of a fra€tion, which ex-
prefles the flope, the numerator being unity ; that is, let it
be the quotient obtained by dividing the length of the
ftream, fuppofing it extended in a ftraight line, by the dif-
ference of level of its two extremities; or, which is nearly
fre fame, let it be the co-tangent of the inclination ‘or
ope.
Then the general formula exprefling the velocity V, fup-
pofed uniform, is,
= 3°7 V¥ R-ds pint's aaa
bs 5 — fh. log. (S +48) To % R roy Or
— / wl i Te Ee vEnS
V= ay R tz X (5 Tee Gis) 2s)
But when R and S are both very great, then,
397
= R (—_——-
aa G aS loe. S
Hence it follows, that the flope remaining the fame, the
velocities are as R, or as the area of the fe¢tion divided by
its perimeter, minus the breadth of the river at the furface,
— +’) nearly.
very nearly ;, for they are as / R — 5!,$+and when the
river is large, the 7 R may be ufed without any fenfible
efror.
. Again, if R is fo fmall, that R —y;= 0, or R= 34,
the velocity will be nothing, which agrees very well with
experiments; for in a cylindrie-tube R = the radius‘:
the radius, therefore, is only two-tenths, fo’that' the tube
is nearly capillary, and the fluid will not flow through it.
Sf2 The
RIVER.
The velocity may alfo become nothing, by the {lope be-
coming fo {mall, that
307
/ 8 — gh. log. (S +48)
3
— tr = 93
but if = is lefs than -sohve,» Or than +,th of an inch to
an Englifh mile, the water will have fenfible motion.
In ariver, the greateft velocity is at the furface, and in
the middle of the ftream; from which it diminifhes towards
the bottom, and the fides, where it is the leaft. It has been
found, from experiment, that if, from the {quare root of
the velocity in the middle of the ftream, expreffed in inches
per fecond, unity be fubtraéted, the {quare of the remainder
1s the velocity of the bottom.
Hence, if » be the velocity in the middle of the ftream,
the velocity of the bottom will be expreffed by ( /v — 1)?
=v—2/v4 1.
The mean velocity, or that with which, were the whole
ftream to move, the difcharge would be the fame as the real
difcharge, is equal to half the fum of the greateit and leaft
velocities, as computed in the laft propofition. Therefore,
if v reprefents the greateft velocity, then will the mean ve-
locity = v— /0 +} ‘ ot
Suppofe that a river, having a retangular bed, is in-
creafed by the junétion of another river equal to itfelf, the
declivity remaining the fame ; required the increafe of depth
and velocity. Let the breadth of the river = 4, the depth
before the junction d, and after it x; and, in like manner, v
é
and v! thé mean velocities before and after ; then a
= b 07 WR
= R before, and ; mae = RI after, fo v= 3 ie :
fuppofing the breadth of the river to be iuch, that we may
reject the {mall quantity fubtracted from R; and, in like
!
manner, v) = a then fubftituting for R and R’,
Nv
we have
1307 bd
rasa gees, a
Aer OVE bx ;
7 ite Sue Vien
Multiplying thefe into the area of the feétions bd, b x, we
have the difcharges, viz-
Ga SOT bd vbd 4
TE et ace Se TESA aa
piety bx Jf bea
RAS ah ORI
And fince the laft of thefe is double the former, we
obtain
bx ~bu 9 2bd vbd a x3 eae ae
7 Ge a) RE CRS AC) Pe AE OR eR Te ee
8 d3 “46da3
“-G 2 = >>
6+2d b+2d
a cubic equation folvable by the formula of Cardan. As
an example, let 6 = 10 feet, d= 1, thenx? — $x =,
where x = 1.4882, which is the depth of the increafed
river. Hence we have 1.4882 x v' = 2 v, and 1.4882: 2
3:02 0!5 or vis to v! as 37 to 50 nearly.
When the water in a river receives a permanent increafe,
whence
the depth and the velocity, as in the example above, are
the firft that are augmented. The increafe of the velocity
increafes the aGtion on the fides and bottom, in confequence
of which the width is augmented, and fometimes alfo, but
more rarely, the depth.- The velocity is thus diminifhed,
till the tenacity of the foil, or the hardnefs of the rock, affords
a fufficient refiftance to the force of the water; the bed of
the river then changes orly by infenfible degrees, and, in the
ordinary language of hydraulics, is faid to be permanent,
though, in ftri€tnefs, this epithet is not applicable to the
courfe of any river. For more on this fubject, fee Du Buat,
“ Principes d’ Hydrauliques,”’ in two vols. 8vo. Paris, 1806 ;
Boffut’s “¢ Hydrodynamiques ;’’ the article River in the
« Encyclopedia Britannica ;’? and Playfair’s ‘* Outlines of
Natural Philofophy.”
The beit and moft fimple method of meafuring the velo-
city of the current of a river or canal, is the following.
Take a cylindrical piece of dry, light wood, and of a length
fomething lefs_than the depth of the water in the river ;
round one end of it, let there be fufpended as many fmall
weights as may be neceflary to keep up the cylinder in a
perpendicular fituation in the water, and in fuch a manner
that the other end of it may juft appear above the furface of
the water. Fix to the centre of that end which appears
above water, a {mall and ftraight rod, precifely in the di-
reGtion of the cylinder’s axis; to the end, that when the in-
ftrument is fufpended in the water, the deviations of the rod
from a perpendicularity to the furface of it, may indicate
which end of the cylinder advances the fatteft, by which
may be difcovered the different velocities of the water at
different depths; for if the rod inclines forwards, according
to the direction of the current, it is a proof that the furface
of the water has the greateft velocity; but if it inclines
back, it fhews that the {wifteft current is at the bottom ; if
it remains perpendicular, it is a fign that the velocities at
the furface and bottom are equal.
This inftrument being placed in the current of a river or
canal, receives all the percuflions of the water throughout
the whole depth, and will have an equal velocity with that
of the whole current from the furface to the bottom at the
place where it is put in, and by that means may be found,
both with eafe and exaétnefs, the mean velocity of that
part of the river for any determinate diftance and time.
But to obtain the mean velocity of the whole feGion of
the river, the inflrument muit he put fucceflively both in
the middle and towards the fides, becaufe the velocities at
thofe places are often very different from each other.
Having by this means found the difference of time required
jor the currents to run over an equal /pace ; or, the different
diftances run over in equal times, the mean propertional of all
thefe trials, which is found by dividing the common fum
of them all by the number of trials, will be the mean velocity
of the river or canal.
If it be required to find the velocity of the current only
at the furface, or at the middle, or at the bottom, a {phere
of wood, of fuch a weight as will remain fufpended in
equilibrium with the water, at the furface or depth which
we want to meafure, will be better for the purpofe than a
cylinder, becaufe it is only affeéted by the water of that
fole part of the current where it remains fufpended.
It is very eafy to guide both the cylinder and the globe in
that part which we want to meafure, by means of two
threads of {mall cords, which two perfons mutt hold and
direét, one on each fide the river; taking care at the fame
time neither to retard nor accelerate the motion of the in-
itrument. 3
Having
RIVER.
Having the.mean or medium velocity of a river, if we
multiply this medium, the breadth, depth, and fpace run
over in a certain time, the product will give the quantity
of water that flows down in that time. Dr. Halley, in
order to eftimate the quantity of water that flows iato the
Mediterranean fea by means of rivers, makes a comparifon
of the great rivers of Italy, &c. with that of the Thames.
“(Philof. Tranfaé&t. Abridg. vol. i. page 110.) He af-
fumes the breadth of the Thames at King{fton bridge to be
100 yards, its depth three yards, and velocity two miles per
hour. He profefledly overrates the dimenfions, in order
to allow more than a fufficiency for the itreams received
below Kingfton. This aflumption gives the area of a tran{f-
verfe feétion of the river = 300 {quare yards, and the quan-
tity of water flowing down = 20,300,000 tons in a day.
This muft be overrated by at leaft, it is f{uppofed, one-third.
If the breadth be affumed 100 yards, the depth three, and
velocity two miles fer hour, it will then give two-thirds of
the refult above-mentioned ; or it will amount to the fame
thing if we take one-eighth part from all the three data af-
fumed by Dr. Halley, the refult being two-thirds of that
above; amounting in the year to 166,624,128,000 cubic
feet, which is a little more than one-twenty-fifth part of all
the rain and dew in England and Wales in a year, as above
deduced. Mr. Dalton has eftimated ‘‘ that the water of the
Thames is drawn from an extent of country of about 600
{quare miles, or one-eighth of the area of the whole, nearly.
The Severn, including the Wye, {preads over an equal or
greater extent of country; and that collection of rivers
which conttitutes the Humber is fuperior to either of the
other two in this refpeét. As far as my own obfervation
goes, the Severn and Wye mutt difembogue as much or
more water than the Thames; the Humber I have not
feen colle&tedly, but have noticed moft of the branches con-
itituting~ it, and fhould apprehend it cannot be inferior to
the Thames: all other circumitances being the fame, the
quantity of water carried down by any river fhould be as
the area of the ground from which the water is derived,
and on this account the Humber ought to exceed the
Thames.
«© The Severn, which is partly derived from the moun-
tainous country of Wales, is certainly the moft rapid of
the three rivers, and probably carries down the moft water ;
as the Thames, however, is generally confidered to take
the lead, we will fuppofe, upon the whole, that thefe three
rivers are equal in this refpect. t
«< The counties of Kent, Suffex, Hampfhire, Dorfetthire,
Devonthire, Cornwall, and Somerfetfhire, from the Med-
way to the Lower Avon inclufively, in an extent of 1 1,000
{quare miles, do not prefent us with many large rivers.
From their number and magnitude, we cannot form a high
eltimate of their produce. The quantity of rain for thofe
counties is indeed near the average for the kingdom, as far
as the preceding obfervations determine; but the milder
temperature of their winters and greater heat of their
f{prings and f{ummers, will caufe a greater evaporation than in
fome other parts: it is probable the rivers in thefe counties
may amount, when taken together, to 12 times the mag-
nitude of the Thames. The rivers that difembogue their
waters on the coaft of Lincolnfhire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and
Effex, from the Humber to the Thames, though drawn
from a country of 7000 fquare miles, manifeftly fall far
fhort of the Thames. The two places in this diftri@, for
which we have accounts of the rain, Norwich and Up-
miniter, give a mean of only z2Z inches annually. This,
with the ack of the country, which prevents the water
from running of in fome degree, makes the rivers much
lefgthan what might otherwife be expected from the extent
of ground. There are but three or four of any confe-
quence. Probably all the rivers may amount to half the
fize of the Thames. There remains above 6000 f{quare miles
in Wales, from the Wye to the Dee, inclufive of the laft,
and the northern counties of Lancatter, Weftmoreland, Cum-
berland, Northumberland, and Durham, with part of
Chefhire, and a {mall part of Yorkshire, from the Merfey
round by the Tweed to the Tees, amounting to 7000 or
Sooo {quare miles, to be eftimated.
« Thefe two divifions, though not larger than fome others,
abound in rivers, many of which are confiderable in mag-
nitude and of great rapidity. The rains at an average, it
is probable, are double what they are in the S.E. counties
of the kingdom. The rivers in thefe two diftri@s cannot
fairly be eftimated, I think, at lefs than four times the
Thames. It appears, then, that by this eftimation, the
water carried off by all the rivers in England and Wales,
may amount to nine times that carried off by the Thames
= 13 inches of rain. There remains {till fixteen times the
water of the Thames, or 23 inches of rain to account for,
before we have difpofed of all the rain and dew.?? 2
This ingenious philofopher concludes, from a detail of fa@s
and reafoning, that the rain and dew of this country are equi-
valent to the quantity of water carried off by evaporation
and by the rivers. And as nature as upon general laws, we
ought to infer, that it mult be the cafe in every other country,
till the contrary is proved. '
« This conclufion being admitted, we are enabled to deduce
a general theorem for the quantity of water carried down
into the fea by any river in any country (on the fuppofition
that all rivers are ramified alike) provided we have certain
data; thefe data are the length of the river, and the excefs
of the rain above the evaporation in the country from which
the water of the river is drawn; alfo, it fhould be known
by obfervation, how much water fome one given river carries
down.
«« For, from the principles of geometry, the area of country
from which any river is fupplied, will be as the {quare of
the length of the river; and the quantity of water carried
off, will be in the compound ratio of the area of the country,
and the excefs of the rain and dew above the evaporation.
* Thus, let L = the length of any river, E = the excefs
of rain and dew above the evaporation, and Q = the quan-
tity of water difembogued in any given time by that river ;
7 = the length of any other river, e = the excels, &c. and
q = the quantity of water; then we fhall have — ak
“« £. gr. Suppofe the length of the Thames = 200 miles,
and the excels = 5 inches, eitimating the rain and dew at
30 inches, and evaporation at 25; and fuppofe the river
Kent, in Wetftmoreland, to be 20 miles in length, and the
excefs 35 inches, the rain and dew being fuppofed 65, and
evaporation 30inches. ‘T'hen,
aT Die 278
200*'X 5 160
or Q = 142 9; which refult, I believe, will be found to
accord nearly with the meafurement of the two rivers on the
principle before-mentioned.”” Manchefter Memoirs, vol. y.
pt. 2.
River, with regard to Agriculture, may be converted, in
many fituations, to various ufeful purpofes, fuch as thofe
of improving the meadow and other grafs-lands which lie
below the fources of them, by having their waters in par-
ticular feafons turned over them. By proper attention in
thefe
= 4%
2
RIVER.
thefe refpects, vaft benefits might, in a variety of cafes,
where it has never been even fo much as fufpected, be de-
rived, and thereby immenfe favings in manure be made for
the amelioration of the lefs favourably fituated lands. But
befides this vaft fource of advantage, rivers may often be con-
verted, with little trouble or expence, to other ufeful pur-
pofes, fuch as the fupplying of live-ftock with water, the
turning of different kinds of farming machinery, the con-
veying of cattle food, and manures of various defcriptions,
as wellas different forts of farm produce, and a great number
of other ufes, which can only be difcovered by the particular
circumftances of them, and thofe of their fituations. But
though in thefe views they may be juftly confidered as of
much advantage, in others they are often dangerous, trou-
blefome, and highly detrimental to the farmer, as where they
are much accuitomed to overflow their banks, injure the
crops, {weep away the live-{tock, and carry down much of the
lands on their borders. Where they are apt to prove hurt-
ful by thus overflowing their banks, the beft modes of con-
fining them in particular cafes have been pointed out in
{peaking of the nature of embankments and haugh-land. See
EMBANKMENT, and HaucGu-Land.
There are, however, other cafes that deferve to be con-
fidered in this place, fuch as the directing and altering the
courfes of torrents coming from mountains, changing the
courfes of rivers, fecuring the banks of rivers in vallies, and
ftraightening the narrow, crooked windings of {mall rivers
in the fame fituations, and other hollow parts of lands. By
the firft of which much advantage may, in different circum-
ftances, be procured, and great fecurity be attained for the
valuable lands below. By the fecond, extenfive traéts of the
moft valuable kinds of land may be obtained, while the whole
is rendered more fafe and proper for the purpofes of paftur-
age or thofe of tillage. By the third, much ufeful land may
be fecured, as well as much mifchief from the high floods
be guarded againft. And as by the laft much ground is
often loft, or rendered of but trifling value to the farmer, by
proper means thefe inconveniencies may be obviated, and
the land rendered of much greater utility. Befides thefe,
the methods of fecuring the banks, in other inftances where
they are liable to be carried away by large floods, may alfo
prove a vaft benefit and improvement.
In the former of thefe cafes, the remedies are, in general,
thofe of rendering their courfes more free, open, flraight, and
regular, by which they mutt obvioufly fuffer lefs ob{truétion,
and of courfe be lefs apt to overflow their banks, and prove
injurious to the grounds below, or on the fides of them. It
is, however, remarked, that this isa fort of work that ought
to be maturely confidered in all cafes before it 1s attempted ;
but that in fuch upland fituations the bufinefs may often be
performed with facility by fmall cuts made along the flat
bafes of {uch elevations, while it is very different in thofe of
ftraightening vale rivers, as much larger openings are requi-
fite. Befides, fhallows for piers and ftops are moftly found
there, while in thefe cafes they are in general wholly want-
ing. But in all cafes, and in every point of view, the bufi-
nefs is evidently of the greateit intereft to the proprietors
of land, as the deftrution preduced in this way is not only
often committed on the moft valuable forts of land, but is
frequently the caufe of difputes between the neighbouring
proprietors ; this fort of work has, however, been little at-
tended to, and is in-common very imperfeétly: underftood,
In many inftances a great deal may be effected by proper ac-
commodation between the different proprietors, whofe inte-
re{ts are affected.
But in undertaking works of this nature, there are dif-
ferent circumftances that require to be ‘particularly con-
4
fidered. The peculiar {cite or place of improvement fhould,
Mr. Marfhall fays, be well ftudied, in order to fix upon the
beft method of executing the work. And when this has
been done, accurate plans and eftimates of the expence that -
may be incurred, as well as of the grols profits that may
refult from it, be made out with care. And itis advifed that,
where the bufinefs is extenfive, and the perfon who has the
management net perfectly acquainted with the nature of it,
to contract with proper experienced labourers, or a refpon-
fible undertaker, for the execution of the whole, binding the
party who is to perform the work to uphold it for a certain
number of years after it is finifhed. It isremarked, that for
want of thefe precautions, fums of money are annually ex-
pended, and in great part thrown away, fo as to become, in
fome inftances, a heavy tax upon eftates, and a ferious de-
falcation of timber. It does not follow, it is contended,
that, becaufe a few fquare yards of land are annually carried
away, an expenfive work fhould be ereéted, and upheld at
ten times the value of the ground it will proteé& ; nor that,
becaufe one fide of a river is flightly injured, an over-fized
work fhould be raifed to the greater injury of the oppofite
banks. It will be found, it is obferved, that in ordinary
cafes, oppofite proprietors have one and the fame interett ;
and that {mall injuries may generally be remedied by fimple
means, and at a {mall coft. What the writer 1s folicitous to
inculcate is, that the remedy ought to be proportionate to
the difeafe ; and that it {hould be applied in fuch a maaner
as not to injure another: confequentily, that it behoves a
proprietor to fee that no one about him has an intereft in
erecting expenfive and abortive works, or any profpect of
advantage from the annoyance of his neighbour in any refpeét
from fuch works. It is added, that every perfon has an
undoubted right to defend his property. It is often his
duty, as well as his intereft, to doit. And that there are
cafes on which even large fums of money may be prudently
laid out, and ought to be expended in order to accom-
plifn the work; as by neglect great injury may be fuf-
{tained, which at firft might have been remedied at a very
trifling cofl.
Rivers, wherever they are properly fituated, fhould always
be converted to the ufe of watering the grafs lands which
lie below their levels. See WatveErine of Land.
River-Banks, Securing of, the means of guarding | and
protecting them from the encroachment and injury of the
ftreams when in flood or otherwife. It is a work of much
difficulty and labour in many cafes, and that requires the
careful management of an experienced director. It is indeed
remarked by the author of the Treatife on Landed Property,
in {peaking of the nature of this bufinefs, that {uppofing the
uniform, and evenly-poifed, current of a reach or ftraight
part of a river to be difturbed by the body of a large root
of a tree, or any other matter, brought down and lodged by
a flood, on this fide, which, in brooks and narrow rivers, 1s
an ordinary caufe of mifchief, it is found that through this
apparently trifling incident the current may be faid to lofe
its balance. For, when the flood falls to the level of the
ob{truétion, the water becomes confined'in that part ; its
height, above the obftru@tion, is confequently increafed ;
and its current oppofite and below it not only accelerated,
but gently turned from its direét courfe toward the oppo-
fite bank of its natural channel ; which, if it be of an earthy
crumbling nature, becomes undermined : the land, or upper
part of the bank, confequently fhoots down, and is carried
away by fucceeding floods.’ And what tends to increafe
the evil is, the circumftance of the channel, immediately
below the obftru€tion, becoming occupied, even in minor
floods, with comparatively flagnant water. It is in confe-
quence
RIVER.)
quence warped: up with the fediment there depofited and
by this means an additional weight of water is thrown again{
the oppofite bank ; which,.if the growing caufe of milchief
be not {peedily removed, will ina fhort time be much torn
- away, and, in a courfe of years, a bend or bay be formed in
the adjoining ei of the proprietor,’ nearly oppofite to
the root or other body, with a correfponding bank of fand
or gravel, united with and becoming part of the lands on this
fide. But if the grounds, on this fide, are equally vulnerable
_ as thofe of the oppolite neighbour, there is no caufe of exul-
tation in the inereafe of territory. For while the current
is leaving the proprietor on, this fide, perhaps a worthlefs
fand-bank near. the obitruétion is, by a natural law of
river-currents, feooping out a bay below, and giving to his
oppofite neighbour an increafing territory in that part. And
thus a natural lofs ef valuable land is incurred on each fide ;
and the evil (in this cafe) continually increafing ; uatil the
banks are fecurely defended, or the current is reftrained,
and direéted into its former channel. The remedies in this
cafe are two; firit, to fheath the injured. banks of the bays
on both fides, with fuch materials as will refift the circuitous
current, and let the river remain in its crooked ftate ; and,
fecondly, to erect a pier at'the higher point of the bend on
the oppofite fide of the river, to parry off the force of the
current from the bank of it, and direé& it forward ; with the
twofold intention of preventing further mifchief, and of
bringing back the courfe of the river to its former ftate of
ftraightnefs, as much as poffible.
It is likewife ftated, that the operation of guarding the
immediate bank of a fharp river-bend againft a heavy cur-
rent, meeting with great refiftance, is generally a work of
much difficulty and expence, even where materials éan be
eafilyyprocured ; while that of diverting the current may
frequently be accomplifhed at a comparatively {mall coft ;
and its effe&t be rendered infinitely more falutary and per-
manent. A\s it is evident that, if the accidental ob{truction
mentioned had been timely removed, no bad effect would
have enfued, and the river would have continued its direct
courfe. Or if, through negleé, it had been fuffered to
remain awhile, until its mifchief was difcoverable, even then,
if it had been moved from its ftation to the oppofite fide of
the river, and placed in the part affected, this {mall counter-
poife might have recovered the balance of the current, and
dire&ted it into its wonted channel. And in almott any cafe,
he thinks, by judicioufly placing, in a fimilar manner, an ob-
ftruétion proportioned to the magnitude of the power to be
counteracted, the like effet may be produced. As, for
inftance, if, in the cafe propofed, the pier or.river-guide
above-mentioned were to be erected by the proprietor on
the oppofite fide of the river, and to be inclined towards the
ftream, or direét courfe of the river, in a degree proportioned
to the ftrength of its current (a rapid current requiring lefs
bias than a flow oné), and of a fize in like proportion, not
only the banks of the bay or bend would be defended, in a
oe degree, from the action of floods, but the fand-bed
ormed on this fide would be worn away, and its materials
depofited in the. bay on the other fide ; which alfo being
rendered ftagnant, comparatively, with the current of the
river, would receive the depofits of foul waters in times of
floods; and thus, in a twofold manner, be refilled and
brought back toward its former ftate. And, further, that
if, when the gravel bank on this fide is fufficiently removed,
the proprietor on the fame fide were to erect a fimilar pier
at the higher point of the bend on the fame fide, the fand or
gravel bank on the other fide would, in like manner, be
worn away, the bay on this fide be returned to its original
proprietor, ‘and the dtraight courfe of the river be regained ;
thenthe piers ought to be remoyed, whether they belong
to one or two proprietors; the latter havin nerally
a mutual intereit in direéting the river, mae arates
their properties, into a ftraight courfe, as much as can be
done. ;
It is fated, that in the.conftru@tion of a river-guide
for this purpofe, there are certan principles and par-.
ticulars of practice to be obferved. It is fuggeited that its
polition fhould be fuch as to produce the required effe@;
with the leaft degree of refiftance. For the current of a
river, as the waves of the fea, ought to be fubdued by
ftratagem rather than by force. Refiftance ferves but to
increafe their fury. A wave falling on a flat fhore, feems
to die without .a ttruggle; while one that is ftemmed by.an
abrupt rock ftrikes with tenfold force. And, in like
manner, a rapid river will glide {moothly along the fide of
an even bank, though it may fomewhat deviate from the
direct courfe ; without perceptibly difturbing the current,
or injuring the bank that direéts it, even though merely of
turf. But when a ftrong current meets with an abrupt
projection, or a fharp bend in its channel, its fury is roufed.
There, rock is fometimes barely fufficient to refit its force.
On thefe principles it is, therefore, conceived, that in ere&ting
a pier with this intention, it ought to be made to unite evenly
with the natural bank of the river above it, and, where the
required deviation from a ftraight line is confiderable, the
face of the pier ought to pafs off from the natural bank with
a fmooth hellow curve, that the force of the current may
not be checked. But its outer or lower end fhould be
itraight, or nearly fo, and be dire€ted, as a piece of ordnance,
to the object it is inteaded to deftroy—to the ob{truGtion it is
intended to remove ; and it may be obferved, that the nearer
it approaches this, the greater will be the aétion of the
current upon it, in times of flood; and the lefs liable the
ftream will be, at low water, to turn back into its former
channel. For, in cafes of this kiud, the current of a flood,
and that of low water, (if not better directed, ) take different
courfes, according to their heights and ftrengths. . The one
rufhes forward in the direction defired, the other, unable to
{urmount the obitruGion, and flagging for want of ftrength
at the point of the pier, doubles it ; and falls back into the
bay with an accelerated current ; direéted, perhaps, ftraight
to the injured bank ; and may thus increafe, perhaps, rather
than prevent, the injury. But in order to remedy this evil
effe&t, and to direct the current, at every height, into the
fame channel, it will generally be found right, where it can
be done, and at a reafonable expence, to cut a channel through
the obftruéting bank, large enough to admit the ftream at
low water; depofiting the materials which are raifed in
doing it at the point of the pier, and againft the foot of the
injured bank; by thefe means not only preventing further
injury to the lands en the oppofite fide, but greatly affifting
the a¢tion of the flood-currents to force their way through
the channel, and enlarge it; and, ina fhort time, lay open the
required courfe. “For although, by this, procedure, the bay
on that fide might not be fo readily and completely filled up,
as it would by fuffering the current to throw back the
ob{truGion, by degrees, in the manuer above reprefented ;
yet the advantage of putting an immediate ftop to the
ravages both of floods and of low water, might counterbalance
that defect; even though the pier were thereby rendered
neceflary to be kept up in perpetuity. The expence of the
cut may generally be faved in the required /ength of the pier ;
whofe ufe, in this cafe, is, merely that of giving an eafy
bend to the current ; fo as to enable it to find its own way
to
RIVER.
to the channel prepared for it. And the /frength required,
depends upon the weight of water, the force of the current,
and the angle of deviation from the given direétion of the
current immediately above. If the required direétion of the
pier be nearly the fame as that of the current above it, it
has, it is contended, little more than the weight of water to
fuftain. Whereas a jutmert run out, abruptly, into the
natural courfe of the current (as is commonly feen), has
not only the weight, but the force, of the water to with-
ftand ; and requires threefold, or tenfold, the ftrength of
ftruéture that is neceflary in the other cafe. Another
circumftance to be particularly regarded in this fort of
bufinefs, is the height of the conduétor. Where it is run
out from the bank into the channel of the river, in rather a
ftraight manner, and if it be not faifed high enough to pre-
vent the waters of floods from making their way over it, its
foundation may be endangered ; efpecially in a place where
the general fall of the river is confiderable. For an overfall
of water, unlefs it have a firm bafis to a€t upon, naturally
fcoops out a pit at the foot of the fall; and undermines the
precipice it tumbles over; feldom failing to let down fuch
as are conftruéted by art.
With refpeét to the means of obviating this effeGt, they
are three, one of which is to raife the pier high enough to
prevent the overfail; an expedient, however, which cannot
always be praétifed with propriety. Another is to form
the lower fide, or back part of the pier, with a fhelving or
flatly inclining furface, to break or elude the fall. And the
other, to prepare a convex floor behind the pier, for tke
waters to fallupon. This laft has been found fuccefsful in
tke writer’s own praétice. There is likewife another point
that demands particular care in the operator, which is that
of fecuring the point or outer end of the pier, not only at
the foundation, but in the fuperftru€ture. For although the
main current cannot, if the pier is judicioufly placed,
exercife its ftrength upon this part; yet, by reafon of the
weight of water there lofing its fupport, and part of it,
confequently, rufhing precipitately into the unguarded bay,
the lower end of the pier is peculiarly expofed to danger
in that way. It is fuppofed {carcely neceflary to add, that
the upper end of the pier ought to be deeply inferted in the
firm bank of the river, to prevent the current from infinuat-
ing itfelf behind the facing, or that the face of the pier
fhould be carried up with a fufficient batter, to give it
firmnefs; or that the foundation ought to be fecurely laid,
and to be kept feduloufly guarded in front, to prevent its
being undermined by the current. Rough ftones, thrown
down loofe, and witha flat fhelving furface, againft the foot
of the pier, are, in moft cafes, the beft guard, let its
materials be of what fort they may.
It is advifed, that the materials for this ufe fhould be
fuited to its occafion, where a choice is to be had. If alow
defence, only, is wanted, in a diftri€t where large rough
ftones are plentiful, along pile of loofe ftones, laid flatly
floping again{t the bank of the river, ora flat ridge run out
from it, may forma cheap and durable barrier. For fhould
they be difturbed by an extraordinary flood, they may be
readily replaced when the water fubfides. Where a tall
pier is required to direct a large and rapid river, in a
place where ftones and ftrong cement may be procured
at a moderate expence, mafonry may be eligible. But
in expofed fituations, at leaft, it ought to be guarded
with timber, efpecially at the top and the outer end
(as the piers of fea-ports, and the quays of navigable
rivers, are guarded), to defend thofe parts from injury
by ice, timber, or other large floating bodies, driven
againft them in times ef flood. And that where mafonry
cannot be ufed, but at a great expence, a caiffoon, formed
with pofts and planks of adequate dimeniions, and filled
with pebbles, gravel, or other indiffoluble materials, to
give ftability to the fabric, may be found to laft as long
as its fervices may be wanted ; and, in fome cafes, may be
removed while its materials may yet be valuable.
But this, though the prevalent method, is merely
palliative, and demands frequent repairs: it does not cure
the evil, or-bring back the loft property to the owner who:
has aright to it. Nor is it in fuch a cafe beneficial to a
rival owner, for the current, as has been fhewn, {weeping
circuitoufly along the banks of the bay, is thereby led to
direét its force againft the lands of the proprietor on this
fide, who cannot, under thefe circumftances, defend them
by the above means; but who mutt either fecure them
by a lengthened land-guard, or leave them at the mercy of
a {weeping current. It is therefore concluded, that, in a
cafe of this kind, it is evidently the beft intereft of an oppofite
proprietor to fuffer his fand-bank, or gravel-bed, to be cut
through, in the manner fuggefted, and that he ought to
affift in the operation; as he will thereby not only get
rid of the circuitous current, but, by the aétion of the
floods, in the ftraightened courfe, his bay will {carcely
fail to be filled up with the feattered materials that may be
removed.
There is another cafe in which this fort of pier or river-
guide may be made ufe of with fuccefs; which is that
where a ftream of the above defcription falls down a crooked
valley, and neceflarily takes, at certain points, a winding
courfe.
In this cafe, where the quantity of water is confiderable,
its fall rapid, and efpecially where it is condu&ted to the
bend on the farther fide down a ftraight, unobftru€ted reach,
fearcely any thing but natural rock can refift its force in
that part. In fuch fituations it is not unufual to fee earth-
banks fcooped out and undermined, until a perpendicular
cliff of twenty or thirty feet high be formed. But if a
pier be ereéted at the upper part of the bend, with an eafy
curve from the natural courfe above, fo as to bend the
current without éreaking it, and dire&t it into its natural
channel, in the valley below, it will have nothing to contend
with but the loofe gravel beds on the different fides, which,
if cut through, as in the former cafe, will prefently be torn
away, anda principal part of their materials be depofited in
the bays on each fide, but efpecially in the latter, or that on
this fide: fo that in this, as well as inthatcafe, both fides of
the river may be benefited by the alteration which is thus
produced. It is however flated, that there are cafes in
which nothing but an immediate fheath, or land-guard ap-
plied to the injured part, can be properly ufed to prevent
further depredations. As, firft, where the river is confined
in the part where it is required to be bent, by rocks or
otherwife, to an unaltered channel; as it frequently
is in fub-alpine fituations. And, fecondly, where a deep
pool occurs in that part at low water, fo as to render it dif-
ficult to get a proper foundation for a pier. It is obferved
that, in the former fituation, {tones are generally plentiful ;
and they require to be applied according to the circum-
{tances of the particular cafe. Where the foot of the in-
jured bank is covered with a pool at low water, it is advifed
to fhelve off the brink of the bank, and fhoot down loofe
{tones from the top of it; fuffering them to form their own
flope in the aétion of falling, and by the operation of fuc-
ceeding floods; continuing to pour them down until the
bank be fecured, at leaft from minor floods; and then to
flops
RIVER.
\
flope back the upper part, to give freedom to floods of
higher magnitude. But that where it is in the face of an
impetuous torrent, and at fome little diftance from it, a gravel
bed is thrown up, fo as to ‘lie dry during low water; yet
where lands, behind, are liable to the ravages of floods, as is
often the cafe, and efpecially where {tones are not plentiful,
- amore frugal arrangement of them may be made, by ufing
them aes to cafe the expofed bank, fo asto prevent the
currents of floods from laying eafy hold of it, and tearing
away the land. However, in this cafe much depends on
the plan and conftruétion of a fafeguard of this kind. It
ought to be every way convex; fo that the ftrength
of the current and the weight of the water may aé upon
it, as fuperincumbent preflure a€ts upon an arch. It fhould
bulge out, horizontally, towards the known current of
floods, (without regard to the courfe of the ftream at
low water, ) and the face of the wall ought to take the bar-
rel form. A crofs fe&tion of the ftone-work fhould refemble
afemi-arch, or, in dangerous fituations, it ought, it is con-
ceived, to fall back flatter than the quadrant pitch. For,
in general, the flatter it is made to lie, the more fecure it
will become ; but the fteeper it is carried up, the fewer ma-
terials, and the lefs labour, it will require. And in forming
a work of this nature, the foundation fhould be laid pretty
deép, to guard againft any accidental fcoopings of the
floods. The wall ought to be carried up dry, or without
mortar, the {tones being laid with their ends outwards, their
inner ends pointing to the fame centre, like thofe of an arch,
and to be backed with gravel or earth, rammed in firmly
behind as the facing is carried up. The coping, or upper-
moft courfe of the ftenes, fhould be fecurely bound with
thick tough fods (eight or ten inches deep), whofe furfaces,
when beaten down, ought to lie even with that of the ftone-
work ; and fimilar fods require to be laid, with a gentle
rifing flope, until they unite {moothly with the natural turf
of the landto be defended: fo that the waters of floods,
when they rife above the ftone-work, may have no abruptnefs
to lay hold of, but may pafs away {moothly over the fur-
face of the land, as they commonly do over fmooth green-
fward, without injury. And, lattly, that the ftones are to
be beaten forcibly into the bank witha rammer, a mallet,
or a {mall battering-ram adapted to the purpofe; thus ren-
dering the whole compa¢t and firm to refift the current.
Where vacancies or fiffures ftill appear, long fplinters of
ftone are to be driven in, as wedges, to increafe the firm-
nefs, and prevent the current from tearing out an unguarded
ftone. It follows, in courfe, that the largeft and longett of
the ftones ought to be ufed where the greateft refiftance is
known to be neceflary, in order that ic reater fecurity
may be attained. It is remarked that this i of defence,
like that of every other f{pecies of the river kind, requifes
to be attended to from time to time, efpecially after great
floods. If the foundation be laid bare, it requires to be re-
covered with rough gravel, or with {tones thrown loofely
againft it. If any of the facing ftones be difplaced, or
loofened, they are to be replaced with others, or to be
wedged in afrefh. Or if the turf which binds them at the
top be difturbed, the torn part fhould be cut out fquare, and
be firmly and completely filled up with frefh turves. It is
added, that this method of defence again{t rapid rivers ori-
ginated in the ingenious writer’s own experience and prac-
tice ; and that, when compared with a wooden guard, it is
cheap, fightly, and durable.
It is noticed further, that there are cafes of other kinds,
as thofe which are found in the {kirts or margins in the val-
lies of mountainous fituations, through the vidita of which
the rivers are found winding with devious courfes, or tracing
Vor. XXX.
the margins at the feet of the containing heights. In fome
inftances, they are confined in deep-funk se gee te whofe
banks they feldom overflow ; but, much oftener, their chan-
nels are funk a few feet only beneath the general furfaces
of the lands they pafs through. Hence, in high floods,
they may be {aid to be let loofe over the plains, to ravage
them at pleafure. Their immediate banks, however, are
generally the victims of their rage. Thefe they tear away,
and ranfack off their. better parts; fubftituting beds of
ftones and gravel, or perhaps their own channels, in the
ftead of what were, a few hours before, valuable lands.
And that there are inftances of mountain torrents, on rufh-
ing out of their confined channels into flat vale diftri@s, ra-
vaging many acres during a fingle flood. And to confine or
dire&t thefe, is, it is obferved, often a bufinefs of vait diffi-
culty and trouble.
In thefe cafes, the beft endeavour of the artift is gene-
rally, according to Mr. Marfhall, to give the river a dire&
or itraight-forward courfe, on its quitting its reftraining
channel, at its firft entrance into the area of the plain; and,
if no obftruétion lies in the way, to continue the ftraight
line to another retaining channel, at the lower end of the
area tobe improved: But that where the area is winding, or
fome obitruction rifes within it, fo that a ftraight line can-
not be drawn from the entrance to the outfall, an infuperable
difficulty may feem to fruftrate this mode of improvement ;
as the current requires to be bent, not only after it has en-
tered the plain, but after it has acquired an increafe of velo-
city by moving in a ftraight courfe. By actual praétice and
experience, he was led by another circumftance belonging to
it, to what may, perhaps, be confidered as a principle, in
conducting improvements of this nature. A itraight cut
into the middle was defirable: but the point of rifing-
ground rendered it impraéticable. Near the centre of the
flat, a large infulated fragment or iflet of rock rofe ten or
more feet above the level of the area; and at the lower end
of it, near the natural outlet of the river, a bank of rock
had formerly been wafhed by it. It -was eafy to perceive
that the infulated rock, which commanded both the extreme
points of the area, might be employed in uniting them; and
that, by the ufe of that rock the work might be rendered
complete. For, by opening a ftraight courfe to the rock in
the middle, and another from thence to the bank of rock at
the outlet, the current would be direéted, in another ftraight
line, to the outlet, and the {cite of improvement be entirely
freed from its injurious effets. He remarks, that it is in
few inftances that prominent rocks, firm enough to refift the
current of an impetuous river, rife in the areas of river-
worn plains. But that, on the fides of mountain vallies,
rocks are common ; and may, doubtlefs, in many inftances,
be employed to throw the river from fide to fide of a crooked
valley, in ftraight reaches ; as rays of light may be reflected
in continuation by well-placed mirrors. Even where natural
rock is not prefent, either in the area, or on the fides of
fuch a plain, or flat-bafed valley, rifing grounds may fre-
quently be found within the former, and are never wanting
on the fides of the latter. And, againft thefe, artificial
butments, of fufficient ftrength, may not unfrequently be
formed in alpine fituations, where ftones are generally plen-
tiful, without any very great expence.
It is obferved, in refpeé to the altering the it ofa river
or brook, that the difficulties and expence depend on the, par-
ticular circumitances belonging to it: In a fimple cafe, in
which one ftraight cut only is required, the principal diffi.
culty, and that which requires the beft fkill of the artift,
lies in dire&ting the current of the firft flood out of the old
into the new channel. But if a bend of the old channel,
Tt like
RIVER.
like that juft noticed in the above cafe, can be made ufe of,
this difficulty may be faid to vanifh. The mouth of the
new cut receives the current witha ftraight courfe ; confe-
quently, if it be made of fufficient capacity, the river ina
flood can have no propenfity left towards its old channel ;
and the loofe materials which rife in forming the mouth
of the new cut will generally be fufficient to turn the
ftream at low water into it. But if a fuitable bend
cannot be approached by the new cut, a directing pier,
like that in the above cafe, will be required to bend the
flood-current, and give it a ftraight-forward courfe into the
new channel ; a water-tight dam being formed between the
point of the pier and the firm bank of the new channel, to
prevent the water from regaining its former courfe or di-
rection. ,
But in regard to the cutting of the new channel, it is
merely a work of manual labour ; being attended with no
other difficulty than what may arife from the expence ; which
will depend on the fize of the river, the nature of the ground.
to be cut through, and the value of labour in the given
diftri@. . It is moftly to be afcertained with fufficient aecu-
racy, by previots calculations. And it is added that the
required fize of the new cutis {mall compared with that of
the old channel. For the currents of floods, by carrying
off the earthy particles with which they come in‘contaét,
will foon enlarge it. It is neverthelefs right, to give ample
room in the new channel, leit the firft flood fhould prove
high, and, by buriting its bounds, force its way back to its
former courfe. Therefore, in order to give the required
capacity to the new channel, and to allow ‘for its widening,
the materials which arife in making it ought to be formed into
regular embankments on either fide of it, and at fufficient
diftances from its brink, to obtain the above purpofes ; and,
moreover, to protect the adjacent lands from the injurious
effe&ts of unrettrained floods. And it is further fuggefted,
that anew river courfe requires to be carefully attended to,
during a few years after it is opened, to fee that its channel
preferves its {traightnefs, and-that no breaches are made or
threatened in its banks. And that, confidering the uncer-
tainty of extraordinary floods, it cannot be faid to be out of
danger in lefs than three years. Of courfe, in contracis for
thefe works, in thefe cafes they fhould be upheld tor that
time, and then delivered up in the ftate fixed upon in the
agreement. ;
There are {till other cafes of rivers in lowland fituations,
where the currents of them are generally fluggifh, and their
beds deep funk and narrow, with few fhoals or firm bafes
on which to found piers or bulwarks, and few ftones with
which to raife them ; and even if erected, the fluggifhnefs
of the current may render them ineffective. In thefe cafes
the banks are fteep, and often of the tenderett earths, liable
to the flighteft attacks of agitated water, ef{pecially near
their feet, where they are naked of vegetable covering.
Hence, it is from the frettings of the minor floods, or the
waves of the dead water which occupies the channel of a
river of this defcription, that its banks are worn away ;
efpecially at a bend which faces a length of reach, ia which
the waves have room to rife. Thele fretting again{ft. the
foot of the bank undermine it. ‘The face of the bank, in
confequence, fhoots down; and the proftrated foil is dif-
perfed by the next flood. Itis confequently obferved, that
the moft effential work, in a cafe of this.kind, is to guard
the foot of the bank up to the level, and fomewhat above |
the level of low water. And, this done, to flope back,
fmoothly, the upper part of the bank, to enable it the bet-
ter to fupport a vegetable covering, and withftand the at-
tacks of higher floods, as well as to render it lefs dangerous
to pafturing flock, and enlarge their field of pafturage.
And.that when, with the increafe of capacity, the channel
is {till unable to contain the waters of great floods, lines of
embankment may be raifed on either fide of it, with the foil
removed in forming the flopes ; and thus reftrain them within
due bounds. Likewife in particular parts, as at fharp
bends, when ordinary {ward, or pafturable turf, is not able
to prevent the current, in this trying fituation, from breaking
up the foil, it fhould be bound more fecurely together by
{tronger rooted plants; of which the ofier is {aid to be pro-
fitable to be planted upon the top of a richriver-bank ; but
it is altogether unfit to occupy its face for the purpofe here
required, though commonly ufed ; as it tends to counteraét
one of the intentions propofed in floping back the face of
the bank ; by filling up the {pace thereby prepared for the
waters of high floods to fpread in; and thus increafes the
current at the foot of the bank. A much more eligible and
effectual guard prefents itfelf, Mr. Marfhall fays, in the
furze, whofe roots not only form a mat of {trong fibres in
the foil, but bind it down to the fubftratum in a fingular
manner. Yet even the furze, if fuffered to run up to its
greateft height, may. fruftrate the intention of propagating
it. It ought, therefore, to be cut down from time to time
as fuel ; or to be .kept clofe mown, fo as to form an invul-
nerable fhield to the face of the flope. But it is obferved
that if we examine into nature’s praétice in guarding the
foil of river-banks, we fhall find it carried on with the betft
effect by the butter bur (¢uffilago petafites).
But in thefe cafes of fecuring the banks of rivers, Dr.
Anderfon has long fince given more full and ample direc-
tions. He remarks, that whema river runs in a bed of rich
vegetable mould, the leaft accident that may chance to di-
rect the flream towards any particular part of the bank,
caufes it to {weep away large tracts of fine ground, to the
very great detriment of the proprietor, as well as the public ;
as this fine mould is ufually carried to the fea, and the ma-
terials that the water leaves, to occupy the new bed that it
thus forms for itfelf, is generally of a much worfe quality,
conlifting chiefly of ftones, fand, and gravel. And that
where the whole force of the current is quite clofe to the
bank, and the materials neceflary for fencing it are not
to be there found, it may perhaps be impoflible, or very dif-
ficult, totally to prevent this evil: but, for the moft part,
it admits of a cure, that .can be obtained at a pretty mo-
derate expence. For if you carefully obferve the banks of
rivers, you will readily remark that thefe ravages are always
moft confiderable at thofe places where the banks rife per-
pendicularly to a pretty confiderable height above the or-
dinary furface of the water, and never at thofe places where
the banks fhelve down gradually towards the water’s edge:
for when the river is {welled to a great height by rains, and
runs with a greater force and rapidity than ufual, it flrikes
violently againft thefe perpendicular banks that direétly ope
pofe its courfe; and as they are compofed of earth, quite
bare and uncovered, they are eafily foftened by the water,
and quickly wafhed away; fothat the upper part of the
bank, being thus' undermined, falls by its own weight into
the river, and is carried off in prodigious quantities. But
when the river rifes to any confiderable height, it generally
glides along the furface of thofe parts of the bank which
fhelve gradually downwards to the water’s edge, which
being defended by the matted roots of the grafs, with which
it is covered, f{carcely fuftains any damage at all, and is
nearly the fame after the water has retired within its banks,
as before the inundation took place. He thinks that thefe
are fa&ts, which no one, who has beftowed the leaft atten-
tion to this fubject, can fail to have obferved ; and that they
I clearly
RIVER.
clearly point out, that the firft and moft neceflary ftep to-
wards a cure is to level down the edge of the bank that is
next the water, fo as to make it flope gradually down to-
wards the river. And that where the bank is very high,
and you have no other particular ufe for the earth that muft
be taken from it, the eafieft method of difpoting of it will
. be'to throw it into the river. But in whatever manner you
difpofe of the earth, the flope of the bank muft be continued
until the inner edge of it is as low as the furface of the wa-
ter, at the drieit time of the year, and be made to afcend
gradually upward from the water with an eafy flope, till it
comes to the level of the ground, or at leaft rifes to fuch a
height as the water never exceeds. And the work ought
to be performed as early in the f{ummer as poffible ; and the
flope fhould be either immediately covered with turf, pared
from the furface of fome field that has a very ftrong {ward
upon it, taking care to lay their ends in fuch a manner as
to be in as little danger as poffible of being wafhed away by
any accidental flood that might happen, before they are
grown together ; or, if turf of this kind cannot be had, it
fhould be fown very thick with the feeds of fome {mall mat-
rooted grafs, that fhould be kept in readinefs for that pur-
pofe, fuch as the creeping meadow-grafs. If the ftream
has not been extremely rapid at the foot of the bank, fome
of the earth that was thrown into the water will be allowed
' to fubfide to the bottom, and will there form a bed of loofe
foft earth, which will be of very great ufe afterward in
preventing the face of the bank under water from being
wafhed away. But in order to fecure this bulwark ef-
fectually for the future, the furface of this foft earth-ought
to be inftantly ftuck full of the ‘roots of bog-reeds, flags,
water-fpiderwort, rufhes, and other mat-rooted aquatic
plants; which, if allowed to remain till they have once
ftruck root, will afterward form a barrier that nothing will
ever be able to deftroy. It is added, however, that if the
itream be too rapid to admit of this, and the bank of foft
earth much deeper than the furface of the water, it will be
of great ufe to fill up the breaft of the bank with {mall loofe
ftones, with a little earth intermixed among them, carelefsly
thrown in till they rife near the furface of the water, which
would moft effectually fecure it againft any future encroach-
ments, if the bank is floped away above. It is further
ftated, that*in cafe it fhould fo happen that ftones cannot
be eafily got for this purpofe, the only recourfe is to dig
the bank fo low, as that at the undermoft edge it may be
always below the furface of the water, and carry it out in
this way for a confiderable diftance; and then ftick the
whole furface, that is below the water, full of mat-rooted
aquatic plants, itrewing it over, if poflible, with a thin bed
of {mall gravel or fand, as convenient, which will ina great
meafure, if not entirely, defend it from future encroach-
ments. And this bank ought to continue to fhelve down-
wards, even where it is below water; and thofe aquatics
that will grow in the greateft depth of water be planted on
the innermoft bank, and.the others behind them. The
water-{piderwort will grow in four feet depth of water;
and the roots of the common yellow-flowered water iris
forms fuch a {trong and compact covering, upon the furface
of the foilon which it grows, as would defend that foil from
being affected by the water almoft as well as if it were a
rock. It is likewife an advantage attending this plant,
that it grows upon a firm bottom, and chiefly delights in
running water. But where the {tratum of foft earth is not
fo deep as to reach to the furface of the water, and lies
upon a ftratum of rock or hard gravel, there will be no oc-
cafion for throwing in ftones of any kind. But as it is dif-
ficult to unite the vegetable mould to any of thefe itrata,
there will always be fome danger of its feparating fron:
them, in-violent inundations ; and if the water once gets an
entry, the breach will not fail to grow larger and larger by
every inundation. ‘To prevent this inconvenience, it. will
be neceffary, 2fter you have floped the earth away till you
reach the gravel or rock, to cover the place where the edge
of the earth joins the inferior ftratum with a good many
{mall ftones, if they can be found, fowing between them
the feeds of any kind of plants that you think are moit
likely to thrive, which have flrong matted roots, with as
{mall and flexible tops as poflible. But where the obje@ is
of great importance, it will be ftill more effeGtually fecured,
if the face of the rock be dug entirely away for fome dif-
tance backward, and the place which that rock originally
occupied be then filled up with earth, and floped back in
the fame manner as if it had been an earthen bank, in which
no rock was te be found. In all operations of this fort,
great care fhould be taken that no ftones fhould be mixed
with the mould ; for every thing that makes an inequality
on the furface, or a difference in the firmnefs of particular
parts, is extremely pernicious. It is evident, that from the
impoflibility of ever making earth adhere firmly to ftone of
any kind, it muit always be an improper practice to face the
banks of a river to a certain height with itone, which is
capped at top with earth; as it muft always be liable to be
removed. This method has been fince found to an{wer per-
fe&ly in actual trials in fuch cafes.
There is, the fame author obferves, arother mifchief pro-
duced by the {welling of rivers, from the water overflowing
the rich flat ground, that is frequently met with on the fides
of them, which fometimes prevents them from being got
laboured at the proper feafon, fometimes {weeps off at once
the whole crop, and fometimes deitroys it by covering the
whole furface with ftones and gravel, to the unfpeakable de-
triment of the poffeffors of {uch ground. And as thefe
lands, fometimes termed haughs, are generally very rich and
fertile, and fometimes of great extent, the damage that is
done by not getting them properly cultivated is very con-
fiderable. In refpeét to the mode of removing this fort of
inconvenience, it 1s remarked that thefe haughs are feldom
of great extent, excepting on level tracks, where the water
runs with a0 impetuous current; and, therefore, they may
in general be preferved by means of a floping bank, raifed
all along the fide of the river, as far as the haugh extends,
which, if formed by the fame plan as thofe defcribed above,
will eafily confine the water within their boundaries, till it
rifes fo high as to overflow the top of the bank; fo that if
thefe are raifed to a fufficient height towards the back part,
in fuch a manner as to be capable of containing the whole
of the water that at any time flows down the river, the
fields on each fide will be effe&tually fecured. And that
where the furface of the ground in the haugh is at any con-
fiderable height above the water in the river, the bank may
perhaps be raifed to the neceflary height, by throwing the
earth that is taken from the brink of the river to the other
fide of the bank, fo as to form the new furface of the bank
on that direction, inftead of the old-furface. But if the
furface of the ground is level on the oppofite fide of the
river, the earth that is taken from the triangle in the whole
will not, in that cafe, be fufficient to fill up the whole of
the other triangle, and raife the bank to a proper height ;
to make up which deficiency, it will be ueceflary to dig a
ditch at the back of the bank, throwing the earth into the
higher part of the bank, and facing up the line with ftones
or turf, fo as to make it become a fence to one fide of the
field that it preferves from inundations, However, where
the furface of the ground is extremely low, fo as to a but
tz ittle
REV
little above the level of the water, then, inftead of raifing
the bank on each fide to the proper height, it will be more
advifeable to rajife them only to the height of a particular
line; as, in that cafe, it would be very difficult to find as
much earth as would form both the banks, although there
will be no difficulty in forming the fmaller one; and as the
areas of the two are equal, thefe lower banks will contain an
equal quantity of water within them, as the higher ones
would have done; the greater width between them making
up for their want of height. And it is conceived, that in
this way it will be in the. power of any man fo to propor-
tion his banks to the circumftances in which he finds him-
felf placed, as in the eafieft manner to accomplith his defign :
for if he has plenty of materials at hand, he may rear his
banks to a greater height, and confine the river to a nar-
rower courfe; and if he finds a deficiency in that refpeét,
he may make them of a fmaller height, and allow the river
to fpread to a greater breadth. It is added, in concluding
this account, that this method has been found to anfwer
very well in a@tual practice ; but that, in fome cafes, it was
found that while the bank was new. raifed, and before the
furface was grown together, fome parts of that furface were
broke a little, when the water rofe to a great height. In
this cafe, the bank confifted entirely of loofe fand, which is
the worft material it could be formed of ; but this was eafil
repaired, at a very {mall expence, when the water fubfided.
If thefe fmall breaches, however, had been neglected, there
is no doubt but the whole would quickly have been de-
ftroyed. It was found that a few {mall ftones, laid upon
the furface of the fward, near the edge of the water, proved
in this cafe a very ufeful addition. In cafes where the
fward is firm, this caution would have been unnecellary.
Whoever attempts this mode of fencing, fhould take care to
provide themfelves. with a fufficient quantity of the feed of
the plant, ufually called /prots in Scotland, to fow near the
edges of the water; for thefe other kinds of grafles are
fhelled ,; and without this precaution, the furface remains
bare, and is therefore liable to be wafhed away with the
water, during the time of floods.
There are other cafes in which attention is fometimes ne-
ceffary to rivers, which are in thofe of the vale kinds, which
run in very ferpentine or crooked direétions. In thefe cafes
it is fometimes proper to ftraighten them, though it is but
in few inftances, Mr. Marfhall thinks, that this can be done
with propriety and advantage, in refpeét to profit. And
though the principles and management are the fame in the
execution, there is much difference from the want of fuitable
materials, &c.
The inftances in which the courfes of rivers that have
their beds greatly funk below the general level of the fur-
face of the lands, as five or fix yards, may be ftraightened
in a profitable manner, are, it is obferyed, where two reaches,
or ftraight parts, run in a line with each other; but are fe-
parated by a narrow neck of an extenfive traét.
Tn this cafe nothing more is required than that the earth
which is taken out of the new cut, fhould be thrown into the
ends of the old bed, by which the ftream, both at low water and
in time of flood mutt poffefs a ftraight unimpeded courfe.
And by this means the proprietor on this fide not only ob-
tains an acquifition of ground in the old river bed for differ-
ent'purpofes, but on his own fide of the river gains a length
of ftraight ground for the plough or fcythe. But at the
time this proprietor is thus benefited, the property on the
other fide may be injured ; as by fhortening the length, and
that of ftraightening the dire€tion of the river, the force
of its ftream or current at the upper bend may be confi-
derably increafed, and the land there greatly endangered.
REV
Hence Mr. Marfhali thinks, that this obvious alteratios
fhould not be undertaken, except under the fanction of a
commiflion of drainage, or till the proprietor below be in-
demnified for the injury that may be fuftained. It is fug-
gefted, that in the above inftance, half of the bed of the
old river might be a fufficient indemnification. There is,
however, a great variety of {mall itreams and rivulets in the
bottoms of iteep declivities, that have fuch winding and
ferpentine courfes, that they might be ftraightened with not
only profit, but vaft advantages to the lands on the different
fides. In many fituations it 1s difgraceful to fee the dettruc-
tion and injury that is caufed by thefe little winding
ftreams in the time of floods, and when they are in high
water.
The proper protection and management of river-banks is
unguetftionably a work of great intereft and importance in
many inftances; as they are very liable to be extenfively
deftroyed by the {treams, and much lofs of valuable land to
be thereby produced, as well as to be the caufe of frequent
difputes and litigations between neighbouring landholders.
Rivers for the moft part form the moit tedious, troublefome,
and indifferent boundaries of any betwixt landed pro-
perties. :
The fubje&t of guarding and fecuring their banks has
hitherto been but little underftood, either in theory or
practice, though it obvioufly requires equal, if not more
attention, than any other rural practice, as being very
ferious in its.confequences, both as to the mifchiets, and
the ineffectual, though expenfive, modes of preventing them.
The pratical directions that have been given above fhould
therefore be well confidered, as they may fave much labour
and expence, when well applied ; as well as prevent a va-
riety of difputes, and the frequent lofs of much ufeful land.
Plans of the methods of accomplifhing the work in different
cafes, may be feen in the fecond volume of the Farmer’s
DiGtionary.
Before undertakings of this nature are begun, proper
plans and eftimates of expence and profits fhould conitantly,
as has been feen, be prepared, and contra¢ts, where poflible,
entered into for their execution with perfons of experience,-
always binding them to uphold the works for a certain num-
ber of years afterwards ; as by thefe means much money,
timber, labour, and unneceflary trouble, will be faved,
which would otherwife be thrown away, and the works be
improperly managed. Befides, the means will be properly
proportioned to the ends which are defigned, in all cafes. The
intereft of oppofite proprietors will likewife often be fhewn
to be one and the fame, which will greatly promote fuch
works in different inftances. See EMBANKMENT.
River Guards, terms applied to fuch piers, mounds, or
other folid embankments, as are carried out for the purpofe
of altering, directing, or confining, the courfes of rivers.
They are diftinguifhed into common, and what are termed
dwarf guards ; the former being thofe employed for large
rivers, and the latter, fuch as are made ufe of where the
force of the currents are lefs violent. and lefs heavy.
With regard to the fubftances that are moit commonly
made ufe of in this intention, they are all forts of hard
weighty materials, fuch as rough coarfe ftones of different
kinds, large pebbles, heavy pieces of timber fecured by
piles firmly driven into the ground, and fupported behind
by coarfe gravel {tones, or other fimilar materials, the roots
of trees with the earth about them, pofts firmly driven in
with planks nailed to them, and well banked with ftrong
fubftances, piles driven in and wattled with fods, being well
banked with the fame fubftances. Befides thefe, various
other materials are prefented to the attention of the work-
3 men
RIV
men in different fituations and circumftances where thefe
forts of guards are wanting.
River Guide, a ftrong work of the pier kind, carried
out on them for the purpofe of difpofing their {treams to
take more fuitable dire€tions or courfes for preventing
their mifchievous effets on the banks or lands on their fides.
See River-Banks, Securing.
River Weeds, in Farming, are fuch forts of plants as
grow on the fides, and other parts, of rivers. When col-
jeéted in large quantities, they are highly valuable for the
purpofe of manure. And in compoft with other fub-
itances they have been found of much utility in the praétice
of feveral writers in the TranfaCtions of the Bath fociety.
And Mr. Crowe, of Lakenham, in Norfolk, according to
Mr. Young’s agricultural furvey of that diftriét, manures
four acres annually for turnips, with the weeds of a river
that runs by his farm; the plants are chiefly the philandrium
aquaticum, and fium nodiflorum, the water hemlock and
water par{nip. It is {tated that he lays twenty loads of thirty
buthels per acre, and ploughs in direétly ; which are as good
on fand and mixed loam as the beft dung ; but not equal on
{tiff foils; and it is added, that Mr. Bloomfield, of Billing-
fold, has been in the habit of manuring his turnip lands with
weeds frefh from the river, and ploughed in quickly ; they
have an{wered as well as yard muck.
But where thefe forts of materials are made ufe of for the
purpofe of manure, the plants fhould be removed while in
their moft fucculent green tate, and be turned into the foil
as quickly as poffible afterwards. In the making of them up
into compotts, a great lofs is probably futtained in the ex-
trication and diffipation of the more fluid parts. And it is
obvious, that as manure they mutt be the moft ufeful when
applied to the light friable defcriptions of foils, as in thefe
they run more rapidly into a ftate of putrefaction. It is
probable they cannot be ufed with advantage on the {tiff
heavy foils in their green ftate. See Manureand WeEps.
River, Fordable, in Military Language, a river which
may be pafled without the affiftance of any floating
machines. In order to found the ford, and to afcer-
tain the ftate of it, men on horfeback are firft ordered to
crofs. By that means you will be able to know whether
any obitacles have been thrown in the way by the enemy ;
for nothing is more eafily effected. The paflage of a
ford may be rendered impratticable by throwing whole
trees in, by tables or platforms covered with nails, and
by ftakes. The two latter impediments are the mott
dangerous. But itakes are not eafily fixed, and are confe-
quently feldom ufed. When fords are embarraffed by them,
it requires fome time and trouble to clear the river ; and it
is equally difficult to get rid of the inconvenience that arifes
when wells have been funk. Whenever there is reafon- to
apprehend fuch obitacles, -it is always beft to reach the ford
at dufk.
When the prinee of Condé, in 1567, refolved to crofs the
river Seine, the Royalifts, who were on the oppofite fide, en-
deavoured to prevent his paffage by throwing quantities of
madriers or thick planks that were nailed together, iron
hoops and water-cats into the ford: The Huguenots or
Proteftants, however, were not diverted from their pur-
pofe. Aubigné, a French writer, fays, that on that oc-
cafion they placed 400 arquebufiers upon the bank to protect
the men that raked the ford.
This was certainly a fingular method which was ufed to
clear a ford, nor could it be done without much difficulty,
and no inconfiderable fhare of danger. The chevalier Fo-
lard has propofed a much fafer, anda much eafier way, by
means of grappling hooks, tied to long ropes, which might
Riv
be thrown into the ford. Yet evenin this cafe, obferves the
writer, the objeé& could not be accomplifhed if the river
were broad, unlefs the perfons employed ia the undertakin
be under the cover of fo heavy a difcharge of ordnance and
mufquetry, that the enemy would not be able to interrupt
them, even from an intrenched pofition on the oppofite
bank.
With refpeét to caltrops, the removal of them, when
properly diftributed at the bottom of a ford, muft be at-
tended with great difficulty ; for they muft render the paf-
fage abfolutely impraéticable, unlefs they were to fink very
deep into the mud and fand, and thus become ufelefs. The
men that firft enter are in this cafe the only perfons incom- ~
moded, but the reft may follow without much hazard.
It fometimes happens, that the bottom of a ftream or
rivulet is firm and gravelly ; when this occurs, the greateft
precautions mutt be taken to efcape the effeéts of caltrops,
which would be extremely hurtful to any perfons that might
attempt to crofs. In order to obviate their mifchievous
confequences, and torender them in amauner ufelefs, a good
{tock of hurdles mutt be provided. The foldiers will hand
thefe to one another, force them into the water, and then
cover them with {ftones.
When one or two’fords ina river are fo fituated, that
feveral battalions cannot crofs them upon one front, it is
then highly prudent to throw a bridge over, either above or
below the ford; for a {well may intervene and render it
otherwife impaflable ; add to which, you have the advantage
of getting a greater number of troops over at once.
In order to effet a paflage for his army over the river
Segre, Cefar gave direétions that ditches, thirty feet broad,
fhould be dug in fuch parts of the banks as might, with eafe,
receive the water out of the ftream, and render it fordable.
Having accomplifhed this objeét, he found no difficulty in
reaching Petréius, who, being in the daily fear of wanting
provifions and forage for his men, was on the eve of quitting
his pofition and marching forwards.
The paflage of the Granicus by Alexander the Great, is
likewife mentioned in hiftory, as an inftance of bold enter-
prife. But however celebrated that a€t may be in ancient
records, we fhall not be thought partial to the moderns when
we itate, that the paflage of the river Holowitz by Ch. XII.
of Sweden, was equally bold and well managed.
The paflace of the Teglimenti by Bonaparte during his
campaign in Italy, is the moft celebrated of the prefent day.
River Bay, n Geography, a bay on the N.E. coaft of
Barbadoes ; two miles N.W. of Cuckold’s Point.
River’s Canal, an inlet on the N.W. coaft of North
America, difcovered by Capt. Vancouver in the year 1792.
This canal extends from §. to N. about 16 miles, and termi-
nates in N, lat. 51° 42’. E. long. 232° 22!.
River of the Weft, a river of North America, which
runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 43°18’. W. long. 122°
30!.
River Horfe, in Zoology. See Hiprpoporamus.
River Navigations, in Hydrology, denote thofe which
are wholly or in a great part reitri¢ted to the ancient chagnel
or bed of ariver. See CANAL.
River, New. See Cana and Company.
RIVERHEAD, in Geography, atownfhip of New York,
in Suffolk county, Long ifland; it was taken from the
townfhip of Southold, incorporated in 1792, and contains
1501 inhabitants.
RIVERIUS, Lazarus, in Biography, a diftinguifhed
phyfician of the 17th century, was born at Montpellier in
the year 1589. He ftudied in his native univerfity, but was
very flow in his attainments, infomuch that he failed in his
firft
Ril V .:
firft examinations for his degree. This failure, however,
occafioned him to redouble his exertions, and he gave fufi-
cient proofs of his acquirements in the following {pring,
1611, when he was admitted to the degree of doétor. His
attachment to ftudy became very great ; and in 1622 he
was appointed to the profeflorfhip of medicine in the uni-
verfity, an office which he continued to fill with great honour
during the remainder of his life. He died in the year 1655.
Riverius publifhed “The Inftitutes of Medicine,’’ in five
books, in Latin, of which there are many editions, and
which muft be deemed a very refpetable work for the time.
But his principal work, and that which has gained him con-
fiderable reputation, is a courfe of medicine, entitled
“ Praxis Medica.”? The firft publication of this work
confifted of a mere practical. treatife, without any patho-
logical difeuflion, as a fort of text-book, ufed in his lec-
tures. But finding that many editions of it were printed in
France and Holland, he enlarged and improved it, and it
was printed in this ftate at Paris in 1640, and a great num-
ber of editions have fubfequently appeared, as well as
tranflations into French and Englifh. It treats of mott of
the difeafes to which the body is fubjeét, in feventeen books,
ina clear ftyle; but in many places he appears to have
borrowed copioufly from Sennertus. He publifhed alfo a
work, entitled «« Obfervationes Medice et Curationes in-
fignes,’? which has been frequently reprinted, and is not
now without its value. Thefe works have been colleGed,
and publifhed together, under the title of « Opera Medica
Univerfa.”? Eloy obferves, that a friar, Bernardin Chriftin,
who had been a pupil of Riverius, compiled fome fetrets of
chemiftry, which he publifhed with the name of Riverius ;
and although it has been clearly proved that he was not the
author of thefe papers, yet they have been frequently
printed, in the collections of his works, and feparately,
under the title of «* Arcana Riverii.”” Eloy Di&. Hitt. de
la Med.
RIVERS, Carer, in Geography, the N.W. point of the
ifland of Celebes. N. lat. 1° 25’. E. long. 120° 30!.
RIVES, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of St. Mar-
cellin; 14 miles N.W. of Grenoble. The place contains
1530, and the canton 12,019 inhabitants, on a territory
of 115 kiliometres, in 12 communes.
RIVESALTES, atown of France, in the department
of the Eaftern Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Perpignan ; fix miles N.N.W. of Perpignan.
The place contains 1986, and the canton 10,036 inhabitants,
on a territory of 4224 kiliometres, in 14 communes.
RIVET pe 1a GrancGe, ANTHONY, in Biography, a
French Benedictine monk, was born at Confolens, a {mall
town belonging to the diocefe of Poitiers, in the year 1683.
Afterwards he was fent to ftudy philofophy under the
Jacobins, or Dominican monks at Poidtiers, where he gaye
the greatett {atisfation by his application and proficiency.
At the age of 21, he became a noviciate in the abbey of
Marmoutier, and took the vows in the year 1705. After
completing his courfes of philofophy and divinity, he was
transferred to the abbey of St. Florence, at Saumur, where
his order was eftablifhing a kind cf academy, confitting of
fuch members as were mott diftinguifhed by their talents and
literature, for the purpofe of Piavide the {criptures in
their original languages, the councils, the fathers, and the
hiftorians of the church, without being fhackled by the
trammels of the fchools) He undertook to write “ A Lite-
rary Hiftory of France,’’ the plan of which he had already
conceived. However,. before he became wholly occupied
on this work, he gave to the public, through the medium
Rol:
ot the Dutch prefs, another favourite produétion, entitled
«* The Necrology of Port-Royal in the Fields, &c. con-
taining hiftorical Eulogies ; with the Epitaphs of the
Founders and Benefactors of that Monaftery, &c.”? 1723,
4to., preceded by an hiftorical preface. In the year 1733
he publifhed the firft volume of his‘work under the title of
«The Literary Hiftory of France; treating of the Origin
and Progrefs, of the Decline and the Revival, of Learning
among the Gauls and among the French ; of their refpeétive
Tafte and Genius for Literature in each Age; of their an-
cient Schools, and the Eftablifhment of Univerfities ia
France; of the principal Colleges ;.of the Academies of
Sciences and Belles-Lettres, &c.’’ in 4to. This was fol-
lowed, at different periods, by other volumes, till the author
had printed the ninth, which includes the firft years of the
twelith century, when he died, towards the beginning of
1749, in the 66th year of hisage. This work was after-
wards extended to twelve volumes. It has been compared,
and not undefervedly, with the “¢ Memoirs’’ of the learned
Tillemont, for accuracy of citation, and depth of refearch,
and it will be found to furnifh the reader with much inte~
re{ting matter, not only on the fubje&ts mentioned in the
title, but alfo relating to the lives of the learaed men who
flourifhed in the ages of which it treats.
Rivet, in the Manege, is the extremity of the nail that
refts or leans upon the horn when you {hoe a horfe.
Rivets, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to a
fort of bearded wheat.- See WHEAT. :
In Effex, throughout all the diftriét of the Roodings,
this fort of wheat is found very general, and to yield much
better crops on thete heavy lands, than any common fort ;
but on the more light foils the Kentifh red is fuperior.
RIVIERA, or Paresr, in Geography, a town of Italy ;
five miles N. of Bellinzona.
Riviera di Levante, aname given to that part of Genoa
which extends from the city of Genoa, included in it, to
Etruria. 5 :
Riviera di Ponente, that part of the Genoefe territory
which extends we{tward from the city of Genoa to France.
Rivigra, La, a town of France, in the department of
the Doubs; 10 miles S. of Ornans.
RIVIERE, Granpr. See Granp River.
Riviere Pelote, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Martinico.
Rivirrr Salée, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Martinico.
Riviere Mahaut, La, a town.of the ifland of Gua-
daloupe, fituated in a bay to which it gives name. N. lat.
16° 27'. W. long. 61° 46!. i
Riviere de Theyrargues, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gard; 14 miles N.N.W. of Uzés.
Riviere de Thibouville, a. town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure, 18 miles N.W. of Eure. }
RIVINA, in Botany, was ic named by Plumier, in ho-
nour of the great German fyltematic botanift ; fee Rrvinus.
Linneus at firft called the genus Rivinia, which would have
been more correét, but he did not perfift in the amendment,
nor has it prevailed.—Linn. Gen. 63. Schreb. 87. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1.694. Mart. Mill. Di&.v.4.° Ait. Hort.
Kew. v..1-.273. Jufl. 84. Plum. Gen. 47.,t. 39. La:
marck Illuftr. t. 81. Gertn. t. 77.—Clafs and order, Te-
trandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn.' Airi-
plices, Juil. See Prercea.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, coloured, permanent ; -
of four obovate, obtufe leaves. Cor. none, except the ca-
lyx be fo called. Stas. Filaments four or eight, fhorter
than the calyx, approaching each other m pairs, perma-
nent ;
RIV
nent ; anthers fmall. Pi/?. Germen {uperior, large, roundith ;
flyle very fhort: itigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Berry glo-
bofe, ftanding on the reflexed calyx, (whichis hardened and
become gxeen,) of one cell, and crowned with a little in-
curved point. Seed folitary, roundifh, lenticular, rough.
Eff. Ch. Calyx coloured, in ‘four deep fegments, per-
manent. Corollanone. Berry with one lenticular feed.
~ Obf. The error of Linnzus in fubfequently terming co-
rolla, what he had, with indubitable propriety, called calyx,
is difficult to be accounted for. He is followed by Willde-
now, who has mifled Dryander and Aiton. The natural
order of the plant, as fettled by Linnzus himfelf, determines
the queftion without appeal.
1. R. humilis. Downy Rivina, Linn. Sp. Pl. 177.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Amaranthus baccifer, circee
foliis; Comm. Hort. v. 1. 127. t. 66.)—Stamens four.
Leaves downy.—Native of the Weft Indies. Common in
our ftoves for above a century paft, flowering at moit parts
of the year, and always decorated with drooping clufters of
little berries, of a peculiarly bright fcarlet, which make
the chief beauty of the plant. The /lem is bufhy, fhrubby,
three or four feet high. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate,
acute, entire, thin, flaccid, light green, downy, about three
incheslong. Cluflers from the forks of the branches, folitary,
downy, of many {mall, greenifh-white, drooping flowers. .
2. R. /evis. Smooth Rivina. Linn. Mant. 41. Willd.
n. 2. Ait. n. 2.—Stamens four. Leaves ovate, pointed,
even, fmooth. Stem round.—Native of the Weft Indies.
Flowers in the ttove, moft part of the year. Cultivated by
Miller in 1733. difon. Like the foregoing, but {mooth.
Margins of the /eaves purplifh. F/owers reddifh at the out-
fide.
3- R. brafilienfis. Wave-leaved Rivina. Noeca in Uf-
tert Annal. fafc. 6. 63. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3.—“ Sta-
mens four. Leaves ovate, undulated and rugged. Stem
furrowed.’’—Native of Brazil. Introduced at Kew by fir
Jofeph Banks, in 1790. It blofloms in the ftove in June
and July. Stem fhrubby. eaves ovate, or heart-fhaped,
wavy, {mooth. F/owers white or reddifh. Berry round,
of a fhining red.
4. R. ofandra.' Climbing Rivina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 177.
Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. (R. dodecandra; Jacq. Obf.
fafc. 1. 6.t. 2. R. farmentofa, &c.; Browne Jam. 149.
t. 23. f. 2.)—Stamens eight or twelve. Leaves elliptic-
oblong, {mooth.—Native of the Weft Indies. Cultivated
by Milter, before 1752. It flowers in the ftove in May and
June. Aiton. The flem is defcribed by Jacquin as very tall,
though flender, throwing out long flender fhoots, amongtt
other fhrubs and bufhes. Leaves entire, acute at each end.
Caly« white, turning to a purplifh-red. Berry dark pur-
ple, the fize of apea, eagerly devoured by birds. -Jacquin.
R. paniculata, Linn. Sylt. Nat. ed. 10. v. 2. 899, though
retained as fuch by Murray, in Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 165, is
no other than Sa/vadora perfica, as cited in Linn. Sp. Pl. 178.
This being removed from Rivina, the character of « fimple
clufters”’ Fie the remaining f{pecies, being common to all,
becomes fuperfluous.
Rivina, in Gardening, contains plants of the fhrubby
evergreen kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are ; the
downy rivina (R. humilis) ; the {mooth rivina (R. levis) ;
and the climbing rivina (R. o¢tandra).
Method of Culture.—All thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds procured from the places where they are natives,
fowing them, as foon as they are obtained, in pots filled with
frefh light earth, plunging them in a hot-bed when in fum-
mer, but in the tan-bed of the ftove, in the autumn or
winter. © The earth fhould be well moiftened during the
RW
fummer feafon, but vety f{paringly in the winter. They
fhould be carefully preferved in thefe fituations till the feeds
vegetate, which is often a great length of time, of courfe
the pots fhould not be difturbed. When the plants have at-
tained about two inches in growth, they may be removed into
feparate {mall pots, filled with light loamy mould, plunging
them into ahot-bed, fhading them till frefh rooted.
They afterwards require the management of other ftove
exotic plants.
They may likewife fornetimes be raifed by layers and
cuttings, aflifted by the heat of the bark hot-bed.
After thefe plants have been preferved in the ftove of the
hot-houfe till they have attained a good growth and ftrength,
they are capable of being preferved in moderate warmth in
winter, and in the warme(t part of furamer in the open air,
in a warm fheltered place. rict
§ Bes afford variety among other potted evergreen ftove
plants.
_ RIVINI Foramsn, in Anatomy, a fuppofed opening
in the membrana tympani of theear. See Ear.
RIVINUS, Auveustus Quirinus, in Biography, an
eminent phyfician, but much better known as a botanift,
formed, with Ray and Tournefort, the triumvirate of fy tte-
matical teachers, who, in the latter part of the 17th cen-
tury, and the beginning of the 18th, divided the homage
of the itudents of botany between them. Their import-
ance arofe from the neceflity, which nobody could overlook,
of a methodical arrangement of plants; but even the me-
mory of their labours has now almoit pafled away, becaufe
thofe labours proved, all nearly alike, infufficient for the
defired purpofe. The fervices they have rendered to prac-
tical {cience {till indeed remain ; and the laurels which {pring
from that foil are unfading. Of thefe Rivinus may claim a
fhare, though by no means an equal portion, with his
Englifh, or his French, contemporary. He endeavoured in
vain to bring his German {quadrons, with any great force,
into the botanical field ; while the pupils of Ray, as well as
of Tournefort, poured forth in abundance; and by their
own proficiency difplayed the merits of their refpeétive
leaders.
Rivinus was the fon of a learned phyfician and critic, An-
drew Bachmann, whofe name, according to the fafhion of
the time amongft literary people, being tranflated into
Latin, became Rivinus. The fubjeét of our memoir was
born at Leipfic in 1652. He graduated at the age of
twenty-four, and fifteen years afterwards obtained the pro-
feflorfhips of Phyfiology and of Botany in his native univer-
fity. He became a foreign member of the Royal Society of
London, and was aflociated with many other learned bodies,
filling his different appointments with honour to himfelf, till
his death in 1723, at the age of feventy-one. His publica-
tions fhew him in the light of an elegant fcholar and a gen-
tleman; and if he betrayed a little impatience in his contro-
verfies with Ray, and fomewhat of difdainful feverity to-
wards Dillenius, who, when a young man, had attacked
him ; the latter fault, at leaft, may be pardoned, in one
who had attained fo confiderable a rank in fcience, and who
yperhaps had fagacity enough to feel that Dillenius had no
{yftematical talents at all commenfurate with his own.
Having propofed to himfelf three great objects ; a commo-
dious claffifieation of plants; a compendious nomenclature ;
and an univerfal delineation of f{pecies, as far as they came
under his own obfervation, be might perhaps not be very
patient of contradiGion from thofe whom he thought more
able to hinder than to affift him. The fame apology may be
made for many philofophers, who unjuftly incur the charge
of petulance, or of pride.
The
‘
RLY
‘The botanical fyftem of Rivinus is founded on the moft
elegant and attra¢tive, if not the moft folid and important,
parts. of plants. “His clafles are marked by the number, the
regularity, or irregularity, of the petals. He could not
proceed far in this path without perceiving that he made moft
unnatural, and, as Haller juftly terms them, paradoxical,
combinations. He therefore aflerted, and doubtlefs be-
lieved, the inutility and impra¢ticability of a really natural
claffification. This principle brought him to one right con-
clufion, which even the philofophical Ray did not attain, or
was afraid to admit, that the old primary diftribution of
vegetables into trees, fhrubs, and herbs, is unfcientific and
erroneous.
Rivinus publifhed, at his own expence, in 1690, his
{plendid illuttration of the firft clafs of his fyftem, com-
prifing fuch plants as have a monopetalous irregular flower.
Thefe are the ringent flowers of Linneus, accompanied by
the Scitaminee, and even by drum. This part confilts of
one hundred and twenty-five plates ; but though each plate
often contains more than one plant, the intelligent reader
will perceive how imperfect the catalogue of {pecies muit
be. A learned Jntroductio generalis in rem herbariam is pre-
fixed; and this introdutory part was, at different times,
republifhed in a fmaller form. The fecond part of the
fumptuous work of which we are {peaking, came forth in
1691. This confiits of. one hundred and twenty-one plates,
of plants with four irregular petals; into which clafs, by
means of fome contrivance, and-many grains of allowance,
are admitted all the papilionaceous tribe, the cruciform
genus Jberis, the Euphorbia, and a few things befides.
The genus laft named is referred rather arbitrarily to this
clafs, merely becaufe its italked pendulous germen mutt be
turned to one fide, and therefore, in the author’s opiion,
the flower is rendered irregular. In 1699 the third part,
containing flowers with five irregular petals, was given to the
world. Evenmore liberty is taken in the aflemblage of ge-
nera here than in the former clafs. The natural order of
umbellifere is admitted entire ; very juftly indeed asto prac-
tical or philofophical propriety ; but with great laxity of
artificial principle, many of the plants having regular or
equal petals. Next to thefe follow Tropeolum ; the irregu-
lar Gerania (which now conititute the genera of Pelargo-
nium and Erodium) ; fome leguminous plants not papiliona-
ceous; Viola; sAefculus ; Delphinium ; Aconitum; DiGam-
nus ; and the whole concludes with Pyrola, whofe flight and
partial irregularity of flower has gained it admittance here.
This third part of the work of Rivinus confiits of one
hundred and thirty-nine plates. A fourth part, the hexa-
petale irregulares, confifting of the Orchidee, was finifhed,
but not publifhed, before the author’s death; nor indeed
have any more thana very few copies of this ever got abroad
into the world, fo that it conftitutes one of the greateft
bibliothecal rarities. With refpe&t to utility or beauty,
thofe who are poffefled of the tranfcendent engravings of
this favourite tribe in Haller’s Hiftory of Swifs Plants,
may difpenfe with the figures of Rivinus. The author had
prepared feveral fupplementary plates to his work, which
never came forth, and of which perhaps the only {pecimens
are to be feen in fir Jofeph Banks’s fine copy of the whole
work, except two duplicate plates beftowed by his bounty on
the writer of this article. ‘There is every reafon to believe
that the copy in queftion belonged to the author himfelf, or
to his fon, as may be gathered from its manufcript additions
and corre€tions. A complete copy, of even the three firlt
parts of Rivinus’s book is, indeed, difficult to be met with ;
for feveral of the plates having from time to time received
additions of feed-veflels, or of entire plants ; the earlier im-
RIV
preffions of fuch plates are confequently imperfect. The
beft copies are required, by faftidious colleétors, to have
every plate with and without the additions. Haller truly
remarks, that the author evidently derived his materials
chiefly from garden plants, and having fyitem in view, was
more folicitous to exhibit flowers than roots, or the lower
part of the herbage; a great defect as to the Orchidee and
Umbellate. We ought, at the fame time, to recollect,
that the tribes he has 4ele¢ted are among the moft intereiting,
attractive, or difficult, that could have been wifhed. His
{cheme of nomenclature. deferves high commendation as
fuch, theugh it proves totally inadequate to the author’s
purpofe, which was to comprehend, ina fingle word accom-
panying the generic name, the effential chara&ter or idea of
each particular fpecies.
As a medical writer, Rivinus has the merit of faithful
obfervation and defcription, in his treatife de Pe/le Lipfien/i,
publifhed in 1680. He wrote alfo on Dyfpepfia, ‘on Inter-
mittent Fevers, and various other fubjeéts.. He did not
fcruple to attack whatever practice or opinion he found ever
fo ftrongly eftablifhed on the bafis of prejudice and ig-
norance. - In this refpe&t his Cenfura Medicamentorum offi-
cinalium ranks very high. His commendable aim, in this
work, was to clear the Materia Medica of its various dif-
graceful incumbrances; fo many of which originated in
error, impofition, or fuper{tition. His attempts have been
followed up by various men of ability and authority ; and
itis to the united labour and good fenfe of fuch, that the
world is indebted for the purified and improved ftate of our
modern Pharmacopeias.
Though not a great pra¢tical anatomilt, or difleGtor, Ri-
vinus is faid to have difcovered a new falivary dud. He left
a fon, John Auguftus Rivinus, who fucceeded him as pro-
feflor, and under whofe pretidency was publifhed a differta-
tion, in 1723, on Medicinal Earths. This gentleman died
in 1725, aged thirty-three, having furvived his father but
two years. His premature death feems to have prevented
the publication of the fourth part of his father’s great bo-
tanical work, at leaft forfome time. Haller fays, Ludwig
afterwards edited the plates of the Orchidee, without any
letter prefs ; but this publication has never come under our
infpection. Rivini Opera. Hall. Bibl. Bot.’ Aikin’s
Gen. Biogr. Dryand. Bibl. Banks.
RIVISONDOLI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Citra; g miles S.E. of Sulmona.
RIULFJ, a town of ‘Naples, in Calabria Citra; 16 miles
N.N.E. of Caflano. ;
RIVOGLIOMENTO, Ital. in Mufic, changing the
place of the parts of a compofition. It is placing the
treble or other upper part in the tenor or bafe, and wice
verfd. This frequently happens in double.counterpoint,
when the treble ferves for the bafe, or the bafe for the
treble; and in fuch a manner, as that the harmony, though
different, fhall remain equally correét and pleafing as in the
firft arrangement of the parts.
RIVOLGIMENTO, Ital. inverfion.
RIVOLI, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Po, fituated at the declivity of a hill on
the road from France into Italy by the Cottian Alps, ina
fertile country and climate more falubrious, as it is faid,
than that of Turin. It contains three parifh churches and
three monafteries. The king of Sardinia had a palace here.
The inhabitants are fuppofed to be about 800; 6 miles W.
of Turin.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe; 12
miles N.W. of Verona.
RIVOLTA, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mincio; 4 miles W. of Mantua.—Alfo, a town
of
RiWV
of Italy, in ‘the department of the Adda; 2 miles S. of
Crema.
Rivo.ta Seeca, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Adda; 10 miles W. of Crema.
RIVOLTARE, Ital. in Mufic, to reverfe ; whence
RIVOLTATO, reverfed. See Roverscrio.
RIVOLTELLA, in Geography, a town of Italy ; 17
’ miles E. of Brefcia.
RIUT, a Ruffian fettlement on the W. coaft of Ame-
rica. N. lat. 65° 25’. E. long. 209° 36'.
RIVULARIA, in Botany, io called by Dr. Roth from
its growing generally in rivulets, is a cryptogamic genus,
feparated, by that able botanift, from U/va and Conferve ;
to each of which genera fome or other of its {pecies had
been, by preceding writers, referred.—Roth Catal..v. 1.
212. Sims and Konig’s Ann. of Bot. vy. 1. 247. Smith
Engl. Bot. v. 25. 1797.—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia
Alge. Nat. Ord. Alga fubmerfe.
Eff. Ch. Frond gelatinous, firm, deftitute of an external
cuticle. Fruétification among jointed filaments, lodged in
the fubftance of the frond.
Roth defcribes eleven fpecies of this genus, in his Bey-
triage, v. I. 239, tranflated in Ann. of Bot. above cited.
He there alfo adopts a genus from Micheli, by the name of
Linckia, whefe charaCter is as follows. Frond gelatinous,
pellucid, enclofed in a membranous pellucid integument,
and ftuffed with granules of fru€tification, difpofed in curved
beaded lines. Of this he defines four fpecies.
Of his Rivularia; elegans, n.5, Engl. Bot. t. 1797, and
tuberculofa, n. 11, Engl. Bot. t. 2366, are acknowledged
natives of Britain; as are two of his Linckie ; pruniformis,
n. 2, which is U/va pruniformis of Linneus, and of Engl.
Bot. t. 968; and Nofloc, n. 3, which is Tremella Nofloc of
Linneus, and of Engl. Bot. t. 46r. wei oe jutt
mentioned, is in the index to Engl. Bot. referred to Rivu-
laria ; how juttly we dare not politively fay. In the fame
work the following fpecies are added to thofe of Roth.
Refpeéting the marine ones, there may poflibly be fome dif-
ference of opinion as to their genus; but they can fearcely
be referred to any other at prefent eitablifhed.
R. Opuntia. Andian-fig Rivularia. Engl. Bot. t. 1868.
(Fucus Opuntia; Gooden. and Woodw. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
v. 3. 219. ‘T'remella marina cefpitofa, fagmentis tenuibus ;
Dill. Mufe. 50. t. 10. f. 9.)—Comprefled, branched, red,
jointed ; joints elliptical, confluent. Internal filaments re-
peatedly forked ; their ultimate joints fhortened, filled with
feeds.—Found on rocks, on the Britith coaft, forming {mall,
creeping, purplifh tufts, between high and low-water marks.
The fronds are entangled, much branched, comprefled, of a
fpongy texture, but not hollow, compofed of elliptical
joints. Thefe, when cut tranf{verfely, prove full of innu-
merable forked, beaded filaments, whofe joints, near the fur-
face of the frond, are fhorteit, and full of red grains, pre-
fumed to be feeds. We do not pretend that this fpecies
anfwers well to the character of a Riwularia. It will pro-
bably hereafter conftitute a new genus, along with feveral
more, now difperfed ini Fucus, Conferva or Ulva, but whofe
fruGtification and economy are not fufficiently known, for
any decifiye meafure to be taken concerning them. Among
them perhaps is Fucns Wigghii, Engl. Bot. t. 1165; for we
are not yet perfuaded of its being a real Rivularia ; nor
have we examined it minutely ourfélves.
R. vermiculata. Worm-fhaped Rivularia. Engl. Bot.
t. 1818.—Cylindrical, much branched, brown ; branches
{eattered, fubdivided, crooked. Internal filaments com-
pound and divaricated; their ultimate branches cluttered,
beaded, thickened upwards. Fruit obovate, feffile at the
Vor. XXX.
RIX
bafe of the beaded branches.— Found on the coafts of Ire.
land and the fouth of England, in fummer. A very curious
fubmarine plant, four or Fue inches high, olive brown, much
and irregularly branched, folid, gelatinous, invefted with a
pale flimy mafs, of minute, jointed, branched fibres, fome
of which are darker, and beaded, and accompanied by a
dark, oval, folitary feed at their bafe.
R. verticillata. Whorled Pink Rivularia. Engl. Bot.
t. 2466. (Ulvaverticillata; With. v. 4. 127.)—Cylindri-
cal, much branched, very gelatinous, pale pink; branches
alternate ; the ultimate ones very numerous, of equal thick-
nefs. Internal filaments whorled, repeatedly forked. Fruit
obovate, lateral.—Found on the fea beach of Ireland and
Suffex, in fummer. Highly gelatinous and tender, of a
delicate flefh-colour. Its generic charaéters nearly accord
with the lait.
R. incraffata. Thick Green Rivularia. (Ulva incraffata ;
Hudf. 572. Engl. Bot. t. 967. Tremella paluitris gelas
tinofa, dame cornuum facie; Dill. Mufe. g1. t. 10. f. 10.)
—Compretfled, much branched, gelatinous, finuated and
toothed, green; thickened at the margin. External fila-
ments loofely tufted, forked, with pale pellucid tips.—
Grows on moffes, in pools of frefh water. Whole plant
gelatinous and flippery, of a grafs green. It feems very
near R. Cornu dame of Roth, if not the fame.
R. tuberiformis. Potatoe Rivularia. Engl. Bot. t. 1956.
—Irregularly globofe, inflated, pale brown; white within.
Seeds vertically difpofed in rows at the fummits of the fila-
ments.—Grows on rocks and fubmarine plants, on the fouth
coaft of England. When floating it looks like a group of
young potatoes. Each plant is hollow, confifting of a thick
tender coat. The outfide is not, asin the laft, covered with
pellucid filaments, beyond the feed-bearing part.
R. atra. Small Black Rivularia. Roth Catal. v. 3
340. Engl. Bot. t. 1798.—Hemifpherical, folitary, feffile,
hard, black. Internal filaments ftraight, compaét, branched,
concentric, green; their joints cylindrical.—This is found
on mud, or on wooden piles, in falt marfhes, or about the
mouths of rivers ; confifting of black granules the fize of
muitard-feed. Thefe, when highly magnified, and cut per-
pendicularly, are found to confilt of concentric rows, of
mere or lefs pale, green, denfe filaments.
R. calcarea. Culosteous Rivularia. Engl. Bot. t. 1799.
—Hemifpherical, feflile, cluftered, hard, green. Internal
filaments ftraight, compaét, entangled, fimple, with {carcely
apy appearance of joints.—This is found in the beds of
rivers, and mountain torrents, in Ireland, Wales, &c. in
maffes, either feparate, the fize of 2 large pea, or aggregate
and confluent. Their colour a glaucous green; their fub-
ftance firm, of fimple parallel fibres, or tubes, all conglu-
tinated, as it were, with calcareous earth.
R. echinulata. Little Hedgehog Rivularia. (Conferva
echinulata ; Engl. Bot. t. 1378.)—Floating, glaucous, glo-
bofe, muricated with the points of its concentric, fimple,
jointed, fhort filaments. —Fourd by the Rev. H. Davies,
in a lake, in Anglefea, covering the furface in June and
July, with a floating mafs of little feparate prickly globules,
each the fize of a pin’s head. :
RIVULET, a diminutive of river.
RIXAS, in Geography, a mine-town of Brazil, in the
overnment of Goyas; 8omiles N. of Villa Boa.
RIXDOLLAR, in Commerce, a money of account and
filver coin in Holland, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden.
In Holland, a rixdollar is worth 23 gilders, 50 ftivers, or
800 pennings. A pound Flemifh is equal to 6 gilders, or
22 rixdollars, and is divided into 20 fhillings, 120 ftivers, or
240 pence Flemifh, called alfo’ groots: hence a rixdollar is
Uu equal
RIXDOLLAR.
equal to 8s. 4d. Flemifh, and a gilder = 35. 4d. Flemith.
A gold gilder, with which accounts are kept in the corn
trade, is worth 28 ftivers. At Copenhagen accounts are
kept in rykfdalers or rixdollars of 6 marks, or 96 shillings
Danifh. In the duchies of Holttein and Slefwig accounts
are kept in rixdollars of 3 marks, or 48 shillings Lubs, and
at Elfineur on the Sound, accounts are kept in rixdollars of
4 orts, or 96 kkillings Danifh. The bafe rixdollar (fletdaler),
which is an imaginary coin, is reckoned at 4 marks, or 64 fkil-
lings Danifh. ~A mark is divided into 16 flullings or fhul;
lings; and a {killing into 2 fyrkes, 3 wittens, or 12 pfenings
Danifh. The Danifh denominations of marks and fhillings
bear only half the value of the fame denominations in Lubs
or Hamburgh money: thus, 2 marks Danith are worth
1 mark Hamburgh, &c. In filver, {pecie rixdollars, which
pafs for 7 marks 6 {killings Danifh currency, are commonly
reckoned at 6 marks 12 {killings crown money, at the toll on
the Sound. There is alfo the new Holftein currency, coined
fince the year 4788, confifting of fpecie rixdollars, at 48
fhillings fpecie, or 60 fhillings Hol{tein currency ; and pieces
of 32, 16, 8, 4 and 2 fhillings {pecie, or 40, 20, 10, 5 and
24 fhillings Holftein currency. In this money, the Cologne
mark of fine filver is coined into 9} rixdollars {pecie, or
1143, rixdollars currency.
Any perfon, whether a native or a foreigner, may open
an account at the bank of Copenhagen, on paying 4 rix-
dollars a year for each folio, and whenever he wifhes to have
his account fettled. Befides, this bank charges a commiflion
of 1 per 1000 for all the money infcribed or transferred in
the books. Bank notes are iflued of the value of 80, 40,
20, 8, and 4 rixdollars {pecie; er F00, 50, 25, 10, and 5
rixdollars currency. ‘Thefe are current through the Danifh
dominions, and they are to be paid off on demand at the
-bank.
By aroyal edi& of 1776, fettling the rate of coinage, gf rix-
dollars {pecie are to contain a mark of fine filver ; each piece
weighing 537-69 efchen, Cologne weight, or 447.9 Englifh
grains, and being 14 lods or }ths fine ; fo that it contains
391-9 Englifh grains of fine filver. The rixdollar Danifh
currency, in current ducats or 12 markpieces, is equivalent
to 28.48 German afes, or 21: Englifh grains of fine gold ;
and the fame rixdollar, in filver currency, contains 429 afes,
or 318 grains of fine filver. The rixdollar in crowns may
be valued at 467 afes, or 346% grains of fine filver. Thus
the proportion of gold to filver is as 15,3, to 1. One
hundred rixdollars Hamburgh banco anfwer to 113} rix-
dollars in crowns, or 123; rixdollars Danifh currency : the
latter may be confidered at par with Hamburgh currency.
- The rixdollar currency is = 3s. 84d. tterling ; and the rix-
dollar in crowns = 4s. oid. fterling; or a fingle crown
piece = 16d. fterling ; acurrent ducat = 7s. 54d. fterling ;
and i/. fterling = 5 rixdollars 2 marks 6 fkillmgs currency,
or 4 rixdollars 5 marks 12 {killings crown money.
The moft common way of keeping acceunts in Germany
is in rixdollars of go creutzers, or in guldens or florins of
60 creutzers ; the rixdollar of account, or (as it is generally
called) rixdollar current, is reckoned at 1} florin, and the
rixdollar {pecie or effective at 2 florins, or 120 creutzers.
Tn Pruffia, Saxony, Hanover, Brunfwick, and Luneburg,
accounts are kept in rixdollars of 24 good grofchen, each
good grofche being divided into 12 pfenings; or in rix-
dollars of 36 marien grofchen, each marien grofche being
divided into 8 pfenings. At Hamburgh, Altona, Lubeck,
Holftein, and Mecklenburg, accounts are kept in marks of
16 fhillings lubs, each fhilling being divided into 12 pfenings ;
and the rixdollar reckoned at 3 marks. Each independent
flate or city of Germany has its own coins, moft of which
may be referred to, or compared with, the following, viz. ;
in gold, the ducat, the piftole, and the gold florin or gul-
den; and in filver, the rixdollar f{pecie, and its fubdivifions.
The pittoles are all reckoned at 5 rixdollars current. ‘The
gold florins, chiefly current in countries on the banks of the
Rhine, pafs generally for 2 rixdollars current, and are to
contain 184 carats of fine gold, 3% carats of fine filver, and
1£ carat of copper: 72 gold florins are to weigh a Cologne
mark. Since the eftablifhment of the convention in 1763,
the Cologne mark of fine filver is valued at 34 rixdollars of
account, or ro rixdollars effective, or 20 florins. In {mall
payments, the Cologne mark of fine filver being reckoned
at 16 rixdollars of account, or z4 florins, each of the coins
is rated 20 per cent. higher than its value in convention
money ; the fpecie rixdollar pafles for 22 florins, the con-
yention florin for 1} florin, and the copfftuck for 24 creut-
zers. According to the Leipfic rate of coinage, the Co-
logne mark of fine filver was valued at 12 rixdollars of ac-
count, g effective rixdollars, or 18 florins ; 8 fpecie rixdol-
lars were to weigh a Cologne mark of filver, 14 loths
4 grains fine: in the {mallett coins, fuch as double and
fingle marien grofchen, the mark of fine filver was coined at
the rate of 122 rixdollars. Thefe coins are known by the
name of ¢ conftitution coins:’’ zoo rixdollars, coined after
the Liepfic rate, are worth 1114 convention rixdollars. ~
The finenefs of gold is valued all over Germany by di-
viding the mark fine into 24 carats, and the carat into 12
grains ; the finenefs of filver, by dividing the mark fine into
16 loths, and the loth into 18 grains. At Hamburgh, the
reich{thaller, or rixdollar, is 3 marks, 48 fhillngs, or 576
pfenings; the rixdollar of exchange is 2 marks, 32 fhillings,
or 384 pfenings. The filver coins of this city are rixdollars
reckoned at 3 marks f{pecie, which commonly pafs for 5 per
cent. better than banco, or for 3 marks #2 fhillings 5 pence
Hamburgh currency. All forts of {pecie rixdollars, when
they are full banco weight, are reckoned at 3 marks, with. _
about 1 per cent. premium againft banco, or at 4 marks
light money, with about 33 per cent. difcount below banco.
But the value of a common fpecie rixdollar, in current
money, is 3 marks 12 fhillings, and the halves and quarters
in proportion. L
Accounts are kept in Sweden in rikfdaler of 48 fkilling,
the filling being fubdivided into 2 runftycken or ore. By
the regulations of 1777, the fpecie rik{daler was to pafs for
the fame value that 6 filver dahler, or 18 kopper dahler,
formerly did; and there were coined whole rik{daler, and
pieces of 2ds, +d, 3th, ;5th, and ,1,th of a rikfdaler. Ac-
cording to the mint regulations, the Swedifh f{pecie rik{daler
fhould weigh 609 Swedith afs, or 4513 Englifh grains, and
contains 535 afs, or 3963 grains of fine filver; it is there-
fore worth 4s. 73d. iterling, and the fkilling 1/d. nearly.
For the value of rixdollars, current in various places, ac-
cording to the mint price of filver in England, fee Money.
The rixdollar (conftitution) of the Auttrian dominions
has on it the head of the reigning emperor, with name and
titles, thus: CAR. VI. D. G R-I. S. A. G. HI. H. BOH. REX >
that is, Carolus fextus, Dei gratia, Rumanus imperator Jemper
auguflus, Germania, Hierofolyme, Hungaria, Bohemia rex
(Charles VI. by the grace of God, emperor of Rome, ever
auguft, king of Germany, Jerufalem, Hungary, and Bo-
hemia) ; reverfe, a two-headed eagle crowned, bearing on
his breaft the arms of Auttria, and in his talons a fword
and fceptre ; legend, ARCHID. AUST. D. BU. M. MOR. COM.
ry. (archduke of Autftria, duke of Burgundy, marquis of
Moravia, count of Tyrol), with the date; and on the edge
of the piece, CONSTANTER CONTINET ORBEM, (he guides
the globe fteadily).
The
RIXDOLLAR.
The rixdollar (convention) has the head of the reigning
fevereign, with name and title, thus: M. THERESIA, D. GR.
IMP. GE. HU. BO. REG. (Maria Therefa, by the grace of
God, emprefs of Germany, queen of Hungary and Bo-
hemia) ; reverfe, as on the rixdollar conititution; the le-
gend on the edge of the piece of Francis I. is, PRO DEO ET
- ywperro (for God and the empire). On that of Maria
Therefa, JUSTITIA ET CLEMENTIA’ (juftice and clemency).
On that of Jofeph I1-, virruTe ET EXEMPLO (by vittue
and example).
The rixdollar of Hungary has the head, name, titles, and
legend, on the edge as above; reverfe, the Virgin and Child,
and the letters x. B.; legend, s. MARIA, MATER DEI, PA-
TRONA HUNG. (Holy Mary, mother of God, patron of
Hungary).
The florin, or half rixdollar, bears the fame impreffions
as the rixdollar ; as alfo the half florin.
The copfituck, or copitick, (the 20 creutzer piece,)
bears the fame impreffions as the rixdollar, except that there
is no legend round the edge, and it is marked 20 onthe re-
verfe ; the half copfituck is marked 1o.
The rixdollar of Baden has the head of the reigning
prince, with name and title, thus: CAROLUS FRID. MARCHIO
BAD. ET H. (Charles Frederick, marquis of Baden, &c.) ;
reverfe, arms of Baden; legend, aD NORMAM CONVEN-
TIoNIS (according to the rule of the convention) ; and at
the bottom, the date, and x EINE F MARCK (Io pieceé to a
mark fine).
The thaler or rixdollar of Bafil has the griffin, arms, and
legend, as on the patagon ; reverfe, a wreath of laurels, in-
clofing the value, 1 THALER; legend, MONETA REIPUB.
BASILEENSIS (money of the republic of Bafil). The half
piece is marked 4 THALER ; and the third is marked 4.
The rixdollar of Bavaria has the head of the reigning
prince, with name and titles, as in the gold coins; reverfe,
arms of Bavaria, and the date; and on other pieces, the
Virgin and Child, with the legend, PATRONA BAVARL®
(patronefs of Bavaria); but the new rixdollar coined in
1800, bears the arms of Bavaria, and the legend, pro DEO
ET_POPULO. ©
The rixdollar of Brunfwick (old) has the head, name,
and title of the reigning prince, as in the gold coins; re-
verfe, the horfe and legend as on the Carl d’or; but at the
bottom there are X EINE FEINE MARCK CONVENTION ™M. (ten
pieces to a mark fine, convention money).
The rixdollar of 1795 has on one fide the words 1 SPECIES
THALER, and the date; legend, X EINE FEINE MARCK, &&
as above; reverfe, arms of Brunfwick, with the name and
title of the reigning prince.
The rixdollar of Cologne has the head of the reigning
emperor of Germany, with his name and titles; reverfe,
arms of the city; legend, MONETA NOVA LIB. ET IMP.
CIVIT. COLON.; that is, Moneta nova libere et imperialis
civitatis Colonienfis (new coin of the free and imperial city
of Cologne); and on fome rixdollars, MoN. NOVA LIB.
REIPUB. COLONIENSIS (new coin of the free republic of Co-
logne).
In Boas the rykfdaler (old), coined for Norway, has
the head of the reigning king, with name and title, thus:
FRIDERICUS V. D. G. REX DAN. NOR. V. G. OF D. G. DAN.
NORV. VAND. GOTH. REX (Frederick V. by the grace of
God, king of Denmark, Norway,-the Vandals, and the
Goths); reverfe, a lion and battle-axe, with 6 m. (6 marks),
and the following legend in the Norwegian language, in two
concentric circles, MoD TROSKAB DAPPERMED. OGH VAD
DER GIVER HRE DEN HEELEN VERDENBAND BLANT NORSKE
KLIPPER LAERE, which is thus tranflated; fpirit, loyalty,
valour, and whatever is honourable, let the whole world
learn among the rocks of Norway. On the fame coin, of
a later date, the legend is rroz JovE MOD OGH VAD DAN
KONGENS GUNST KAND VINDE, MENS NORGE KLIPPE HAR
MAN SKAL HOS NORDMAND FINDE; that is, true lion’s
heart and whatever can win a Danifh monarch’s love, whilft
Norway has rocks, fhall be found among Norwegians.
The rykfdaler of 1777 has the king’s cypher and a
crown; legend, np. G. DAN. NOR. VAND. GOTH. REX, as be-
fore; reverfe, arms of Denmark; legend, GLoRIA Ex
AMORE PATRI (glory from the love of our country), and
the date.
The rykfdaler of 1795 has the head, name, and titles of
the reigning king; reverfe, arms of Denmark ;. legend,
I RIGSDALER SPECIE, with the date.
The rykfdaler of Holftein has the head, name, and title,
as above; reverfe, arms of Denmark, and 1 sp.; legénd,
60 SCHILLING. SCHLESW. HOLST. COURANT (60 {chillings
Slefwig and Holftein currency), with the date. The pieces
of 3ds and id are marked 2 sp. and‘: sp., and the number
of {chillings is alfo expreffed: sp. means {pecie.
The rixdollar of Francfort hes varied much in the im-
preflions : mof of them bear an eagle; but the reverfes and
legends are very different in coins of different dates; they
may be eafily diftinguifhed by the word rRANCKFURT or
FRANCOFUR?, which is to be found on fome part of the
piece, as alfo the words AD NORMAN CONVENTIONIS (ac-
cording to the rate of convention money), and x E. F. MARK,
or X EINE FEINE MARK (10 toa mark of fine filver) : thefe
laft words, within a circle or wreath, form the reverfe of
the more modern pieces; and coins of 1796 bear likewife
the following German legend, aus DEN GEF@:SEN DER
KIRCHEN UND BURGER (out of the plate of the churches,
and of the citizens) ; and on the other fide, DER STADT
FRANCKFURT (of the city of Francfort).
The rixdollar fpecie or banco of Hamburgh has on the
front the arms of Hamburgh; legend, MoNETA NOVA HAM-
BURGENSIS (new coin of Hamburgh), and at the bottom,
48 SCHIL. spEc.; reverfe, a two-headed eagle crowned,
with the name of the reigning emperor of Germany, thus:
JOSEPHUS II. D. G. ROM. IMP. SEMP. AUGUST. (Jofeph II,
emperor of Rome, ever auguft),
The rixdollar of Hanover has the arms of the reigning
king, with his name and title ; reverfe, a horfe running over
rough ground ; legend, Nec ASPERA TERRENT (aeither do
rough places deter him), and the date. Some rixdollars
bear a figure of St. Andrew onthe crofs; legend, the king’s
German titles.
The rixdollar convention of Hefle has the head of the
reigning prince, with name and titles, thus: WILHEL-
MUS IX. D. G. HASS. LANDQ. HAN. com. (William IX, by
the grace of God, landgrave of Hefle, count of Hanau) ;
reverfe, arms of Hefle Caffel; legend, x sT. EINE FEINE
MARCK (10 pieces to a mark fine), and at the bottom the
word JusTIRT (adjufted er verified). In pieces of more
modern date, 1796, &c. this laft word is not to be found,
but under the above legend the words BIBERER SILBER
(filver of the mine of Biber) ; and in fome pieces of 1770,
the words EX VISCERIBUS FODIN® BIEBER (from the bowels
of the mine of Biber). The half and quarter rixdollars are
marked xx st, &c. and 40 sT, &ec. and under the coat of
arms 3 or 4.
The thaler or rixdollar of account has the head, name,
and title, as above; reverfe, a {tar with a lion in the centre,
and the words VIRTUTE ET FIDELITATE, as before; or the
arms of Hefle; the legend, in beth cafes, is rIN THALER
(one thaler) ; andon the half piece, EIN HALBER THALER,
U2 The
RIXDOLLAR.
The rixdollar or 3 markpiece of Lubec has a two-headed
eagle crowned, with 48 on its breaft; legend, Mow. nov.
IMP. CIVITAT. LUBECE (new coin of the imperial city of
Lubec) ; reverfe, arms of the city; legend, 48 scHILLING
COURANT GELDT ANNO, &c. (48 {chillings currency ; the
year, &c.)
The rixdollar (fine) of Manheim has the head of the
reigning prince, with name and title, thus: CAR. THE. c. P.
S.R. 1. A. T. & EL.3 that is, Carolus Theodorus, comes pala-
tinus, fanGi Romani imperii archi thefaurarius a ele@or
Charles Theodore, count palatine, high fteward and-eleGtor
of the holy Roman empire); reverfe, arms of the prince;
legend, EX VISCERIBUS FODIN WILDBERG (frem the bowels
of the mine of Wildberg), and FEIN sILs. (fine filver) at the
‘bottom.
The piece of 2 bears the fame impreffions as the rixdol-
Tar, except that it is marked (2) under the arms. Some
pieces of an ancient date bear no head but = in large figures,
and under this, FEIN sILBER}; legend, DEUS SERVET ME-
TALLI FODINAS MONTENSES (may God preferve the mines
of Wildberg) ; the names and titles are on the reverie,
‘round the arms.
The rixdollar (convention) has the head, name, and titles,
‘as above; reverfe, arms of the prince; legend, ap NorMAM
CONVENTIONIS {according to the rule of the convention) ;
‘or IO EINE FEINE MARCK (Io toa fine mark). :
N.B. The coins of Manheim and the Palatinate now
bear the fame imprefiions as thofe of Bavaria, both countries
being united under one fovereign.
The rixdollar of Mentz has the head of the reigning
prince, with name and titles, thus: FRID. CAR. JOS. D. G.
A. EP. MOG. S. R. I. P. G. A. C. ET EL. E. W.3 that is, Fre-
dericus Carolus Jofeph Dei gratia archiepifeopus Moguntia,
fandi Romani imperit pro Germania archi cancellarius et eleGor,
epifeopus Wormenfis (Frederick Charles Jofeph, archbifhop
of Mentz, high chancellor for Germany and eleGtor of the
holy Roman empire, bifhop of Worms) ; but the pieces of
1796, &c. have their legend in German, thus: FRIED. CAR.
JOS. ERZB. U. KURF. Z. MAINZ. B. Z. W.; that is, Erzdi/-
choff und Kurfurft zu Mainz Bifchoff zu Worms (archbifhop
and elector of Mentz, bifhop of Worms) ; reverfe, arms of
the bifhop ; legend, zEHEN EINE FEINE MARCK (ten toa
mark fine),
The rixdollar (conftitution) of Nuremberg has the head
of the reigning emperor, with name and title, thus: caRo-
LUS VI. D. G. ROM. IMP. SEMP. AUG. (Charles VI. by the
grace of God, emperor of Rome, ever auguit) ; reverfe, a
view of the city, with an eagle flying over it; legend, av-
GUSTO DOMINO TUTA ET SECURA PARENTE EST (it is fafe
and fecure under its auguit lord and father), and at the bot-
tom, NORIMBERGA.
The rixdollar (convention) varies in the impreflions,
Some bearing the head, name, and title of the Feigning emi-
peror, as above; and others a view of the city, with a fun
over it; reverfe, a two-headed eagle crowned, bearing the
arms of the city on its breaft; or a fingle-headed eagle car-
rying two eicutcheons in histalons. The pieces are marked
with the letter s, or the word NURNBERG, or the legend,
MONETA NOVA REIPUBL. NORIMBERGENSIS (new coin of
the republic of Nuremberg) ; and the words, X EINE FEINE
MARCK (ten to a mark fine), are alfo to be found in fome
part of the piece.
The rixdollar of Pruffia (coined before 1791) has the
head of the reigning king, with name and title, thus: FRi-
DERICUS BORUSSORUM REX (Frederick king of Pruffia) ;
reverfe, an eagle and military trophies; legend, EIN REICHS
THALER (one rixdollar). ‘Phe half rixdollar bears the fame
impreflions; and its value is marked thus, 2 EINE Fs
THALER (two toa rixdollar).
The rixdollar current (coined fince 1791) has the head
of the reigning king, and the legend in German, as before ;
reverfe, arms of Pruffia, with EIN THALER at the bottom;
but the rixdollar convention money bears the legend, zzEHN
PINE FEINE MARCK (ten toa mark fine).
The florin of Silefia has the fame impreffions as on the
rixdollar of 1791; but on the reverfe it is marked xx1 EINE
FEINE MARK.
The rixdollar of Anfpach and Bareuth has the head of
the reigning prince, with name and title, thus: ALEXANDER
D. G. MARCH. BRAND. (Alexander, by the grace of God,
marquis or margrave of Brandenburg) ; reverfe, arms of
Anfpach, &c. with ZEHEN EINE FEINE MARK (ten to a
mark fine) ; but thofe of modern date, 1790, &c. bear the
impreflions of the Pruffian coins, Anfpach having been at
that period ceded to Pruffia.
The rixdollar of Ratifbon has the head, name, and title
of the reigning emperor, as on the coins of Hamburgh and
Nuremberg ; reverie, a view of the city; legend, MonETa
REIP. RATISPON - (coin of the republic of Ratifbon), and at
the bottom, x sT. EINE F. c. M.; that is, X_/fuck eine feine
Collnifch marck (ten pieces to a mark fine, Cologne weight ).
The half and quarter rixdollars' are marked 20 sT. EINE Fs
c. M. and 40 ST. EINE F. C. M.
The rixdollar of Saltzburg, and its divifions, has the head
of the reigning prince, with name and titles, thus: HIERO-
NYMUS D.G. A. & P. S, A. S. L. N. G- PRIM.3; that is, Hiex
ronymus Dei gratia archiepifcopus et princeps Sali/burgenfis,
Germanie primas (Jerome, by the grace of God, archbifhop
and prince of Saltzburg, primate of Germany) ; reverfe,
arms of the reigning prince, without a legend; and the
copfituck or 20 creutzer piece differs only in being marked
(20) on the reverfe.
The rixdollar (convention) of Saxony has the head of
the reigning prince, with name and titles, thus: FRID-
AUGUST. D. G. DUX SAX. ELECTOR (Frederick Augutiius,
duke and eleétor of Saxony); Teverfe, arms of Saxony;
with the infcription, x EINE FEINE MARCK (ten to a mark
fine). :
The florin or piece of 2 bears the fame impreffions as the
rixdellar; but the infcription on the reverfe is xx EINE
FEINE MARCK, and it is marked 2 at the bottom; the half
florin is marked xz EINE, &c. and 3 at the bottom; and
the quarter florin is marked LxXxx or ACHZIG EINE, &c.
and 2.
The rixdollar of Saxe Gotha has the head, name, and
title, of the reigning prince, thus: ERNESTUS D. G. GOTHAN.
SAXONUM DUX (Erneit, by the grace of God, duke of Saxe
Gotha) ; reverfe, arms of Saxe Gotha, with x EINE FEINE
MARCK, as above.
The rixdollar of Sweden of 1752 has the head of the
reigning king, with name and title in Latin, thus: Gus-
TAVUS III. D. G. REX suECIZ (Guftavus IIT. by the grace
of God, king of Sweden) ; reverfe, arms of Sweden; le-
gend, SALUS PUBLICA SALUS MEA (the public fafety is my
{afety) ; and on the edge, MANIBUS NE LEDAR AVARIS
(that I may not be hurt by rapacious hands). The half
rixdollar bears the fame impreffions.
The mxdollar of 1779 has the head, name, and title, as
before; reverfe, arms of Sweden, with 1 Rp.; legend, Fa-
DERNES EANDET (the land of our fathers). The divifions
of the rixdollar bear the fame impreflions, but have their
value marked on them, thus: 2 RD., 21RD. 23RD. The
rixdollar, and other pieces coined fince 1795, have the le-
gends on both fides in the Swedith language. The infcrip-
tion
RIZ
tion on the edge of the piece is MANIBUS, &c. as on the old
rixdollar.
The rixdollar of Friburg, and its divifions, have the
arms of the canton; legend, RESPUBLICA FRIBURGENS (re-
public of Friburg) ; reverfe, a crofs formed by eight F’s,
and four crowns; legend, auxILium NostR. nEus (God is
_ our help). he quarter rixdollar has, 03 a {quare in the
centre of the crofs, the number 56; and the inferior divi-
fions are marked 28, 14, and 7.
The rixdollar of Treves has the head of the reigning
prince, with name and titles, thus; CLEM. WENC. D. G, A.
EP. TREV. S. R. I. A. C. ET EL.3 that is, Clemens Wence/flaus
Dei gratia archi epifcopus Trevirenfis fan&i Romani imperit
archi cancellarius et eleGor (Clement Wenceflas, by the grace
of God, archbifhop of Treves, arch chancellor and elector
of the holy Roman empire) ; reverfe, arms of the prince ;
legend, EPISC. AUG. APP. COAD. ELEC. (bilhop of Augf-
burg, and other titles), befides the words, 10 EINE
MARC &. OF IO EINE FEINE MARK (ten to a mark fine).
The rixdollar of Wirtemburg has the head of the reigning
prince, with name and title, thus: CAROL. ALEX. D. G.
DUX WUR. ET T. (Charles Alexander, by the grace of
God, duke of Wurtemburg, &c.); reverfe, arms of Wur-
temburg; legend, provipe ET CONSTANTER (providently
and conitantly), befides the words, 10 EINE FEINE MARK
(ten to a mark fine).
The rixdollar of Wartzburg (coined before 1795) has
the head of the reigning prince, with name and titles, thus:
FRANC. LUD. D. G. EP. BAM. ET WIR. S. R. I. Ps F. O. DUX 5
that is, Francifcus Ludovicus Dei gratia epifcopus Bambergii
et Wirifburgii, fanéi Romani imperii princeps, Francorum
Orientalium dux (Francis Louis, by the grace of God,
bifhop of Bamburg and Wurtzburg, prince of the holy
Roman empire, duke of Eaft Franconia) ; reverfe, arms of
the bifhop, legend, 10 EIN FEINE MARCK (ten to a mark
fine). But the rixdollar of 1795, &c. bears on the front
the head of the bifhop, with names and titles as above ;
and on the reverfe only the words, 10 EINE FEINE MARCK,
encircled by two fprigs of laurel ; and above it the legend,
PRO PATRIA (for the country). See Kelly’s Cambitt,
vols. i. and ii.
RIXI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
23 miles S. of Palamow.
RIXOUSE, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Jura; fix miles N. of St. Cloude.
RIXTOWN, a town of the duchy of Holitein; feven
miles S.W. of Lutkenberg.
RIZAH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern.
ment of Trebifond, near the Black fea; 45 miles E.N.E.
of Trebifond. . N. lat. 48° 9. E. long. 40° 2o0!.
RIZEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, inthat
part of the Colchide, which lay to the left of the Phafis.
Procopius fays, that it was fituated on the frontiers of the
empire, and that it was very populous.
-RIZIUM, in Botany, a name given by the ancients
toa peciliar kind of red root brought from Syria, and
ufed by the Grecian women to paint their cheeks red.
The Latin writers, who have mentioned this, have called
it radicula; and Pliny, who has more than once mentioned
it, calls it Aerba lanaria, or radix lanaria. This, however,
. is a very great error, confounding it with the fruthium of
the Greeks. It is probable, that the rizium was no other
than the anchufa, or alkanet root, which grows very plenti-
fully in the countries from whence the Greeks had their
rizium, and which will anfwer all the purpofes for which
they ufed it.
RIZOA, fo named by Cavanilles, Ic. v. 6. 56. te 578,
RIZ
after Salvator Rizo, a botanical artift employed by Mutis,
is a genus of the Didynamia Gymnofpermia, whofe diftinétive
charaters are fearcely fufficiently marked, for us, without a
{pecimen, to decide concerning it.
The fpecies is R. ovatifolia, an herbaceous plant of
Chili, flowering there in February. Corolla pale rofe
coloured.
RIZSKOI, in Geography, a province of Ruffia, for-
merly Livonia, fo called from Riga, its capital; bounded
on the N. by Revelfkoi, on the E. by the government of
Peterfburg and Pfkov, on the S.E. by Polotzkoi, on the
S. by Semigallia, and on the W. by the gulf of Riga;
about 160 miles long, and 100 broad. N. lat. 56° 30! to
°ts!. E. long. 24° to 27° 34!. :
RIZZI1O, Davin, in Biography, born at. Turin, but
brought up in France, was a good mufician, and fung agree-
ably. His father was a dancing-mafter. The count de
Merezzo took him to Scotland, when he went thither am-
baflador from Savoy. Rizzio charmed the queen by his
talents, which were not confined to mufic, and there were
rumours that fhe favoured him too much. Henry Stuart
Darnley, the queen’s hufband, had him arreited in the
mufic room of this princefs. * But it is faid, in fome ac-
counts, that he was actually at fupper with her majeity and
the countefs of Argyle in her cabinet. Some fay that he
was maflacred in her prefence ; others affert, that the duke
of Rothfay dragged him out of the room and murdered
him at the door. There is no doubt but that the queen
made ufelefs efforts to fave his life ; (but to fave the life of
acat, a dog, or a fquirrel, common humanity would natu-
rally have done as much). However, it is added, that fhe
revenged his death afterwards on feveral of his aflafiins.
Laborde.
We withed to know what foreigners fay of this tranf-
a@tion, as party concerning Mary, queen of Scotland, ran
fo high at the time, and it {till runs, that there is no
great credit to be given te either fide.
His inftrument feems to have been the lute, the general
favourite at that time all over Europe.
At Turin, fome years ago, among many other mufical
enquiries, David Rizzio was not forgotten. Imagining, as
he was a native of that city, and his father a mufician as
well as a dancing-maiter there, if we could find any mufic
compofed by either of them or by their Italian contem-
poraries, it might determine the long difputed queition,
whether David Rizzio was author ef the Scots Melodies
aferibed to him. The refult of this enquiry is related in
the article James I. king of Scotland; which fee.
Sir John Melvil, in his Memoirs, tells us that « the
queen had three valets of her chamber, who fung in three
parts, and wanted a bafe to fing the fourth part ; there-
fore, telling her majelty of this man, Rizzio, as one fit
to make the fourth in concert, he was drawn in fome-
times to fing with the reft.’? This was about the year
1564.
Phe quickly crept into the queen’s favour; and her
French fecretary happening at that time to return to his
own country, he (Rizzio) was preferred by her majelty to
that office. He began to make a figure at court, and to
appear as a man of weight and confequence. Nor was he
careful to abate that envy which always attends fuch an
extraordinary and rapid change of fortune. On the con-
trary, he feems to’ have done every thing to increafe it ;
yet it was not his exorbitant power alone which exaf-
perated the Scots; they confidered him as a dangerous
enemy to the Proteftant religion, and held for this purpofe
a conftant correfpondence with the court of Rome. His
9 prevalence,
ROA
prevalence, however, was very fhort lived; for, in 1566,
certain nobles, with lord Darnly at their head, confpired
againft him, and difpatched him im the queen’s prefence
with fifty-fix wounds. Biog. Diét. vol. xi. p. 94.
RIZZUTO, Carr, in Geography, a cape on the coat
of Calabria. N. lat. 38° 57’. E. long. 17° 25!.
ROA, a town of Spain, in Old Cattile, on the Duero ;
25 miles N. of Segovia. ;
ROACH, in /chthyology, the Englifh name of a well-
known fith, called by the generality of authors the rutilus
and rubiculus, by fome the rubellio. It is a f{pecies of the
cyprinus according to the new fyftem of Artedi, and the
cyprinus rutilus of Linnzus. It has been deemed, though
without much reafon, remarkable for its livelinefs and viva-
city ; whence the proverb, found as a roach.
In fome parts of the world this, fifh will only live in
ftanding waters; with us it equally thrives in ponds and
- in deep {till rivers, and is remarkable for its numerous pro-
geny ; a pond being much fooner ftocked with this than
with any other fifh.
Roacu Fifbing. See FisHinc.
Roacu-Leech, in Sail-making, the maft-leech of fails cut
with a curve, or roach.
ROACHING of Alum, one of the laft proceffes ufed
in the alum making, and is what renders it fit for the
market.
After the alum liquor has been deft four days in the
cooler, and is fufficiently fhot, they drain it out; and tak-
ing out the alum, they wafh it in a ciftern of alum water
fo ftrong, that it can fearcely take up any more of that falt,
but only cleanfes it of its accidental foulneffes. After
¢his wafhing the alum is put into large pans, and’a quantity
of water added to it. It is fet over the fire to melt in this
water and boil a little; then it is {cooped into a great cafk,
where it is fuffered to ftand about ten days; and it is then
fit for the market under the name of roach alum, or roached
alum; the liquor let out of the cooler is boiled up again,
and fhoots more alum. See ALuM.
ROAD, Vi, an open way or paflage, forming a com-
modious communication between one place ard another.
The Romans, of all people, took the moft pains in their
roads ; the labour and expence they were at to render them
fpacious, itraight, {mooth, and agreeable, to the very ex-
tremities of their empire, are incredible.
Ufually, they ftrengthened the ground by ramming it,
laying it with flints, pebbles, or fand; fometimes by a
fining of mafonry, rubbifh, bricks, potfhreds, &c. bound
together with mortar, 4
F. Meneftrier obferves, that in fome places in the Lyon-
nois he has found huge clufters of flints cemented with
lime, reaching ten or twelve feet deep, and making a mafs
as hard aud compaét as marble itfelf; and which, after re-
fitting the injuries of time for fixteen hundred years, is
ftidR {carcely penetrable by all the force of hammers, mat-
tocks, &c. and yet the flints it confifts of are not bigger
than eggs. ; :
Sometimes they even paved their roads, regularly, with
large fquare free-ftones ; fuch are the Appian and Flaminian
ways, &c.
The roads paved of very hard ftones, they ufually called
wie ferree, either becaufe they refembled iron, or becaufe
they refifted the iron of the horfes feet, chariots, &c.
Roads are either natural or artificial, serrefrial or aquatic,
public or private.
Roan, Natural, is that which has been frequented fer
along fucceflion of time, and fubfifts with little expence
by reafon of its difpofition, &c.
ROA
Roan, Artificial, is that made by labour of the hand,
either of earth or mafonry ; and in the making of which,
feveral difficulties were to be furmounted; fuch are moft
of thofe along the banks of rivers, and through marfhes,
lakes, &c.
Roaps, Terrefrial or Land, are not only thofe made
upon the ground, but alfo thofe formed of earth heaped
up in manner of a bank, and fuftained by {purs, buttrefles,
and counterforts.
Roap, Aquatic, is a road made in the waters, whether
current, as thofe.of rivers, &c. or ftagnant, as banks and
caufeways, or over morafles, &c.
Under this denomination are alfo comprehended navi-
gable rivers, and artificial canals. See CANAL:
Roav, Public, or grand road, is any common road,
whether ftraight or acrofs, military or reyal, &c. Private
road is that made for the convenience of fome particular
houfe, &c. See Highway.
Roaps, Military, fo called among the Romans, were
grand roads appointed for the marching of their armies into
the provinces of the empire, for the affiltance of their
allies, &c.
The principal of thefe roads, in England, are Watling
{treet, Ikenild-ftreet, Fofs-way, and Erminage-ftreet. See
Way.
Roaps, Double, among the Romans, were roads for ear-
riages, having two pavements or caufeways, the one for
thofe going one way; the other for thofe returning the
other, to prevent clafhing, ftopping, and confufion.
Thefe two ways were feparated from each other by a
bank raifed in the middle, paved with bricks, for the con-
venience of foot people, with borders and mounting ftones
from {pace to {pace, and military columns to mark the dif-
tance. Such was the road from Rome to Oftia, called °
Via Portuenfis.
Roan, Subterraneous, is that dug in arock with a chiffel,
and left vaulted. Such is that of Puzzuoli, near Naples,
which is near half a league long; and is fifteen feet broad,
and as many high.
Strabo fays, it was made by one Coccetus, a relation
probably of Nerva; but it has fince been widened by Al-
phonfus, king of Arragon and Naples, and made ftraight
by the viceroys. There is another of the fame kind in the
fame kingdom, between Baie and Cumz, called the Grotto
of Virgil, becaufe mentioned by that poet in the fixth
book of his /Eneid.
Roap, in Rural Economy, a track or way conftru&ed
with fome fort of hard materials for the purpofe of travel-
ling upon, with carriages, horfes, and other animals. Roads
are of different kinds, as public and private, or parochial.
The firft fort may be fubdivided into toll and free-
roads, and the latter into lanes or bye-roads: there are
likewife other forts of roads, as carriage and horfe tracks,
&c. It has been remarked by a writer, in the firft volume
of «* Communications to the Board of Agriculture,’’ that
the conveniencies and beneficial confequences which refult
from a free and eafy communication between different parts
of a county and diftri€& are fo various, and the advan-
tages of them fo generally and extenfively felt by every
defcription of individuals, from the higheft to the loweft ;
that no labour or expence fhould be fpared in providing
them; as, without fuch ready means of intercourfe, all
forts of'internal commerce and improvement are either much
embarrafled, or wholly at a ftand. And it is, indeed, well
added, that roads and canals, or navigable rivers, may
juftly be confidered as the veins and arteries through which
all improvements flow. To internal commerce and agri-
culture,
ROAD.
culture, they are as the veins and arteries to the human
body. Through thefe the blood circulates in every direc-
tion, and thus keeps alive the animal fyftem; but, if this
circulation is by any means checked or obitruéted, even in
the remoteft part, that part foon becomes ufelefs, and finks
into decay, and in fome degree is felt throughout the whole
body. So it is with refpeét to the commercial and agri-
“cultural fyftems. Without a free and unisterrupted inter-
courfe, it is impoffible they can exilt, or at lealt produce,
to the community at large, fo many important benefits as
they otherwife might have done. How many, for example,
are the places, in almoft every country, that might be ren-
dered doubly valuable, if the accefs were practicable and eafy.
How immenfe the quantities of the fineft timber, perhaps
growing in inacceflible woods, which, on that account alone,
are loft to fociety. How many the valuable ftrata of the
richeft metals and minerals, which, from the fame caufe,
lie buried and undifturbed in the bowels of the earth; and
how many thoufands of acres of the mot fertile foil, that
might be improyed and cultivated to the higheft degree of
perfection, and thus very largely contribute to increafe the
food and the comforts of man, were the ingrefs and egrefs
rendered praCticable and free. And the value of a farm,
confequently the riches, perhaps the itrength of a country,
greatly depend on an eafy and uninterrupted communi-
cation by good roads.
And the able author of the “ Wealth of Nations’? has
well fuggefted, that good roads, canals, and navigable
rivers, by diminifhing the expence of carriage, put the
remote parts of the country more nearly upon a level with
thofe in the neighbourhood of the town. They are, upon
that account, the greateft of all improvements. They
encourage the cultivation of the remote, which muft always
be the moft extenfive circle of the country. Though they
introduce fome rival commodities into the old markets, they
open many new markets to its produce. It is even
further obferved, that the Romans were fo fenfible of this,
that we are told, the firit writer fays, they did not
think it beneath the dignity of the commonwealth to
attend to the conveniencies from good roads. That great
and wife people, it is faid, carried on, at an immenfe expence,
roads, whofe remains are to this day the admiration of the
curious, from the centre of the empire to many of the re-
moter provinces. ‘The readier march of their armies was,
perhaps, he thinks, their firft motive ; but the eafier inter-
courte of the feveral parts of the great empire was another,
which they had too much prudence and too much wifdom
to overlook. We are alfo told by Diodorus, Strabo, and
ether hiftorians, he fays, that the famous Semiramis, being
fo fully conyineed of the importance of an eafy and general
intercourfe, applied herfelf to render the roads practicable
throughout the whole extent of her empire.
Mr. Donaldfon alfo ftates, that, in an agricultural view,
the benefits derived from good roads are incalculable. Be-
fore the eftablifhment of turnpike roads in England, many
parts of that kingdom, like the highlands of Scotland, were
icarcely acceflible. Coal, manure, grain, &c. as is {till the
cafe in many parts of Cornwall, were carried on horfes’
backs. Where waggons were ufed, feven or eight horfes
were neceflary to draw about two tons, and feldom were
able to proceed above twenty miles ina day. Now, where
turnpikes are eftablifhed, or other means ufed for keeping
the roads in a proper ttate of repair, the fame number of
horfes will draw at leaft five tons, and travel nearly double
the diftance, with much more eafe. How abfurd, then, con-
tines he, for any perfon to {cruple the payment of an in-
confiderable toll, when the faving is fo great and fo evident;
where the tear and wear in one cafe are not one-twentieth
part of what they are in the other!
It is likewife contended by Mr. Beatfon, in refpeét to the
turnpike laws in this country, that they are liable to many”\
exceptions; for although immenfe fums of .money are
annually levied for the purpofe of making and repairing the
highways, yet, either from bad management, from party
inence or from the chicanery and ignorance of furveyors
and contra¢tors, the roads in many places are not only laid
out in the moft abfurd direGtion, but are fo badly con-
ftruéted, and kept in fo wretched a itate of repair, that they
are almoft impaffable. It is furprifing that in fo enlightened
a country, and where’ the turnpike laws have fo much en-
aged the attention of many very ingenious men, thofe laws
fhould {till remain fo very defective ; more efpecially as there
is hardly a country gentleman who attends a turnpike meet-
ing, but confiders himfelf completely mafter of the whole
bufinefs and management, as well as of the making of roads ;
at leaft, if we may judge from the violent difputations and
bickerings that frequently happen at thefe meetings, where
a propofed new line of road, or perhaps the repair of an
old one, will fometimes be contefted with as great keennefs
and vehemence, as if the parties were contending whether
Great Britain fhall be a monarchy or a republic. And it
is contended, that it too often happens party influence
rules the proceedings at fuch meetings, and that thofe who
are entrufted with the management of this bufinefs, dele-
gate their powers, and truit the infpeétion and whole
management and direétion of the roads to fome ignorant or
pretended furveyor ; who, almoft to a certainty, will im-
pofe upon them, efpecially if he is empowered to fettle
with contraétors; and thus the butinefs of the public, in
one of its moft important concerns, is either altogether
neglected, or terminated according to the convenience of
the ftrongeft party, without any regard to the interefts of
the community at large. In fupport of this affertion, he
has only to refer to many parts of the principal thorough-
fares in Britain. In fome, it will be obferved, the roads are
direéted in the mof irregular zigzag manner, through a
level part of the country, where they ought evidently to
have gone ftraight forward. In other places, the traveller
and the public, and the poor overloaded horfe, are obliged
to fubmit to all the inconvenience, the labour, and the
fatigue of afcending and defcending the fteepeit hills, when
they might have gone, with the greatelt eafe and comfort, on
a level road, by proper attention in the firft making and
laying them out. He is, however, far from thinking it
would either be jult or proper.to,force a road unneceilarily.
through any part of a gentleman’s property without his
confent, unlefs for very powerful reafons indeed.
If to avoid a deep afcent, or to fhorten the diftance con-
fiderably, and that there is no other way to do fo, in that
cafe there fhould be no hefitation ; but if the advantages
to the public are not very material, and that another line
can be adopted, nearly as good, which will do lefs injury
to an individual, the latter line fhould unqueitionably be
preferred in all fuch cafes of laying out roads.
It fhould be a general maxim, he thinks, that private
confiderations ought, in all cafes, to give way to public
convenience and advantage. Society, fays he, is formed
for the mutual and general benefit of the whole, and it
would be a very unjuit meafure to incommode the whole,
merely for the convenience, or perhaps to gratify the whim
or caprice of an individual. However, the property of an
individual ought by no means to be taken to ferve the
32 public,
ROAD.
public, without allowing him, not only the full value, but
more than the value proportioned to the inconvenience or
injury he may fuftain by the meafure.
But he conténds, farther, that while the prefent turnpike
laws remain in force, and the common mode is praétifed of
choofing furveyors annually, or by rotation, without the
fmalleft regard to abilities or experience, it cannot be
expected the public convenience will be fo much attended
to as it ought to be; neither is it to be expeéted, that the
generality of furveyors, fo chofen, can know the proper
dire&tions to give in making or repairing roads, nor the
proper manner of making eftimates, fo as either to conclude
an agreement with an artful contractor, or to form a correct
judgment of fuch propofals as may be.made. From thefe
difadvantages, it is inconceivable the lofs that may be oc-
cafioned, or the mifchief that may be done by an ignorant
and inexperienced furveyor. For he is decidedly of opinion
that a furveyor of roads fhould be a man of confiderable
abilities, and of the ftri&eft honour and integrity. A
man not apt to be fwayed by party influence, or by private
or perfonal confiderations ; for if he once allows himfelf
to be led away or biafled by thofe, or to aét in any manner
inconfiftent with the public interefts, he is unfit for that
office. He ought not to be a man, who has all his life-time
been confined to the narrow limits of a fingle diftri& or
county, or who has fuddenly, or by a flender recom-
mendation, been brought forward as a perfon qualified for
fo arduous an undertaking. He ought to have feen, in
various places, the different fy{tems adopted in the manage-
ment and conftru€tion of roads, and to have made it a
particular object of his attention, the judging of the bett
and moft advantageous praétices, under the particular cir-
cumftances of different cafes. And befides thefe, there is
another probable reafon why, under the prefent fyftem,
the public roads cannot be fo impartially managed and con-
duéted as they ought ro he, in the unlimited power given to
country gentlemen over the roads in the county or diftriét
in which they live. Many of thofe gentlemen, for their bene-
volence and liberality, are truly deferving of every praife
that can be beftowed upon them ; but, however honourable
and refpeétable they may be, and however defirous to pro-
mote the public good, it would be doing an injuftice to
human nature to fuppofe they can view, with impartial eyes,
the fine plantations, the beautiful inclofures, and other im-
provements, they have made on their eftates. We may as
wellimagine, that a dotisg mother can coolly and delibe-
rately fee an incifion made in the fin of her darling child,
however much it may be benefited by the operation, as
that a country gentleman can with indifference behold a
turnpike road carried through an inclofure, which he him-
felf has been at the pains and the expence of adorning.
He adds, that fo fituated, it is natural to believe this gen-
tleman would with that road to go in any other dire¢tion,
even though it fhould not be quite fo convenient to the
public. He will not only ufe his own perfuafion and en-
deavours to point out arguments againft its coming that
way, but he will even endeavour to prevail on his friends to
exert themfelves alfo, and thus a party is often formed in
oppofition to the public intereft; and if he is a man of
opu.ence and power, and generally refpeéted, it is more
than probable his influence will prevail in this bufinefs.
It confequently appears to him neceffary, in order to
obviate thefe abufes and ineonveniencies, that there fhould
be a controlling power over the meafures propofed by
country gentlemen refpecting turnpike roads: for to allow
thofe gentlemen to decide ultimately on the laying out a
new road through their own lands, or even on the diftribw.
tion of the money to be expended ia repairing old roads,
is, in fact, making them judges in their own caufe, In
fhort, it is an object fo truly important to the interefts of
the community at large, and of the kingdom in general, to
procure the moft eafy, fafe, and expeditious, and the leatt
expenfive intercourfe with every part, by means of the beit
roads, that it is a meafure, he prefumes, highly deferving
the attention of the legiflature ; and which, from the great
extent of bufinefs, would probably require a board, with
proper furveyors appointed by it, for the purpofe. If fome
plan of this nature were adopted, we fhould then hear no
more of thofe numerous complaints that are fo often made:
refpecting the abufes committed in the management of
turnpike roads, and of the money levied at the toll-bars, at
many of which, it is faid, by the author of the “ Wealth
of Nations,”’ the money levied is more than double of what
is neceflary for executing, in the completeit manner, the
work which is often executed in a very flovenly manner,
and fometimes not executed at all.
But in refpeé& to the improvement of both the public and
private roads, the following hints have been thrown out in
the able Agricultural Survey of Shropfhire. In lieu of
furveyors in each parifh (who are generally chofen in turn,
and confequently have neither time nor experience fufficient
to act properly, and are generally not inclined to exert
themfelves by enforcing the duty, &c.), the writer
would propofe for the magiftrates to have power to
appoint a proper furveyor with a falary, who fhould
a€t under their dire€tion, and be amenable to them for his
conduét ; fuch furveyor to undertake the arrangement of
a certain diftri@ (fay ten miles {quare), whofe duty it fhould
be to employ deputies, to call in and fee the ftatute duty
done under his dire&tion : by this means the forming of the
roads, which is the firft principle, would be done in the mof
approved method, and the ftatute duty regularly called out.
There may be an infpeCtor, an inhabitant in each parifh,
appointed, and chofen yearly, whofe intereit it would be, as
well as his duty, to a&t as a check upon the general furveyor
and his deputy: this office, being ealy, might be filled by one
of the moft liberal perfons in the parifh. He apprehends
that an arrangement of this fort would very foon infure good
private roads. And fomething like the following would,
he thinks, procure good turnpike roads alfo; namely, the
truftees of all the turnpike roads throughout England,
to be obliged to ere& weighing engines at all their gates or
bars, at which tolls are received, on or before the 24th day
of June next, the expence of fuch ereétions to be repaid
to them, by their being empowered to add to their
prefent refpective tolls any fum to be paid by fuch
carriage to be weighed, not exceeding fo much as has
been heretofore paid within one year laft for the tolls;
fuch fums to be paid, until all expence of ere€ting the
faid engines fhall be fully repaid. The account of fuch
repayment to be made out and fettled by the clerks and
gate-keepers belonging to the refpe€tive roads, and to be
attefted upon oath before two juitices of the peace. And
from and after the faid 24th day of June next, it may be
lawful for all carriages to be drawn with any number of
horfes along any turnpike road. But to prevent the inju-
ries done to roads, by the great burdens too frequently
drawn along them, it fhould be enacted, that from and
after the faid 24th day of June, it fhould be lawful for all
truftees appointed by any act or aéts of parliament, for the
repair of any turnpike road, or any five or more of them,
and they fhould be required at a public meeting, to be held
for
ROAD.
for that purpofe on or before the 24th day of April next,
to order to be ereéted at all the gates and bars which they
have erected, or fhall ereét, for the receiving of tolls, or upon
any part of the road within their refpetive jurifdictions, and
at fuch a diftance from any turnpike, bar, or toll-gate, as
they fhall think requifite and expedient to order and caufe to
be ereéted, a crane, machine, or engine, proper for the
’ weighing of carts, waggons, or carriages conveying any
goods or merchandize whatever; and by a writing figned
by them, or any five or more of them, to order all and every
fuch carriage or carriages which fhall pafs loaded through
any fuch gate or bar, to be weighed, together with the
loading thereof; and for them, or any five or more of them,
or for any perfon or perfons empowered by any five or more
of them, to receive and take, over and above the tells al-
ready granted, or hereafter to be granted, the fum of ros.
for every hundred weight, 112lbs. to the hundred, which
every waggon or cart hereafter defcribed, together with the
loading thereof, fhall weigh over and above the weights
hereafter allowed to them refpectively ; that is to fay, to
every waggon or four-wheel carriage, having the fellies or
rollers of the wheels of the breadth of fixteen inches, eight
tons in fummer, and feven in winter: to every waggon or
wain, having the axle-trees thereof of fuch different lengths,
that the diftance from wheel to wheel of the nearer pair of
the faid wheels be not more than four feet two inches, to be
meafured at the ground, and that the diftance from wheel
to wheel of the other pair thereof be fuch, that the fore
and hind wheels of fuch waggons and wains’ fhall roll only
one fingle furface or path of fixteen inches wide at the leatt,
on each fide of the faid waggons or wains, and having the
fellies thereof of the breadth of nine inches from fide to
fide at the bottom or fole thereof, fix tons ten cwt. in fum-
mer, and fix tons in winter: to every waggon or four-
wheel carriage, having the fole or bottom of the fellies of
the wheels of the breadth of nine inches, fix tons in fum-
mer, and five tons ten cwt. in winter: to every cart,
having the fellies of the fame dimenfions, three tons in
fummer, and two tons fifteen cwt. in winter: to every wag-
gon, having the fole or bottom of the fellies of the wheels
of the breadth of fix inches, four tons five cwt. in fummer,
and three tons fifteen cwt. in winter: and to every fuch
waggon, fo conitruéted as to roll, and aétually rolling a
furface of eleven inches by the wheels thereof, five tons ten
ewt. in fummer, and five tons in winter : to every cart having
the fellies of the fame dimenfions, two tons twelve cwt. in
fummer, and two tons feven cwt. in winter: to every wag-
gon, having the fole or bottom of the fellies of the wheels
of lefs breadth than fix inches, three tons fifteen cwt. in
fummer, and three tons twelve cwt. in winter: and to every
cart, having the fellies of the fame dimenfions, one ton
fifteen cwt. in fummer, and one ton to twelve cwt. in win-
ter. And if fuch truttees as aforefaid fhall negleét to ereé&
fuch engine at their refpective gates by the faid 24th day
of June, then it fhall and may be lawful for any mortgagee
or mortgagees of the faid gate or gates to erect fuch en-
gine or engines, and to take upon them the fame power as
the faid truitees were by the aét invefted with, and under the
fame regulations, on or before the 29th day of September
next ; and if the faid truftees and mortgagees fhall neglect
to ere&t fuch engine or engines by the refpective times
hereinbefore ftipnlated for ereéting the fame, then it fhall
and may be lawful for all horfes, carts, and other carriages,
from and after the faid 29th day of September next, to go
through and pafs along fuch road or roads, without any
ebitruction or payment’ for tolls whatfoever, until fuch
Vou. XXX.
truftees or mortgagees fhall ereé&t fuch weighing engine or
engines as aforefaid, and occafion the fame to be regularly
ufed ; any thing contained within the refpeCtive aéts for
turnpike roads to the contrary notwithftanding.
And it is ufefully remarked, in refpe& to the effets of
thefe regulatiens, that, firft, the weighing engines will fué-
ficiently prevent carriages of all forts being overloaded,
which will be a prefervation of the road, whereas, the re-
ftraint upon the number of horfes does not anfwer the pur-
pofe ; for a fhort and overpowered team does more damage
to the roads, than a greater number of horfes, which draw
eafy, and confequently pafs along much quicker. That
difagreeable reftraint will be thereby made unneceflary,
which empowers and encourages fome poor indolent wretches
to wander about the country with their ready printed no-
tices, to catch a prey, which, when got, is lavifhed away in
drunkennefs, debauchery, and diforder ; and if they fail in
their lawful attempt, which is often the cafe, and perhaps
diftrefled to the greateit degree, being defpifed by perfons
of all denominations, purfue poaching and fowl-ftealing,
which lead to greater aéts of thievery, of which there are
many inftances ; for all the convi&tions are grounded upon
the poor wretches as above defcribed, being by the law al-
lowed to be credible witnefles, who obtain the reward to
the amount of s5/. or more, when the team-owner’s fervant
or fervants are all deemed prejudiced ; fo that, as the a&
now iftands, no one is fafe from thefe conviétions.
Befides, the occupiers of farms in general, particularly
thofe upon the middling-fized ones, find themfelves, it is
faid, very much opprefled and injured by the law now fub-
fifting for regulating the turnpike roads, by their- being re-
{trained from drawing more than four horfes in waggons, the
fellies of the wheels thereof being under fix inches broad.
Were farmers permitted to draw any number of horfes, it
would be of great public utility in lowering the price of
thofe animals, which is now enormoufly high; the farmer
would find it his intereft, as formerly, to keep breeding
mares, which, with the colts they breed, may be made
ufeful great part of the year, provided they may be worked
eafy. The law, as it now ftands, aéts nearly as a prohibi-
tion to farmers breeding horfes ; for a breeding mare, or a
colt under five years old, is not fit to draw one of four in a
waggon, with no more than fixty bufhels of barley or wheat,
which is the common load of the Shropfhire or Staffordthire
farmers, neither of which bring more than two tons, which
is confiderably under the weight the prefent a@ allows to be
drawn on the turnpike roads in winter. Before the faid
turnpike laws were in force, the farmer’s team, to draw his
fixty buthels of wheat or barley, confifted of fix in num-
ber, two of which at leaft were mares, either in foal or
fucklers, two colts, one of them two, the other three
years old, which were never oppreffed or hurt by their
work ; confequently a fucceffion came on, and the owner
had one or two good found colts to fell off every year to
the harnefs or draft, as they beft fuited. Good waggon
horfes were then bought at from 1o/. to 15/. each, which
are now, by their fearcity, from 25/. to 35/.; and thofe for
the coach, that is, the light a€tive half-blood horfes, are
from 4o/. to 60/.
And another evil occafioned by this law is, that fuch
farmers are obliged to keep horfes of the largeft fize, which
confume the preduce of much land, by eating a large quan-
tity of corn, when the fmaller horfes, working eafy, fel-
dom eat any. It is conceived by the fame writer, that upon
this principle, a law for re ulating roads may be enacted,
fo as to an{wer every good defign of the prefent, and at the
Xx fame
ROAD.
fame time relieve thofe individuals who are exceedingly in-
jured,. and alfo be of general utility.
It is likewife remarked in regard to. private roads, that
they are by no means properly attended to ; and which may
be attributed to the general highway act being fo eafy of
evafion, that every farmer is able to avoid doing itatute duty,
or at leaft next to none. Nothing is more valuable than
time, ef{pecially to a man of bufinefs; and a farmer who
executes the office of furveyor of the highway, impartially
and effedually, will find he muft negleé no {mall part of his
own bulinefs ; and after all he might, perhaps, have been
as little out of pocket had he done the whole work with his
own team and labourers. It is ftated, that there is no trick,
evafion, oridlenefs, that fhall be deemed too mean to avoid
working on the road ; fometimes the worft horfes are fent,
at others a broken cart, and a boy, or an old man patt labour,
to fill; they are fometimes fent an hour or two too late in
the morning, or they leave off much fooner than the proper
time, unlefs the furveyor watch the whole day. It is true,
that redrefs may be had by application to a magiftrate ; but
then how often caufes of complaint occur; and how many
days mult be loft to bring each home to the offender; who,
from cufiom, thinks he is doing no harm ; befides the con-
ftant breach of good neighbourhood that muft be occa-
fioned by thefe petty litigations. It is fuggefted that a re-
medy might eafily be had inthe following manner. Abolifh
all perfonal fervice upon the highways. Let furveyors be
appointed, as at prefent, who fhould have power, under the
authority of two magiftrates, to raife, by rate, certain
fums that may be neceflary for the repair of the roads
within the refpeétive parifhes and townfhips, and to account
for the fame at going out of office at the year’s end. The
farmer, who aéts as furveyor, might then be able to repair
the highways when moft convenient to himfelf, and when he
could give attention to them without any interruption or
impediment, whereas at prefent fome duty is given up, or
nearly fo, from the difficulties arifing in collecting it. On
the fame principles, the author of the Prefent State of
Hufbandry in Great Britain contends, that an a& of par-
liament fhould be introduced, for the purpofe of re{cinding
the ancient laws refpecting ftatute labour ; which have in
every inftance been found ineffectual, and to eftablifh other
general rules and regulations more likely to anfwer the pur-
pofe in the new improved ftate of the country. He adds,
that the exifting a¢ts of parliament refpe¢ting the making
and repairing roads, where the juttices of the peace cannot
commute the ftatute labour, are not fufficient for the pur-
pote of raifing a fund fufficient for keeping the roads in re-
pair. Where the juftices of peace have it in their power to
affefs the inhabitants in a fum of money in lieu of the ftatute
labour, it is in general not the want of means, but the mif-
application of that means, or negligence in the general ma-
nagement, that is the caufe why the parifh roads are almoit
every where a difgrace to the country. The imperfe&t and
indifferent modes of executing the ftatute work, as ftated
above, render it neceflary, it is fuppofed, that thofe fta-
tutes enforcing the performance of this neceflary duty fhould
therefore be abolifhed ; and in every county the jultices of
the peace ought to be invefted with the power to affefs the
inhabitants of the diftri& by fome equitable ratio, whereby
they would pay only in proportion to the benefit they re-
ceived. Were this generally done, as is the cafe in feveral
parts of Scotland, the counties divided into diftriG@s of fuch
tize, that the proprietors could conveniently meet as occa-
fion required ; the money arifing from the commutation a&
colleGted by one perfon, who fhould he allowed a certain per
centage on the {um collected, be continued during good be-
haviour, and be refponfible for his conduét to the gentlemen
of the diftriat; the money fo colle€ted be afterwards ex-
pended under the direétion of thefe gentlemen, and the
whole be fubjeét to the review of the quarter-feffions; the
parifh roads would, it is fuppofed, foon be materially im-
proved. If to thefe regulations a power were added to
mortgage the fum arifing from the commutation of the
ftatute labour for fuch a number of years, and to fuch an
extent, as was found neceflary to put the ufeful private
roads in a perfect ftate of repair, they might, it is fuppofed,
in a few years, be made the reverfe of what they are at pre-
fent. The laft meafure would be found the moft effectual
of any that could be adopted, and is probably the only
one that can be reforted to for the purpofe of effecting an
immediate and general improvement. :
It has likewife been remarked by the author of the
‘© Landed Property of England,” in refpe& to the im-
provement of farm-lands by thefe means, that the art of
planning, forming, and repairing roads, is a fubje&t with
which, for various reafons, every manager of a large eftate
ought to be familiarly converfant. It isnot enough for him
to know the theory, or general principles, of the art. It is
-neceflary that he fhould ftudy it pra€tically in the particu-
lar diftriét in which he’ is placed; and with the given ma-
terials that it happens to afford; as by thefe means he can
only be capable of executing the bufinefs with the greateft
poffible advantage. In this bufinefs a molt material point,
whether in the /aying out of new roads, or improving fuch as
have been long eltablifhed, is that of giving them all the ad-
vantage in direction and other circumitances that the peculi-
arity of their nature and fituation admit of. It has been
ftated by the above writer, that moft of all the old roads of
the kingdom (the remains of the Roman ways excepted)
owe their prefent lines to fortuitous circumftances. Many
of them were, no doubt, he thinks, originally foot-paths ;
fome of them, perhaps, the tracks of the aboriginal inhabit-
ants, the patriarchal favages, who lived by hunting; or of
the paftoral tribes, who travelled with their flocks and herds
from paiture to patture, as herbage and browze invited ; or
of the firlt fettlers, between biding places which may not
now exift. And that thefe incidental foot-tracks, efpecially
when they led through woods, became, as the condition of
fociety advanced, the moft convenient horfe-paths ; as we not
unfrequently find at the prefent day. Confequently, that in
this ftate of fociety, before wheel-carriages were in ufe,
many of the lands of the kingdom were appropriated, by
which circumftance thofe fortuitous lines of roads became
fixed and unalterable ; there being no other legal lines left
for carriage roads, than thofe incidental horfe-ways, or {mall
tracks. He fuppofes, that in this account of the probable ori-
gin of roads, we have, at leaft in part, the caufe of the crook-
ednefs, as well as the fteepnefs, of carriage roads, between
the places which are now inhabited: for true it is, that the -
traveller is not unfrequently led down one fteep to make
an angle, and afcend another; while the hang of the hill
would condué him nearly on a level, and by a more direct
line. But, admitting that a clufter of habitations heretofore
{tood at the angle, the feeming abfurdity ceafes. He adds,
that formerly, it is probable, the zigzag direCtion of roads,
between towns and villages, was much more obfervable than
at prefent. In more modern times, and fince the legiflature
wifely interfered with refpe&t to appvopriated lands, many .
improvements of lines have been made. And, by the ge-
neral laws which have more recently been pafled, magiftrates
are invelted witk authority to alter eftablifhed lines. So
. that
ROAD.
that now, the expence of alteration may be {aid to be the only
obftacle, in ordinary cafes, to the perfection of the lines of
roads in this country. And which is, of courfe, a circum-
ftance that has had much effe& in improving the convenience
of travelling.
And it is fuggetted, in refpe& to the direétion of roads,
that the moft perfect line is that which is itraight and level.
But this is to be drawn in a country only which is perfectly
flat, and where no obftruétions lie in the way :—joint circum-
ftances that rarely happen. Where the face of the country,
between two points or places to be conneéted by a road, is
nearly but not quite level, by reafon of gentle {wells that
rife between them, a {traight line may be perfect ;—may be
the mott eligible under thefe circumftances. But where the
intervening country is broken into hill and dale, or if one
ridge of hill only intervenes, a itraight line of carriage road
is feldom compatible with perfe@ion. And that in this
cafe, which is nearly general, the beft fkill-of the furveyor
lies in tracing the midway between the ftraight and the level
line. Here the level line of perfection, for agricultural
purpofes, is to be calculated, by the time and exertion jointly
confidered, which are required to convey a given burden with
a given power of draft from {tation to ftation. On great
public roads, where expedition is a principal object, time alone
may be taken asa good criterion. It is likewife added, that
the moft regular method of finding out the true line of road,
between twe ftations, where a blank is given,—where there
is no other cbitru€tion than what the furface of the ground
to be got over prefents, —is to afcertain and mark, at proper
diftances, the fraight line ; which is the only certain guide
to the furveyor. And that where the ftraight line is found
to be ineligible, each mark becomes a rallying point, in
fearching on either fide of it for a better. If two lines of
equal facility, and nearly of equal diftance from the ftraight
lines, prefent themfelves, accurate meafurements are to de-
termine the choice. If one of the two bett lines, which the
intervening country affords, is found to be eafier, the other
thorter, the afcent and the diftance are to be jointly con-
fidered, the exertion and the time required are likewife
to be duly weighed. Further, alfo, the nature of the
ground, the fource of materials and, generally, the compa-
rative expence of forming the road by two doubtful lines, as
well as their comparative expofure, are to be taken into con-
fideration. A long line of road, acrofs a broken country,
fhould net be haftily drawn or determined upon by the di-
reGors of this fort of bufinefs.
But in regard to the moft difficult and troublefome part
of this fort of work,—the neceflary management in the afcent
of hills,—it is obferved that, whether in laying out a freth
line, or in altering an eftablifhed one, modern road furvey-
ors, like many other reformers, have run from one extreme
to another. To do away the abfurdity of going up one
fteep and down another, to afcend a third in order to reach
the required elevation (a common occurrence on fortuitous
roads), they have ingenioufly, but very injudicioufly, given
an uniform rife from the bottom to the tep of the afcent.
In the theory of mechanics, and where mechanic powers
only were to be ufed, a regularly inclining plane would be
perfectly proper, in a cafe of this kind. Where the re-
quifite power is to be applied by rational beings, the
fame principle, though not altogether perfect, may be al-
lowed ; but when the moving power is neither purely me-
chanical, nor in a fufficient degree rational, but an irregular
compound of thefe two qualities, the nature and habits of
this power require, he thinks, to be confulted. It is, he
conceives, one of many inftances, which fhew the impro-
priety of applying purely mechanical principles, in agricul.
ture and rural concerns, in which they are to be combined,
not only with the power but the will of the animals. No
man who has been accuftomed to drive a road team, or
in the habit of feeing one driven in a hilly country, and
who properly regards what he fees, would lay out a long
line of afcent without one or more breaks, or convenient
refting-places ; 12 which the animals of draft may relax at
their eafe, and fet off again without difficulty. He, how-
ever, obferves, theory will readily fuggeft that, by a drag-
ftaff, or pall, a carriage may be fecurely ftopped on a
fteepeft afcent. But praétice well knows the danger of
checking the efforts of beafts of draft while they are
ftruggling againft the collar. For if they poffefs any ha»
bits, or even the feeds of reftivenefs, nothing is, he contends,
more likely to encourage, or produce it, than fuffering them
to flop under the difficulties of draft. Befides, thofe which
are true to their work, well knowing the extraordinary dif-
ficulty to be overcome, in putting a carriage at reft into
motion in fuch a fituation, ftop under a degree of anxiety ;
while the more fpirited and irritable ftand on the rack, and
tremble at the apprehenfion of the painful effort they have
to make. But Jet them fee an end, or a refpite, of their
endeavours, and they will ftruggle with willingnefs. A reft,
after the difficulty is furmounted, comes as a reward for their
exertions. But where the natural furface of the ground is
well ftudied in any given cafe, there will feldom, he fup-
pofes, be much difficulty in afligning the places proper for
refts ; fo as to make the road not only eafier for carriages
of burden, but fafer and more pleafant to travellers, as well
as more fightly : befides being better to be kept in repair,
than an uniform defcent ; by reafon of the flatter flages being
checks to the furface water, and convenient places to get
rid of it, without injury to the face of the road. But where
fuch breaks do not occur, the line of afcent fhould be uni-
form ; or as nearly fo as the natural furface, or immoveable
obitructions of the acclivity to be furmounted, will allow in
the particular cafe,
Likewife in the fetting out of thefe lines, the common level
is to be fet by an obfervation from the bottom to the top
of the afcent (thefe points having been previoufly de-
termined on, by the given circumftances of the general line
of the road), or from ftation to ftation where a clear view
cannot be had between the extremities; and the degree
of afcent, thus afcertained, is to be marked with a pencil
upon the inftrument that is made ufe of for the purpofe.
And by this mark it is advifed to trace a rough line along
the face of the hill; in order to determine, with f{ufficient
truth, re{pecting the proper breaks, or refting-places, that may
be required ; endeavouring to fix upon fuch natural breaks
in the flope as are fituated in, or fufficiently near, the ge-
neral line of afcent. And that when this has been done, to
afcertain, by fimilar obfervations, the exact angle of eleva.
tion, or degree of fteepnefs of each rife, or length of afcent
between the breaks, &c. by thefe means procuring an uner-
ring guide, in marking out and forming the bafe or bed of
the road ; without the rifk of incurring unneceflary labour
and expence in doing the work twice over to bring it to the
truth, or a {tate of fuitable exaGinefs.
But it is well remarked by Mr. Marfhall, that the beft
fervices of the road furveyor lie in avoiding, not in furmount-
ing hills. And that in a longline of road, between places
of nearly equal elevation, this may often be done. "There
are inftances of the moft public roads going over the tops
of hills, where lines of equal length might be traced along
their bafes ; and the difficulty and danger of afcending and
defcending the fteeps be avoided by fuch means.
Very much attention has lately been beftowed on this de-
Xx 2 partment
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partment of the road-maker’s bufinefs, efpecially in the more
northern parts of the kingdom ; but much is till left to be
accomplifhed, efpecially in the weltern diftriéts of the fouthern
parts of the ifland, where an attachment ftill remains to the
original lines or direétions.
And it is fuggefted by Mr. Beatfon in the paper above
alluded to, that the bufinefs of laying out the lines of roads
may, in fact, be reduced to three fimple principles ; thofe of
fixing upon the /hortef, the mof level, and the cheape/? direc-
tions, for which, though apparently very eafy of execution,
from the frequent occurrence of circumftances that render it
neceflary to deviate from them, the knowledge and experience
of the furveyor are found requifite. The firft requifite from
its being a ftraight line, is often neceflary to be departed
from in order to avoid the removal of expenfive obftacles,
fuch as hills, rocks, water, and morafles. The fecond is of
vait importance, and fhould invariably be adhered to, if pof-
fible, even though the other two fhould, in a certain degree,
be given up; for it is infinitely better to goa confiderable
way about to obtaina level road, than to go ftraight forward
and be obliged to take an afcent ; but it may, in fome cafes,
be preferable to afcend a gentle rife, in order to. obtain a
good hard bottom, and a,road eafily made, than to go ona
level through a {wamp, or piece of water, which would
require a much greater quantity of materials, be much
mere difficult to keep in repair, and occafion a great deal
more expence. It is not the moft hilly line to appear-
ance that is always to be rejected as being the leaft
‘level ; for the fteeper and fhorter, fome hills are, it will be
the eafier to obtain a level road in that direction, by cutting
down the fummits, and laying the materials taken from
them in the vallies or hollow parts, which, in many inftances,
may be done with great facility. And the third, or the leaft
expenfive line, is alfo frequently given up, in order to obtain
one or both of the other two. It is therefore concluded,
that much depends on the fkill and ability of the furveyor,
who, before he finally determines on a line of road, ought to
make himfelf perfetly mafter of every part of the interme-
diate and adjacent country ; nor fhould he rafhly determine
at once, but fhould examine repeatedly, over and over again,
whether no other line would be better than that he firft
thought of.
And with refpeé& to the parts or divifions of which a
public road fhould confift, it is obvious that they fhould
vary infome meafure, according to the nature of the traffic
or bufinefs which is carried on upon them, the fituation in
which they are placed, and the particular circumftances of
the different cafes. Itis, however, contended by the author
of the « Landed Property of England,” that the plan and
formation of all public roads fhould be the fame; every
public lane, or other {cite of a public road, he conceives,
ought, where the width and other circumiftances will permit,
to be divided into three travellable lines, namely: 1. A
middle road of hard materials, for carriages and horfes, in
winter and wet feafons: 2. A foft road, formed with the
natural materials of the {cite, to be ufed in dry weather,
to fave the unneceflary wear of the hard road, and to favour
the feet of travelling animals; as well as ‘for the fafety,
eafe, and pleafantnels of travelling in the fummer feafon :
and 3. Acommodious path, for the ufe of foot paflengers,
atalifeafons. But in thefe cafes, he thinks, modern practice
has fimplified too much. Iniftead of thefe three requifites of
a public road, we generally find a parliamentary or turnpike
road (away from the environs of great towns), confifting,
fimply, of one uniform broadway of hard materials; upon
which horfes ftumble, and carriages jolt, the year round:
while travellers on foot are feen wading to thei ankles in
mud, or in duit, according to the ftate of the wind and
weather. His notion of what the nature of a publicroad
ought to be, is, that within the fences of a lane or road
there fhould be a raifed foot-path, a convex hard road, a
foft fummer road, and channels to carry off the water
collected by the carriage roads; the foot-path being cut
acrofs, in proper places, to permit the water, which falls on
that fide of the middle road, to pafs off freely into the ditch
at that fide, as well as to prevent horfemen from riding
along the path ; the oppofite hedge-bank being perforated,
to let off, into the other drain on the contrary fide, the
Hse which may colle& on that fide of the lane or
road.
And in regard to private roads it is contended, that where
they are much ufed, as in fuch as lead from a village or other
place to a public road, they fhould have a double carriage
path, fo that carriages may any where pafseachother. But
that for fuch as lead merely to a farm-houfe or a hamlet,
a fingle line fufficiently wide to let a fingle er faddle horfe
pafs a carriage with occafional dilations for carriages to pafs
in, are only in general requifite.
Form of Roads.—Further, in regard tothe moft appro-
priate form of roads, there has been a great difference of
opinion among the perfons engaged in this fort of work, fome
contending in favour of the convea form, while others are
inclined to think the concave fhape preferrable in many cafes ;
and ftill others, that they fhould be either made perfeGly
flat from one fide to the other, with inclined planes longi-
tudinally, or be cvhally flat in every direGtion. But experience
fully fhews, that fome degree of the convex form is neceffary
in almoft every cafe, in order that the wetnefs and moifture
may be difcharged with greater facility, and of courfe the
roads be preferved in a more dry ftate. And in {peaking
of this form of road, Mr. Beatfon obferves, that the rife in
the middle is more or lefs according to the fancy or whim of
the makers, but in general it is a great dealtoo much. This
form is adopted on the idea, that whatever wet falls upon the
road will run off towards the fides into drains made there
for the purpofe of receiving it. If the roads were a perfe&
{mooth hard furface, this theory would, no doubt, he thinks,
hold good; but in prattice it is found not to be the cafe,
for the wheels of carriages occafion fo many ruts, and fuch
a roughnefs on the furface of the roads in general, that
little or no water can run towards the fide-drains, however
convex the road may be. It confequently lodges in thofe
ruts, and every fucceeding carriage, he thinks, the more eafily
makes them deeper, and works the water and materials
together in fuch a manner, as very foon to render the road
extremely difagreeable. This frequently happens, he
afferts, even on roads that have been made moft incommodi-
oufly convex, for the very purpofe of keeping them dry ;
confequently, the convexity of a road has not the defired
effet of preventing water lodging upon the furface. Befides,
it is, he conceives, extremely inconvenient for all wheel
carriages, and deftruétive to the road itfelf, by making the
loading reft unequally upon the wheels, unlefs when go-
ing on the very middle of the road, for the lowett wheel will
always bear the greateft part of the burden, and therefore
will injure the road the more in proportion. If a cart or
any carriage with two wheels is loaded, we will fuppofe,
with two tons weight; when that cart is upon a level from
fide to fide, the load is equally divided, and each wheel
fuftains the weight of one ton; but if that cart.is going on
the fide of a convex road, there will perhaps be the weight
of aton anda half upon one wheel, and only half a ton
upon the other, confequently the lower wheel, in this cafe,
will do the road as much injury, as if the cart were leaded
with
ROAD.
with three tons upon a level, inftead of two upon fuch a
declivity. The proportion of weight upon each wheel, ac-
cording to the declivity, will depend on the nature of the load-
ing of the cart, for the higher the centre of gravity of the
load is, the greater will that weight be on the lower wheel on
the fame declivity ; and therefore a cart loaded with hay,
ftraw, or wool, or any other bulky commodity, will be
more injurious to a convex road, unlefs when on the middle
of it, than the fame cart loaded with the fame weight of
ftone, lead, or iron, or any other weighty commodity which
lies low in a cart: and nothing can be more injurious
on fuch roads, than a ftage-coach loaded with outfide
pallengers. But the deftructive confequences of allowing
carriages to heel much on any fort of road are even vifible,
though in a {mall degree, he fuppofes, from the effect pro-
duced by a wheel going over a ftone, or any hard {ubftance
lying in one of the tracks or ruts, in which cafe there will
foon be adeep hole formed by the wheel in the other track,
direGtly oppofite to that {tone or fub{tance which raifed the
other wheel. Every precaution ought, therefore, to be ufed
to prevent carriages heeling to one fide on any part of a road.
And he fuggeits, that the inconvenience, and in many cafes
the danger, of going on either fide of a convex road, makes
all waggoners, carters, coachmen, &c. keep always on the
middle, by which, on fuch roads, there is feldom any other
part ufed by wheel carriages, however wide the road may
be ; confequently, by the carriages being always confined
to the fame track, that part of the road foon gets out of
repair, and requires a con{tant outlay of money to keep it in
proper order or condition for being travelled upon. It is
alfo added, that the method of forming and making the
convex roads, in the firlt inftance, appears to him very
abfurd. ' He fuppofes, that before any hard materials are
laid on, the road is generally formed in fomewhat a hollow
manner, rounded below, in which there are drains, or ditches,
oneach fide: alfo the footways or horfe roads when made high
enough. Thefe are alfo fometimes called the fummer sate
on account, he fuppofes, of that being the only feafon they can
in general be travelled upon. The road forms a convex line,
about ten or twelve inches lower at the fides of it than the
footway andfummerroad. After ara thus formed and pre-
pared, the hard materials, moftly confifting of broken ttones,
are laid on, which, it is fuppofed, will fill up that {pace which
is the hollow in a convex line, and when finifhed, the whole
furface, from one fide to the other, forms one convexity ;
the footways or horfe roads being made a continuation of
the fame curve. And this is ftill with the idea, that all
the water that falls on the road will run into the drains on
each fide. But let any perfon, in wet weather, take a view
of a road thus formed, and he will find, that, in general,
however great the convexity may be, the water will ftand in
every rut and every impreffion made upon it, efpecially if
the road has been long travelled upon ; that the ftones on the
furface are pulverized by heavy wheel carriages, and the wet
earth from below worked up among them. Alfo where the
road is but newly made or repaired, and the materials are
fufficiently porous to let through the water, it will then
lodge on the convex furface, in every impreffion of a ftone
or other uneven part, particularly at the fides, where it is
dammed again by the footways, and thus the bed or found-
ation of the road is kept conftantly moift, and of courfe it
will very foon go out of repair. By this centinual moifture
the ftones fink down into the foft earth, of which the bed of
the road is compofed, and this earth works up through the
barder materials, and occafions all that dirtinefs generally on
the furface of roads in wet weather, although, perhaps, ten
er twelve inches in thicknefs of thofe hard materials had
been at firft laid over it. Sometimes, indeed, there are
under-drains made through the footway, from the fide
parts, at every ten or fifteen yards diftance, to convey the
water into the ditches; but even this is not found to anfwer
the purpofe intended, for the intermediate fpaces foon
become fo impervious, that the water does not pafs through
them to enter thefe drains, the wet earth being converted
into a fort of puddle, refembling what is ufed, in aquatic
works, for the purpofe of preventing the moifture from
penetrating through, and confequently it lodges in all the
ruts and hollows on the furface, without pafling off fo
quickly as fhould always be the cafe in fuch inftances.
Befides this there is another manner of forming thefe
convex roads advifed in the Bedfordfhire Agricultural
Report, in which it is propofed to leave a hollow or vacuum,
as it is called, in the middle, to depofit the hard materials in.
The only difference that appears to be between this and the
method defcribed above, is, that inftead of the bottom of this
hollow being made conyex, it is made flat, and alfo deeper.
It is thought that this method is liable to the fame obje¢tion
as the former, perhaps even in a {tronger degree ; befides, it
would require a much greater thicknefs of hard materials,
which are very expenfive, and thofe materials would be deepeft
or thickeft in the middle of the road, where the wheels of
carriages hardly ever go, confequently that part is not fo
liable to be cut up as the tracks in which wheels moft gene-
rally run, and produce their greateft effets. Mr. Marfhall
feems, however, to think more favourably of this form of
road, efpecially for wet weather, affuming it as a found
pofition, that roads, in general, which are intended to be tra-
velled in wet feafons, fhould be convex or /helving, not flat or
concave. Jt remains to determine the proper degree of con-
vexity of the hard line of road; from the margin of which
the dry-weather line ought to thelve gently to the foot of
the hedge-bank ; fo that carriages may pafs freely, and
fafely, from one line to the other ; and in order that the rain-
water which falls on that fide of the lane may find its way,
eafily, into the channel prepared for it, which is, he con-
ceives, for a wet-weather road, to be regulated by a variety
of circumftances : as, firft, by the materials of which it is
to be formed: foft materials are moft liable to be worn into
ruts and hollows, and require to be laid up witha quicker
defcent for rain water, than hard materials, which require
lefs elevation or rotundity of furface; and leaft of all a firm
even pavement. Secondly, that a convex road in the face of
a fteep is to be laid up higher, with a given material, than
one on more level ground, on which rain-water has no other
tendency than to the fides ; whereas in the face of a fteep, it
it may haye an equal or greater tendency along the line of
road ; andis liable to be caught by the flighteft impreffions of
wheels ; and thus to wear channels, as may too often be feen,
from the top tothe bottom of the hill. Even where the
furface of the roadis perfeétly f{mooth, it may have twice
the diftance to run, before it reach the outer margin, that it
hason a level. And thirdly, that the degree of convexity
is to be determined, in part, by the width of the road; the
materials and defcent being equal. A wide road requires
to be formed with greater fideway defcent than a narrower
one ; which more readily frees itfelf from rain-water, inaf-
much as the diftance 1s fhorter from the crown to the out{kirts
of the road in fuch inftances.
But that the freeing of a road from rain-water is not the
only objeé& to be kept in view, with regard to its convexity:
the eafe and fafety of carriages, and particularly thofe of
burden, whofe loads, being of light materials, are laid up
high, require to be confulted. A carriage moves moft
freely, and with the leaft exertion of draft, when the load
hes
ROAD.
lies evenly upon the wheels on either fide. In propor-
tion as the weight is thrown on one fide or the other, the
refiftance is increafed ; efpecially on the road which ts liable
to impreflion. Hence the inconvenience of a highly convex
road in the face of a fteep ; and hence the utility of breaks
in long afcents, or fuch roads as are formed in hilly
fituations.
In fa&, he conceives it evident in refpe& to convexity,
that every part of a road fhould be equally and duly convex,
—fhould be equally fafe and eafy for carriages of every de-
{cription ; otherwife it becomes partially worn; the more
level parts only are ufed; the fteeper being in a degree ufe-
lefs. Hence a road of even and due convexity is not only
eafy and fafe, but may be formed of a narrower width, than
one whofe fteep fides are neither ealy nor fafe to be tra-
velled; and whofe crown, only, is in ufe for pafling upon.
And on meafuring different paflages of roads which ap-
peared to lie in the moft defirable form, and taking their
convexity, or the elevation of the crown or middle of the
road above the bafe line, he has found that roads of twenty
feet in width rife about ten inches: namely, one inch in
every foot, on either fide. And he is of opinion that this
refult may be taken as a general guide in forming roads:
this middle degree of convexity being lable to be altered
according to the width of the road, the nature of the
materials, and other circumftances which have been {tated
already.
And concerning the fecond or concave form of roads,
Mr. Beatfon thinks that it is quite the reverfe of the com-
mon form, being loweft in the middle, where other roads
are generally made higheft. By differing fo widely from
the common practice, and the general opinion of road makers,
one would at firft be almoft inclined to fuppofe, that fo fin-
gular a practice in forming roads could only proceed from
a defire or propenfity to differ from the reft of mankind:
but when we are told that the late celebrated and ingenious
Mr. Bakewell was an advocate for this form ; that the road
by his farm of Difhly, and that through Mefham, in the
fame county, are both upon this principle, and in much
better order than the roads found about them ; likewife that
the road through Bredon, made under the direction of Mr.
Wilkes, is of the fame form, and is faid to be better now
than ever remembered before, and kept in order at much
lefs expence :—when we confider thefe well authenticated
facts, fupported by fuch refpeCiable evidence, we naturally
conclude that the reafons for adopting this uacommon form
of road, are founded on fomething more fubftantial than
mere whim and caprice ; and confequently deferve to be more
fully inveftigated. This writer ftates, that he has not been
able to learn the manner of forming thefe kinds of roads
before the hard materials are laid on, but, when completed,
he underftands the form is fomething fimilar to that of a
paved ftreet, with a drain for the water in the middle. The
whole width of the road is divided into three equal parts, or
nearly fo. The fides are made quite flat. The middle divifion
has a gradual but {mall defcent, or concavity, from each
fide to the middle part, which is the middle of the road.
This concavity has alfo a fmall defcent lengthways, made
on‘purpofe, if not declining naturally, fufficient to carry
off the water to proper outlets. In the middle divifion the
beft and hardeft materials are laid. The dire€tion of Mr.
Wilkes, as ftated in an ingenieus paper, in the firft volume
of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, is, that
when the fall is one foot in 150 or 200 feet forward, the
fall from the fides towards the middle ought to be 15 inches
in 20 feet.’ When one foot in 100 to 150, to be 12 inches.
One foot in 30 or lefs, to be even the whole breadth.
Where the width of a road is 60 feet, one foot of fall to
each 40 feet in length of the road. Twenty feet from the
fides towards the middle, to have nine inches of fall.
The inner 20 feet to be flat.
And Mr. Bakewell’s idea, he is informed, was, that water,
where it can conveniently be applied, fhould frequently be
let run upon this concave part, in order to wafh it quite
clean; for it is always obferved, where a {mall {tream of
water comes upon a road, that part, if the bottom is good,
is generally firmeft, and hardly ever gives way. To have a
command of water, therefore, to flood the road at pleafure,
he thought would be of great advantage in keeping it in
order. And the other ufeful properties attending a road of
this form are the following: ‘There are three parts of it on
which wheel carriages may go, without heeling to either
fide ; on the fide divifions, and alfo on the middle divifion,
when the horfes walk in the loweit part. This is certainly
a material advantage, being much more eafy for the horfes
and lefs injurious to the road. By carriages ufing indiferi-
minately thefe three tracks, all parts of the road will wear
more equally and for a greater length of time; whereas in
the convex roads, there being only one part, namely, the
middle, on which carriages can go without heeling, that
part only is moft generally ufed, and confequently looneft
gets out of repair, which is a great inconvenience in fuch
roads.
With refpe& to flat roads floping longitudinally, the ad-
vocates for them obferve with good reafon, that by being
flat or level from fide to fide, the preflure of wheel car-
riages will be more equal, the fri€tion lefs, and all parts of
the road may be travelled on with the fame facility ; confe-
quently it will wear more equally, be eafier kept in repair,
and require fewer materials for keeping it up. But not-
withftanding fuch advantages are deferving of attention, it
muft feem to thofe unaccuttomed to fuch a form of road, a
difficult matter to keep it fufficiently dry, or free from the
{tagnation of water upon it. But from its having been ob-
ferved that the ruts made by the wheels of carriages prevent
the water running to the fides of convex roads, it is pro-
pofed that roads of this form fhould have in every level part
gentle flopes, fufficient for water to run along, which, fup-
pofing them to be one foot in fifty, would hardly be per-
ceptible. On thefe flopes, or inclined planes, the ruts
made by the wheels of carriages would promote the water
running off, by forming fo many little channels or con-
duGtors for it to run into the lower part of thefe flopes,
from whence it muit be properly conveyed away. By this
plan fuch roads will be much more eafily kept dry than the
common roads ufually are or can be from the nature of their
conftruction.
And farther, in regard to the wholly flat form of roads,
the reafons given for them are nearly the fame as ftated in
fupport of the lait, only that as there are few parts of a
country fo perfeGly level, for any confiderable diftance, that
water will not run either one way or another, it is confe-
quently unneceflary to be at the expence and trouble of
forming thofe flopes or inclined planes recommended in the
preceding form; but that proper outlets fheuld always be
kept clear at every hollow part, and if the road fhould in
any place be quite level, a fhallow crofs drain, that will oc-
cafion no impediment to carriages at every 50 or 60 yards
diftance, or nearer, will keep the road fufficiently dry.
And it is from thefe ftatements concluded by Mr. Beat-
fon, that the main objects fought after are, 1. ‘To keep the
road always as free Troi moifture as poffible: and 2. To
conftruét it in fuch a manner, as to render the draft er
communication eafieft, at the leaft expence. In thefe are
7 compre-
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comprehended all the requifites neceflary to form a complete
road. To attain them in the beft manner is therefore the
important point. Four different methods have been ftated,
each of which has its fupporters. ‘The arguments in favour
of each have alfo been fhortly mentioned, which will fhew
that their main obje& is the fame, unlefs perhaps the idea
of watering the concave road may be confidered a deviation
from one part of the general rule; but as that is propofed
to be done only to wafh the road occafionally, in cafe it be-
comes dirty or flufhy, it cannot therefore be confidered in
that light in any refpeét whatever. But from thefe modes
of conitru€ting roads being in fome meafure unfatisfactory,
he is induced to offer a new theory on the fubje&, which 1s
founded on the knowledge of the ftratified nature of the
earth. {t is however only given as theory, having never,
he believes, been fubjeted to the teft of aétual practice.
It is obferved, that every perfon who has paid the leatt at-
tention to the ftru€ture and formation of the different {trata
of the earth, muft have feen that fome of thefe {trata are of
fo clofe a texture as to be impenetrable to moifture ; others
again are fo porous, that water will eafily run through them
in any direétion, till it meets with fome obftacle, or finds a
vent. Of the firft fort fome are lefs denfe, and of the latter
fome lefs porous than others, confequently as they partake
more or lefs of thefe qualities, the water or moilture will
the more or lefs quickly penetrate through them. But in
order to fhew this more clearly, and apply the principle to
the conftruétion of roads, he fuppofes the ‘feétion of a hill
or eminence compofed of a aumber of ftrata. If the upper
ftratum or furface foil is of a porous nature, it is evident
that any water which falls upon it, will penetrate through
to the ftratum below, where, if it cannot go farther, it will
lide along the furface till it finds a vent at the bottom of
the hill; if the fecond ftratum is hollow, and continues on
towards any depreffion in it, the water will lodge in that
hollow"and form a fort of pool or bog, as is fometimes
obferved on the tops of hills; but if in this hollow place
. there is a communication with the porous ftratum, no water
will lodge there, but it will penetrate through and’ glide
along the upper part of the denfe ftratum below, till it finds
a vent on the fide-or at the bottom of the hill, as before.
And by the above it will alfo appear, that if the uppermott
itratum is of a clofe texture or clay, any water falling
upon it will not only lodge in the large hollow, but in the
fmaller ones, and in all the other irregularities or concavities
that may happen to be upon the furface. Hence, alfo, it
is evident that in order to keep dry the furface of any fuch
piece of ground, it matters not of what fhape or form that
furface is, or whether it is convex or flat, provided there
is a communication with fome under ftratum, fufficiently
porous to carry off the water below ; but it is of fome con-
fequence the form of the upper part of that ftratum- upon
which the water is to run, for the fmoother it is, the
water will of courfe the more eafily flow away, and be dif-
eharged from it.
Tt is eafy, it is f{uppofed, to apply thefe principles in the
forming of roads in the following way: when a new road is
to be Erica, let it be done in the firlt inftance nearly in
the ufual manner, with fuch materials as are on the fpot, and
the nearer the quality of thefe approaches to clay, fo much
the better. Inttead, however, of forming it convex, as is
generally done, let the lines on either fide from the middle
be quite ftraight, and meet in an angle or ridge at that part
or the middle of the road, having a flope trom thence to
each fide, of about an inch in a foot. There are to be made
fmall drains for the more eafily conduéting away the water
that may be collected at thofe places. The road, being thus
formed, muft be allowed to harden and fettle for fome time
before any other materials are laid on, great care being taken,
while in that ftate, to let no carriages or cattle upon it, and
it fhould be rolled with a long wooden roller, that will reach
at once from each of the fides to the middle. This roller
fhould be loaded with a box of {tones to make it fufficiently
heavy, and that it may be the more portable when that box
is taken off; and it may be fo contrived, that by changing
the horfes from one fide to the other, there will be no occa-
fion to turn the roller, in order to make it roll the fame
{pace over again. Being rolled in this manner, will confo-
lidate the materials compoling the ridge of road, and pre-
pare it for receiving thofe to come afterwards, for it is a mott
abfurd praétice to lay hard materials in the common wa
upon this firft form or bafis of a road, before it is fufficiently
firm to bear them. When thus formed and properly fettled,
the next {tep to be taken is to imitate the works of nature
in dry foils as nearly as poffible, by forming a ftratum
penetrable by water, compofed either of fand or fand
gravel, or any other fubftance eafieft to be got, that is fuf-
ficiently porous to admit water to pafs through it. . This
ftratum fhould be laid quite level, and extending from one
fide of the road to the other, filling up the {mall drains alfo
on the fides. Over this are to be laid the bett materials that
can be got for completing the road, confifting either of
{tones broken very {mall, or of the beft gravel. This coat
of hard materials need not exceed above fix or feven inches
in thicknefs, which being much lefs than is commonly ufed,
will be a confiderable faving ; and it may even {till be lefs,
if the dire@ions hereafter given are ftri€tly attended to.
If this covering confifts of broken ftones, they fhould af-
terwards be laid over with fand or fine gravel, when eafily
procured, fo as to fill up all the cavities betwixt them.
The fand or rubbifh from a freeftone quarry is excellent
for this purpofe, providing there is no mixture of earth in it,
which fhould be carefully guarded againft in every ftep
taken after the road is firft formed. 'Thefe finifhing mate-
rials being preperly laid on and fmoothed witha rake, the
whole fhould now, before any carriages or horfes are admitted
upon it, be well rolled with a heavy iron roller, divided in
three parts for the purpofe, the two hind divifions of the
roller being large, the front or middle divifion {maller, to the
framing of which the fhafts are fixed, and fo contrived, that
it turns in the manner of the fore-wheels of a waggon ;
there is a box for holding {tones to increafe the weight when
neceflary ; but in adding this weizht, it muft be obferved
to lay about two-thirds of it over the two large parts, and
only one-third over the other, otherwife the preffure will
not be equal. Iron rollers are fometimes made in three
parts, as above, but being all in a line, and clofe together,
they are apt to be choaked by gravel and {mall ftones, which
cannot happen in the conftruétion here recommended. It ig
contended, that if fuch a roller were generally ufed upon
roads, efpecially when newly made, it would fave a great
deal of expence in repairing them ; for it cannot be expeted
that any new road will immediately bear wheel-carriages, or
continue long in repair, when compofed entirely of loofe mate-
rials, without the fmalleft pains being taken to confolidate
them together. Frequent and heavy rolling would therefore
produce the moft beneficial effets, and would tend very much
to keep the road free from deep ruts and holes; befides,
there is nothing could contribute more effectually to pro-
mote and preferve firmnefs and folidity, two qualities with«
out which it is impoflible any road can, with propriety, be
called a good one, or have the neceflary degree of folidity
and firmnefs.
The advantages that would refult from this mode of con-
fruction
ROAD.
firuétion would be various: by being level on the furface,
every part of it is equally, commodious for carriages, confe-
quently it will all be equally travelled upon, and the deep
ruts fo frequent in other roads, will almoft entirely be pre-
vented.) It will therefore be much eafier kept in repair, and,
if properly managed at firit, will be made at lefs expence
than the common roads, efpecially in a fandy foil, or where
fand or gravel is eafily procured. The draft will be much
eafier on fuch a road. And one very important advantage
is, by having an under-ftratum through which the water can
penetrate, and the cavities among the harder materials being
filled with the fame porous fubitance, no water can ever
lodge on the furtace, nor can it ever become fo dirty as other
roads are in wet weather ; all the water that falls on the fur-
face, unlefs perhaps in very heavy rains, being conduéted
away underneath and inevery part. Andit may be added,
that from the {mall drains on each fide of the road, crofs-
drains fhould be carried through the fences, provided the
level of the ground will admit of it, at the diftance of every
ten or fifteen yards. Thefe crofs-drains may be made of
wood, with about an inch bore, or of ftone, if preferred.
It would be of great advantage to this fort of road, as
well as to every other road where the ground is inclofed on
each fide, that the fences fhould be funk towards the fields,
and the water be conduéted through to thefe funk fences,
inftead of the common method of leaving large open ditches
and drains on-each fide of the road. It mutt alfo be particu-
larly attended to, that on all floping roads on a declivity,
where the water is apt in heavy rains to run upon the fur-
face, or at the fides, that it ought never to be allowed to run
in the fame dire€tion more than ten or fifteen yards, but at
that diftance to be conduéted away to a fide into the main
drains. — It will then do little or no harm, asit can never in-
creafe beyond a very weak ftream; but if it is allowed to
run one hundred or two hundred yards, it will probably be
increafed to fuch a fize before it reaches the bottom, that
it will wafh away a great deal of the materials, and may be-
fides very much injure the road or fences on each fide of it,
which would be highly difadvantageous in many refpects.
Befides, it is fuggelted, that a road formed on this plan
need not be quite fo wide as roads in general are made, for
the whole furface of it willbe in ufe from one fide to the
other, and therefore from twenty to twenty-four feet wide
is quite fufficient, unlefs near populous towns or extenfive
works, where great numbers cf carts or waggons are em-
ployed. And in the interior parts of the country, twenty
feet in width will anfwer every purpofe required. He has
obferved -in feveral places, where the roads have not been
above eighteen or twenty feet wide, and properly made from
fide to fide, that they were in much better condition than the
neighbouring roads, from thirty to forty or fifty feet wide.
Onthefe wide roads, formed in the ufual way, there is fel-
dom more than eight or ten feet in the middle of them gene-
rally made ufe of ; the remainder one on each fide being oc-
cupied by heaps of ftones, {crapings, and other rubbifh,
which, although they may partly be of ufe fometimes in re-
pairing the roads, ought on no pretence to be allowed at all
times, or at any time, to lie there ; fuch rubbifh being not
only difgraceful on the fides of a public highway, but even
dangerous, particularly in the dark, for either carriages or
horfes ; befides having various other difadvantages arifing
from the growth of weeds, and the diffemination of their
feeds.
But in refpeét to the moft proper and beft form of the
roadway of narrow lanes, as thofe leading from village to
village, in reclufe fituations ; where bridle roads, or pack-
ways, have been fo far opened as to admit carriages ; or
$
though the whole width of the lane may not be more than
eight or ten feet, it is remarked by the author of the trea-
tife:on “‘ Landed Property,”’ that on fuch a narrow fpace, a
whole barrel, or convex road, cannot eafily be kept up. If
raifed, it prefently wears into a middle track, and two
wheel-ruts, with foul drains on either fide of them; and
becomes, in wet weather, a dirty trough, which is unfit for
either carriages or horfes, and in which a foot paflenger has
not where to fet his foot. But that provided fuch a lane
be thrown into-a fhelving form, refembling half a barrelled
or conyex road, a greater width of travellable road for car-
riages and horfes will be obtained; ruts will not be fo lia-
ble to be formed ; the whole of the water of rains will be,
thrown on one fide ; while the other will afford a comfortable
walking path at all feafons. And this, it is added, is now
no longer merely a probable, but a tried improvement.
Lanes, ten, twelve, or more feet wide, have béen ftrikingly
improved by it. And it is further fuggefted, that when
water, ina wet feafon, is apt to ooze out of the banks on
the upper fide of the lane, a narrow channel is to be cut, to
prevent its overflowing the road: or, in forming the bed of
the road, the inclination may in fome cafes be reverfed ; fo
as to throw the drain on that fide of the lane from whence
the {pring water iffues: thus the fame drain will ferve for
the {pring and the rain-waters. And it is added, in regard
to this femi-convex form of road, that it is applicable, not
only to narrow lanes, but to the fides of hills; where the
road, as it generally ought, is conduéted fidelong, not di-
reGtly, up the flope. By this form of theroad, the whole
of the water which falls upon it will be got rid of, without
inconveniency or expence. And the bed of the road, for
this purpofe, may be made narrower than fora full convex
road ; a circumftance which, in fome cafes, may become a
faving of much expence. The upper fide of a road in this
form being: nearly level, and firm to the foot of the fteep,
would be chofen by afcending carriages; while the lower
fide would acquire a loofenefs of furface, and be ufed by
laden carriages going downward ; and while a raifed foot-
path, on the lower margin, would be a fecure guard, anda
relief to the apprehenfions of timorous travellers.
But in relation to the width of public roads where a blank
is given, it fhould be regulated, Mr. Marfhall fays,- by their
publicity, as it is compound folly to make a road wider than
its ufe demands. He fuppofes that there are few roads, even
near populous towns, that require a greater width than
about thirty-three feet. But every public road, under
common circumitances, fhould have a line which is travel-
able at any feafon, and of ample width to permit two car-
riages to pafs each other with freedom and fafety. This
ample width let us fet down as one ftatute pole. In deep
clayey diftriéts, where hard materials are difficult to be pro-
cured, a fingle road, of half a pole in breadth, with dila-
tions at proper diftances, to let carriages pafs each other,
may, in many reclufe fituations, be advilable. This regards
the breadth of the winter road, for carriages and animals of
burden. But that the width of a public /aze requires a more
enlarged view. On the plan offered, it is to contain, not
only a wet-weather road, for carriages and horfes; but a
fummer road, and driftway ; as well as a foot-path, which
may be ufed in any feafon. He obferves, that in many parts
of the greateft public reads acrofs the kingdom, the lane is
not more than twenty feet wide. But this being filled with
hard materials, from hedge-bank to hedge-bank, carriages
alone feldom find any inconveniency in thefe narrow parts.
But where carriages, and large droves of cattle or fheep
meet in them, ftoppages are unavoidable, and great incon-
venience is of courte {fuftained.
And
ROAD.
And it is thought, that the width of the driftway ought,
like that of the hard materials, to be guided by the publi-
city of the given road. In a great public road, it fhould
certainly be wide enough to let two carriages pafs each
other, or one pole in width. But in one of lefs publicity,
or where the exiiting lane will not admit of that width, a
fingle carriage path may fuffice ; as this being a continuance
of the width of the hard road, no difficulty in paffing can
be experienced, it is fuppofed, from it.
But the width of the foot-path and the ditch may vary
from half a pole to ten feet.
It is therefore concluded, that on thefe premifes, the
width of the lane of a great public road, near a populous
trading place, ought to be fifty-nine feet and a half; and
that of a common market-road, thirty-three feet. And
thefe widths, ‘without any previous intention, come out
nearly the fame as thofe directed by act of parliament, for
the lanes of turnpike roads and highways. A great error
in the act, however, is, that the lanes of all turnpike roads,
fhall be fixty feet wide: thus incurring a ferious wafte of
land; and creating great nuifances ; which green lanes ever
are to the occupiers of adjoining lands. He from this fug-
gefts, that where exifting lanes are wider than all the defired
conveniencies require, flips fhould be fold off their fides, and
be laid to cottages, or tothe adjoining inclofures; having
receffes here and there, in which to lodge materials. It has
long appeared to his mind an evident pofition, that every
part of a public lane fhould be ufed; and confequently that
no part of it ought to be a nurfery for weeds, or an unpro-
fitable common patture for ftarving ftock. Still he remarks,
that a wide lane has its advantages ; efpecially in a low clofe
fituatien. It gives freer admiflion to the fun and air thana
narrow lane, and the road dries more quickly. And further,
that by permitting a more forcible current of wind, the
pulverized materials, or dirt of the road is, in dry feafons,
carried off in the ftate of duit ; leaving the ufeful materials
undifturbed. And it is highly proper to place the principal
line of road in the midway of the lane, that it may be the
moft effe€tually expofed to the agency of the fun and
wind.
Mr. Beatfon even fufpets, that, in the whule kingdom,
thoufands of acres of tertile lands are loft to the public,
merely by making the roads fo much wider than there is any
neceflity for. In the vicinity of large towns, they fhould
have an ample width, as 30 or 40 feet; or, in fome cafes,
confiderably more, as near the metropolis. But the prac-
tice of making them 4o or 50 feet wide, as is fometimes the
cafe, through a thinly inhabited part of the country, or
near the moit pitiful villages, where even 20 feet would be
fufficient, is, he contends, a mere wafte of ground for no
purpofe, and occafions a very great additional expence in
making fuch roads, which certainly might be avoided.
Suppofing the medium neceflary width of road to be
7 yards, or 21 feet, and that the medium width now made
is 11 yards, or 33 feet; this is, upon that fuppofition,
4 yards wider than is neceflary ; which, in every mile, is a
lofs of 1 acre 1 rood and 2 perches: and fuppofing there
are 5000 miles of fuch roads in the whole kingdom, there is
a lofs of more than 6300 acres, which, if eftimated the
fame as the improved value of the watte lands, at 275. per
acre, and at 30 years’ purchafe, would produce 2 55,1500. ;
a fum which, if laid out in improving the roads, and making
eafy communications through different parts of the king-
dom, would be of the greateft public advantage. And it
is evident, that where they have the width ftated as necef-
fary by the firft of the above writers, the lofs fuftained in
this way muft be ftill greatly more confiderable.
* Vor. XXX.
Mr. Marthall thinks, that in the operation of forming
roads of the public kind, the firft bufinefs of the road-
furveyor is to examine the lane, or other {cite of the in-
tended road, in every part, to. afcertam whether offenfive
waters lodge beneath it, and whether quickfands or land-
{prings break out in a wet feafon, in which this examination
is requifite to be made. If defects of this kind be found,
effectual fubdrains are to be run up to them from the ditches
or fide-drains of the lane, or other fcite. And that the
next operation is to adjuft the furface of the fcite; to ftrike
off the protuberances, and fill up the hollow parts; and
thus, in ordinary cafes, to mould it to the firlt proper
form, or according te fome of the other forms that have
been mentioned ; the foot-path and the higher fide of the
foft road being raifed with the earth which is required to
be taken off the bed of the hard road, whofe bafe or founda-
tion ought to be formed with peculiar care. Every part is
required to be firm and found; dry earth or hard materials
being rammed into every hollow and yielding part. It is
fuggelted that the firft form is adapted to firm binding ma-
terials; to fuch as acquire, by wear, a repellent furface,
and fhoot off the waters that fall upon it; not to thofe
which are loofe and incohefive, yielding to preflure, abforb-
ing rain-waters, and conveying them down to the bafe or
bed of the road. Thefe require a flat or a convex bed, free
from obitructions on either fide, fo that the abforbed wa-
ters may effe& their efcape at the bafe. And that on this
firm and level bed the largeft of the hard materials are to
be laid; next, thofe which are more finely and evenly
broken; and, laftly, a covering of {till finer materials; to
affift the roller in giving fufficient firmnefs to the fur-
face, and to render it immediately capable of being travelled
upon.
But in regard to the preper materials for conftruéting
roads with, Mr. Marthall thinks that although every dif-
tri& may be faid to have its own material, and often with-
out choice or alternative, yet there may be inftances in
which ufeful materials are overlooked or difregarded. And
that in fome parts, particularly in Lancafhire, large paving
ftones are in common ufe; fome of the more public roads
being rough pavements, refembling the ftreets of ill-paved
towns. But that in the northern, and fome of the midland
provinces, broken quarry ftones are the ordinary road ma-
terial; and that, taking the kingdom at large, they are
the moft common material. But in the fouthern and weftern
counties, flints and other hard field ftones, gathered off |
grounds, are in common ufe; and in the neighbourhood of
the metropolis, and in other parts of the kingdom, fharp
flinty gravel is a favourite and valuable material. In man
parts of England, {mooth, water-worn, pebbly gravel, col-
le&ted on the fea-beach, and in river beds, is ufed; and if
the pebbles are of a hard texture, and be properly broken, to
make them bind, or unite firmly together, a good road may
be made of this material. In fome cafes, fand and filt, or
fine fea-fand, have been employed with fuccefs.
It is likewife added, that the artificial materials of roads,
which he has met with, in quantity, are the drofs and cin-
ders of iron and copper works; and burnt clay, (burnt as
bricks in heaps,) which in a clayey diftri@, deftitute of
other materials, and where fuel is cheap, may be found a
valuable fubftance for the purpofe. It is fuggefted by Mr.
Beatfon, that in a fandy foil the roads may be made on the
new conftruction, he has already recommended, with the
greateft eafe. In fuch a foil, there will be nothing more to
de than to level the furface properly, fill up all the hollow
parts, roll it well with the long wooden roller, and lay on
the materials intended to finifh it with, in the manner di-
Yy rected,
ROAD.
rected, and then roll it with the heavy roller, as has been
advifed above.
But in cafes where the foil confifts entirely of a deep
loofe fand, the beft and eafieft way to make a lafting road
is, to form it to the width intended for the hard materials,
and then to let a channel be dug at Icaft 18 inches in depth,
and about the fame width; let thefe be again filled, and
firmly built up with ftrong turf or clay, or any other folid
fubftance that will prevent the materials to be laid on the road
from fpreading to either fide ; openings being left at every
1o or 15 yards, to let the water that falls on the middle
part of the road more eafily through. Where the form of
the ground requires making up, a little wall of the fame
nature, inftead of digging a channel, may be built on each
fide, nearly as high as the furface of the road is intended to
be. Thefe will prevent the hard materials laid on from
{preading, which is the principal caufe of roads made in
fuch foils giving way in fo fhort a time ; and thefe materials
will not be fo liable to fink into the fand, if it is properly
rolled before they are laid on, as well as at different periods
after it is finifhed. And if there be a fence on each fide of
the road, and materials can be {pared to cover it from fide
to fide, there will be the lefs occafion for the little walls; as
thefe are only intended to keep the hard materials within
the bounds prefcribed, in cafe it is not judged proper to lay
them the whole breadth of the road. Where, however,
thofe walls are thought requifite, the fpaces, by being co-
vered with a little gravel or freeftone-fand, will make very
good foot-ways or horfe-roads ; but in a road finifhed in this
way, there will be no occafion for horfe-roads diftinét from
the main road, as the whole, if kept in proper order, will, he
fuppofes, be fufficiently fmooth and fate for horfes, or even
foot paflengers, to go upon at any time. In {peaking of
the making of roads through a clayey foil, it is remarked
that thofe formed in fuch diftri€ts are in common the moft
anpleafant of any, chiefly on account of proper precautions
mot being taken to prevent the water lodging on the fur-
face ; fometimes, perhaps, owing to a want of proper ma-
terials, fuch as ttones or gravel: but he has often feen the
very. worft of clay roads, even where no fuch excufe could
be given. And that it feems hardly ever to have occurred
to thofe who had the diretion of fuch roads, that fand, pro-
perly applied, would in a great meafure remedy all the de-
feéts complained of ; and there are few parts of a country
where fand of fome fort, or freeftone-rock, or fandy gravel,
may not be obtained by fome means. In certain fituations
it may, no doubt, be more expenfive and difficult to procure
fuch materials than in others ; but thefe are local advantages,
which road-makers mutt lay their account with. But the
.exceflive inconvenience of bad roads, the expence occafioned
by the tear and wear of wheel-carriages and harnefs, the
yifk of diflocating the limbs of horfes, together with many
other difadvantages, ought to ftimulate all concerned to
exert their utmoft endeavours to, make roads good, and
eafily paffable, be the difficulties what they may, that
itand in the way of them.
It is hinted, that in fuch places as where no hard ma-
terials can be got, if the road were formed nearly in the
fame manner as that firft noticed, the evils complained of
might probably foon be remedied. ‘The clay fhould be ex-
cavated, fo as to form a ridge in the bottom of the excava-
tion. There fhould be {mall openings or drains at every
ro or 15 yards, or at every hollow place, to conduét away
the moifture into the main drains. If this excavation is then
filled with fand, or any other porous matter eafieft to be
got, and finifhed as formerly directed, there is no doubt
but the road would foon become as good as could be wifhed
for. Something fimilar to this he has known put in prac-
tice by a very ingenious gentleman in Chefhire, on whofe
eftate, being a ftrong clay foil, the roads were fo exceflively
bad as hardly to be paflable. He dug away the furface of
the road to the depth of 12 or 14 inches, and having the
command of plenty of fand, he filled up the excavation
therewith, and covered the whole with gravel; by which
means he has now made, fo far as completed in this manner,
as pleafant a road as one could with to trayel on. He iz
not certain if he left the bottom of the excavation with a
ridge in the middle, as here dire&ted; but he is clear this .
would be an advantage, as well as the outlets at certain dif-
tances, to let away the water.
And in conftruéting roads through boggy or morafly
foils, it is advifed, after proper fteps have been taken, to
drain off as much of the water as poffible, Ly deep ditches
or drains withinfide the fences, if inclofed, or intended to
be inclofed, on each fide. Thefe drains fhould. be caft at
leaft a twelvemonth before any thing elfe is done towards
making the road; for if the place is very boggy, it will be
found to fubfide confiderably after the water is drained
away ; and fome parts will fubfide more than others, in pro-
portion to the depth of the mofly foil, and to the quantity
of water lodged there. Thofe parts will, therefore, be the
better feen the fecond feafon than the firft. All hollaws or
irregularities fhould then be filled up and levelled, either by
taking from the heights and filling up the hollows, or by
fome other proper materials neareft at hand. In either cafe,
the furface fods fhould, with a pufh-plough or paring fpade,
be carefully pared off the heights to be lowered, and alfo
off the hollows to be filled up. Thefe fods fhould be laid
afide, till thofe places are brought to their proper level, and
fhould then be laid on again. This will make the whole
furface of an uniform toughnefs, which would not be the
cafe where the fods are not laid on in this way. After this
has been done, the breadth of the intended part for re-
ceiving the hard materials fhould be marked off; then let
that part be covered with fand, or fuch porous fubftance,
as before recommended, to the thicknefs of at leaft 10 or
12 inches. Thenroll this, and finifh it as already directed ;
and there is no doubt but a road made in this manner may
be as good through a mofs as in any other fituation. This
he {peaks of from experience, having feen the moft pleafant
roads made in this manner, through mofles formerly thought
impaflable. When the mofs is too foft to admit horfes upon
it, the fandy ftratum may be rolled by men, the weight of
the roller being regulated by the ftone box, according to
their {trength. Sometimes the rolling is altogether omitted ;
but it is much better to roll, when practicable. It is added,
that there are other methods of making roads through
moffles; as by laying a foundation of broom, furze, or
heath, and then the hard materials above them. But fand
is greatly preferable, where it can eafily be got, and when
the track of the road is properly drained, as it always ought
to be, before any thing is laid upon it with a view of mak-
ing aroad. Thefe principles and directions are, it is faid,
equally applicable on all other forts of foil, with trifling
variations, according to the peculiar circumftances of the
cafes,
And it is fuppofed, that in the above cafes the roads
were formed where the fcite or track was nearly level from
one fide to the other; but there are other fituations, fuch
as when cut or formed on the fides of hills, where fome
other precautions become neceflary to be attended to.
In thefe cafes it is obferved, that in making them it fre-
quently happens that the excavation affords a fufficient
quantity of materials for the purpofe ; and the part cut out
of
ROAD.
ef the folid very rarely requires any covering laid upen it.
This, however, depends on the nature of the foil. If the
whole breadth of the road is formed from the folid, and
that is fufficiently hard, no extraneous materials will be
neceflary ; but if the foil is a compound of clay, or of a
foft nature, the above rules and regulations mutt be had
recourfe to. And that where the parts are made up from
the excavation, they ought to be formed confiderably
higher at firft than the other parts, as they will naturally fub-
fide for fome time afterwards, and the hard materials fhould
not be laid on till they have fufficient time for that purpofe,
which may be greatly expedited by rolling ; and it fhould
be obferved, that it is much better to be obliged to lower
thofe parts to their proper level before the materials are
laid on, than to be under the neceffity of making up any
of them at the time. And further, that where the hill is
of a confiderable height above the road, a good deal of
water will fometimes come down. In this cafe it is in
general better to intercept that water at fome little dif-
tance from the fide of the road, than to allow it to run
down the face of the bank. If allowed to run down this
face, it will very foon moulder it away, efpecially in frofty
weather, and will always choak up any drain that may be
made, whether covered or open; for if covered, the earth
that moulders down will in a fhort time become fo clofe,
that water will not get through it to the drain before it
runs off upon the road; and if open, it would be extremely
difficult and troublefome to keep it clear. Jn this cafe, by
intercepting it about four or fix feet from the brink, and
condu¢ting it away to the moft convenient outlet, it would
be much eafier to keep the road dry. If the face of the
bank be irregular, the water may itill be conduted away,
by making the drain recede from the brink at fuch places,
and keeping the courfe always at a proper level, or it might,
he fuppofes, be let off at every hollow place by {mall re-
ceffes faced up with ftone, or by wooden {pouts funk up-
right in the bank at every fuch hollow; to conduét the
water from the upper drain to a crofs covered drain below
the road, by which it may be carried away at the lower
fide, without any injury being done to the road. And it is
advifed, that in the forming and making of thefe, as well as
all other roads, the preventing of any water running on
them, except what falls from the clouds, fhould caretully
be attended to. Where this cannot eafily be done, and
where it is neceffary to allow a ftream to run along the fide
of aroad, the drains or ditches which, as before obferved,
fhould be withinfide the fences, fhould be made of a proper
fize accordingly, as the {mall drains filled with fand or
gravel, as already recommended, are only meant for fuch
roads as can have no extra water coming upon thein in this
way.
Bat in refpe& to private roads, the nature and manner of
laying them out has been already noticed. And in refpeét
to the method of forming them, Mr. Marihall fays, it is
the fame where ftrong cohefive binding materials are made
ufe of, whether in a lane, or acrofs open ground. The
mode he advifes is tu form a receptacle for fuch hard ma-
terials, twelve or more inches deeps either by digging to
this depth beneath the natural furface, and carrying off the
excavated foil; or to half the depth, difpofing of the foil
raifed in the operation on each fide of the receptacle; fo
as to elevate the general furface of the road above that of
the adjacent ground. And in this receptacle depofit the
materials ; leaving the furface either in a convex or a femi-
convex form, as the turn of the furface of the ground to
be travelled over may direct: the margin or margins of
the road, at which the rain-water is to be colleéted, being
left a few inches beneath the adjoining fward. But that
in forming roads of every defcription with fand, loofe
gravel, or other incohetive abforbent materials, which im-
bibe the rain-waters that fall on them, a receptacle of that
kind is altogether improper. Such materials ought to be
laid on a level or an elevated furface; anda thallow drain
to be open on either fide, for the abforbent waters to filter
into; thus preventing a furcharge, and freeing the furface
entirely from collected moifture, which would be highly inju-
rious to it. And it is here added, that the furface of aroad
which is formed of well-broken ftones, binding gravel, or
other firmly cohefive materials, and which is much ufed, pre-
fently becomes repellent of the water which falls upon it; no
matter as to the bafis on which they are depofited; pro-
vided it is found and firm enough to fupport them. And
that where the fituation is low and the land of a moift reten-
tive nature, a deep drain on one or on each fide may be
proper to give due firmnefs and ftability to the bafe. Such
drain, however, is not to be funk clofe along the margin
of the hard materials, to deter horfemen and carriage-
drivers from coming uear it, but a few feet diftant from it;
fo that every inch of the hard road may be ufed with equal
pleafure and fafety, and a commodious driving and walk-
ing path be formed between the road and the drain; pro-
per channels being cut acrofs it, in order that it may be
kept properly dry, And further that in a dry fituation,
as acrofs a gravelly or {tony height, little more is frequently
required than to remove the furface mould, and lay bare the
rock or the bed of gravel beneath it; and then to give the
indurate bafe a round or a fhelving form, as the lying of
the ground may require. In this way a travellable road
may be made, and kept up at one-tenth of the expence
incurred by the ordinary pra@ice in this cafe; which is to
gather up the furface foil into a ridge, and on this foft
{pongy bed to lay coat after coat of {ome hard materials,
fetched perhaps from a diftance! at much expence for the
purpole.
But in addition to the above forts of roads there are itil}
others, which require fome art to form and keep them up
in particular fituations; thefe have the denomination of
carriage and horfe-tracks, and are defcribed under thefe
different heads.
Methods of Repairing Roads.—It is noticed by the author
of the “* Landed Property of England,’’ that this is a
bufinefs that incurs a heavy expence on landed property,
and of courfe requires the peculiar attention of the pro-
prietors and managers of land. And in the paper men-
tioned above it is obferved, that where the funds of the
parifh will admit, which would generally be a faving, that
proper perfons fhould be appointed in them, or have the
charge of a certain extent of road to fee where any part is
giving way or getting out of order, and to direé&t their
immediate repairs. Alfo to take care that no water ftands
in the hollows or ruts upon them. And, that the fummer
feafon is the beit not only for making, but for repairing
roads, nor ought they on any account to be touched in
winter, unlefs to give a temporary aid to fome fudden
breach that is perhaps almoft impaflable, or to let off any
ftanding water. Yet nothing is more common than to
fee a number of labourers employed on the highways in
winter, when the days are fhort, and but a few hours
labour can be obtained of them. Indeed fo little attention
is there often paid to repairing the highways, that fome-
times old infirm people are employed for the purpofe, as if
repairing roads were a fort of trifling bye job, merely for
the employment of paupers, or lame, miferable objects,
who can get no other means of fubfiftence. And Mr.
¥y2 Marthall
ROAD.
Marfhall thinks, that in this fort of work, the beft fervice
of the furveyor is to keep their furfaces {mooth and even ;
fo that rain-water may find a free and ready paflage to its
proper drain. Ruts and hollow. parts are to be filled up,
level, or even with the general furface, as often as they are
formed, and perfeétly free from water. This attention is
more efpecially requifite to a new made road, whofe bed
and foundation are not yet fully confirmed, But in every
cafe, and at all times, a folicitous regard is due to this molt
important, yet moft neglected part of road furveying.
Much expence of materials and labour may thereby be
faved, and the great end of road-making be fully obtained:
namely, that of rendering the road in all feafons eafy, fafe,
and pleafant to the traveller, as well as eafy in the convey-
ance of all forts of articles. Befides; he conceives, that
in this operation, as well as that of making new roads,
very much depends on breaking the materials evenly. For,
by doing this, the wear of the road becomes regular.
Where the heads of large ftones rife above the general
furface, they become obftacles to carriages, and ftumbling
blocks to horfes ; befide their tending, by the jolting motion
which they give to carriages, to indent the furface on either
fide of them, and thus to increafe the roughnefs, and haften
the decay of the road. It is added, that by the law of
gravitation and the action of wheel-carriages, a pit or hol-
low place in the furface of a road is made deeper every
time the wheel of a carriage pafles through it. The peri-
phery of the wheel ats as a chiffel, and in falling into the
hollow receives an impetus or acquired force in addition to
the aQual weight it is loaded with ; and, in addition to this,
an undue proportion of the general load is, by placing it out
of its upright pofture, taken from the upper and thrown
upon the lower wheel. Likewife hard protuberances, be-
fide being dangerous or difagreeable to travellers, whether
on horfeback or in carriages, are injurious to a road, as
being the caufes of pits and hollow places in its furface.
Every hard protuberance, as the point of a ftone ftanding
above the general furface of the road, or a large ftone
lying- loofe upon it, is produétive of four impreffions :
namely, two, by throwing additional weight upon the op-
pofite wheels (going both ways), and two more by the im-
petus or acquired force of the wheels (pafling both ways)
in falling on the furface of the road. He therefore con-
fiders it to be the firft duty of the furveyor, not only to
fill up the ruts and hollows, from time to time, but to
pick out or to crufh with a heavy hammer the ftones,
whofe tops rife above the general furface ; as well as to
gather off thofe which lie loofe upon the road ; the latter
~ being an operation that is readily performed, yet frequently
negle&ted, and in fome places to a fhameful degree, efpe-
cially in the northern parts of the ifland.
And in refpe& to the fizes moft proper for road-ftones
it requires much latitude. Not only the intended ule of
the road, but the nature of the material is to be confidered.
A road for broad-wheeled carriages of burden, only, may
be made of larger {tones than one for narrow wheels. And
hard ftones require to be broken fmaller than thofe which
more readily wear down, and form a travellable furface.
For when once the furface of the materials becomes united
and cemented together, and its rock-lke texture efta-
blifhed, the ftones that are crufhed, and the {maller frag-
ments which are fplintered on, in wear, ferve, he fuppofes,
to incruft and bind together the ftratum of ftones which le
next, in fucceffion, beneath: efpecially if proper attention
be paid to the irregularities of wear, and to bring back the
furface, wherever it is requifite, to its original evenneds of
convexity where that form is adopted :—fo that it may, in
every part, act as an arch, and may be able to refift, with
the greateft firmnefs, the weight with which it may be
imprefled. It is, however, to be obferved, that, in formin
and repairing roads with {tones of fize, a confiderable fhare
of the expence arifes from the labour of reducing the mate-
rials ; and, in confequence, the fmaller they are broken the
greater becomes the expence. This, on ordinary occafions,
18 a_ferious confideration. Hence, in conitruéting and re.
pairing common roads, it is advifable, inftead of reducing
the furface {tones to {mall fragments with the hammer at a
great coft, to cover them with materials that are already
reduced ; as the rubbifh of {tone quarries, foft ftones, o1
gravel, or the fcrapings of the road to be repaired. Such
cementing materials being wafhed and worked down by
rains, and the aétion of carriages, and the feet of travelling
animals, among the furface ftones, affift much in binding
and fixing them in a firm cruft; and in making the
road immediately paflable by horfes and light ‘carriages ;
mott particularly if the whole be compreffed, and united
together with a heavy roller (fuitable to the purpofe), re-
peatedly pafled over the furface of it. And another cood
method of faving expence in this way, where materials are
readily procured, is that of placing the coarfe unbroken
ftones or other hard materials in the bottom part or bed of
the road, covering them over with gravel, or other forts of
materials that are of a fmall kind. However, where the
hard materials are broken down {mall and evenly the roads
are found to wear the beft.
The proper materials for repairing roads are in a great
meafure the fame as thofe which are ufed for the makin
of them in the firftinftance. The writer of the Agricultural
Report of Middlefex thinks the rounded ftony materials of
the nature of flint, found in gravel pits and river bottoms, are
in every re{peét more fit for roads than any other flinty
matters. The materials for the fupport of great public
roads fhould, it 1s fuppofed, be fele¢ted from among fuch
flony fubftances as are tough as well as hard; for this:
purpofe, hornblende is believed to be particularly fuitable,
to which may be added whinftone, bafalts, iron-ore, and all
fuch ftones as contain iron, as well as the flag, or the refufe
of furnaces. The comparative weight which ftones of
fimilar fize and figure can fupport without being broken, is,
eee imagined, the criterion by which to try them for this
ufe.
Mr. Beatfon thinks, that if the above diretions were
ftri€tly attended to, and every appearance of a breach or
defe& in a road at once repaired, the fame materials, wher
difplaced, would very often, if properly relaid, and fit for
the purpofe, repair the part beginning to fail ; whereas, if
neglected for fome time, and allowed to get much out of
repair, it will probably require a confiderable additional
quantity of materials, and thereby occafion a great deal of
expence that might have been faved. He alfo fuggetts,
that during the time of hard froft, it may be very proper
to drive materials, and lay them down for the purpofe of
being at hand to repair the roads when the feafon permits,
but fuch atime is the moft improper of any for applying
thofe materials. And that in laying them down it is a
very general practice to place them in {mall heaps along the
fides of the road, and even encroaching fometimes very
much upon the fpace allotted for travelling on. This
ought on no account to be allowed (unlefs thofe materials
are to be immediately ufed), for reafons fo obvious, it is
unneceflary to mention them. It would be much better to
have recefles at certain convenient places, for the purpofe
of laymg the materials in till wanted; by which means the
inconyeniencies attending the common way would be totally
avoided :
ROAD.
avoided ; and travellers might then, without interruption,
ufe any part of the road they found beft; and befides,
there would then be lefs occafion for making the roads fo
wide as they are generally made, which would undoubtedly
fave a great deal of money in keeping them in repair, oz
proper condition.
It is ftated, that rolling of roads with a heavy roller, as
directed above, would be a very beneficial practice in keep-
ing them in good repair, efpecially if the hard materials,
that are worked out of place by the wheels of carriages, are
raked in again previous to the roller pafling over them.
This would be an eafy and expeditious operation, and if
taken in proper time, would, in many cafes, be all that
is neceflary to put the road in repair. It is, however, an
implement that is very feldom made ufe of for this purpofe
by the overlookers of roads.
And the ufe of machinery has probably been hitherto too
little attended to in the execution of this fort of work; but
from the increafing price of hand-labour, it certainly at
prefent demands the ferious notice of the managers of this
fort of bufinefs. For dragging over roads, when much out
of repair, in order to replace the ftones or gravel dif-
turbed by wheel-carriages, a fort of harrow has been in-
vented by Mr. Harriott of Great Stanbridge, in Effex,
for which he received a premium from the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, &c. and of which he gives the fol-
lowing account. ‘ Being appointed furveyor of the roads at
Michaelmas, 1786, and finding them very bad, I provided
a fufficient quantity of ftones and gravel again{ft the next
fummer, to cover the roads pretty thick; but when fo
done, I found the heavy loads of chalk, gravel, and corn,
foon turned the ftones out, and made almoit as deep a rut
or rake as ever. Stubbing the quarters in I found an end-
lefs job, as well as a great expence; I, therefore, contrived
the road-harrow, and by the help of which I have, during
the lait fummer, at a very trifling expence to the parifh
(after the ruts were again filled up with ftones), kept
the roads in extraordinary good condition. A man, a boy,
and two horfes will do three miles in length in one day,
completely harrowing down the quarters, and drawing the
ftones together, which, by means of the mould-boards,
are dropped into the ruts, far better than a man can ftub
them in. Now, if a man was employed to ftub, he could not
do it for lefs than a penny er rod, of fixteen feet and a half,
(the moft common is three halfpence, or two-pence per rod,
if they ftub the outfide as well as the infide quarter,) which
would amount to one pound fix fhillings and eight-pence for
one mile in length, confequently to four pounds for three
miles, which the road-harrow will do in one day; and for
which I charge the parifh for man, boy, and horfes, only
eight fhillings.’? And it is further {tated by bim, that it
does the work better, as well as cheaper; that feveral
other parifhes are ufing them, and he thinks the ufe of them
will toon become general, efpecially where roads are mended
with gravel. ‘The head of the harrow is three feet long,
from outfide to outfide of the bars. The bars four inches
f{quare, and the length of them five feet. The mould-boards
extend eleven inches farther, which is neceflary to draw the
ftones (which the teeth of the harrow work up to the top)
nearer the middle of the road. The mould-boards are
four feet two inches long, ten inches deep, and two inches
thick ; they are fhod with a bar of iron, and lined about fix
inches high with an iron plate. The teeth (which fhould
be fteeled at the points) are one foot in length, from the
under fide of the bars to their points; they are one inch
and a quarter fquare, and are fixed with &rong nuts and
fcrews, with collars both on the under and upper fide of
the bars. The bars are made to go lengthwife inftead of
acrofs, to prevent them from {plitting. The harrow is
drawn by two horfes abreaft, a boy leads the outfide horfe
on the outer quarter, the other horfe goes on the horfe-path,
the man fteadying the harrow by the handles. OF courfe
they take one infide, and one outfide quarter as they go,
and the other two quarters asthey come back. And as this
harrow is certified, by feveral people in the parith where it
is ufed, to do more work with one man, a boy, and two
horfes, in one day, and in a much better manner than could
be effeGted by twenty men in the fame time in the ufual
way, it muft certainly produce a prodigious faving both of
time and money, and having been found to anfwer the pur-
pofe fo extremely well, renders it worthy of attention by
thofe engaged in this kind of work.
Mr. Beatfon fuggetts, that after the ufe of this harrow,
the heavy roller, noticed already, would have a very good
effect, or there might be a roller of a lighter conitruétion
faftened behind the harrow, to roll at the fame time ; al-
though the heavy roller would certainly make the beit
work. And likewife that other implements, nearly on the
fame principle, have been conitruéted, particularly one of
which he was fhewn a model by a gentleman near Cheiter.
Its fhape is in form of an ifofceles triangle, which is laid
upon the road, and drawn by fhafts at the bafe. The two
fides, by meeting in an angle oppofite the bafe, are fup-
pofed to draw the loofe materials towards the middle of the
road. It has two {mall wheels near the bafe or front, and
one at the angle in the rear, with different contrivances for
fixing the whole frame higher or lower as required.
It is alfo fuggeited that a machine for the more eafily
breaking ftones to repair roads in the commun way would
be of very great ufe, as at prefent this is a tedious and labo-
rious tafk. Under the article MACHINE, a very ingenious
contrivance for removing the mud and dirt from roads has
been defcribed. But, although feveral contrivances have
at different times been propofed for facilitatmg the repair
of roads, and leflening the expence, yet that expence,
Mr. Beatfon fays, is no doubt very great, efpecially in
thofe places where many heavy-loaded carriages are con-
tinually pafling. The ruts made by the wheels foon be-
come fo deep, and the materials of the road are thereby fo
much torn up, that it is almoft an impoflibility, however
hard the materials, to keep the road for any confiderable
time in proper condition, or ftate of repair. It is, there-
fore, fuggefted, that thefe effeéts fhould be attempted to be
remedied by fome means or other, as by a fort of roller fo
fixed as to prevent the wheels from finking fo as to form
ruts,
It is evident that the principles and dire@tions which have
been given apply equally to private or parochial roads, which
in general are in a worfe condition, from their being com-
monly worfe managed. The caufes of their being in bad
condition fhould be attended to and removed, as much as
poflible, in the manner already fuggefted, as it is evident
that they muft have a great effe@ in promoting improve-
ments in agriculture, by leffening the expence of labour, and
facilitating the means of conveyance of different articles.
The effeéts of fome forts of wheels have been more deftruc-
tive to roads than others, and of courfe aéts of parliament
have been formed with the view of affording proper regula-
tions in this refpe&. See Wneen and Waccon.
In {peaking of the draft from fri€ion on the roads,
Mr. Middleton, after confidering what happens on thofe
made with gravel, and on iron rai ways, concludes, that, on
gravelled roads, fri€tion is not more than one-fifth part of the
entire draft; the other four-fifths being occafioned by
6 the
ROAD.
the obftacles of duft, fudge, loofe fand and gravel. Hence
it follows, he thinks, that by removing thefe obftrudting
caufes, and keeping the roads conftantly clean and hard, the
draft would be fo much leflened, as to render the prefent
number of labouring horfes unaeceflary. It is fuggefted,
that many of thefe inconveniencies may be got rid of ; and
the roads be in the way of getting more dry, clean, and
hard, by removing the offending matter while in the {tate of
duft, when it occupies the leaft poffible fpace, and is in the
moft favourable condition for being taken away. A fmall
portion of duft, it is faid, when drenched with rain, becomes
a large quantity of fludge, in which ftate it requires much
labour to clear it away ; on which account it is very advan-
tageous to get quit of it before rain falls. This is, it is
fuppofed, beft effected by means of bufh-harrows wrought
every windy day. But fome might be taken away after
being {craped together by fuitable machinery for the pur-
ofe.
y It is intimated, that the time feems to be approaching,
when iron muit be made to contribute largely towards the
public roads. It is thought that iron rails, or bars, may be
laid along the prefent turnpike roads, in fuch a manner as to
afford the moft convenient track for all heavily laden car-
riages ; and that this may be done without any material in-
convenience to thofe of lighter weight and fwifter {peed.
The great original expence of making fuch roads will, it is
fuppofed, be fufficiently counterbalanced by their much
longer duration, and the trouble fully compenfated by the
. fuperior pleafure of travelling over them.
On the whole, it is fuppofed, that the keeping of roads
in the moft perfeét repair is an objeét of high importance ;
for that until canals, or inland navigation, became general,
the fupply of the markets, and the price of every article,
will be in proportion to the itate of the roads over which
they have to pafs in their way to towns. Bad roads, it is
faid, require a greater number of horfes to draw any given
weight along them, than would be neceflary for the convey-
ance of the fame weight over good ones; which extra draft
muft be paid for by increafing the price of the article to the
confumer. ‘The fame number of horfes which, along bad
roads, could only bring a {canty fupply of the produce of
the country from a {mall diftance, can, on good roads, con-
vey amore abundant fupply, and from greater diftances :
which is calculated to lower the price of the neceflaries of
life in the metropolis and other large towns, rather than
advance them in the diftant counties, and have a happy
tendency towards equalizing the prices between the towns
and the country.
And the author of the paper already noticed, thinks it a
matter of great confequence to have proper regard to the
nature of the fences on the fides of roads, as on thefe the
goodnefs of them, and the expence of upholding them, very
much depend. Where the form of the ground and fituation
will admit of it, the funk fence from the road, that is, with
the deepeft part towards the field, is by far the belt. A fence
of this fort, in the form of a ditch or drain, may be made
of any depth without the lealt danger or inconyenience,
which is not the cafe when open to the road ; andthe deeper
it is made, the better effect it will have in keeping dry the
foundation of the road, if properly conftructed ; nor will the
road require to be fo wide as ufual, at the fame time there
will be fully more room to travel on; for if the fences are
of this kind, the whole width of the road may with fafety
be occupied, but when open to the road a confiderable {pace
is loft, by the fear or danger of approaching too near them.
And the fences on the fides may either be of ftone, fod, or a
hedge or paling ; but ought not to be more than eighteen
inches, or two feet above the level of the road (except a
paling), and the top of them, if broad enough, may, in fome
places, be made to ferve as a foot-path. Neverthelefs, the
fence towards the field may be fix feet inheight, or as high
as the purpofe of it requires. The road will thus receive
the whole benefit of the fun, which is very eflential towards
keeping it dry, as well as the depth of the drains or ditches
withinfide the field, to which there muft be proper openings
at certain diftances, as before recommended ; and in winters
after heavy falls of fnow, there will be little chance of a road
fenced in this manner ever being blocked up, for it will be
obferved, when a ftorm of {now is attended with a high
wind, that the drifted {row lodges chiefly about the fences,
or where it meets with an obftacle to occafion an eddy ; for
where high fences are on the fides of roads, they are almoft
to a certainty in fuch cafes blocked up, to the great incon-
venience of the whole neighbouring country or diftriét in
which it happens. ‘The planting of trees on the fides of
roads fhould always be avoided as much as pofiible; but
where rows of them are to be put in, it fhould never be done
at lefs than ten or twelve feet diftance from the fences, and
not lefs than forty or fifty feet from each other, being con-
ttantly fo fituated as not to produce much fhade on the
road in the middle of the day.
Roan, in Ornamental Gardening, that fort of carriage-way
which is peculiar to refidences of the country kind. They
are of many different forts, according to the nature, circum-
ftances, and fituations of the different places. But when
properly laid out and formed, they have moftly one of
the effe€ts of building, at leaft, in a partial manner, which
is that of giving force and fpirit to {cenes of verdure and
cultivation. They fhould be laid out according to the na-
ture of the fituations ; their direCtions and widths being pro-
vided by their conveniences, propriety, and utility. The
methods of making and repairing of them are much the
fame as thofe employed for other kinds of roads; but in the
finifhing, their furfaces fhould be laid over with a finer and
better coloured material of the gravel or {ome other fort,
and they fhould be kept more perfetily rolled down and level;
as the colours of fuch furface materials and the margins of
{uch roads are principally what concerns piCturef{que effet,
or that which is to be produced by them. In fituations
where the fcene is avowedly of the artificial kind, the mar-
gins of them, according to the author of the work on
«© Country Refidences,”” {hould be parallel to each other,
and correCtly defined ; as in that part of an approach-road,
which comes within the parapet or fence which inclofes the
manfion, or in thofe roads which are within the bounds of
the other more adorned parts of the ground. But in fitua-
tions where the roads are not in thefe f{cenes, but are
either in pi€turefque or natural pleafure-grounds, patture-
fields, parks, foreits, dingles, or other fimilar places, the
edges fhould be irregular, and more or lefs rough or {mooth,
blending or ragged, as is feen to take place in roads or
tracks through fimilar feenery in wild nature. The excel-
lent effeéts and fuperior advantages which refult from the
adoption of thefe principles in the formation and con{truction
of roads of this nature, may often, it is faid, be feen in thofe
parts of much frequented approach-roads of refidences,
which are not thought proper or neceflary to be fubjeéted
to the operation of the paring-iron, and the formal trimming
of the gardener. And indeed, that one of the moft ftriking
deformities in piéturefque {cenery, is that of the formal,
ftiff, and harfh edges of made roads, as they highly difguft
the fpeétator, and prevent the true effect which fhould be
produced.
All roads of this fort fhould, therefare, be laid out, and
formed
ROA
formed in fuch a manner as to harmonife as perfeétly as pof-
fible with the nature, circumftances, fituations, and fcenery
of the particular places in which they are to be had recourfe
to. See Wark.
Roav, Approach, that variety of this fort of road
which is peculiar to refidences, manfions, or houfes of the
country kind, and which leads or conduéts to their principal
or other entrances. In their manner of being laid out, they
fhould in their direétions neither be too affectedly graceful,
have too much waving in their appearance, be too much befet
and intercepted with trees; or be too vulgarly formed in
the reétilineal and dire&t manner, or be too abrupt in their
nature. There isa certain kind of dignity, propriety, and
fitnefs requifite in them, which is not eafily defcribed, but
which, in given fituations and circumitances, readily prefents
itfelf to the mind of the defigner ; and in confequence of the
whole of the operations, both of conceiving and defigning
them, being fo fimple, they are, for the moft part, marked
out upon the ground with great facility,—eafily improved
upon, and, in their execution, the work is merely that of
road-making.
The accompanying circumftances which appertain to
roads of this nature have been already pointed out in
{peaking of them in general, and they ought to be well
attended to, as much of their beauty and effect arife from
them.
The only proper approach-roads to caftles, Mr. Loudon
fays, have been fuppofed thofe of the avenue kind, but that
there feems no reafon in nature for fuch arule; and the
arguments drawn from antiquity are wholly infufficient to
juitify their conftant introduétion in fuch cafes. However,
wherever they exift with good effeét, they fhould, it is faid,
be carefully preferved; and even, in fome fituations, avenue
roads to manfions, ftraight private roads through monoto-
nous cultivated countries, or public roads pafling along
eminencies, may be created and formed with great advantage
and effeét, as is the cafe in many places. Roads of this
kind fhould always be fo contrived as to afford the belt effe&,
and to produce the greateft harmony, which the places are
capable of admitting.
Roap, Drive, another defcription of road belongingto
refidences of the rural fort, which is chiefly defigned to fhew
and difplay the beauties of the places, or of the furrounding
country, or of both at the fame time. They are principally
had recourfe to in refidences of the more extenfive and ele-
gant kind, being moftly contrived without any great diffi-
culty. The main circumftance to be attended to in this
bufinefs, is that of only fhewing one fort of rural chara¢ter
at one time, but to difplay the whole, in fucceffion, as much
as poflible.- They are commonly formed, as to the road
part, without much labour or trouble, being often fimply
made by levelling, and the materials upon the fpot ;~they
may, however, be conftruéted in the fame manner as the
other roads in. fuch fituations.
The leading, or ftriking characters of the fpot, are here
to be particularly regarded.
Roap-Gage, a contrivance for the purpofe of breaking
road ftones, or other hard materials, by. A ring, or an oval,
of iron, of the proper fize for the intended ufe, with a fhort
handle fixed to it, will anfwer this intention very well. Thefe
gages are of great ufe in breaking itones by the load, or in
other ways, before they are laid upon roads; and fhould
always be known to the workmen previous to their under-
taking the bufinefs. See Roan Stones.
Roav-Harrow, an implement of the harrow kind, con-
trived for the purpofe of forcing in the fides of the ruts.
One reprefented in the Effex Agricultural Survey levels the
2
ROA
ruts and combs very expeditioufly. It was invented by
Mr. Pattefon, and cofts 57. See Roans.
Roap-Hor/e, fuch a one as is employed in the teams on
the road, and which in general performs the moft laborious
work. Under this defcription comes the greater part of all
the horfes in conftant ufe, as it includes carriage horfes of
every kind, roaditers, and hacks. Road-horfes of every
denomination are, from their conftant hard work, entitled
to a proportionable degree of care and attention with the
beft horfes in the kingdom ; and fhould undergo the ufeful
part of {table management, that fo much contributes to the
prefervation of health in horfes of a fuperior defcription.
Thofe which have inceffant labour, or which travel poit,
mutft be fupplied with at leaft from one to two pecks of corn
a day. Large and ftrong carriage horfes, in perpetual
work, require confiderably more, or they will become apt
to lofe flefh by frequent perfpiration. Thefe rules, how-
ever, offer only a kind of general ftandard.
Roav-Materials, all fuch fubttances as are employed, or
made ufe of, in the making and repairing of roads ; as thofe
of ftony matters of different kinds and qualities, various
forts of gravel, fand, and a variety of other articles. They
fhould, in every cafe, be reduced as much as poffible to the
fame fizes, as the regular wear of roads depends very much
upon it. See Roan.
Roap-Pick, an ufeful implement of this kind with three
points. It has much refemblance to the common pick-axe,
only differing from it in having the flat edge-like end of
that tool occupied by three ftrong tines, about fix inches
in length, and ftanding about fix inches in width from
the outfide to the outfide of them. It thus forms a fort
of fmall trident, which is borne on the fhank of the im-
plement, and ftands about fix or eight inches from the focket
and handle.
It is a very convenient tool in ftriking off the protu-
berances, and filling in the ruts of hard roads ; as well as to
level aud adjuit the furface with, in forming and repairing
{tone roads. The fingle end is likewife capable of being
employed for letting off water from fhallow ruts, or hollow
places, as well as for many other ufes of the common pick.
See Pick.
Roap-Plough, an inftrument of the plough kind, in-
vented and made by the late Mr. Brand, an ingenious
black{mith, in the county of Effex, at Lawford, near Ma-
ningtree. It is formed all of iron, and reprefented in the
Agricultural Survey of that diftriG. Its length is that of
a common plough, with two fmall wheels, one before and
the other behind; and the coulter part is ftrongly fe-
cured.
Roap-Roller, a heavy kind of iron roller, formed in three
feparate parts, ufed for rolling down the loofe materials on
roads. It is drawn by a horfe or horfes in fhafts, fomewhat
as in the common roller. See Roaps.
Roan Scraping Machine, a contrivance made for the pur-
pofe of cleanfing roads from dirt, &c. Thefe machines are
conitructed in feveral different ways, by different makers ;
but avery ufeful one may be feen under the head Machine ;
which fee. See alfo Roan.
Roan-Stones, all kinds of ftones, whether of the field,
quarry, or other forts, that are employed in the forming
and mending of roads. For fome ufes of this nature, the
ftones fhould be confiderably reduced, even in conftruétin
or repairing ordinary roads. Mr. Marfhall has fuggeited,
that by dropping road-ftones through circular gages of dif-
ferent fizes, it will be found that, for repairing {mall
breaches, thofe which pafs freely through a ring, 24 inches
in diameter, may be confidered as of a middle fize; and
that
ROA :
thet for new forming or frefh covering the furface of a
road, none ought to exceed 4 inches ; 34 inches being, for
thefe purpof:s, the middle fize: that 2 inches and 4 inches
may, as a matter of general information, be fet down: as
the extremities of fize of road-ftones of a middle quality,
for the above purpofes. See Roap-Gage.
Roap-Surveyor, a perfon who has the care and manage-
ment of aroad, whether in the making or repairing of it.
All fuch perfons as are employed in this way fhould be well
acquainted with the nature of laying out, forming, and
keeping them in order. Each of the different methods,
which are in common praétice, ought to be well under-
ftood, as well as thofe had recourfe to in particular diftrits
or places. And, befides, he fhould be well informed with
regard to every thing of a local nature that has any relation
to them, and be a man of exertion and ingenuity.
Roap-Team, any fort of team that is employed on the
road, whether in carts, waggons, or other kinds of car-
riages. All teams of this nature fhould in general be well
kept. See TEAM.
Roap-Work, all fuch kind of work as is done upon the
road, either by the labour of men or animals. It is alfo
fometimes applied to the bufinefs of making and repairing
of roads.
Roap, in Navigation, denotes a place of anchorage at
fome diftance from fhore, and fheltered from the winds,
where veffels ufually moor te wait for a wind or tide proper
to carry them into harbour, or to fet fail.
When the bottom is clear of rocks, and the hold firm,
and the place well covered from the wind, the road is faid
to be good. Anopen road.is one which has but little land
on any fide.
The roads within his majefty’s dominions are free to all
merchant veffels, either of his fubjects or allies. Captains
and matters of fhips who are forced by ftorms, &c. to cut
their cables, and leave their anchors in the roads, are obliged
to fix up marks or buoys, on pain of forfeiture of their
anchors, &c. :
The mafters of fhips, coming to moor in a road, mutt
caft anchor at fuch a diftance as that the cables, &c. may
not mix, on pain of an{wering the damages. When there
are feveral veflels in the fame road, the outermoit to the
feaward is obliged to keep a light in his lantern in the
night-time, to apprife veffels coming in from fea. See
Port. ,
Roav Aguedu@, is an arch under a canal, through which
a road pafles.
Roan Bridge, a bridge over a canal for the ufe of a road,
-inftead of private ufe. See Occupation Bridges.
Roap, Cock. See CockRoan.
Roapv-Goofe, in Zoology, the name of a {mall {pecies of
wild goofe. See Anfer under Duck.
ROADER, a vellel riding at anchor in a road, bay, or
river.
ROADING, a term ufed on the Fen rivers, for cutting
off the weeds at their bottom.
Roapine, in Agriculture, a provincial term ufed to
fignify the ftriving of teams for the lead on the roads. It
was formerly much in ufe in Norfolk, but is at prefent
nearly laid afide, probably from the danger that at-
tended it.
ROADSTER, among Horfes, a term frequently ap-
plied to fuch as are ufed for the purpofe of riding.
ROAITHA, or Rovarrna, in Geography, a town of
Arabia, in Yemen; 56 miles S. of Medina.
ROAK, a provincial word, fignifying a mift or fog.
ROAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the North fea,
- to the open air,
ROA
near the north of Scotland. N. lat. 58° 35!. W. long.
4° 11!.
Roan, in the Manege. A roan horfe is one of a bay,
forrel, or black colour, with grey or white fpots inter-
{fperfed very thick. When this party-coloured coat is ac-
companied with a black head and black extremities, he is
called a roan with a black-a-moor’s head; and if the fame
mixture is predominant upon a deep forvel, it is called
claret-roan. .
ROANCARRICK Rocks, in Geography, rocks in
Bantry bay, on the S. coaft of Ireland; 3 miles N.E. of
Beat ifland.
ROANE, a county of America, in the diftri& of Eaft
Tenneflee, containing 5581 inhabitants. 5
Roane-Tree, in Botany. See Service-Tree.
ROANNE, in Geography, a town of France, and prin-
cipal place of a diftrict, in the department of the Loire,
which here becomes navigable, and renders it a convenient
ftaple for all goods conveyed from Lyons to Paris, Orleans,
Nantes, &c. The place contains 6992, and the canton
14,790 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres, in
13 communes. N. lat. 46° 2/. E. long. 4° 10!.
ROANOKE, an ifland in the Atlantic, on the coaft of
North Carolina, at the entrance into Albemarle found, with
a town of the fame name, The north point of the ifland is
about 7 miles W. of Roanoke inlet. N. lat. 35° so’. W.
long. 76°.—Alo, a long and rapid river, formed by two
principal branches, viz. Staunton, which rifes in Virginia,
and Dan, which rifes in North Carolina. It empties itfelf
into Albemarle found, about N. lat. 35° 58/. W. long. 76°
56!. This river is navigable for fea-veflels nearly 30 miles ;
but for boats of 30 or 4o tuns, to the falls. Above the
falls, boats of 5 tons afcend about 200 miles. The planters
on the banks of this river are fuppofed to be the wealthieft
in North Carolina.
Roanoke, Little, a river which difcharges itfelf into the
Staunton, about 15 miles above the junction of the Dan
and Staunton. {
Roanoke Jnlet, a channel on the coaft of North Caro-
lina, which leads into Albemarle found. N. lat. 35° 56’.
W. long. 76° 14!.
ROANPOUR, atownof Bengal; 17 miles §.S.E. of
Mauldah. ;
ROARAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ;
22 miles N. of Sottarah. :
ROARING Butt Jfland, an ifland in the North At-
lantic ocean, near the eaft coaft of Nova Scotia, N. lat.
45°17'. W. long. 60° 44!.
Roarine River, ariver of America, in the ftate of Ten-
neflee, which runs N.W. into Cumberland river, 12 miles
S.W. of the mouth of Obas river.
Roarinc Water Bay, a bay on the S. coaft of Ireland,
in which is a number of fmall iflands; 6 miles S.W. of
Skibbereen. N. lat. 51° 28’, W. long. 9° 22!.
RoarineG Water, a river of Ireland, which runs into the
fore-mentioned bay, 5 miles W.S.W. of Skibbereen.
ROASCHIA, a town of France, in the department of
the Stura; 8 miles S.W. of Coni.
ROASTING, in Metallurgy and Chemical Manufadure,
is a procefs by which the volatile parts of metals and minerals
are feparated by the application of heat. The minerals are
generally mixed with the fuel, and fired in heaps expofed
When the volatile fubftance is driven off
with difficulty, the reverberatory furnace is fometimes em-
ployed.
This procefs is frequently, though improperly, called
calcining, nce the latter is confined to the oxydation of
metals.
ROA
metals. In expelling the volatile parts from lime-ftone and
gypfum, the procefs is termed burning, and in the latter
fometimes boiling. The term roa(ting is principally con-
fined to iron, and other ores abounding with fulphur and
arfenic.
The iron ores of this country are roafted for the purpofe
of expelling fulphur, water, and carbonic acid. The former
would probably injure the quality of the iron in {melting ;
the latter would contribute to an expenditure of the heat
of the furnace. The procefs is conducted in the open air,
by piling the iron-ftone and fmall coal in alternate ftrata,
allowing the mafs to burn till the coal is confumed. The
iron-ftone, by this means, becomes of a red colour, and
lofes much of its weight. In fome iron-works the pracefs
is performed in kilns, fimilar to thofe employed for burning
lime-ttone. i
The ore from which zinc is obtained is generally blende,
which is the fulphuret of that metal. It is expofed to the
{trong heat of a reverberatory furnace, by which the fulphur
is expelled, and the metal oxydated. :
When the metals or their oxyds are themfelves volatile,
and are combined with fulphur, roafting is not practicable :
recourfe muft then be had to fome other agent, which will
combine with the fulphur, and feparate the metal itfelf.
Such is the cafe with cinnabar and arfenic. See the ref{pective
metals. i
RoastinG, in Domeffic Economy. When that change by
heat which animal food undergoes to render it fit for digef-
tion is brought about by a temperature capable of partially
changing the furface, the procefs has been termed roalting ;
a fimilar change in vegetable food, fuch as bread, pud-
dings, and pies, being termed baking. The mott ancient
method of roafting, which is {till the general pra¢tice, is by
turning the meat before the fire; and it is {till fuppofed,
without any good reafon, that meat cannot have its proper
flavour when roafted in any other way. It is true that
roaflers or ovens of the common conitruction are apt to give
the meat adifagreeable flavour, arifing from the empyreumatic
oil which is formed by the decompolition of the fat, expofed
to the bottom of the oven. This evil has been completely
remedied in two ways, firit by providing againft the evil of
allowing the fat to burn, and fecondly by carrying off by a
itrong current of heated air the empyreumatie vapours.
The roafter ufed in the Derby Infirmary, and in many
private houfes in the neighbourhood, is not on any account
objectionable, but it is particularly valuable in an economical
point of view. This is principally effeéted by caiting
the heat entirely upon the object of roafting, inftead of
fending three-fourths of the heat up a capacious chimney,
and expending the greateft part of the remainder upon the
cook, and the walls and furniture of the kitchen.
The roa{ter above alluded to is made of fheet iron, of the
ftrength of about one pound to the fquare foot : its form
is that of a parallelepipedon, about twenty-five inches high,
twenty-two long, andeighteen in breadth. The fire is put
under it; but one courfe of bricks is placed immediately
over the fire, and above this a cavity of five inches deep
between the brick roof and the over bottom. The flame
of the fire paffes a little to the right and left, and rifes per-
pendicularly up the fides of the roafter, freely communicat-
ing with the tep of the fame. By this means the flame
and hot vapour will be the hotteft at the top of the oven,
becaufe of its greater levity, and its not being allowed to
efcape at this point, according to the common practice. A fter
the hot vapour has beftowed its heat on the fuperior part,
it now defcends and enters on each fide the cavity under
the oven, from whence it pafles up the back of the fame,
Von. XXX.
ROB
which back forms one fide of the fmoke chimney. This
arrangement is fufficient for diftributing all the difpofable
heat equally on every fide of the sities We fhall next
point out the contrivance for difpofing of the {mell above
alluded to. The door of the oven is cafed with wood, a
piece of thick paper, fteeped in a folution of alum, and
{meared with clay, being placed between the wood and the
iron, to prevent the wood from being charred. The door
extends below the bottom of the oven about three inches.
This, when the door is open, expofes a plate three inches
deep, and the width of the oven, and which conttitutes the
front of the cavity under the oven. At one fide of this
plate is a hole at the entrance of the tube, which extends
to the other end of the cavity, where it is bent, and returns on
the other fide of the cavity, and opens into another cavity
formed by a double plate, which conititutes the iron part of
the door. The firft entrance of this tube correfponds with
an opening at the bottom of the door, fo that when the
door is fhut, cold air can enter the tube. In its paflage it
becomes heated, and then enters the oven at the top, from
the cavity in the door. It now pafles over the meat, and
efcapes through atube in the back plate, which extends fo
high as to reach above the fmoke damper. By this means
the roafter is"conftantly cleared of any difagreeable vapour,
by a force equal to the draft of the chimney.
A fliding rake is made, fo as to fit the top and fides of
the oven, that the whole furface becomes perfe@tly {craped
by one motion.
ROATO, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Tanaro ; ten miles N.W. of Atti.
ROB, in Pharmacy, the infpiffated juice of any fubftance,
ufually boiled up to the confiftence of honey.
There are robs made of quinces, floes, cherries, mulber-
ries, elderberries, barberries, goofeberries, and other fruits,
for various difeafes. The juice of grapes, thus prepared,
is more particularly called rob, or /apa Jimplex ; this is almoft
of the conliftence of honey.
When only one-third of the humidity is boiled away, it is
called defrutum ; and when only boiled to the confiftence of
a foft electuary, a refin.
The word rob is pure Arabic; and fignifies originally a
juice dried in the fun, or ever the fire, that it may keep
the longer without damage.
Sometimes it alfo denotes a compofition of fome juice
made up with honey or fugar, in which fenfe it is confounded
with loche or lohoc.
The rob isa form now much out of ufe, though there
are feveral direéted in the college difpenfatorv ; as robs of
black cherries, of floes, of quinces, of elder, &c.
It is poffible that great improvements might be made, by
introducing the ufe of this form among the malt-dittillers.
The great inconvenience attending that art being, that the
malt being of a large bulk, in proportion to its faccharine
part, and requiring alarger proportion of water to extraét
that faccharine part, many large veffels, fuch as mafh-tubs,
coolers, fermenting backs, &c. are neceflary ; and the ne-
ceffary labour on the fubje& is increafed, and the commodity
rendered dearer. The remedy of this fhould feem the intro-
ducing a new art fubfervient to that of the malt-diftiller, and
confining itfelf to the boiling down of malt-wort toa rob,
fo as to fupply the malt-{tiller with his fubje@, in the fame
manner as the fine-{tillers are fupplied with treacle from the
fugar-baker. By this means the bufinefs of the malt-itiller
would be reduced to a great degree of fimplicity, and the
{pirit produced would be alfo much finer than at prefent,
becaufe the fubje&t would come tolerably refined to his
hands, and purged of its grofs, mealy, and hufky matter,
LZ which
ROB
which yields a difagreeable oil in diftillation, and is alfo apt
to burn to the ftill, and fpoil the f{pirit. It is poffible that
a fpirit purer and finer than that from treacle might this
way be procured from malt, prudently managed. Shaw’s
Leé&t. p. 219. \
ROBALI, in Geography, a town of Abyflinia ; 75 miles
S. of Miné. (
ROBALO, in Jchthyology, a name by which fome have
called the camuri.
ROBARES, in Geography, rocks near the S. coaft of
Ireland; three miles S.E. of Gally Head. N. lat. 51° 31!.
W. long. 8° 50!.
ROBASOME, atown of France, in the government of
the Po ; eight miles N.N.W. of Turin. j
ROBBEN, or Sra, Jfland, an ifland on the coatt of
Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, at the entrance into
Falfe bay, about fix miles in circumference. It ferves as a
place of exile for criminals fent fromthe Cape or the Indies,
who are compelled to labour, and are guarded by twenty-
four foldiers under the command of a ferjeant. No women
are permitted to live upon the ifland. Withia this ifland and
the continent there is excellent anchorage, where fhips driven
out by the S.E. winds, which blow from September to the
end of April, the feafon when all fhips bound for the
Cape refort to Table Bay, ufually bring up. Here, too,
fhips intending to come into Table Bay ufually wait the
abatement of the S.E. wind, if it fhould happen to be too
ftrong for their working up againft it. This iflandis too
{mall, and at too great a diftance, to afford the leaft fhelter
to Table Bay in the N.W. winds that blow in the winter
months. S. lat. 33° go’. _ E. long. 18° 2o0!,
ROBBERY, Rozeerra, or Roleria, in Law, a felo-
nious and forcible taking away another man’s goods or
money, from his perfon, prefence, or eftate, by putting him
in fear, &c. 1 Hawk. P.C. gs.
A mere attempt to rob was held to be felony, fo late as
Henry the Fourth’s time (1 Hal. P.C. 532.); and after-
wards it was only a mifdemeanor, and punifhable with fine
and imprifonment, till the ftat. 7 Geo. I]. cap. 21. which
makes it a felony, tranfportable for feven years, unlawfully
and malicioufly to aflault another, with any offenfive weapon
or inftrament, or by menaces, or by other forcible or violent
manner, to demand any money or goods, with a felonious
intent to rob. If the thief, having once taken a purfe,
returns it, fillitisarobbery. The previous putting m fear
is the criterion that diftinguifhes robbery from other larce-
nies ; and yet this putting in fear does not imply any great
degree of terror or affright in the party robbed ; it is fuffi-
cient that fo much force, or threatening by word or gefture,
be ufed, as might create an apprehenfion of danger, or
oblige a man to part with his property without or againtt
his confent. (Foft. 128.) Thus, if aman be knocked
down without previous warning, and ftripped of his property
while fenfelefs, though ftri€ily he cannot be faid to be put
in fear, yet this is undoubtedly a robbery ; or, if a perfon
with afword drawn beg an alms, and IJ give it him through
miftruft and apprehenfion of violence, this is a felonious
robbery. 1 Hawk. P.C. 96.
This is fometimes alfo called violent theft, and its punifh-
ment, be the value of the thing taken ever fo fmall, is
death.
This fpecies of larceny is debarred of the benefit of clergy
by 23 Hen. VIIL. cap. 1. and other fubfequent ftatutes ;
not indeed-in general, but only when committed in or near
the king’s highway. A robbery, therefore, in a diftant
field or foot-path, was not punifhed with death (1 Hal.
P. C. §35.), but was open to the benefit of clergy, till the
ROB
ftat. 3 & 4 W. & M. cap. 9. which takes away clergy
from robbery wherefoever committed.
The word is faid to have taken its rife hence, that an-
ciently robbers only took away the robes or clothes from
travellers. Though lord Coke, in the third of his Infti-
tutes, takes the name to have had its rife from Robin
Hood, who lived under Richard I. in the borders of Eng-
land and Scotland, by robbery, burning houfes, rape, and
fpoil. Hence, alfo,
Robbers-men, or roberds-men, mentioned in feveral ftatutes
for great thieves. 7
ROBBING. See Houssz-Robbing.
ROBBINS, or Roganps, i. ¢. rope-bands, in a Ship,
{mall lines, or braided cordage, which make the upper
edges of the great fails faft to their refpective yards, being
reeved into eyelet-holes in the head of the fail under the
head-rope for that purpofe. They are generally of a fuf-
ficient length to pafs two or three times about the faid yard.
The word is, make fafl the robbins; for at fea they do not
fay, tie, but make fa/t.
ROBE, Roga. See Gown.
Roses, Mafler of the, is an officer of the houfehold, with
an appointment of 500/. a-year, who has the ordering of-all
his majefty’s robes. See Master of the Wardrobe.
He has feveral officers under him, asa clerk of the robes,
a yeoman, three grooms, a page, a brufher, furrier, femp-
ftrefs, laundrefs, ftarcher, and itanding wardrobe-keepers at
St. James’s, Windfor caftle, Hampton-court, &c. There
is alfo in the eftablifhment of his majefty’s houfehold a mif-
trefs of the robes, with an appointment of 500/. a-year, and
two keepers of the robes. See WARDROBE.
Rogers to Min/trels. Innumerable bands of tumblers,
buffoons, rope-dancers, muficians, players on inftruments,
and aétors, were formerly retained in the courts of princes,
who, by their gambols, farces, fports, and fongs, diverted
the company. Thefe were -alled in Tufcany Giullare and
Giocolari, and, by thofe who mentioned them in Latin, Jo-
culares and Joculatores. Thefe fabricators of amufement
never departed without being well rewarded. But what
appears the moft extraordinary and different from our pre-
fent cuitoms is, that the coftly and gorgeous robes, which
it was ufual for princes to receive from other great per-
fonages who vifited their courts at feafts, or upon their
marriage, as marks of their friendfhip and refpect, were
beftowed on thefe people. Benvenuto Aliprando, an old
ruftic poet, in his Chronicle, defcribes a marriage at the
great court of Mantua, in the year 1340, while under the
dominion of the Gonzaga family. ‘* At that time,’’ fays
he, ‘ the different princes and nobles of Italy, whofe names
he mentions, prefented the Gonzaghi with a variety of rich
and precious veftments, which were called robe, robes, and
which were afterwards given to muficians and buffoons,’’
as the old poet informs us in the following lines :
« Tutte le robe fopra nominate,
Furon in tutto trent’ otto e trecento,
A buffoni e fonatori donate.’’
« And all thefe coftly robes of ftates,
In all three hundred thirty-eight,
To fidlers and buffoons were given.”’
The family of Gonzaga, in return, reciprocally exercifed
munificence towards the nobles who vifited them, as the fame
old poet informs us in the following rude verfes :
« Otto giorno la corte fi durare
Torni eri, gioftri, bagordi facia,
Bellas,
ROB
Bellar, cantar’, e fonar facean fare,
Quattro cento fonator fi dicia
Con buffoni alla corte fi trovoe.
Roba e danar donar lor fi facia.
Ciafcun molto contento fi chiamoe, &e.’”
Eight days thefe {ports were held, where valiant knights
In tilts and tournaments their prowefs fhow,
- And minttrels, full four hundred, crown the rites,
While dance and fong teach ev’ry heart to glow.
To thefe and each buffoon who here was found,
Or gold was given, or robes of coltly fort ;
And all, fo well their {pritely arts were crown’d,
Depart contented from the f{plendid court.’
With what magnificence the princes of the houfe of Vif-
conti fupported their court at Milan, any the fame cen-
tury, is frequently defcribed by Corio the hiltorian ; but he
particularly excites our wonder by his account of the folemn
pomp with which the nuptials of Lionel, duke of Clarence,
fon of Edward III. king of England, was celebrated in
1368, with Violante, the daughter of Galeazzo Vifconti,
duke of Milan. This event is circumftantially related by
feyeral other ancient hiftorians of Italy ; and Aliprando of
Mantua tells us, that Lionel gave five hundred fuperb drefles
to the minftrels, muficians, and buffoons, who were then
aflembled at Milan; that Galeazzo prefented them with
many more; and Bernabo, his brother, rewarded them
munificently with money on the occafion.
The {plendid robes and gorgeous attire of bards and
minitrels at all times are upon record. The flowing veft of
Orpheus, in the triple capacity of prieft, legiflator, and
mufician, is {pecified by Virgil; Arion is related by Hero-
dotus to have leaped into the fea, in the rich veftments he
ufually wore in public; Suidas fpeaks of the faffron robe
and Milefian flippers worn by Antigenides; and the per-
formers in the tragic chorus, which ufed to be furnifhed at
the expence of fome wealthy citizen of Athens, wore alfo a
fplendid and coftly uniform.
In France the Jongleurs, and in Provence the Trouba-
dours, or minitrels,.during the middle ages, had frequent
prefents of coftly robes from their patrons. In the ‘ Fab-
liau Conte,’’ or Tale of the red Rofe, a female complains
60 a vavaffor, or yeoman, of his having taken frem her a
robe, to give to the minftrels,
« Bien doit eftre vavaflor vis,
Qu’il vuet devenir meneftrier ;
Miez voudroi que fuffiez rez, (rafé)
Sans aigue (eau) la tefte & le coul,
Que ia n’y remanfitt chevoul,
S’apartient a ces jongleours,
Et aces autres chanteours,
Qu’ils ayent de ces chevaliers,
Les robes, car c’eft lor mettiers.’”
Fabliau de la Rofe vermeille.
s¢ T would not own the wretch for kin,
Who wou’d the minftrel trade purfue,
He’d better dry fhave head and chin,
And, with the hair, cut off the fkin,
Than herd with fuch a worthlefs crew.
Let fplendid knights with ufual pride,
On fidlers lavith fuch rewards,
But ’tis to meaner fools denied
To ftrip themfelves for vagrant bards.’
The cuftom of prefenting muficians with fuperb and ex-
penfive drefles during the 14th century, in the manner al-
ROB
ready related, feems to have travelled into England, and to
have continued here till after the eftablifhment of the king’s
band of four-and-twenty performers; part of their prefent
falary being ftill paid at the wardrobe office, as an equi-
valent for the annual drefs with which they ufed to be fur-
nifhed at his majefty’s expence. 'To this we may add, that
the waits, or muficians who attend on the mayor and alder-
men, in moft of our incorporate cities and towns, are fur-
nifhed with {plendid cloaks.
Rose, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which, rifing in
the eaftern part of the county of Mayo, flows weftward by
the town of Ballinrobe; a few miles weft of which it dit
charges itfelf into Lough Mafk.
ROBEC, a river of France, which runs into the Seins,
a little below Rouen.
ROBEK, a river of France, which runs into the Meufe,
near Stevenfwaert.—Alfo, a river of France, formed by the
union of the Clarence and the Nevee, which, after a fhort
courfe, runs into the Lys, 2 miles E. of St. Venant.
Rosek, or Robeque, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Straits of Calais; 3 miles S. of St. Venant.
ROBEL, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ; 9 miles
S. of Wehrau. N. lat. 53° 10!. E. long. 12° 45/.
ROBER, a river of France, which runs into the Mo.
felle, at Treves.
ROBERDSMEN. See Rossery.
ROBERGIA,, in ‘Botany, received that appellation from
Profeflor Schreber, in memory of Laurence Roberg, pro-
feflor of phyfic in the univerfity of Upfal, who was born in
1664, and died in 1742. His moft curious, though ve
compendious and fuperficial publication, entitled Grundvah/
til Plantekjenningen, is an anonymous introduétion to botany,
on Tournefort’s plan, of 20 duodecimo pages, with as many
rude wooden cuts of flowers, to illuftrate the principal
claffes. Of the fifteen various inaugural differtations, pub-
lifhed under the prefidency of Roberg, only two are bo-
tanical; one being that of John Olaus Rudbeck, on the
Sceptrum Carolinum (fee Ruppreck); and the other by
Lofsberg on the Generation of Plants. —Schreb. Gen.
309. “Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 752. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.
(Rourea; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 467. Jufl. 369.)—Clafs and
orders Decandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Te erebintaceay
Juff.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, roundifh, concave fegments, permanent. Cor. of
five roundifh petals, the length of the calyx. Stam. Fila-
ments ten, inferted into the receptacle, the length of the
corolla; anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen fuperior, roundifh,
villous; ftyles five, capillary; ftigmas rather thick, fur-
rowed. eric, Drupa ovate, moft convex on one fide,
flightly hollowed out at the other. Seed. Nut the fhape of
the drupa, of one cell, with a bivalve fhell.
Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five.
Drupa fuperior, of one cell. Nut with a bivalve fhell, and
fingle kernel.
1, R. frutefeens. Willd. n. 1. (Rourea frutefcens ;
Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 467. t. 187.)— Native of woods in
Guiana, belonging to the warith of Aroura, flowering in
Auguft. ‘The fem is thrubby, fupporting itfelf by branck-
ing over the neighbouring trees. Leaves alternate, pinnate,
of three or four pair, with an odd one, of f{talked, elliptical,
pointed, entire leaflets, from an inch and a half to three
inches long; {mooth above ; downy and whitifh beneath.
Flowers in axillary, branched panicles, white, with a feent
{weeter than that of lilac. Fruit black, with a greenifh
kernel.
ROBERT, in Biograpiys emperor, of Germany, fur-
% 2
named
ROB
named the Short, born in 1352, was count palatine at the
time of the depofition of Wenceflaus; and Frederic, duke
of Brunfwick, who was firft elected by the German princes
to fupply the vacancy, having been affaflinated, Robert
was chofen in his ftead in 1400. Wenceflaus had fold the
dukedom of Milan to John Galeazzo, who had withdrawn
his {tate from the fovereignty of the empire, and by force of
arms had annexed to it feveral neighbouring towns and dif-
tris. Robert, therefore, invited by the pope and Floren-
tines, led an army into Italy, and entered the duchy of
Milan; but he was fo much harafled, as to be obliged to
march back to Germany, without having effected any thing.
On his return he was involved in fome petty wars with
princes and ftates, who difputed his authority ; and a con-
federation was formed againft him, which fubfifted during
the whole of his reign. The moft inveterate of his op-
ponents was the elector of Mentz, who began to build a
caftle at Hochft, in defiance of him. Robert aflembled
troops to reduce him to obedience ; but having advanced to
Oppenheim, was feized with a fever, which proved fatal to
him in 1410, at the age of 58. He was a prince of more
prudence than enterprize, but poffefled qualities which
would have rendered his reign happy in lefs turbulent times.
He was juft, clement, and pious, an enlightened politician,
and a lover of learning, as he manifefted by founding the
univerfity of Heidelberg.
Rosert, king of France, fon of Hugh Capet, was aflo-
ciated by his father to the crown in 988, and fucceeded him
in 997, being then in his 27th year, and highly efteemed
for his qualities both of body and mind. He had married
Bertha, daughter of Conrad, king of Burgundy, and
widow of Eudes, count of Blois. As he was diftantly re-
lated to his queen, and-had alfo ftood god-father to one of
her children by her former hufband, his marriage was con-
fidered as invalid by Gregory V.; the parties were com-
manded to quit each other, and to fubmit to feven years’
penance, on pain of excommunication. The king refufing
to comply with this mandate, the fentence was iffued againit
him, and the greater part of his own bifhops joined im it.
The effeéts of this excommunication are a {triking example
of the fuperftition of the age. The lords of his court broke
off all intercourfe with him, and the fervants, who remained
to wait upon him, fhewed their horror of his fituation by
throwing to the dogs all the relics of food touched by the
king or queen, and burning the veffels they had ufed. It
was even reported that the queen was delivered of a montter.
At length the king gave way, and parting with Bertha, by
whom he had no iflue, efpoufed Conftance, daughter of the
count of Arles, a beautiful woman, but violent and ca-
pricious, who difquieted all the remainder of his life.
The death of the duke of Burgundy, the king’s uncle,
without lawful heirs, in 1002, caufed that rich inheritance
to fall to the crown of France; and after a war carried on
for fome years with another claimant, Robert obtained
pofleffion of the country, with which he invefted his fecond
fon, Henry. The termination of this war gave much fatif-
faction to the king, who was more inclined to the arts of
peace than to military exploits ; and he occupied himfelf in
cares for the regulation of his court and houfehold, and the
cultivation of letters and religion among his people. He
built and repaired many magnificent religious edifices, and
merited the title of the devout. By the perfuafion of the
queen, he aflociated his eldeft fon, Hugh, in the govern-
ment, in his 18th year. This prince, difgufted with the
haughtinefs and avarice of his mother, withdrew from court,
and was guilty of fome diforders; but by the mild treat-
ment. of his father, he was brought back to bis duty. In
ROG
1022, Robert difplayed his attachment to orthodoxy, by
caufing a council to affemble at Orleans, for the urpofe of
inquiring into a herefy introduced from Italy, which had been
embraced even by fome diftinguifhed ecclefiaftics. Several
of the culprits were burnt alive, in the prefence cf the king
and queen; the latter of whom manifeited the fury of her
zeal, by thruiting out an eye of one who had been her con-
feffor, as he was led to execution. On the death of the em-
peror Henry II., in 1024, an Italian party offered the im-
perial crown and kingdom of Italy to Robert, or his fon;
but the king had too much wifdom to involve himfelf in 4
war on fuch a projeét. In 1026 he lott his eldeft fon
Hugh; on which event, he affociated in the crown his next
fon, Henry, notwithftanding the oppofition of Conftance,
who preferred her fon Robert. He died at Melun, in 1030,
or 1031, about the age of 60, after a reign of 33 years.
This prince was extremely beloved by his fubjeéts, on ac~
count of his mildnefs, juitice, and piety. ,
Robert was contemporary with Guido d’Arezzo. He
was a great mufician, and a good poet: he wrote feveral
hymns for the church, and fet them to mufic. They have
been preferved among the ecclefiaftical chants, and are ftill
the moit agreeable in its fervice. Conftance, his fecond
wife, prefled him to write a hymn in her praife; and he
made her believe that the hymn “ Conftantia Martyrum’?
had been written for her, and fhe was fatisfied.
Trithemius writes, that Robert made a pilgrimage to
Rome, and depofited on the altar himfelf, at St. Peter’s,
his hymns, in the prefence of the pope.
One of his beft hymns is “¢ Veni, Sanéte Spiritus.” To
him is likewife afcribed ‘* Chorus Nove Jerufalem ;”? the
« Profe on the Afcenfion ;’? “ Rex omnipotens Die odi-
erna;” * Sanéti Spirits adfit nobis Gratid.”? Laborde.
Rosert I., king of Scotland, of the family of Bruce,
memorable as the reftorer of the independence of his country,
was grandfon of that Robert Bruce who was the unfuc-
cefsful competitor with John Baliol for the crown of Scot-
land. But the death of his father, who left him heir to his
eftates and pretenfions, with that of John Baliol, whofe fon
was acaptive with the Englifh, infpired him with high de-
figns both for himfelf and his country, which was then in a
flate of fubje€tion to Edward ; and having left the Englifh
court, to which, it is faid, his purpofes had been betrayed,
he arrived in Scotland about the clofe of 1305, with the re-
folution of declaring himfelf. The Scottifh writers mention
Comyn as the perfon who had given information againft
him ; but whether this were the fact, or fome other caufe of
quarrel rofe between them, it is certain that at an interview
at Dumfries, in February 1306, Bruce with his dagger
{tabbed Comyn, who was afterwards difpatched by one of
his aflociates. This deed of violence could be juitified only
by greater daring; and Bruce immediately proceeded to
feize the caftle of Dumfries, to confine the Englifh judges
aflembled there, to affert his claim to the crown, and to
fummon all the friends of his family to his affiftance. He
was foon at the head of a body of troops, with which he
penetrated as far as Perth, the Englifh every where flying
before him; and in March he was folemnly crowned at
Scone, in prefence of fome bifhops and nobles, and a great
number of gentlemen. The king of England, highly en-
raged at the news of thefe events, ordered all the forces of
the northern counties to enter Scotland, and join the family
of Comyn, in order to take vengeance on the rebel, as he
was termed. The earl of Pembroke marched to Perth,
where he furprifed and defeated Bruce’s troops at Methven,
in June, their leader himfelf efcaping with difficulty. The
broken remnant of his army was again routed by lord Lorn,
the
ROB
the nephew of Comyn; and Bruce, difmiffing his few fol-
lowers, was conitrained to take refuge in an unfrequented
ifle of the Hebrides.
Neither friends nor foes were acquainted with the fate of
Bruce, when he fuddenly appeared at his eftate of Carrick,
at the head of a {mall but refolute band, with which he fur-
prifed an Englifh lord, who had obtained a grant of that
property ; but on the approach of a detachment from the
Englih army, he retreated to the Highlands. In the mean
time, Edward was preparing for an expedition into Scot-
land with a force which was to reduce it to entire fubmif-
fion. He was foon after delivered from the mott formidable
of his foes, by the death of Edward I. near Carlifle, as he
was jult upon the point of entering Scotland with a great
army. His fon, Edward II., though he obeyed his fa-
ther’s dying injunétion of marching into Scotland, yet
purfued the war with no vigour, and foon returned to Eng-
land to join his favourite Gavefton. Robert, who had re-
duced the weftern counties, left them in charge of his gallant
friend, fir James Douglas, and proceeded againtt his enemies
in the north. He afterwards made himfelf mafter of Inver-
nefs, and the northern diftriéts ; and at length, having taken
the caftle of Forfar and the town of Perth, he brought the
whole of Scotland, except a few fortreffes, to acknowledge
his authority. In the beginning of 1314, there remained in
Scotland only the eaftles of Stirling, Dunbar, and Berwick,
in the hands of the Englifh. Edward had now, after the
death of Gavefton, reconciled himfelf with his difcontented
barons ; and it was refolved that he fhould make an attempt
to recover Scotland, with fuch a force as might overcome all
refiftance. At the head of the greatelt army that had ever
entered that country from England, he moved from Berwick
in June 1314, and marched for Stirling, to relieve its caftle,
then befieged by Robert in perfon. The Scotch army,
much inferior in number to the Englifh, but compofed of
veteran troops, awaited the approach of the enemy on the
banks of the rivulet of Bannock, in the road to Stirling.
In a fkirmifh of cavalry cease the engagement, Robert
difplayed his itrength and prowels by cleaving down to the
chin, with his battle-axe, an oppofite commander, of the
family of Bohun. This was an omen of the fuccefs of the
great battle of Bannockburn, in which, through the able
difpofition and condué& of Robert, the Scotch obtained the
moft decifive viGtory over the Englifh that their annals
boaft, and eftablifhed the independence of their country.
Edward himfelf narrowly efcaped ; and the number of noble
prifoners was fuch as to enable Robert to recover, by ex-
change, his wife, daughter, and fifter, with feveral men of
rank, who had been the captives of Edward I. The king
of Scotland followed up his fuccefs by an invafion of Eng-
land, in which he ravaged the northern counties without op-
pofition. He now thought himfelf {trong enough to give
the Englifh government moleftation in another quarter ; and
in 1315 he fent his brother, Edward, over with a body of
troops to the north of Jreland, to affift the natives in free-
ing themfelves from the dominion of England. Robert
himfelf followed with a large reinforcement in 1316, but
was compelled by famine to return; and his brother, after
experiencing a variety of fortune, was defeated and flain in
an engagement with the Englifh near Dundalk.
The depofition and death of Edward IL., in 1327, gave
eccafion to a breach of the truce on the part of the kin
of Scotland, who feems not to have confidered himfelf as
bound to the new government. In reality, however, he was
tempted by the difordered ftate of England to renew hof-
tilities, for which he had been fome time preparing. Young
Edward III, was not a prince to fuffer an infult without
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refiftance and retaliation ; and learning that the Scotch
under Douglas and Murray, were making dreadful ravages
in Northumberland, he aflembled a powerful army, and
went in fearch of them. They, however, eluded all his at-
tempts to bring them to aétion, and retired to their own
country. Edward difmiffed his army, and in the fame year
a peace was agreed upon between the two nations, by an
article of which the king of England renounced all claim
to fuperiority over the kings or kingdom of Scotland; and
thus the great object of Robert’s reign, the independence
of his country, was finally eftablifhed. At the fame time,
his only fon David, then five years of age, was contratied
to Joan, Edward’s filter. Robert was now nearly worn
out with the cares and fatigues of his aétive life; and in
1329, at his caftle of Cardrofs, he expired, in the 54th year
of his age and the 24th of his reign, leaving a name me-
morable in the annals of his country, which he refcued by
his courage and wifdom from a foreign yoke, and reftored
to its rank among nations. Hume. Henry. Univ. Hitt.
Rozert, king of Naples, fon of Charles II., by the
fifter of Ladiflaus, king of Hungary, born in 1279, was
duke of Calabria at the time of his father’s death, in 1309.
The fucceffion was difputed between him and the fon of his
elder brother, Carobert, king of Hungary ; but the college
of cardinals (Naples being then confidered as a fief of he
holy fee) decided in Robert’s favour. He was crowned at
Avignon, and, in gratitude to the pope, exerted himfelf to
oppole the Ghibelline or imperial party in Italy. At this
time the crown of Sicily was in poffeffion of Frederic III.
of Arragon, who, for his defence againit the king of Na-
ples, formed an alliance with the emperor. Robert was am-
bitious to extend his dominion, and almoft the whole of his
reign was {pent in fruitlefs attempts to conquer the ifland of
Sicily. He alfo, during his contefts with the Imperialiits,
aggrandized himfelf in Lombardy, and for fome time he
held the fovereignty of great part of Romagna, Florence,
Lucca, Ferrara, Genoa, and feveral other places in Pied-
mont. He was the moft potent prince in Italy of his age ;
but it is lefs on account of his political and military fucceffes
that he deferves commemoration, than becaufe he was the
greateft royal proficient in f{cience and letters, and the moft
munificent patron of them, in the century in which he lived.
Many of the early writers give their teftimony to his merits
in this refpeét ; and Petrarch, in particular, in feveral parts
of his writings, is profufe in his praife. Robert, however,
is faid, when a child, to have been fo flow of comprehenfion,
that it was with the greateft difficulty he could be taught
the elements of grammar ; and it was not till his preceptor
had interefted him in /Efop’s Fables, that he exhibited any
fondnefs for learning. The private chara¢ter of the king
was highly amiable, and the only fault with which he is
taxed was a difpofition to avarice, that grew upon him with
his years. He had the misfortune of lofing his only fon,
Charles, at the age of 31, on which occafion he exclaimed
that the crown was fallen from his head. He died in Ja-
nuary 1343, in the 64th year of his age, and 34th of his
reign.
Rowers C.aupg, a French ecclefiaftic and chronologift
of fome celebrity, was born at Cheflay, a village between
Bar-fur-Seine and Tonnerre, on the borders of Burgundy, in
the year 1564. From fome feminary in the province juft
mentioned, he went to purfue his academical ftudies at Paris,
where he obtained an exhibition in the college of Cambray.
As foon as he had been admitted to the degree of licentiate
in canon law, he accompanied his pupil into Burgundy, where,
in 1590, he was prefented to a canonry of the Chapel-au-
Riche at Dijon. Afterwards he travelled with his pupil
throagh
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through France, Flanders, Germany, and Italy. At Rome
he was introduced to perfons of the greateft diftin€tion, and
received feveral marks of efteem from the cardinals Bellar-
mine and Baronius. It was in this city that he firft con-
ceived the plan of his *¢ Gallia Chriftiana.”’? He was after-
wards nominated bifhop of Chalons-fur-Saone ; upon which
event this prelate conferred a canonry of his cathedral upon
his preceptor, and made him his archdeacon and grand vicar.
The bifhop was defirous of exprefling his regard for our
author, by collating him to other benefices; but M. Ro-
bert conttantly refufed any additional preferment. He dif-
charged the duties of his appointments with the ftriéteft
fidelity, and died in the épifcopal palace at Chalons in 1637,
when abuut 73 years of age. The moft confiderable of his
production is entitled ‘ Gallia Chriftiana,’’ &c. publifhed
at Paris in 1626, in folio, with an appendix, preface, and
chronological tables of the popes and anti-popes, the
Eaftern and Weftern emperors, the kings of France and
England, the councils of France, the indi€tions, &c. ‘He’
left behind him materials for a fecond edition of this work,
which were made ufe of by M. St. Marthe, whofe new col-
leétions increafed the work to three volumes folio. It was
afterwards extended by the Benedi¢tines to twelve volumes
folio.
Rogert pg Vauconpy, a French geographer, was born
at Paris in the year 1688. Little is known of his private
hiftory, but he became geographer to the king, and died
at Parts in 1766. His works are ** An Introduction to San-
fon’s Geography,”’ 1743; ‘“* An Abridgment of the dif-
ferent Syftems of the World,” 1745 ;.‘ Sacred Geogra-
phy,”? 1746; ‘A Treatife on the Ufe of the Globes ;”’
ss A Portable Atlas ;?’ and above all «* Atlas Univerfel,’”’
publifhed in 1756, confiftiag of 108 maps, upon a large
icale, engraved with neatnefs and accuracy. He hada fon,
who for fome time was the affidueus companion of his la-
bours, and who affifted him in the « Atlas Univerfel,’’ to
which work is prefixed an hiftorical preface, in fix chap-
ters, treating of the origin, progrefs, and prefent ftate of
geography.
RogBerT DE Brienne, harper to Edward I. previous to
his afcending the throne. ‘The harp for many ages feems
to have been the favourite inftrument of the inhabitants of
this ifland, whether under Britifh, Saxon, Danifh, or Nor-
man kings. Many difgraceful circum{tances are blazoned
of the poor minftrels ; it is therefore but juft to relate thofe
that redounded to their honour, and the Chronicle of Walter
Heming furnifhes an incident that well deferves to be
recorded.
Edward I., according to this hiftorian, about the year
"271, a fhort time before he afcended the threne, took his
harper with him to the Holy Land; and this mufician muft
have been a clofe and conftant attendant on his matter, for
when Edward was wounded with a poifoned knife at Pto-
lemais, the harper, cithareda fuus, hearing the ftruggle,
rufhed into the royal apartment, and killed the affaffin.
This fignal fervice from his bard did not, however, incline
the monarch, afterwards, to fpare his brethren in Wales.
See Grey’s Ode, “ Ruin feize thee, ruthlefs king !”’
Rozert, Herb, in Botany. See Geranium.
Rozerr Bay, in Geography, a bay on the E. coaft of
Newfoundland.
Rogert Bay. See Cun de Sac Robert.
Roserts’s J/land, a {mall ifland on the Florida ftream.
N. lat. 24° 42! W. long. 81° 33.
Roserts’s L/lands, a clufter of {mall iflands in the Pacific
ocean, the largeft being eight miles long and from two to
three wide, four others being very {mall; difcovered in the
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year 1792 by lieutenant Herget, commander of the Deda-
lus ftore-fhip. S. lat. 7°53'. E. long. 219° sol.
ROBERTI, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated profeflor
of divinity among the Jefuits, was born in the year 1569.
He commenced his academical ftudies at Liege, and con-
tinued them at Cologne, where, when he was twenty-two
years of age, he entered into the fociety of Jefus. His pro-
ficiency in various branches of learning 1s highly commended,
particularly in the belles-lettres, the feveral departments of
theological learning, and ecclefiattical hiftory. He was made
profeflor of divinity, and created dodtor of that faculty, at
Mentz, difcharging the duties of his poft with great repu-
tation, during a long fucceffion of years, in that city, at
Doway, at Treves, and at Wurzburg. He died at Namur
in 1651, in the 82d year of his age. He was author of
many works on theological fubjects, of which the moft im-
portant, and that which proves how deeply he was verfed in
{cripture criticifm, was entitled “* Myftice Ezekielis Qua-
drige, hoc eft, Evangelia Hiftoriarum et Temporum Serie
vinculata Gr. et Lat.’
ROBERTON, in Geography, a townthip of Washington
county, Pennfylvania, containing 899 inhabitants.
ROBERTSON, Wuittam, in Biography, was born at
Dublin in 1705, and received his grammar-learning under Dr.
Francis Hutchefon, afterwards the celebrated profeflor of
moral philofophy in the univerfity of Glafgow. In the year
1722 young Robertfon removed to that univerfity, where he
continued till the year 1725, when he was admitted to the
degree of M.A. During this year there was a difpute be-
tween Mr. Sterling, the principal of the univerfity, and the
ftudents, about the right of choofing the reétor, in which
Mr. Robertfon took an aétive part, being feleéted by his
fellow ftudents to read their proteft againft the perfon, and
his authority, who had been chofen reétor in oppofition to
their wifhes. Thus diftinguifhed, he excited againit himfelf
the indignation of the principal, Mr. Sterling, and his reCtor,
and was the only one of more than fourfcore petitioners
againft whom they inttituted proceedings. He was cited
before the faculty, and after a trial which lafted feveral days
a fentence of expulfion was pronounced. Mr. Robertfon was
fatisfied of the juttice of his caufe, and prelented a memorial
on the fubjeét to the duke of Argyle, through whofe in-
fluence an appeal was made to the king, who appointed a
commiffion to vifit the univerfity of Glafgow, with full
powers to examine into and reétify all exifting abufes. As
a refult of this enquiry, the right of electing their re€tor was
reftored to the ftudents: the vifitors on this occafion alfo,
among whom was the earl of Hay, called the principal to a
fevere account for the public money which he had embez-
zled, and afcertained the right of the univerfity to fend two
gentlemen, upon handfome exhibitions, to Baliol college in
Oxford: they moreover annulled the expulfion of Mr. Ro-
bertfon, and ordered that meafure particularly to be re-
corded in the proceedings of the commiffion ; declared the
eleétion of the reétor, who had been named by the principal,
to be void; and aflembled the ftudents, who immediately
chofe the fon of lord Rofs to be their rector.
While the vifitors were exercifing their powers, Mr.
Robertfon remained at London, and on the return of lord
Hay he introduced Mr. Robertfon to Dr. Hoadly, the
bifhop of Winchefter, who made him known to Dr. Wake,
archbifhop of Canterbury ; and he was entertained with
much civility by both thefe prelates. He had, from a
thorough conviction of its importance, devoted himfelf to
the clerical profeffion; but at prefent being too young to be
admitted into orders, he employed himfelf, while in London,
in vifiting public libraries, attending le€tures, and improving
7 himfelf
Rw iB . *
himfelf as opportunity offered. As foon as he was old
enough to receive ordination, he was nominated by Dr.
Hoadly to the cureof Tallow, in the county of Carlow.
Here he continued till he was of age for prieft’s orders, to
which he was admitted on the roth of November 1729, and
on the next day he was prefented by lord Carteret, then
Jord lieutenant of Ireland, to the rectory of Ravilly, in the
county of Carlow, and to another rectory in the county of
Wicklow. In 1728 he married Elizabeth, the daughter
of major William Baxter, by whom he had twenty-one
children.
Mr. Robertfon firft appeared as an author abowt the year
1738, ‘by a pamphlet entitled «A Scheme for utterly abo-
lifhing the prefent heavy and vexatious Tax of Tythes :”
the object of this work was to pay the clergy and impro-
priators a tax upon land in lieu of tythes, and it excited fo
much attention, that feveral editions of it were called for in
a fhort {pace of time. In 1739 Mr. Robertfon received
from lord Cathcart a deputation to be his chaplain; and in
the year 1743 he obtained leave from his diocefan to nomi-
nate a curate at Rayilly, and to refide fome time in Dublin
for the education of his children. Immediately on his fettle-
ment’in this city he was invited to the cure of St. Luke’s
parifh, which he retained about five years, when he returned
to Rayilly. While in that city he formed a fcheme, jointly
with Mr. Kane Percival, to raife a fund for the fupport of
the widows and children of clergymen within the diocefe of
Dublin, which has fince produced very happy effects. In
1758 he met with a fevere affliction in the death of his wife,
to whom he was moft tenderly attached, but he fuftained
the lofs with exemplary refignation to the will of God.
Soon after this he found a new patron in Dr. Richard Ro-
binfon, who had been tranflated from the fee of Killala to
that of Ferns, and who prefented to Mr. Robertfon the
firft benefice which became vacant in his lordfhip’s pre-
fentation. Before, however, he could be collated to it, he,
for the firft time, had the “ Free and Candid Difquifitions
relating to the Church of England, &c.”’ put into his hands ;
and, by, the perufal, he was led to entertain fuch doubts
refpeéting fome points to which he would be required to
declare his affent, as made, him defer his attendance on the
bifhop. At length he received a letter from his lordfhip,
calling upon him to come immediately for inftitution. Upon
this he wrote a very affeting letter to the prelate, in which
he returned the moft grateful thanks for his kindnefs, but
faid he could no longer confcientioufly comply with the
terms required by law to qualify him for fuch preferment.
«« In debating this matter with myfelf,” fays he, ‘* befides
the arguments directly to the purpofe, feveral {trong colla-
teral confiderations came in upon the pofitive fide of the
queltion. The ftraightnefs of my circumftances prefled me
clofe; a numerous family, quite unprovided for, pleaded
with the moft pathetic and moving eloquence. And the
infirmities and wants of age now coming fa{t upon me were
urged feelingly. But one fingle confideration prevailed over
all thefe—that the Creator and Governor of the univerfe,
whom it is my firft duty to worfhip and adore, being the
God of truth, it muft be difagreeable to him to profefs, fub-
{cribe, or declare, in any matter relating to his worfhip and
fervice, what is not believed ftri€tly and fimply to be true.’’
Mz, Robertfon, though he refufed to fubforibe for the
fake of preferment, did not feel it neceflary to quit the
church, and continued to perform the duties of parifh priett ;
but from this time he omitted the reading of the Athanafian
ereed, and fome other parts of the public fervice which ap-
peared to him to countenance unfcriptural tenets. Finding,
however, that this mode of condu@ gave offence to fome per-
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fons, he refigned his benefices in 1764, and in 1766 he
publifhed, by way of apology to his friends for what he
had. done, his learned and ingenious little work, entitled
« An Attempt to explain the Words Reafon, Subftance,
Perfon, Creeds, Orthodox, &c.’’ to which he fubjoined the
letter written to his bifhop, of which an extra&t has been
given above. He now came to London, where he met with
a very cordial and liberal reception from many excellent men,
who generoufly contributed to his fupport. In the followe
ing year he prefented a copy of his “ Attempt, &c.’? to
the univerfity of Glafgow, and, in return, received a moft
obliging letter, accompanied with the diploma of D.D. In
1768 he was nominated to the mafterfhip of the free grammar-
{chool at Wolverhampton, in Staffordthire, by the company
of Merchant Taylors; which, though honourable to the
patrons, was not lucrative to the doétor, the falary being
only 70/. per ann., and this was, for fome years, diminifhed
by a penfion of 4o/. to a fuperannuated predeceflor. Dr.
Robertfon was, however, fatisfied, and through the kindnefs
of his friends was prevented from wanting what was necef-
fary to his fupport. At one time he received from an un-
known hand a prefent of so0o/., and from various perfons
{tated affiftance was fent him. In 1772 he was chofen one
of the committee of the fociety of clergymen, &c. em-
ployed to draw up, and prefent to the houfe of commons, a
petition praying for relief from the obligation of fub-
{cription to the 39 articles. Inthe courfe of a few years
he had the misfortune to lofe all his children one after an-
other; and he himfelf died in May 1783, in the 79th year
of hisage. Dr. Robertfon was poffefled of great learning
and an excellent judgment ; he had a fine imagination, and a
temper regulated by the mild and amiable fpirit of Chrift ;
and in his addrefs and manners he was at all times eafy and
cheerful. When he quitted the church he was probably of
the Arian {chool, but in the latter years of his life he became
a firm believer in the fimple humanity of Chrift. He was
mentioned by Mr. Lindfey, a few months before his death,
as “the aged and venerable father of Unitarian noncon-
formity of our own days ;”? and in another work the fame
writer fays, “the example of an excellent perfon now
living at Wolverhampton, Dr. Robertfon, has been a fecret
reproach to me ever fince I heard of it.”? See Lindfey’s
Apology for refigning the Vicarage of Catterick, his Hif-
torical View of the Unitarian Do&rine, and Dr. Difney’s
Communications to the Gent. Mag. 1783.
Rosertson, Witiiam, D. D.,-a celebrated hiftorian,
was born in 1721, at Borthwick, in Mid Lothian, of which
parifh his father was then minifter. He received the early
part of his education at Dalkeith, under Mr. Leflie, a
matter of high repute. In 1733 he entered upon his aca-
demical ftudies at Edinburgh. After the completion of his
courfe, he obtained a licence to preach in 1741, and in 1743
he was prefented, by the earl of Hopetoun, to the living of
Gladfmuir, in Eaift Lothian. On this living, which was
not more than r1oo/. fer ann., he contrived to educate his
fix fifters and a brother, who, about this time, were left
orphans by the death of both their parents. Here alfo he
difplayed his zealous attachment to the caufe of liberty, by -
his efforts, inthe year of the rebellion, in favour of the
houfe of Brunfwick, which he carried fo far as to quit, for
a feafon, his parochial charge, and join the volunteers of
Edinburgh. He became, in a fhort time, diftinguifhed for
his eloquence and good tafte as a preacher ; and, in 1755,a
fermon which he delivered before the Society for propagating
Chriftiag Knowledge, and which was the only compofition
of that kind that he ever publifhed, raifed him very high as
a pulpit orator. It pafled through five editions, and was
tranflated
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tranflated into the German language. He had, fome years
previoufly to this, begun to take a part in the debates of
the general aflembly of the church of Scotland, and, as he
pofleffed great talents for bufinefs, as well as the powers of
a public Foaaker! he acquired an afcendancy in that body
which, during a long period, gave him the lead in the eccle-
fiaftical politics of the country. In 1754 a “ Select So-
ciety’? had been eftablifhed in Edinburgh, among the firft
members of which are found many names that, in procefs of
time, became highly diftinguifhed in literature and public
life. Among the number of thefe was that of Robertfon,
who was mott affiduous in his attendance, and obtained from
it an increafe of reputation. In the mean time he was deeply
engaged in the ftudies neceflary for completing the plan of
an hiftorical work which he had formed foon after his firft
fettlement as a minifter, and having taken a journey to
London for the purpofe of making arrangements for the
publication, his « Hiftory of Scotland during the Reigns
of Queen Mary, and King James VI.”’ made its appearance
in the year 1759, in two vols. 4to. He had, previoufly to
this, as appears by the title-page of the volume, obtained
the degree of D.D. It was received by the public with
general approbation and applaufe. The celebrated Hume,
fo far from betraying jealoufy or envy at the appearance of
a competitor for the hiltoric palm, took the warmett intereft
in the fuccefs of the work.
The Hiftory of Scotland appears to have been the moft
popular of the author’s works, and it had paffed through
fourteen editions during the life of the author. It had, in
every refpe&i, a favourable influence on his fortune, fince
the fame which he acquired by the publication was probably
the caufe of his rapid promotion. He had removed to
Edinburgh, in confequence of a prefentation to one of the
churches of that city, while it was in the prefs; in the fame
year he was nominated chaplain of Stirling-caftle ; in 1761
he was appointed one of the king’s chaplains in ordinary in
Scotland, and inthe following year he was eleéted principal
of the univerfity of Edinburgh. Two years after this he
was appointed to the poft of hiftoriographer royal of Scot-
land, with the falary of 200/. per ann., fo that, at this
period, he was the beft beneficed clergyman of his church.
He was, moreover, the acknowledged head of the party
which held the chief {way in a national church; and the
period from his becoming principal of the univerfity of
Edinburgh, to his. retreat from public life, was ‘commonly
denominated “ Dr. Robertfon’s adminiftration.”’
In the mid{t of the numerous avocations which his feveral
offices created, he proceeded to colle& materials for his
s¢ Hiftory of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V.,’? which
he publifhed in 1769, in three quarto volumes. This work
was, like the former, received with high approbation ; it
increafed his reputation both on account of the greater
maturity of ftyle to which he had attained, and of the more
profound and varied refearch which the weight and copiouf-
nefs of the theme led him to difplay. The introductory
volume contained a view of the progrefs of fociety in Eu-
rope from the fubverfion of the Roman empire to the
beginning of the fixteenth century, which was particularly
admired, as prefenting a mafterly furvey of the gradations
by which the focial inftitutions of antiquity have paffed,
through the barbarifm of the dark ages, into all that cha-
racterizes the {tate of modern Europe. So highly pleafed
was Catharine, the emprefs of Ruflia, with the Hiftory of
Charles V., that fhe conveyed her acknowledgments to the
author in a prefent of a rich fnuff-box fet with diamonds.
In the year 1777, Dr. Robertfon publifhed his * Hiftory
of America,” in two vols. 4to., which, from the new views
4
‘Kentucky, and containing 7270 inhabitants.
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of man and nature that it prefents, and the magnificence
and variety of its {cenery, is perhaps the moft entertaining
of his productions. Either gratitude for the communications
obtained from fhe Spanifh court, or candour carried far be-
yond the bounds of moderation, led him to extenuate the
cruelties that had been committed by that nation in their
conquefts in the new world, to a degree that brought upon
him cenfure. The work proved fo acceptable to the Spanifh
nation, that the author was unanimoufly elected a member of
the Royal Academy of Madrid. In 1791 Dr. Robertfon
publifhed « An Hittorical Difquifition concerning the
Knowledge which the Ancients had of India, and the Pro-
grefs of Trade with that Country, prior to the Difcovery
of the Cape of Good Hope.” After this, Dr. Robert-
fon’s health began to decline, and in June 1793 he died at
the age of 72. As an hiftorian his ftyle is pure, {weet
dignified without ftiffnefs, fingularly perfpicuous, and often
eloquent ; the arrangement of his materials is fkilful and
luminous, his mode of narration is diftin@, and his defcrip-
tions highly graphical; and he difplays a fagacity in the
developement of caufes and effeéts, and in his judgment of
public charaGters and tranfactions, which is very remarkable
in one who was brought up in retirement. « If,” fays one
of his biegraphers, ‘there is lefs glow and ardour in his
expreflions of moral and political feelings, than fome writers
in a free country have manifefted; there is, on the other
hand, all the candour and impartiality which belongs to a
cool temper, when enlightened by knowledge and direGed
by principle’? To his private and focial virtues the moft
ie teftimony has been given, even by thofe who were
is opponents in church politics. See Dr. Dugald a
Life of Principal Roberton See ee
Rosertson, JosEPH, was born at Knipe, in Weftmore-
land, in 1726, and educated at Appleby {chool, from
which place, in 1746, he went to Queen’s college, Oxford,
where he took his degree of M. A., and, on entering holy
orders, he was prefented to the vicarage of Hertford, in
Hampfhire. In 1764 he became an author, by contributing
largely to the Critical Review, an occupation in which he
continued more than 20 years. In 1770 he was prefented
to the rectory of Sutton, in Effex, and in 1779 to the vicar-
age of Horncaitle, in Lincolnfhire. In 1782 he publithed
what he entitled * An Introduétion to Polite Literature,’*
avery {mall volume, and which cannot certainly deferve fo
high founding a title. It has been reprinted feveral times.
It is a fort of fpelling-book or primer, with good rules for
pronunciation. The author was, however, fo tenacious of
his property, that he attacked, with much feverity, the late
Dr. Paley, for copying a part of it without acknowledg-
ment, into a little piece intended for the ufe of Sunday
{chools. Dr. Paley’s reply and defence is that of a gen-
tleman and fcholar, and muft be quite fatisfactory to the
candid reader. Mr. Robertfon’s next piece, “ An Effay on
Punétuation,”? was publifhed in 1785; it is a work of con-
fiderable merit, and has gone through feveral editions. In
1788 appeared his « Diflertation on the Parian Chronicle.’?
Mr. Robertfon publifhed, in 1795, a new “ Tranflation of
Telemachus ;’? and in 1798 “* An Effay on the Education
of Young Ladies,”? which was followed by an « Effay on
the Nature of Englifh Verfe.”? He died in 1802. See
Gent. Mag. vol. Ixii, Monthly Mag. Meadley’s Me-
moirs of Dr. Paley.
Rogertson’s County, in Geography, a county of :
rica, in the diftri& of Wett "Tentellce, border Cae
by Cumberland and Red rivers. oe Gee
ROBERVAL, Gites Personne pe, in Biography, an
excellent
-ROB
excellent mathematician of the 17th century, was born at
Roberval, a feignory belonging to his family, in the diocefe
of Beauvais, in the year 1602. In the courfe of his educa-
tion he difcovered a ftrong inclination towards the ftudy of
the mathematics, with which he made himielf very conver-
fant. ‘When he was 30 years of age he obtained the pro-
feflorfhip ‘of mathematics in the college of Gervais, at Paris ;
and afterwards he contefted, with other candidates, the fuc-
ceffion to the vacant chair of Ramus, which he gained by the
fuperiority of his powers in difputation. He fucceeded Morin
as mathematical profeffor at the college-royal, the duties of
which office he performed with high reputation fo leng as he
lived. He was chofena member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences in 1666, and communicated to that body fome cu-
rious experiments on the Torricellian vacuum, which he made
in the years 1647 and 1648. He invented two new kinds
of balances, one of which was adapted to the bi of
air. Roberval died in 1675, at the age of 73. is chief
works are ‘* A Treatife on Mechanics,’’ inferted in Mer-
fenne’s Univerfal Harmony.’ “A treatife “ On the Mun-
dane Syftem,”’ written in Latin, attributed to Ariftarchus of
Samos, but generally believed to be his own production.
Befides thefe he contributed feveral papers to the Memoirs
of the Academy of Sciences: fuch as ‘* Experimeuts con-
cerning the Preflure of the Air ;”’ “* Obfervations on the
Compofition of Motion, and on the Tangents of Curve
Lines ;”” “ The Geometrical Refolution of Plane and Cubic
Equations ;”” “ A Treatife on Indivifibles ;” at the end of
which he has explained a new method for the transformation
of figures, to which Torricelli gave the name of “ Rober-
vallian Lines.””
ROBERVALLIAN Lives, a name given to certain
lines, ufed for the transformation of figures: thus called
from their inventor M. de Roberval.
Thefe lines bound fpaces infinitely extended in length,
which are neverthelefs equal to other {paces terminated on
all fides.
The abbot Gallois, in the Memoirs of the Royal Aca-
demy, anno 1693, obferves, that the method of transforming
figures, explained at the latter end of M.de Roberval’s
Treatife of Indivifibles, is the fame with that fince publifhed
by Mr. James Gregory, in his Univerfal Geometry, and
afterwards by Barrow, in his Lectiones Geometrice ; and
that, by a letter of Torricelli, it appears that Roberval was
the inventor of this manner of transforming figures, by
means of certain lines, which Torricelli therefore called
Robervallian lines.
He adds, that it is highly probable, that J. Gregory firft
learned the method in the journey he made to Padua in
1668 ; the method itfelf having been known in Italy from
the year 1646, though the book was not publifhed till the
year 1692. ;
This, account Dr. David Gregory has endeavoured to
refute, in vindication of his brother. His anfwer is inferted
in the Phil. Tranf. an. 1694, and the abbot has rejoined
in the French Memoirs of the Academy.
ROBESON, in Geography, a county of North Carolina,
in Fayette diftri@, bounded S. by the itate of South Caro-
lina. It contains 7528 inhabitants. The chief town is
Lamberton.—Alfo, a townfhip of Lancafter
Pennfylvania ; containing 1807 inhabitants.
ROBESPIERRE, MaxmitiaM Isiorg, in Biogra-
py, was born at Arras in 1759. His father, a barriiter,
aving ruined himfelf by his prodigality, left France before
the revolution, eftablifhed a fchool at Cologne, where, how-
ever, he did not remain long, and he went from thence into
England, and afterwards to America. Deferted by his fa-
VoL. XXX. -
county,
ROB
ther, and his mother dying when he was only nine years old,
he was taken under the patronage of the bifhop of Arras,
M. de Conzie, who caufed him to be fent to the college of
Louis le Grand, where he was taken on the foundation.
Yrom a very early age he was noticed for his love of inde-
pendence ; he was however timid, and in his temper gloomy
and unfociable. He was extremely affiduous in his ftudies,
and gave hopes of talent, that were not realized in after-life.
In 1775, when Lewis XVI. made his entry into Paris, he
was cholfen by his fellow ftudents to préfent to that prince
the tae of their gratitude. Becoming a barrifter in the
council of Artois, he obtained a place in the academy of
Arras. In the year 1789 he took an a@tive part in all the
revolutionary meetings, and was appointed a deputy from
the province of Artois to the States-General. He manifefted
but little talent as an orator or legiflator, but attached him-
felf to Neckar, and then to Mirabeau, during the heights of
their popularity ; but when they became lefs carefled by the
people, Robefpierre was the firft to notice the difference,
and deferted them for fome ether leader. The firft time
that he made himfelf at all remarked in the conftituent
aflembly, was on the 2otlr of July 1789, when he oppofed
the {cheme of martial law; and from that period, fays his
biographer, ‘ he endeavoured to legitimatize infurreétion.””
By courting the people, and difplaying a determined hofti-
lity to the royal prerogatives, he laid the foundation for
future influence in the democratic party; and it has been
confidered a very remarkable cireumftance, in conne@ion
with his future condua, that the moit frequent topic of his
srcamscae was the injuitice of capital punifhment in any
cafe.
After the diffolution of the conftituent affembly, followed
by the ele¢tion of the le$iflative body, the members of
which being all new, Robefpierre’s chief theatre of aétion
was the Jacobin club, at which he was the principal {peaker.
He alfo publifhed a weekly paper, entitled « Le Defenfeur
de la Conititution.”” He now took a decided part with the
republicans, though it does not appear that he was an aétor
in the infurreétion of the roth of Augutft, or in the prifon-
maflacres of Septémber. In the new aflembly, which met
in September 1792, he was returned a member for the city
of Paris, and ke foon became the head of the party called
the Mountain, which was oppofed to the followers of Briflot,
who then poffeffed the minifterial power. He was now
charged with the defire of making himfelf di€tator, but his
party in the fenate was too powerful for his accufer to carry
the point, and the affembly paffed a decree to print and cir-
culate the {peech which he made in juttification of himfelf,
By this he became ftill more popular, and his fubfequent ex~
ertions to bring the unfortunate king to trial, augmented his
influence with the democratic part of the nation. Soon after
the execution of Lewis, Robefpierre, affifted by Danton and
Marat, gained a moft decided fupremacy in the national
convention, and the period commenced which has been em-
phatically, but juitly, denominated the reign of terror. The
Briffotines, to the number of twenty-one, were accufed, con-
demned, and guillotined. After them followed the queen,
the duke of Orleans, and other members of the royal family:
The fcaffold daily itreamed with the blood of nobles, priefts,
and all who by charaéter and condition could be fufpeéted
of being attached to the ancient government. In fome of
the provinces, maffacres were perpetrated againft whole
orders of men, without diftin@ion: the levelling principle
was extended to all fuperiority of {cience and talent, and it
feemed Robefpierre’s objet to bring back an age of bar-
barifm. At length his own confederates, Danton, Def-
moulin3, Fabre d’Eglantine, and others, were brought to the
3A 5 block.
ROB
block. In the midft of all thefe horrors he exhibited a fefti-
yal, in which the exiltence of the Supreme Being was
folemnly recognifed ; and as the reftorer of religion, he ap-
pointed days for public worfhip. ;
"The reicn of terror was now become too intolerable to
be endured. No man was fafe from-a tyrant whofe bloody
difpofition feemed to grow with the acts of cruelty which
it generated, and who had eftablifhed fuch a fyftem of do-
meltic treachery, as deftroyed the confidence of focietys and
fubjecéted every individual to accufation. He loft his popu-
larity, and a decree of the convention was pafled againft
him: in the aé of arrefting him two piftols were fired, by
which he was wounded in the head and the under-jaw. He
endured in filence the pain of his wounds, and the upbraid-
ings of his foes, and was carried to the fame dungeon which
he had made to many the paflage to death. On the next
day, after being taken, with his accomplices, before the revo-
lutionary tribunal, he was led, July 28, 1794, to execution,
amidit the acclamations and curfes of thoufands of f{peétators.
“Such was the well-merited end of Robefpierre, in the 36th
year of his age. Although a concurrence of circumftances
enabled him to a a confiderable part in the revolution, he was
not one of the fuperior figures in point of abilities and force
of character. Natural referve, cunning, habitual diffimula-
tion, and a total want of feeling, carried him through diffi-
culties which might have overwhelmed a greater man ; but
zs he never made a friend, and was unfupported by native
courage, he funk under the firft ferious oppofition. He
was regarded as incorruptible, and never accumulated
money : neverthelefs, he always took care to open the path
of honour and wealth to his own creatures, and efpecially to
his rivals, in order that he might have an additional method
of ruining them. Upon the whole, he has left a name
more the objeét of horror and deteftation, than that of any
other among the perfonages of the fame awful drama.—
Ann. Regilter. Lives of Remarkable Characters, who have
diftinguifhed themfelves in the French Revolution. Biog.
‘Anec. of the Founders of the Fr. Rev.
ROBIA Hersa, in Botany, a name given by Paulus
Egineta, and many others, to a plant ufed in dyeing.
The near refemblance of the name to the word ruéia, has
made many conclude that it was the ruéza, or madder, which
they have meant by it; but they have taken care in their
writings to diftinguifh it from that plant, and it is plainly
the geniffella tinGorta, or dyer’s weed, that they meant by the
‘yobia herba. They fay it was ufed to dye yellow, and that
it was alfo a cuftom to ftain the hair with it.
Thefe are the properties recorded of the cymene and ¢co-
menium of the Greeks, and the /utum, or lutea herba, of the
Latins, which were names of the geniflella tin@oria. Pliny
fays, that the Juium had leaves like flax, and flowers
like broom, which is exa@tly the cafe with the geniftella
tinforta, but by no means agrees with the glaitum or
woad.
ROBIESSOU, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Po-
tand; 22 miles S. of Chelm.
ROBIGALIA, or RupiGaLis, in Antiquity.
BIGALIA. :
ROBILLANTE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Stura; fix miles S. of Coni.
- ROBIN, or, as it is more ufually called, Rodin red-breaft,
Rubecula, in Ornithology. See Rev-brea/.
Rosin, Ragged, in Botany. See Campion.
-Rosin, Wake. See Wake Robin. ;
ROBINAL, in Geography, a town of Mexico, inthe pro-
vince of Vera Paz; containing 800 inhabitants; 40 miles
§.S.W. of Vera Paz.
See Ru-
ROB
ROBIN-HOOD’s Bay, abay on the E. coaft of New-
foundland, frequented by {mall veflels.
ROBINIA, in Botany, commemorates John Robin, bota-
nift to Henry IV. and Louis XIII. of France, who pub-
lifhed a catalogue of his own garden, which has gone
through feveral editions. He alfo fupplied defcriptions to
Vallet’s figures. A popular French author, who calls
himfelf M. de Vigneul-Marville, but whofe real name was
@ Argonne, in his Melanges, ftigmatizes Robin for his
greedy and felfifh love of flowers, the more curious kinds
of which he would rather deftroy, than communicate to
his friends. In allufion to this, aid to a report of his be-
ino an eunuch, he was addrefled in a bitter Latin fatire, as
by nature an enemy to all propagation. De Theis, never-
thelels, {peaks of Vefpafian Robin as his fon. They pub-
lifhed conjointly a botanical Lnchiridion, or manual, and one
of them introduced into the French gardens, from Ame-
rican feeds, that fpecies of Robinia called P/eds-acacia by
Tournefort, who under that name founded the prefent
genus.—Linn. Gen. 378. Schreb. 501. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 1131. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 4. 323. Purfh v.2. 487. Juff. 358. Lamarck Iuftr.
t. 606. Gertn. t. 145. (Pfeudoacacias Tourn. t. 417.
Caragana; Lamarck Diét. v. 1. 615. Illuttr. t. 607.
Juff. 358.)—Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat.
Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, {mall,
bell-fhaped, four-cleft; the three lower teeth narrowelt; the
upper one twice as broad, with a broad fhallow finus ; all
of equal length. (or. papilionaceous. Standard roundifh,
large, f{preading, obtufe. Wings oblong-ovate, diftinét,
each with a very fhort blunt appendage. Keel nearly
femiorbicular, comprefled, obtufe, the length of the wings.
Stam. Filaments diadelphous, one fimple, the other nine com-
bined, afcending towards the extremity ; anthers roundifh.
Fifi. Germen cylindrical, oblong; ftyle thread fhaped, bent
upwards; ftigma terminal. Peric. Legume large, long,
gibbous, comprefled. Sveds few, kidney-{haped.
Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft ; the upper fegment divided,
Standard roundifh, reflexed. Stamens in two diftin@
fets. Legume elongated, gibbous, of one cell, with many
feeds.
Obf. Juffieu and Lamarck ditinguifh their genus Cara-
gana, by its {mooth abrupt ftigma, and a fomewhat cylin-
drical inflated legume. ‘The former adds, that the leaves
are abruptly pinnate, without the terminal leaflet feen in
Robinia. Yet Lamarck’s plates do not confirm all thefe
diftinétions. Linneus defcribes the ftigma as downy, and
yet in his Syft. Veg. ranges Robinia among genera which
want that character. In faét the ftyle, rather than the
ftigma, is downy.
1. R. Pfeudoacacia. Common Acacia, or Robinia. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1043. Willd. n. 1. Ait.n.1. Purfhn.1. “Schmidt
Arb. t. 32.’ (Pfeudoacacia; Duham. Arb. v. 2. 188.
n. I. te 42..)—Partial ftalks fingle-flowered. Leaves pin-
nate, with an odd leaflet. Stipulas fpinous. Legumes
{mooth, comprefled.—Native of dry fertile ridges, on the
mountains of North America, from Canada to Carolina,
flowering in May and June. Pur/>. Cultivated here, by
the elder Tradefcant, before 1640. Parkinfon. This isa
large and handfome free, of quick growth, beautiful in
foliage, and highly ornamental, when laden in fummer with
bunches of white fweet-fcented fowers, relembling thofe of
the /aburnum in fize and pofition. ‘Lhe branches are liable
to be fhivered off by our autumnal ftorms. Mr. Purth
fays, “the wood 1s almott incorruptible, and particularly
calculated for pofts of gates and fences.’’ The /aves are
deciduous
ROBINIA.
deciduous, a {pan long, of a peculiarly pleafant light green,
confifting of many elliptical, oppofite or alternate, ftalked
leaflets. The fhort awl-fhaped /ipulas become rigid fpines.
ri ee pale, wavy, compreiled, two or three inches
ong.
2 R. vifeofa.. Clammy Robinia.
n.2. Purth n. 2. Venten. Jard. de Cels, t. 4. (R. glu-
tinofa; Curt. Mag. t. 560. R. Pfeudoacacie var. Sm.
in Abbot’s Inf. of Georgia, v. 1. 37. t- 19.)—Partial
(talks fingle-flowered. Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet.
Branches and legumes clothed with vifcid glands.—Native
of the banks of rivers in South Carolina, efpecially the
Savannah, flowering in June and July; and faid to have
been introduced into our gardens, where it is quite hardy,
by Mr. R. Whitley, in 1797. This f{pecies not being
known to us when Abbot’s Infeéts of Georgia were pub-
lifhed, was, in that work, mittaken for a red-flowered
variety of the foregoing. The whole free is of a {maller
fize than that fpecies, and diftinguifhed by its dark red
vifcid branches. The flowers are variegated with pink and
white. Stipulas forming ftraighter fpines. The creeping
roots are faid, by Mr. Purfh, to be troublefome in {mall
plantations. Hence, however, our gardeners propagate
the tree the more eafily by cuttings of the root, inltead of
grafting this fpecies on the more brittle P/eudoacacia.
3. R. violacea. Violet Robinia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1044.
Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Amer. 210. t. 177. f. 49.
—Partial {talks two-flowered. Calyx but flightly toothed.
Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet. Branches without
thorns.—Found by Jacquin in bufhy places about Cartha-
gena in South America, flowering in July and Augutt.
_ Miller cultivated this plant, but it is now unknown in our
ftoves. Jacquin defcribes it about twelve feet high, ere,
with fhining /eaves, whofe /eaffets are about fix pair, ttalked,
ovate, obtule, emarginate, two inches long. Cfu/flers axillary,
half a foot in length; their partial ftalks fhort, numerous,
each bearing two flowers, which refemble our {weet violet
in {cent as well as colour.
4. R. friata. Striated-leaved Robinia.
“ Partial ftalks fingle-flowered. Leaves pinnate, with an
odd leaflet; downy beneath. Branches without thorns.”’
—Gathered by Bredemeyer, on open funny hills in the
Caraceas. A large /brub, with pale, unarmed, warty
branches. Leaves half a foot long, compofed of from
fifteen to twenty-five oblong, pointed /eaffets, each an inch
in length, ftriated with veins; fhining above ; covered with
clofe-preffed hairs beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, deciduous.
Glufters fimple, fhorter than the leaves, downy, as well as
the calyx. Braédeas awl-fhaped, very fhort. Corolla yellow,
Willdenow.
5. R. Aifpida. Hairy Robinia, or Rofe Acacia. Linn.
Mant. tor; excluding the reference to Jacquin. © Willd.
n. 5. Ait. nog. Purfh n.3. Curt. Mag. t. 311, (R.
foliis impari-pinnatis; foliolis ovatis, ramis pedunculifque
hifpidis; Mill. Ic. 163. t. 244. Pfeudoacacia hifpida,
floribus rofeis ; Catefb. Carol. v. 3. 20. t. 20.) — Branches,
calyx, and flower-{talks hifpid. Thornsnone. Leaves pin-
nate, with an odd leaflet. Partial ftalks fingle-flowered.—
Native of mountains in Virginia and Carolina. Hardy
with us, flowering from May to September, being a very
ornamental forub, on account of its large pink copious
bloffoms, enhanced, like a mofs rofe, by the brown briftly
covering of the ffa/ks and calyx. Purfh notices a taller and
lefs hif{pid variety.
6. R. jepium. Hedge Robinia. Willd. n. 6. Jacq.
Amer, 221. t. 179. f. 101. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 3. 1258.
—Partial ftalks moftly two-flowered. Leaves pinnate, with
Willd. n. 2. Ait.
Willd. n. 4.—
an odd leaflet, pointed. Thorns none.—Native of the
banks of rivers, in the receffes of mountains of the Weft
Indies, flowering about March and April. A tree twenty
or thirty feet high, with long, lax, fpreading branches.
The feaflets differ from thofe of violacea, n. 3, in being
pointed, not emarginate. C/uffers rather drooping, of
numerous purple flowers ; their flalks {mooth.
7. R. /quamata. Scaly-branched Robinia. Willd. n. 7.
“ Vahl Symb. v. 3. 88. t. 69.”’—Partial ftalks fingle-
flowered. Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet, {pinons-
pointed. Stipulas f{pinous.—Native of the ifland of St.
Thomas. Branches round, {mooth, leafy towards the ends,
{caly below the leaves; bearing fmaller ones fcarcely an
inch long, clothed with four rows of imbricated, ovate,
pointed fcales. Leaflets about nine pair, oval or roundifh,
fmooth and fhining on both fides, the midrib of each ex-
tended into a terminal fpine. Stipulas permanent, harden-
ing into thorns. Cluflers axillary, downy, of four or five
dittant flowers. Braéeas {mall, linear. Calyx {mooth,
with lanceolate fegments. Legume comprefled, linear, oc-
cafionally contraéted here and there, as if jointed.
8. R. uliginofa. Swamp Robinia. Willd. n. 8.—* Par-
tial {talks three-flowered. Leaves ternate, oblong, pointed.
Branches twining, without thorns.’’—Native of the Eaft
Indies ; communicated to Willdenow by Dr. Roxburgh.
The branches are defcribed as round and fmooth. Leaflets
an inch and half long, pointed, fmooth. C/uflers from the
old branches, three inches in length. #Yowers apparently
white.
g. R. feandens. Climbing Robinia. Willd. n. 9. (Re
Nicou ; Aubl. Guian. y..2. 771. t. 308.)—Partial ftalks
fingle-flowered. Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet, oval,
pointed, fmooth. Branches twining, without thorns.—
Native of the woods of Guiana, flowering in June. A
twining /hrub, of lofty growth, crowning the neighbouring
trees with its leafy dranches, and purple blofoms. The
leaflets are ufually feven, each about four inches long.
Flowers in axillary clufters. Legume compreffed, ehick:
edged, {mooth, meafuring about two inches. The natives
of Guiana beat the water with frefh cut twigs of this fhrub,
by which means the fifh are intoxicated, and floating infen-
fible near the furface, are ealily caught.
10. R. tomentofa. Downy Robinia. Willd. n. 10.
(R. Panacoco; Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 768. t. 307.)—Partial
italks fingle-flowered. Leaves pinnate, with an odd leaflet,
elliptical, pointed, coriaceous ; fomewhat downy beneath:
their common ftalk rough. Stem arboreous, without thorns.
—Found by Aublet in the woods of Cayenne and Guiana,
being one of the largeft trees of thofe countries. The
trunk is 60 feet or upwards in height, and ufually a yard
in diameter; its bafe fubdivided above ground, fo as te
form cavities fix or eight feet wide, affording fhelter to
wild beafts. The head confilts of ftrong and widely ex-
tended branches, which when young are clothed, like the
main {talks of the /aves, with red or rufty down. The
leaflets are from eleven to fourteen, various in fize, from
three to eight inches long, veiny and wrinkled; fmooth
above ; more or lefs hairy or downy beneath. Stipulas de-
ciduous. Cluffers at the ends of the branches. Flowers
reddifh. Legume two inches long, half-lanceolate. The
bark of the tree, when wounded, diftils a copious refinous
balfam. The wood is almott incorruptible, Aublet having
obferved pofts, partly in the ground, which were quite
found, though faid to be above 60 years old.
11. R. florida. Flowery Robinia. Willd. n. 11.
‘© Vahl. Symb. v. 3. 8g. t. 70.”—Stalks fimple, fingle-
flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate, fmooth ; their common
zA2 ftalke
‘ROBINIA.
ftalks unarmed. Stipulas lanceolate, permanent, flexible.
Calyx nearly entire.—Native of the Welt Indies. A very
beautiful /orub, entirely covered with large purplifh fowers,
four or five from each bud, on fimple capillary flalks, be-
fore the leaves appear. Branches round, {mooth, dotted,
purplifh-grey. Lower leaves from the flowering buds of
the preceding year, ufually two or three together, the length
of the finger ; upper ones on the young branches folitary,
alternate, half as long again; leaflets flalked, oppofite, ob-
long, {mooth, veiny, pointed, the uppermoft rather {malleft :
common footftalk without any terminal fpine. Stipulas
lanceolate, {mall, thin, flexible, permanent. Calyx cup-
fhaped, nearly entire, finely downy. Corolla large ; its
claws the length of the calyx. Germen{mooth. Vahl.
12. R. polyantha. \Many-flowered Robinia. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. 3. 1260.—Stalks fimple, - fingle-flowered.
Leaves abruptly pinnate; hoary beneath; their common
ftalks unarmed. Stipulas awl-fhaped, clofe-prefled, perma-
nent. Calyx with linear teeth.—Native of thickets on the
mountains of Hifpaniola. A /brub, about fix feet high,
ere&t, with copious branches, deftitute of dots; greyifh and
downy when young. JVowers pale purple, three or four
from each bud, appearing moitly before the leaves, as in
the lat, from which this fpecies chiefly differs in the {maller
fize of every part, and in the teeth of its calyx, which
are nearly, if not entirely, wanting in R. florida. Swartz.
a3. R. Caragana. Caragana Robinia, or Siberian Pea-
tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1044. Willd. n. 12. Ait. m 5.
“¢ Schmidt Arb. t. 33.7 (R. Altagana; Pall. Rofl. v. 1.
p- 1. 68. t. 42, the middle figure only.)—Stalks fimple,
fingle. flowered, many together. Leaves abruptly pinnate,
of about four pair of elliptical leaflets; their common
ftalks unarmed. Stipulas thorny. Legume cylindrical.—
Native of Siberia. Cultivated by Miller in175z. Hardy
in our gardens, flowering in April and May. The fem
forms a bufhy /hrud, producing from each bud numerous
large yellow flowers, on long fimple ftalks, accompanied
by feveral abruptly pinnated, nearly f{mooth, /eaves, which
become alternate on the protruding branches. ‘The leaflets
are moftly alternate, elliptical or obovate, hardly an
inch long. The ffpulas change into ftraight awl-thaped
thorns. * —
14. R. Altagana. Sand Robinia. Willd. n. 13. Ait.
n. 6. L?Herit. Stirp. 159. t.. 76. Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1.
69, the {mall variety, t. 42, the lateral figures.—Stalks
fimple, fingle-flowered, folitary. Leaves abruptly pinnate,
of about eight pair of obovate, or inverfely heart-fhaped,
leaflets; their common ftalks unarmed. Stipulas thorny.
Legume compreffed.—Native of fandy ground in Siberia.
Introduced into England by Mr. Bell, in 1789. Differs
from the laft, of which Pallas made ita variety, in its more
humble fize, emarginate, numerous, and hoary leaflets ; {oli-
tary flowers ; and efpecially its comprefled /egume. Thele
two {pecies, fo nearly akin, prove the f{uppofed generic dif-
tin@tion of the cylindrical and comprefled legumes, aflerted
by Lamarck to be of no avail, in a natural point of view,
for the purpofe of dividing Robinia into two genera.
a5. R. gubata. Bearded Robinia, Willd.n. 14. Ait,
a. 7. Pall. in Nov. Act. Petrop. v. 10. 370. t. 6.”—
Stalks fimple, fingle-flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate,
wf numerous pairs of lanceolate, downy leaflets ; their com-
mon {talks thread-fhaped, {pinous, permanent, reflexed.
Branches villous.x—Found near lake Baical in Siberia, from
whence it was imported by Mr. Bufh, in 1796. This is a
{mall fhrub, {carcely two feet high, with villous branches,
affauming a very peculiar afpe& in confeguence of its nu-
merous, reflexed, permanent, hardened and fpinous common
footflalks. The leaflets are narrow. Flowers purplifh. Le+
gumes cylindrical, hard, reddifh-brown.
16. R. tragacanthoides. Tragacanthine Robinia. Willd.
n. 1g. Pall. in Nov. At. Petrop. v. 10. 371. ts 7-7?—
Stalks fimple, fingle-flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate,
of two pair of oblong-lanceolate, filky leaflets ; their com-
mon {talks {pinous and permanent, as well as the ftipulas. Le-
gume downy, fomewhat compreffed.—Natiye of granite
rocks in Siberia, beyond lake Baical. A {mall /brub, very
much branched, Branches downy, armed with itrong, re-
curved, ftipulaceous /pines. Leaffets {mall, tapering at each
end, tipped with terminal, folitary thorns. //owers yellow.
Legume cylindrical, lightly comprefled. Willd.
17. R. /pinofa. Thorny Robinia. Linn. Mant. 269.
Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 8. “ Schmidt Arb. t. 36.77 (R.
ferox; Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1. 70. t. 44.)—Stalks fingle-
flowered, very fhort. Leaves abruptly pinnate, of about
three pair of wedge-fhaped {mooth leaflets ; their common
ftalks {pinous and permanent, as well as the ftipulas. Le-
gume cylindrical. Native of moilt grayelly vallies, as well
as of dry fandy hills, in Siberia. Hlardy in our gardens,
flowering in April and May. Pallas reports, that it is fre-
quent about Pekin in China, where, being fixed with clay
on the tops of walls, it ferves to keep off intruders. The
long ftrong thorns, formed by the hardened foot/lalks, render
the bafhes of this {pecies excellent for hedges. The /fems
are as tallas a man, much branched. Leaflets oblong-wedge-
fhaped, hardly an inch in length. Flowers yellow, axillary,
either folitary or two or three together, each cn a fimple
Jftalé not half the length of its calyx.
18. R. Halodendron. Salt-tree Robinia. Pall. It. v. 2.
append. 741. t. W. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1. 72. t. 46. Linn,
Suppl. 330. Willd.n.17. Aut. n. 9. Curt. Mag. t. 1016.
—Stalks three-flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate, of two
pair of filky leaflets ; their common ftalks {pinous and per-
manent. Legume inflated.—Found by Pallas, in dry falt
fields, about the river Irtis, in Siberia. The late Dr. Pit-
cairn is mentioned as having firft imported it in 1779. This
Jorub is hardy with us, but feldom blofloms, which is much
to be regretted on account of its beauty. Its thorny habit
nearly accords with the foregoing ; but the /eaffets are fewer,
larger, and filky, of a glaucous hue. Corolla of a delicate
rofe-colour. Legume ovate, inflated, an inch long, fcarcely
lefs different from the Caragana tribe, than from the original
Robinia ; yet no perfon who attends to natural genera could
think of feparating this plant from the latt.
19. R. Chamlagu. Shining Robinia. L?Herit. Stirp.
161. t. 77. Willd. v.18. Ait. n. ro.—Stalks fingle-
flowered. Leaves abruptly pinnate, of two pair of obovate
{mooth leaflets; their common ftalks {pinous. Stipulas
awl-fhaped, {pinous, permanent. Branches decumbent.—
Suppofed to be a native of China. It has long been culti-
vated in the French gardens, and was fent to Kew, in 1773,
by Monf. Richard. The fhrub is hardy, flowering in May
and June. The /fem, at firft ere@, throws out long de-
cumbent branches. Leaves green, {mooth and fhining ; each
teaflet tipped with a {mall briltly point. 2/owers large, on
long, folitary, fimple /falés, pendulous, yellow; the diflc
of their /fandard at firit green, afterwards deep red. The
young /egume is cylindrical, but we have never feen it full-
grown. The footfalks, though {pinous, are lefs hard and
permanent than in many of the other fpecies.
20. R. frutefcens.. Bufh Robinia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1044.
Willd. n. 1g. Ait. n. 11. Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1. 69. t. 43.
—Stalks fingle-flowered. Leaves of four, obovate, {mooth,
briftle-pointed, equal-{talked leaflets. Branches afcending.
—Native of hills in the temperate parts of Siberia. Culti-
vated
ROB
vated by Miller in 1752 flowering inthe fpring. ‘The flem
is branched, bufhy, and ereét, various in height, from two
to eight or nine feet. Leaves different from all the foregoing,
cenfifting of four, nearly equal, obovate /eaffets, each on its
own fhort partial ftalk, at the fummit of a rigid, fpinous-
tipped, common foot/lalk, not a quarter the length of the
leaflets. Stipulas lanceolate, oblique, combined with the
- commen footitalk, and at length hardened with it into a
three-branched divaricated fpine. Flowers yellow, their
fimple folitary ftalks longer than the leaves. The foliage
varies greatly in luxuriance, according to circumftances.
The egume is cylindrical.
21. R. pygmea. Dwarf Robinia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1044.
Willd. n. 20. Ait.n.12. Pall. Rofl. v. 1. p. 1.71. t. 45.
{ Afphalatus frutefcens minor anguttifolius, cortice aureo ;
Amm. Ruth. 204. t. 35.)—Stalks fingle-flowered. Leaves
of four linear-lanceolate, fpinous-pointed, nearly feffile
leaflets. —Native of recky hills in many parts of Siberia.
Cultivated by Miller in 1751 ; flowering in the {pring. This
has much affinity to the lait, but the narrow /eaffets and their
{pinous points, as well as the more evident and pungent
thorns of their fhort common footfalk and fipulas, readily dif-
tinguifh it. The flowers are yellow. Leaves often more or
lefs filky or hairy.
R. mitis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1044, is referred by Willde-
now to Dalbergia, under the name of arborea; Sp. Pl.
v. 3.901. Ait. H. Kew. v. 4. 248. This is Pongamia
glabra, Venten. Malmaif. t. 28 ; an Eatt Indian tree, of
lofty growth, which has not yet bloffomed in our ftoves.
Ventenat faw its flowers at the garden of Malmaifon. The
calyx is purple ; petals white. Legume ovate, pointed, thick
and woody.
We are not acquainted with R. amara and flava of
Loureiro, Cochinch. 455, 456, nor dare we adopt them
without examination.
RosrntA, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the hardy,
deciduous, tree and fhrub forts, with tender kinds for the
ftove. The fpecies cultivated are mottly thefe: the falfe or
common acacia (R. pfeudo-acacia) ; the refe acacia, or ro
binia (R. hifpida) ; the Siberian abrupt-leaved robinia (R.
caragana) ; the fhrubby robinia (R. frutefcens); the dwarf
robinia (R. pygmeza) ; the thorny robinia (R. fpinofa) ; the
afh-leaved robinia (R. violacea) ; and the fmooth Indian ro-
binia (R. mitis).
The firft fort grows very faft whilit young, fo that in a
few years from feed, the plants rife to eight or ten feet high,
and it is not uncommon to fee fhoots of this tree fix or eight
feet long in one {ummer ; the branches are armed with ftrong
crooked thorns. But there is a variety which has no thorns
on the branches, but which is eafily known at frit fight by
its peculiar appearance. And the echinated, or prickly-
podded American falfe acacia, in which the pods are much
thorter, and clofely befet with fhort prickles, but in other
refpects agrees with the common fort.
The fixth {pecies, on account of the length and toughnefs
of the branches, and its large itout therns, is admirably
adapted to form impenetrable hedges, and is fufficiently hardy
to bear our climate.
Method of Culture.—The firft fix hardy forts are all
capable of being raifed from feeds, cuttings, layers, and
fuckers; but the feed method is faid to afford the beft
lants.
; The feeds thonld be fown about the end of March or be-
ginning of the following month, on a bed of light mould,
being covered to the depth of about half an inch. In the
firft fort and varieties the plants moftly appear in the courfe of
4x or eight weeks; but in the other kinds often not-till the
ROB
nextipring. They fhould be well weeded and watered, and
when fofficiently ftrong, be fet out in the {pring or autume
in nurfery-rows, for two or three years, in order to remain,
to have proper growth for final planting out. The cuttings
fhould be made from the young fhoots, and be planted out
in the beginning of autumn, in a fhady border, where the
foilis mellow. ‘Chey are moftly well rooted in the courfe of
a twelvemonth, when they may be removed into nurfery-rowe
as above. The layers fhould be made from the young wood,
being laid down in the autumn, when, in the courfe of the
year, they moitly become well rooted, and may be taken off
and planted out in nurfery-rows, as the feedling plants. And
the fuckers, which are produced in plenty from the two firf
forts, may be removed in the early autumn or fpring, and
be planted out in nurfery-rows or in beds, to be afterwards
Temoved into them.
The two lait, or tender forts, may likewife be raifed from
feeds and cuttings, but they mutt be fown and planted in
pots filled with good mould, to have the affiftance of a
hot-bed in the itove, by being plunged in it. When the
plants have attained a little growth, they fhould be fhaken
out of the pots, and planted feparately in {mall pots, filled
with the fame fort of earth, plunging them in the tan-bed,
affording due fhade till well rooted, managing them after-
wards as other tender ftove plants. And as the plants are
moit tender while young, they fhould therefore be kept in
the ftove tan-bed till they have acquired ftrength, when they
may be preferved in the dry ftove, witha temperate heat in
winter, and be expofed in the open air in fammer, ina warm
fheltered fituation, when the weather is fine.
It may be noticed that the hardy forts have a fine effe@
in the border clumps and other parts of pleafure-grounds,
and the tender kinds afford variety in the iftove-colle@ions.
ROBINS, Bensamin, in Biography, a celebrated ma-
thematician, was bern at the city of Bath in the year 1707.
His parents were in very low circumitances, and utterly un-
able to give their fon much education. His genius, how-
ever, ftrongly urged him to the purfuit of knowledge: he
became his own initrutor, and made an early and furprifing
progrefs in various branches of literature and fcieace, par-
ticularly in the mathematics. He came to London under
the patronage of Dr. Pemberton ; and at the age of 20, he
gave a demonttration of the laft propofition of Newton’s
Treatife on Quadratures, which was fo ably performed,
that it was thought deferving a place in the Philofophical
TranfaGtions for the year 1727; and towards the clofe of
the fame year he was admitted a member of the Royal
Society. In the courfe of the following year he embraced
an opportunity of offering to the public a {pecimen of his
acquaintance with natural philofophy. The Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, among their prize queftions in
1724 and 1726, had afked for a demonitration of the laws
of motion in bodies impinging on one another. Qn this oc-
cafion, John Bernouilli appeared in the lift of candidates,
but did not obtain the reward. He felt himfelf aggrieved,
and appealed to the learned world, by publifhing his demen-
itration in 1727. In the following year, Mr. Robins pub-
lifhed a confutation of Bernouilli’s performance, which was
allowed'to be unanfwerable. Mr. Robins, about this time,
pep to take pupils, profefling to teach the mathematics
only ; yet he frequently affited them with initru@tion and
advice on other fubjeéts, for which he was well qualified,
by the rich itores of knowledge with which his mind was
furnifhed. After fome time he abandoned the laborious
bufinefs of education, and devoted his attention to fubjects
which required more exercife. Among other things, he
made many experiments in gunnery, from a belief that the
9 refiftance
Rk © B
refiftance of the air had a much greater effect on {wift flying
projectiles than was generally fuppofed. He likewife di-
re&ted his attention to the mechanic arts, fuch as the con-
{tru@tion of mills, the building of bridges, draining of
fens, rendering rivers navigable, and the making of har-
bours. The art of fortification, likewife, very much en-
gaged his thoughts: with this view he took pains to infpect
all the principal itrong places in Flanders, during fome
journies which he made on the continent with perfons of
‘diftinGion. On his return, he undertook a defence of the
doétrine of fluxions, as laid down by fir Ifaac Newton, in
oppofition to the objections brought againft it by the learned
pifhop Berkeley. In 1735 Mr. Robins publithed « A Dif-
courfe concerning the Nature and Certainty of Sir Tfaac
Newton’s Method of Fluxions and of prime and ultimate
Ratios.”? On the fame fubject he wrote two or three other
pieces.
In the year 1739 he publifhed, without his name, three
pamphlets on political topics, and on the popular fide of the
queftion ; and fo highly did they raife the author in the efti-
mation of the patriotic party, that when a committee of the
houfe of commons was appointed to examine into the con-
du&t of fir Robert Walpole, he was chofen their fecretary.
in 1742 Mr. Robins publifhed a {mall treatife, entitled
‘“: New Principles of Gunnery ;’? containing the refult of
many experiments, by which he difcovered the force of gun-
powder, and the difference in the refifting power of the air
to fwift and flow motions. From which it appeared, that
the oppofition of that medium to bullets and fhells, dif-
charged from cannon and mortars, far exceeded what was
generally imagined ; and that the track which their motion
defcribed differed from that of a parabolic line, to a degree
unfufpeéted by any who had written exprefsly on the fub-
jet, from the time of Galileo. This publication was un-
dertaken to demonftrate his own fuperiority, as a man of
talents, over a fuccefsful competitor, Mr. Muller, for a
fituation in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich.
Some time after the publication of this work, a paper hav-
ing been admitted into the Philofophical Tranfactions, con-
taining experiments intended to invalidate fome of Mr.
Robins’s opinions, he thought proper, in an account which
he gave of his book in the fame TranfaCtions, to take fome
notice of thofe experiments. In confequence of this, fe-
veral differtations of his on the refiftance of the air were
read, and experiments to confirm his doétrine were exhibited
before the Royal Society, in the year 1746-7; for which
he was prefented with the annual gold medal by that fo-
_ ciety. His reputation was now fo high, that he was invited
by the prince of Orange to affift in the defence of Bergen-
op-Zoom, which was befieged by the French, and he
actually croffed the fea with that view ; but he had {carcely
reached the Dutch camp, before the French, owing either
to negligence or treachery in the garrifon, unexpectedly be-
game matters of the place.
In the year 1748, Anfon’s “ Voyage round the World’
was publifhed, bearing the name of Walter in the title-page,
though it was foon known to have been Mr. Robins’s pro-
dudtion. No work of the kind ever met with a more fa-
vourable reception: four large editions were fold within a
year, and it has been fince reprinted very frequently in all
fizes. It was tranflated in almoit all the European lan-
guages. He was next employed to draw up an apology
or the unfortunate defeat of the king’s troops by the rebels,
at Prefton-Pans in Scotland, which was prefixed to “ The
Report of the Proceedings and Opinion of the Board of
General Officers, on their Examination into the Conduct
ef kieutenant-General Six John Cope,’? &c.
ROB
After this, Mr. Robins had opportunities, through the
favour of lord Anfon, of making further experiments in
gunnery ; an account of which, with other pieces, were
publifhed after his death. Through the intereft of the fame
nobleman, he contributed to the improvement of the Royal
Obfervatory of Greenwich, by procuring for it many valu-
able inftruments. In the year 1749 he was made engineer-
general to the Eaft India Company ; and with a complete
fet of aftronomical inftruments, for making obfervations and
experiments, he arrived in India in the fummer of 1750.
He fet about the bufinefs which he had undertaken immedi-
ately, with the utmoft diligence, and foon formed plans for
fort St. David and Madras; but he did not live to carry
them into execution. The change of climate was more
than he could endure, and he died at the early age of 44, in
July 1751.
Mr. Robins was one of the moft accurate and elegant
mathematical writers of this country, and he made more
real improvements in artillery, and on fubjeéts relating to
the refiftance of the air to projeétiles, than all the preceding
authors on the fubjeét. His ‘* New Principles of Gunnery’’
were tranflated into various languages, and commented
upon by feveral eminent mathematicians. Euler tranflated
it into the German, and accompanied the verfion with a
large and critical commentary. This again was publifhed
in England, with an Englifh tranflation of the German
commentary and notes, by Mr. Hugh Brown, in 1777.
All Mr. Robins’s mathematical and philofophical pieces
were collected, and publifhed in 2 vols. 8vo. 1761, by Dr,
Wilfon, with an account of the author, from which the
foregoing article is chiefly extrafted.
ROBINSON, Rozert, born in Oétober 1735, at
Swaffham, in the county of Norfolk, was fon of Mr.
Michael Robinfon, a native of North Britain, and Mary,
the daughter of Mr. Robert Wilkin of Mildenhall, Suf-
folk, a man of great refpeétability in private life, and in
poffeffion of a moderate independence. Robert was the
youngeft of their three children: his elder brother was ap-
prenticed to a painter, and his filter to a mantua-maker ; he
was fent to a Latin f{chool at the age of fix years, where he
made a confiderable proficiency, and difcovered an uncom-
mon capacity for learning. His father, in the courfe of his
profeffion, was removed from Swaffham to Scarning, in
the fame county, where finding his fituation very unpleafant,
he left the place, his family returning home, and he fhortly
after died at Winchefter. At Scarning young Robinfon
was fent to an endowed grammar-fchool, then under the
care of the Rev. Jofeph Brett. Several perfons of eminence
received the early parts of their education at the fame {chool,
among whom was the late lord Thurlow. At this {chool
he gained a confiderable knowledge of the French, as well
as of the claflical languages. At the age of 14 he was
put apprentice to a hair-drefler, in Crutched-Friars, Lon-
don. For this occupation his mind was very ill adapted,
and he ftole from the hours devoted to fleep no {mall portion
of time for the improvement of his mind. During his ap-
prenticefhip he appears to have imbibed ferious impreflions
of religion, which he encouraged, by attending the moft
celebrated preachers of the day among the Independents,
the Baptifts, and the clergy falfely named evangelical ; for
they dwell, in their pulpit difcourfes, upon all forts of fub-
jects, excepting only thofe contained in the four gofpels.
Dr. Guife and Gill among the diffenters, Romaine in the
church, and Whitfield, the leader of the Calviniitical Me-
thodifts, were his chief favourites. At this period Robert
Robinfon had a confiderable portion of enthufiafm in his
conttitution, which is not an undefireable quality in young
people
ROBINSON.
people left much to themfelves, and liable to a thoufand
temptations in corrupt and licentious cities and large towns.
It is often the beft prefervative of their morals, and will fre-
quently grow into rational and energetic modes of thinking
and aéting. . me
About the age of 20, Robert Robinfon had his inden-
tures given him up, at his own requett, feeling a great defire
to becomea preacher. He had, previoufly to this, been in
the habit of preaching for the hour together to himfelf,
thinking that he fhould thereby be better prepared to ad-
drefs an audience aflembled to hear his difcourfes. His firft
fermon was delivered to a very {mall congregation at Mil-
denhall, in Suffolk ; and his reception was fuch as to jultify
the hope that he had taken that dire€tion to which his ta-
lents naturally tended. He was foon after invited to preach
at the Tabernacle in Norwich, and at feveral places in Nor-
folk and Cambridgefhire. He continued to preach among
the Methodifts two years, during which period he appears
to have turned his attention more particularly to the contro-
verfy between the members of the eftablifhed church and
the diflenters, and to have determined, upon the fulleft con-
viGtion, to take his lot with the latter. He had, however,
according to Dr. Rees, who preached his funeral fermon, a
temptation to conneét himfelf with the former, too power-
ful for any but a man of Chriltian integrity to refift. « A
rich relation,’’? fays the doétor, “ who had promifed to pro-
vide liberally for him, and who had bequeathed him a con-
fiderable fum of money in his will, threatened to deprive him
of every advantage which he had been encouraged to expect,
unlefs he quitted his conneétion with the diflenters. But
the rights of confcience, and the approbation of God, were
fuperior in his regard to every worldly confideration : he
preferved his integrity, fteadily maintained his principles,
and perfevered in his connection with the diflenters ; but for-
feited the favour of his relation, and every advantage which,
living or dying, he had in his power to bettow.””
He now attempted to incorporate the Methodifts, among
whom he miniftered, into a regular church; but proving
unfuccefsful, he determined to feparate from them. Having
done fo, he formed a {mall /ndependent congregation at Nor-
wich, and during his conneétion with them, he adminiltered
infant baptifm; but on leaving this congregation, he re-
nounced infant baptif{m, and adminiftered this ordinance
only to adults, and by immerfion. _
in the {pring of 1759 he was invited to preach ta a {mall
congregation ef Antepedobaptifts at Cambridge. About
the fame time he married Mifs Ellen Payne; and in 1761
he accepted the pa‘toral office in this church. When Mr.
Robinfon firft fettled with this fociety, it confilted only otf
4 members, moft of whom were very poor, fo that he
could look oaly for a falary of a few pounds at moit ; but it
increafed rapidly under him, and in a few years he had the
fatisfaGtion of feeing a new and more commodious place of
worthip, ereéted at the fole expeace of the congregation ;
and in 1774, the number of families conneéted with it was
not lefs than 200, many of whom ranked among the moft
refpeétable in the town and neighbourhood. Mr. Robinfon
preached twice or thrice on each Sunday, and ufually once
on fome other day in the week, at Cambridge. On fome
of the other mornings and evenings in the week, excepting
in times of hay and corn-harveft, he expounded the {crip-
tures, or delivered religious and moral lectures, in the vil-
lage where he lived, or in the neighbouring villages. T °
young perfons he rendered effential fervice, by delivering
leG@tures to them at ‘his own houfe, or by private converfa-
tion. Thefe various employments of his time he rendered
confiftent with his other numerous engagements, and clofe
12
application to ftudy, by the excellent habit which he had
acquired, when young, of rifing early in the morning, viz.
at four or five o’clock ; a praétice that ought to be recom-
mended to every ftudent. <« I wifh,’’ fays the late Gilbert
Wakefield, fpeaking on the fame fubje&t, “ my advice and
imperfe€&t experience of its benefits could perfuade every
youth to engrave it, in impreffions not to be effaced, on the
tablet of his heart, and exemplify it in his daily pra@tice.””
—_. Ni
Pofces ante diem librum cum lumine; fi non
Intendes animum {tudiis et rebus honettis,
Invidia vel amore vigil torquebere.”’
“
* Rife, light thy candle, fee thy tafk begun,
E’er redd’ning ftreaks proclaim the diftant fun ;
Or luft’s fierce whirlwind will thy calm moleft,
Or envy cloud the funfhine of thy breaft.’’
Soon after the opening of the new meeting-houfe, the
abilities of Mr. Robinfon as a preacher began to attra€t the
notice of the academics, many of whom, from ferious mo-
tives, became regular attendants; while others came to
meeting only to indulge their curiofity, or perhaps to ridi-
cule the minifter. Of the latter defcription were feveral
under-graduates, who frequently difturbed the devotion of
the congregation by an indecency of behaviour. Com-
plaints of their conduét had been repeatedly made to the
magiftrates of the univerfity, and the heads of the colleges,
but without procuring redrefs. At length the rudenefs of
thefe young men required meafures to be taken, which
fhould no longer be treated with contempt. A legal pro-
cefs was began, which induced two of the worft offenders
to agree to afk pardon in the public papers. The perfons
aggrieved, however, remitted this punifhment in the cafe of
one of the delinquents, on account of his otherwife excellent
character. The evil was, by this meafure, well nigh cured,
and Mr. Robinfon had little or no reafon to complain af-
terwards of interruption from that quarter. From this
period, many of the moit refpe€table members of the uni-
verfity folicited his acquaintance, and entertained a due
refpect for his worth, however they differed from him in
opinion; and through their aid and influence, he ob-
tained freedom and accefs to the valuable libraries at
Cambridge, and was permitted, in many cafes, the more
important privilege of having books from them at his own
houfe.
In the year 1773, Mr. Robinfon’s family having become
fo numerous that his falary as a minifter was found in-
adequate to his fupport, he found it neceflary to have re-
courfe to other means for making a provifion for them.
He accordingly removed to Cheiterton, near Cambridge,
and commenced farmer, to: which, in time, he added the
bufinefs of a dealer in corn and coals. His farming and
mercantile engagements, however, did not diminifh his
ardour for literary purfuits, as is evident from his various
publications. The firft work which contributed to make
him known as an author, was publifhed in 1774, under the
title of «* Arcana,” or the Principles of the late Petitioners
to Parliament for relief in Matters of Subfcription, in eight
letters to a friend. The reception which this piece met
with was extremely encouraging: it procured the author
many valuable friends among the diffenters. His néxt pub-
lication was an ** Appendix’”’ to “ The Legal Degrees of
Marriage, {tated and confidered by John Alleyne, Barrifter
at Law,” 2d edition, 1775. It confifts of a difcuffion of
the queftion, “ Is it lawful and right for a man to marry the
fifter of his deceafed wife??? in which he maintained, in a
very
ROBINSON.
very forcible manner, the affirmative fide of the queftion.
Inthe fame year he publifhed an entire volume ot “ Sermons,
from the original French of the late Rev. James Saurin,
Paftor of the French Church at the Hague,” which was
followed, at different periods, by four others. Introductory
to thefe volumes are prefatory differtations, containing in-
terefting memoirs of the Reformation in France, and the
life of Saurin, together with refleGtions on Deifm, Chriftian
liberty, &c. The fame which Mr. Robinfon acquired by
this publication, induced certain divines, and among them
dignitaries of the eftablifhed church, to offer him liberal
terms for original fermons for their own ufe.
In the year 1776, the controverfy refpeéting the divi-
nity of Chrift, which had been carried on principally by
membets of the church of England, fome of whom had
refigned their livings, much engaged the public attention.
Mr. Robinfon appeared on the popular fide of the queftion,
and publifhed « A Plea for the Divinity of our Lord
Jefus Chrift, &c.”? This piece is written with much inge-
nuity, and it procured the author a number of handfome
compliments, not only from diffenting minifters, but alio
from feveral dignitaries of the eftablifhed church. Among
the latter were Dr. Hinchliffe, bifhop of Peterborough,
Dr. Hallifax, afterwards bifhop of Gloucefter, Dr. Beadon,
afterwards bifhop of Bath and Wells, and Dr. Tucker,
dean of Gloucefter. Some years after, Mr. Lindfey pub-
lifhed, without his name, “* An Examination of Mr. Ro-
binfon’s Plea for the Divinity of Chrift ;?? in a fecond
edition, in 1789, Mr. Lindfey prefixed his name. Mr. Ro-
binfon_was frequently called upon to reply to Mr. Lindfey,
but he declined. To his friends he faid, .«* The anonymous
examiner has not touched my arguments, and his fpirit is
bitter and contemptuous. His faith ftands on criticifms ;
and my argument is, that if the do¢trine requires critical
proof, it is not popular, and therefore not divine.”?” In 17775
Mr. Robinfon publifhed a {mall tra&, entitled «‘ The Hif-
tory and Myftery of Good Friday,”’ that has paffed through
numerous large editions, and in which the evil and folly of
church holidays is with equal humour, learning, and argu-
ment, unanfwerably demonftrated. In 1778, Mr. Robinfon
publifhed « A Plan of LeCtures on the Principles of Non-
conformity, for the Inftruétion of Catechumens.’’ This
piece contains an outline of the whole controverfy of the
diffenters with the church of England, and of their hiftory,
from the period of the Reformation, to the year 1773.
In the houfe of lords it was mentioned with due refpect by
the earl of Shelburne; and it was ably defended in the houfe
of commons by Mr. Fox, in oppofition to an illiberal attack
upon the principles of diflent, from the eloquent Mr. Burke,
whofe calumnies were confined to no people nor fet of prin-
ciples. ‘Towards the clofe of the fame year, Mr. Robinfon
publifhed “« An Effay on the Compofition of a Sermon,
tranflated from the original French of the Rev. John
Claude, with Notes,”’ in 2 vols. 8vo. The preface to the
firft volume of the ‘ Effay’’ confifts of memoirs of the life
of the author.
In 1780, Mr. Robinfon paid a vifit to the univerfity of
Oxford, and afterwards accompanied fome friends in a tour
into Scotland, where he was much gratified by civilities
fnewn him by fome of the literati of Edinburgh ; and he
might have received the diploma of doétor of divinity, had
he not thought proper to decline that compliment. Soon
after his return to Cambridge, he publifhed a little tra&
well calculated to produce a Catholic {pirit among his
brethren of the Baptift denomination, entitled “ The
General DoGtrine of Toleration, applied to the particular
Cafe of Free Communion.”? It was about this period he
preached and publifhed a fermon, entitled “* Slavery incon-
fiftent with the Spirit of Chriltianity,”” and he was the
author of the admirable petition of the gentry, clergy,
freeholders, and other inhabitants in the county of Cam-
bridge, which was prefented to the houfe cf commons.
In the year 1781, Mr. Robinfon, at the defire of his
brethren, began to collect materials for the Hiftory of the
Englith Baptifts. In his refearches he was led to enter
on a larger field than what had been originally propofed to
him, and inftead of confining himfelf to the hiftory of
Englifh Baptilts, he was induced to trace the hiftory of
baptifm from the earlieft ufe of that rite, as well as that of
Baptilts in all ages.
In the year 1782, Mr. Robinfon publifhed « A Politieal
Catechifm,” intended to convey, in a familiar manner, juft
ideas of good civil government, and the Britifh conftitution.
This traét was written at the time that the North admi-
niftration was difcarded from the councils of their fovereign
for that of the marquis of Rockingham. To {apport the
fyftem profefled by the latter—to difleminate fafe poli-
tical principles—to place public happinefs on its true bafis,
were the motives which induced Mr. Robinfon to endeavour
to attract the attention of youth to this fubjeét. This
work, as well as the preface to the “* Plan of Leétures,’’
and his fermon, entitled « Chrittian Submiffion to Civil Go-
vernment,”’ afford ample evidence of the foundnefs of his
principles as a friend to civil government in general, and to
that form of civil government, the Britifh conftitution, in
particular. It was in 1786 that Mr. Robinfon publithed
« Sixteen Difcourfes on feveral Texts of Scripture, ad-
dreffed to Chriftian Aflemblies, in Villages near Cambridge ;
to which are added Six Morning Exercifes.”? Thefe dif-
courfes were delivered extempore to plain and illiterate
audiences, in a fimple but animated ftyle; and they were
afterwards written out, from memory, by the author, as
nearly as he could recolle&t them. They are chiefly on
practical fubjects ; but fuch of them as touch on doétrinal
fubjeéts difplay much candour and liberality. This fpirit
of liberality excited ferious apprehenfions concerning the
purity of his faith among many of his orthodox friends,
who expoltulated with him, both in perfon and by letter.
Soon after this he afforded real ground for entertaining ap-
prehenfions that his faith in the gloomy doétrines of Cal-
vinifm was not fo ttrong as in the opinion of his brethren
it ought to have been. Many of them attacked him in
their pulpits, endeavouring to diminifh his well-earned popu-
larity, by ftigmatizing him with the names of Arian and
Socinian; but others, though themfelves zealoufly at-
tached to thofe dodtrines, which he feemed inclined to
abandon, continued his faithful and invariable friends.
With his congregation at Cambridge he {till continued
his minifterial labours; he had been the minifter of their
choice, and remained high in their efteem.
During the latter years of his life, the large field of
enquiry upon which Mr. Robinfon had entered, led him to
fuch a courfe of intenfe application, as undermined the
ftrength of his conftitution, before he had given the finifh-
ing hand to his labours, and brought on a gradual decay,
attended with a great depreffion of fpirits. In thefe cir-
cumitances, it was hoped by his family that a journey to
Birmingham, and an interview with Dr. Prieftley, which he
had long wifhed for, might prove beneficial tohim. Having
arrived at that town, he ventured to preach twice on the
fame Sunday for the benefit of the charity {chools. His
friends perceived that he was ill, but none of them fuf-
pected his end was fo near; he fpent the evening of the
following Tuefday in the cheerful fociety of his friends,
and
ROB
and retired to reft as ufual; but on the next morning he
was found dead in his bed, where he appears to have- ex-
pired exaétly as he hoped it might be permitted him to
leave the world, fuddenly—and alone, without feeling the
agonies of death, or occafioning alarm or diftrefs to affec-
tionate relatives and friends. He died June 8th, 1790, in
the 55th year of his age.
Mr. Robinfon was a wonderful example of a man who
rofe to confiderable eminence by his own exertions. To
his great talents and extenfive learning his various writings
bear the fulleft teftimony. He poflefled an ardent love of
truth, was laborious in the fearch after it, and at all times
was a ftrenuous advocate for fuch principles as he had
adopted upon deliberate conviction, while he ever exercifed
candour and liberality toward thofe whofe opinions dif-
fered from his own. Of civil and religious liberty he was
the enlightened, fteady, and zealous friend. In his domettic
relations he was attentive and affectionate ; and to the poor
a friend, comforter, and, as far as his limited means per-
mitted, a generous benefaétor. As a preacher, ‘ there
was always a variety, and often an originality, both in what
he faid, and in his mode of faying it. It was his conftant
aim to lead the attention of his hearers te the weightier
matters of the law; to inform the judgment before he
attempted to intereft the paflions; and, after inculcating
jut notions of truth and duty, to enforce a corref{ponding
prattice. There have been few preachers who have done
fo much to refcue the human mind from bondage ; to cor-
re prevailing errers; to promote a liberal fpirit of in-
quiry; to recommend mutual forbearance and candour
among Chriftians of different opinions; to weaken their
attachment to creeds and forms of human device and im-
pofition, and to dire& their chief attention to the prin-
ciples and duties of piety, virtue, and univerfal charity.
He had a manner of fupplanting rooted prejudices without
occafioning alarm ; of fapping initead of {torming the forti-
fications of error; of gaining aflent to general principles,
inconfiftent with the opinions which he wifhed to expofe :
and of leading mento think, judge, and determine for them-
felves, and to purfue thefe principles to their confequences,
in which he wonderfully excelled, and which produced, in
many inftances, the beit effects.” See Dr. Rees’s Sermon
before referred to.
It has already been obferved, that Mr. Robinfon died
before he had completed the great work to which his at-
tention had been chiefly confined for feveral years: One
part of his comprehenfive plan, however, was finifhed, and
the whole, excepting a few fheets, printed off, and cor-
reéted by himfelf while pafling through the prefs. This
was publifhed in the year 1790, under the title of «The
Hiftory of Baptifm,’? whichis one of the moft acute and
ingenious defences of the diftinguifhing tenets of the Bap-
tilts which has ever yet appeared, deduced not only from
the records of hiftory, but from the relics of Chriftian anti-
quity, being illuftrated with engravings from ancient paint-
ings and buildings, and from Danifh and Saxon remains
in our Britifh churches. This part of the plan was to
have been followed by a hiitory of the Baptifts, which
was left in an incomplete itate, but which was publifhed
in 1792, under the title of ‘* Ecclefiaftical Refearches.”’
This work was carried through the prefs under the fuper-
intendance of Mr. Frend, who had long enjoyed the
friendfhip of Mr. Robinfon. Befides much information
which thefe refearches contain, that is not to be found in
any other Englifh work on the fubject, and the interefting
views of the progrefs of civil and religious liberty, toge-
ther with well-drawn characters of its principal advocates,
VOL, ek,
ROB
the reader will meet with’ a variéty of important and éx-
cellent matter on other topics: the author has introduced
into his narrative ingenious remarks, ufeful ‘to elucidate
the leading objeét of his inquiries, on the geography, go-
vernment, laws, antiquities, commerce, produétions, and cuf-
toms and manners of the inhabitants of the feveral countries
treated of. Since the death of the author, Mr. Benjamin
Flower has colleéted all Mr. Robinfon’s works, with the
exception of his “ Hiftory of Baptifm,’”? « Ecclefiaftical
Refearches,” * Claude’s Effay on the Compofition of a
Sermon,” and his “ Village Sermons,’”” and publifhed them
in four volumes, 8vo., to which we refer our readers, who
will find, by looking them over, that we have in our enue
meration of Mr. Robinfon’s works omitted fome of minor
importance, And in the year 1812, the fame perfon pubs
lifhed certain pofthumous pieces of our author in one
volume o¢tavo : thefe, on the whole, cannot be faid to add
to the reputation of Mr. Robinfon; they confift of feven
fermons, and three diflertations, “* On the Nature and
Operations of the Human Mind, as relating more parti-
cularly to Theological Inquiries ;? * Literary Precautions
neceflary to the Study of Theology ;”? “ On Predetti-
nation; or, Moderate Calvinifm confidered as the fafe
Path between Two Extremes.’”? To thefe traé&s are
added ** An Hittorical Account of Proteftant Diffenting
Churches in Cambridgefhire,’’ and divers of Mr. Robinfon’s
letters. See Dr. Rees’s Sermon on the Death of Mr. Ro-
binfon; Dyer’s Life of Robinfon, 1796; and Flower’s
Memoirs, prefixed to the firft vol. of the Mifcellaneous
Works, 1807.
Rosinson, RicHarp, archbifaop of Armagh, and baron
Rokeby, was born in 1709. He was educated at Welt-
minfter {chool, from whence he was ele&ted to Chrift-church,
Oxford, after which he became chaplain to archbifhop
Blackburne, of York, who gave him a prebend in his ca-
thedral. He went with the duke of Dorfet to Ireland,
and was preferred to the fee of Killala, from whence, in
1759, he was tranflatedto Leighlin and Ferns, and in 176%
to Kildare. In 1765 he was advanced to the primacy of Ire-
land, and in 1777 he was created a peer. He built a palace
in his diocefe of Armagh, with an obfervatory. (See the
article Opservatory.) He alfo founded a fchool, and
built four new churches. He diedin 1794. Europ. Mag.
Rosginson, Joun, organift of St. Laurence Jewry, of
St. Magnus church, and of Weftminfter abbey. He was
regarded as one of the beft performers on keyed inftru-
ments of his time. As an organ-player he was attended by
great crowds wherever he performed. He was educated in
the chapel-royal, under Dr. Blow. His wife was the
me 2 of Dr. William Turner, and a public finger. She
performed in Scarlatti’s operaof Narciflus, brought on the
itage by Rofcingrave, in 1720; and to diftinguifh her from
Mrs. Anaftafia Robinfon, who fung in the fame opera, fhe
was called Mrs. Turner Robinfon. This celebrated organift
died at an advanced age in 1762, and was fuceeeded, in
Weitminfter abbey, by Dr. Benjamin Cook.
Resinson, M/s, daughter of the celebrated organift of
Weitminfter abbey, who fung at concerts, and, one feafon,
in Handel’s oratorios. She was a coarfe finger, with an
unpleafant toned voice; but that did not prevent her from
becoming a great player on the harpfichord ; particularly on
a harpfichord made by Rucker, with pedals, of which fhe
had acquired, by labour and perfeverance, a facility of exe-
cution equal to German organifts. The refult, however,
was not equal to the great difficulty of ufing them. The
pedals of an organ often produce fine effets in fuftainin
notes with the feet, while both handsare at liberty to ramble
} 38 about
ROB
about in the treble at their pleafure. But on a harpfichord
with pedals to fhort-lived founds, the clatter of ttriking
them fo often is abominable ; it is not mufic, but noife.
-Rosinson, Mrs. ANASTASIA, a moft amiable and ac-
complifhed perfon, whe performed as a finger in our firft
Italian operas, from the year 1714 to 1724. This per-
former, defcended froma good family in Leicefterfhire, was
the daughter of a portrait painter, who, having vifited
Italy for improvement in his art, had made himfelf mafter of
the Italian language, and acquired a good tafte in mufic.
And finding that his daughter Anaftafia, during her child-
hood, had an ear for mufic, and a promifing voice, he had
her taught by Dr. Crofts, at firft as an accomplifhment ; but
afterwards being afflicted with a-diforder in his eyes, which
terminated in a total lofs of fight; and this misfortune de-
priving him of the means of fupporting himfelf and family by
his pencil, he was under the neceflity of availing himfelf of
his daughter’s difpofition for mufic, to turn it to account
as aprofeffion. She not only profecuted her mufical ftudies
with great diligence, but by the affiftance of her father had
acquired fuch a knowledge in the Italian tongue as enabled
her to converfe in that language, and to read the beft poets
in it with facility. And that ker,talte in finging might ap-
proach nearer to that of the natives of Italy, fhe had vocal
inftructions from Sandoni, at that time an eminent Italian
finging mafter refident in London, and likewife from the
opera finger called the Baronefs.
Her firft public exhibition was at the concerts in York-
buildings, and at other places, where fhe ufually accom-
panied herfelf on the harpfichord. Her general education
had been purfued with the utmoft care and attention to the
improvement of her mind, as well as to ornamental and ex-
ternal accomplifhments ; and thele advantages, feconded by
her own difpofition and amiable qualities, rendered her con-
duét ftriétly prudent and irreproachable. And what tftill
entitled her to general favour, was a behaviour full of timi-
dity and refpeét to her fuperiors, and an undiflembled gen-
tlenefs and affability to others, which, with a native cheer-
fulnefs that diffufed itfelf to all around her, gained her at all
times fuch a reception from the public, as feemed to enfure
her fuccefs in whatever fhe fhould undertake. Encouraged
by the partiality of the public towards his daughter, and
particularly by the countenance and patronage of fome
perfons of high rank of her own fex, Mr. Robinfon took a
houfe in Golden-fquare, where he eftablifhed weekly con-
certs and affemblies in the manner of converfazioni, which
were frequented by all fuch as had any pretenfions to polite-
nefs and good tafte.
Thus qualified and encouraged, fhe was prevailed upon
to accept of an engagement at the Opera, where fhe made
her firft appearance in Crefo, and her fecond in the cha-
rater of Iimina, the principal female part in Arminio.
From this period till the year 1724, fhe continued to perform
a principal part at the Opera with increafing favour and ap-
plaufe., Her falary is faid to have been 1000/., and her
emoluments, by benefits .and prefents, were eftimated at
nearly as much more. When fhe quitted the ftage it was
f{uppofed to have been in confequence of her marriage with
the gallant earl of Peterborough, the friend of Pope and
Swift, who diftinguithed himfelf fo heroically in Spain
during the reign of queen Anne. Though the marriage was
not publicly declared till the earl’s death in 1735, yet it was
then fpoken of as an event which had long taken place.
And fuch was the purity of her condu@ and charaéter, that
fhe was inftantly vifited at Fulham as the lady of the man-
Sion, by perfons of the higheft rank. Here, and at Mount
Bevis, the earl’s feat near Southampton, fhe refided in an
ROE
exalted ftation till the year of her deceafe, 1750, furviving
her lord fifteen years; who, at the time of the connexion,
mui{t have been confiderably beyond his prime, as he was
arrived at his feventy-fifth year when he died.
The following anecdotes of Mrs. Anaftafia Robinfon
having been communicated to us in 1787, by the late vene-
rable Mrs. Delany, her contemporary and intimate acquaint-
ance, they will doubtlefs be read with confidence and plea-
fure, not only by fuch as had the happinefs of knowing her
perfonally, but by all thofe to whom rumour has conveyed a
faithful account of her longevity, virtues, and accomplifh-
ments ; for this excellent perfon having been allowed by
Providence to extend her exiftence to the great age of eighty-
eight, in the conftant enjoyment.of all the felicity which the
friendfhip and admiration of rank, virtue, and talents could
beftow ; it feems as if, without hyperbole, fhe may be faid
to have been ‘ beloved by God and man.” hi
“ Mrs, Anaftafia Robinfon was of a middling ftature, not
handfome, but of a pleafing, modeft countenance, with
large blue eyes. Her deportment was eafy, unaffeGted, and
graceful. Her manner and addrefs very engaging ; and her
behaviour, on all occafions, that of a gentlewoman, with
perfect propriety. She was not only liked by all her ac-
quaintance, but loved and carefled by perfonsof the higheft
rank, with whom fhe appeared always equal, without af-
fuming. Her father’s houfe, in Golden-fquare, was fre-
quented by all the men of genius and refined talte of the
times; among the number of perfons of diitinétion who
frequented Mr. Robinfon’s houfe, and feemed to diftinguifh
his daughter in a particular manner, were the earl of Peter-
borough and general H ; the latter had fhewn a long at-
tachment to her, and his attentions were fo remarkable, that
they feemed more than the effects of common politenefs ;
and as he was a very agreeable man, and in good circum-
ftances, he was favourably received, not doubting but that
his intentions were honourable. A declaration of a very
contrary nature was treated with the contempt it deferved,
though Mrs. A. Robinfon was very much prepofleffed in his
favour.
« Soon after this, lord P. endeavoured to convince her
of his partial regard for her; but, agreeable and artful as
he was, fhe remained very much upon her guwiard, which
rather increafed than diminifhed his admiration and paflion
for her. Yet ftill his pride ftruggled with his inclination ;
for all this time fhe was engaged to fing in public, a circum-
{tance yery grievous to her, but urged by the beft of mo-
tives, fhe fubmitted to it, in order to aflift her parents,
whofe fortune was much reduced by Mr. Robinfon’s lofs of
fight, which deprived him of the benefit of his profeffion as
a painter. :
« At length lord P. made his declaration to her on ho-
nourable terms; he found it would be vain to make pro-
pofals on any other ; and’ as he omitted no circumftance that
could engage her efteem and gratitude, fhe accepted them, as
fhe was fincerely attached to him. He earneftly requeited
her keeping it a fecret till it was a more convenient time for
him to make it known, to which fhe readily confented,
having a perfe& confidence in his honour. Among the per~
fons of diftinGion that profefled a friendfhip for Mrs. A.
Robinfon, were the earl and countefs of Oxford, daughter-
in-law to the lord-treafurer Oxford, who not only bore every
public teftimony of their affection and efteem for Mrs. A.
Robinfon, but lady Oxford attended her when fhe was
privately married to the earl.of P., and lady P. ever ac-
knowledged her obligations with the warmeit gratitude ;
and after lady Oxford’s death, fhe was particularly diftin-
guithed by the duchefs of Portland, lady Oxford’s dangles
5 and
ROB
and was always mentioned by her with the greateft kindnefs
for the many friendly offices fhe ufed to do her in her child-
hood when in lady Oxford’s family, which made a lating
impreffion upon the duchefs of Portland’s noble and generous
heart.
«« Mrs. A. Robirfon had one fifter, a very pretty accom-
plifhed woman, who married Dr. Arbuthnot’s brother.
After the death of Mr. Robinfon, lord P. took a houfe
near Fulham, in the neighbourhood of his own villa at
Parfon’s-Green, where he fettled Mrs. Robinfon and her
mother. They never lived under the fame roof, till the earl,
being feized with a violent fit of illnefs, folicited her to
attend him at Mount Bevis, near Southampton, which fhe
refufed with firmnefs, but upon condition that, though ftill
denied to takehis name, fhe might be permitted to wear her
wedding ring ; to which, finding her inexorable, he at length
confented.
» « His haughty fpirit was ftill reluctant to the making a
declaration, that would have done juftice to fo worthy a
character as the perfon to whom he was now united; and, in-
deed, his uncontrollable temper, and high opinion of his
own ations, made him a very awful Rtbadee ill {uited to
lady P—’s good fenfe, amiable temper, and delicate fenti-
ments. She wasa Roman Catholic, but never gave offence
to thofe of a contrary opinion, though very ftri& in what
fhe thought her duty. Her excellent principles and forti-
tude of mind fupported her through many fevere trials in
her conjugal ftate. But at lalt he prevailed on himfelf to do
her juftice, inftigated, it is fuppofed, by his bad ftate of
health, which obliged him to feek another climate, and fhe
abfolutely refufed to go with him unlefs he declared his mar-
riage ; her attendance upon him in his illnefs nearly coft her
her life.
«« He appointed a day for all his neare‘t relations to meet
him at the apartment over the gate-way of St. James’s
palace, belonging to Mr. Pointz, who was married to lord
Peterborough’s niece, and at that time preceptor to prince
William, afterwards duke of Cumberland. Lord P. alfo
appointed lady P. to be there at the fame time; when they
were all affembled he began a moit eloquent oration, enu-
merating all the virtues and perfections of Mrs. A. Robin-
fon, and the re¢titude of her conduét during his long ac-
quaintance with her, for which he acknowledged his great
obligations and fincere attachment, declaring he was deter-
mined to do her that juftice which he ought to have done
long ago, which was prefenting her to all his family as his
wife. He {poke this harangue with fo much energy, and
in parts fo pathetically, that lady P. not being apprifed of
his intentions, was fo affected that fhe fainted away in the
midit of the company.
«« After lord P—’s death fhe lived a very retired life,
chiefly at Mount Bevis, and was feldom prevailed on to leave
that habitation, but by the duchefs of Portland, who was
always happy to have her company at Bulftrode, when fhe
could obtain it, and often vifited her at her own houfe.
«Among lord P—’s papers fhe found his memoirs,
written by himfelf, in which he declared he had been guilty
of fuch aétions as would have reflefted very much upon his
charaGter. For which reafon fhe burnt them; this, how-
ever, contributed to complete the excéllency of her prin-
ciples, though it did rot fail giving offence to the curious
enquirers after anecdotes of fo remarkable a charaéter as
that of the earl of Peterborough.”
Rosinson’s J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Florida ftreams. N. lat. 24°43’. W. long. 81° 35’.
Rosinson Crujfoe’s Coat, in Botany. See Cactus.
ROBINSONIA, was fo named by Scopoli, in his Jntro-
ROB
du&ic ad hifioriam naturalem, in honour of one, or all, of
the four Robinfons, mentioned in Haller’s Bibliotheca Botax
nica. The worthy author informed us, by word of mouth,
that Haller’s index was his ufnal refource for names to his
new genera ; any perfon mentioned there being, in his opi-
nion, fufficiently worthy of this kind of commemoration.
It is pity that Robinfon Crufo was not in the lift, or
he might have fhared a botanical crown with Cook and Bou-
ganville. If we mutt ferioufly appropriate the above ho-
nour, it would be in favour of Dr. Tancred Robinfon, a
particular friend, and botanical affociate, of Ray.—Schreb.
337- Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.999. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4.
(Touroulia; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 492. Jufl. 434. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 424.)—Clafs and order, [cofandria Mono-
nia. Nat. Ord. uncertain, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate,
with five acute teeth. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, concave,
{preading, inferted into the calyx. Stam. Filaments nu-
merous, capillary, fwelling upwards, inferted into the calyx
beneath the petals; anthers of two oblong cells, divaricated
at the bafe. P#/?. Germen fuperior; Hyle none; ftigma
oblong, ftriated. Peric. Berry globofe, fomewhat deprefled,
marked with numerous, contiguous, longitudinal furrows,
flefhy, of feven cells, with membranous partitions. Seeds
folitary, oblong, comprefled, externally convex, hairy.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Petals five. Berry fupe-
rior, ftriated, of fevencells. Seeds folitary, hairy.
1. R. melianthifolia. Willd. n. 1. (Touroulia guian-
enfis; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 492. t. 194.)— Found by Aublet
in the forefts of Guiana, where the inhabitants know it by
the name of Touroulia. The flowers appear in November,
and the fruit isripened in May. A large and lofty tree, with
a wrinkled bark, and red wood; the branches {preading,
quadrangular. Leaves oppolite, pinnate, of about four
pair, with an odd one, of elliptic-oblong, pointed, fmooth,
ferrated leaflets, whofe lateral veins are numerous and
parallel, and their ferratures each tipped with a briftle.
Stipulas acute. Clufters terminal, compound, with oppofite
branches. Flowers tufted, nearly {feffile, yellow, {mall.
Berry an inch in diameter, reddifh, of a pleafant acid flavour.
The calyx being certainly inferior, as Juflieu determined by
examination, its teeth can hardly crown the fruit, though,
by Aublet’s defcription, its bafe feems confluent there-
with.
ROBION, or Rovusion, in Geography, a river of
France, which runs into the Rhone, a little below Monte-
limart.
ROBISON, Joun, in Biography, an eminent Scotch
mathematician and natural philofopher, was born at Boghall,
inthe county of Stirling, in the year 1739. He wasfent to
Glafgow to receive his education, and was foon diftinguifhed
for the rapid progrefs which he made-in claflical learning.
He went, while very young, to the univerfity, where he en-
joyed the benefit of the inftruGions of profeflors Simfon,
Leechman, Moore, Smith, and others. He was led to
attach himfelf particularly to the mathematics, by per-
ceiving how fuccefsfully that fcience was applied to feveral
branches of natural philofophy. Dr. Robert Simfon was
his tutor in mathematics, and in his clafs Mr. Robifon was
foon diftinguifhed beyond any of his fellow ftudents. Among
other branches, Mr. Robifon made himfelf well acquainted
with the modes of algebra; but from profeffor Simfon.he
derived a peculiar difpofition to the thudy of geometry,
afligning, for a reafon, what others have often done, who are
tolerably converfant with both fubjeéts, that in the longeft
demonttration, the geometrician has clear and accurate ideas,
which the moft expert algebraift can very feldom have. Mr.
3B2 Robifon
ROB
Robifon had been defigned, by his father, for the clerical
profeffion, but it appears he became diffatisfied with it on
account of fome of the tenets in the eftablifhed creed. Ac-
cordingly, in 1757, he was candidate for the office of
afliftant to Dr. Dick, in the profeflorfhip of natural phi-
lofophy, but, being then only 19 years of age, he was:
deemed too young for the duties attached to that fituation,
and in the following year he went to fea as mathematical
tutor to Mr. Knowles, the eldeft fon of admiral Knowles.
He embarked, with his pupil, on board the Neptune, of
go guns, bound to Quebec; and, in the courfe of the voyage,
Mr. Knowles being appointed lieutenant on board the
Royal William, Mr. Robifon accompanied him into that
fhip, and, at his own requeft, was rated as midfhipman. In
this fhip he fpent three years, which he thought the hap-
pieft part of his life, and during this period he acquired that
knowledge of the art of feamanfhip which qualified him to
draw up the article on that fubjeét in the Encyclopedia Bri-
tannica, which was underftood to be his. While on board
this veffel, in the river St. Lawrence, he noticed a con-
neétion between the aurora borealis and the dire€tion of the
magnetic needle, which he pointed out to the gentlemen on
the quarter-deck. During the fiege of Quebec, Mr. Ro-
bifon was fent, with a party of feamen and petty officers,
to reinforce the crew of the Sterling-Caftle, which was
lying before the city, and was thus enabled to fee much fer-
vice bothon board and on fhore. He was likewife not un-
frequently employed in taking furveys of different parts of
the river. Upon the furrender or Quebec he returned to
the Royal William, and {pent the whole of the following
year in the Bay of Bifcay, and on the coafts of Spain and
Portugal. In the year 1762, upon the expetation of
future preferment from lord Anfon, then firft commiffioner
of the admiralty, he went to Jamaica, for the purpofe of
trying Harrifon’s time-keeper, and on his return to England
he received the painful intelligence that his beloved pupil had,
with the whole crew of the Peregrine, of which he was
commander, perifhed, by the veflel’s foundering at fea.
He now felt that his profpects of advancement in the navy
were very flender, and determined to return to college.
Very foon after, admiral fir Charles Knowles confided to
him the inftruGtion of his younger fon. At Glafgow he re-
newed his ftudies with great ardour, and in the year 1767,
when Dr. Black was called to Edinburgh, the fenate of the
univerfity of Glafgow, on his recommendation, appointed
Mr. Robifon his fucceflor, as le€turer in chemiftry. In the
year 1770, fir Charles Knowles appointed him his. official
fecretary to the court of Peterfburgh, whither the gallant
- admiral was going to affift in improving the Ruffian navy.
They fet out upon their journey over land, and pafling
through Liege, they were invited to dine with the prince-
bifhop: Mr. Robifon obferved, with fome degree of fur-
prife, that all the guefts, and even the principal attendants,
had about them the badges of free-mafonry ; upon fome en-
quiries he was induced to become a member, and during his
ftay in that city he paffed through all the degrees, till he at-
tained the rank of Scotch mafter. At Peterfburgh he was
appointed infpeCtor-general of the corps of marine-cadets ;
an academy confifting of above four hundred young gentle-
men and fcholars, under the tuition of about forty teachers.
His duty, in this office, confifted in vifiting daily every clafs
of the academy; in receiving weekly reports from each
mafter, concerning the diligence and progrefs of every
perfon in his clafs; and in advancing, twice in every year,
the young gentlemen into higher clafles, according to their
refpe&tive merits. Of thefe he was conitituted the fole
judge, and againft his decifion there was no appeal. At
i
ROB
this period general Kutuzoff was military-head of the
academy, and held the third place in the admiralty-college.
This general approved all Mr. Robifon’s plans, adopted all
his meafures, and fupported his authority. While in this
fituation, Mr. Robifon prefented to the admiralty-college a
plan for rendering the magnificent docks at Cronttadt of
fome ufe by means of a fteam-engine, which was adopted
and executed with fuccefs after he had left Ruffia. Being
attached, by his office, to that ifland, he found it, particu-
larly in winter, to be adifmal folitude, where he was nearly
cut off from all fociety. On this account, having held the
appointment about four years, he determined to vefign it,
and to accept of an invitation from the magiftrates and
town-council of Edinburgh, to be profeffor of natural phi-
lofophy in their univerfity. This fituation he filled with
great honour to himfelf, as well as benefit to the ftudents of
the univerfity, till his death, which happened in 1805.
Although Dr. Robifon laboured under a very diftrefling
and painful diforder during the laft eighteeu years of his
life, {till in general his mind was active. He is well known
to be author, not only of the article Seamanfhip, already
mentioned, but of all the moft important mathematical and
philofophical articles in the third edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannica, and the fupplement to that work. They were
probably the fubftance of ‘his leGQures delivered at college,
and feveral of them were afterwards thrown into a different
form, and publifhed under the title of “¢ Elements of Me-
chanical Philofophy.’’ In 1797 this gentleman publifhed a
work, entitled ‘“ Proofs of a Confpiracy againit all the Re-
ligions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the
Secret Meetings of Free-Mafons, Lluminati, and Reading
Societies,’”? a work full of declamation and abfurdity, but
which, owing to the furor of the times, made a great impref-
fion, and rapidly paffed through feveral editions, but which,
when reafon returned to the great mafs of the people, fell
into deferved contempt. In 1803 Mr. Robifon performed
a very acceptable fervice to the public, by giving them an
edition of Dr. Black’s leCiures on the ‘* Elements of Che-
miftry,”? in two vols. ato. ,
ROBLEDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Leon; 22 miles S. of Civdad Rodrigo.
ROBLINTON, atownfhip of Wafhington county, in
Pennfylvania, containing 770 inhabitants.
ROBO, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
12 miles E.N.E. of Zebid.
ROBOAN. . See Rusry.
ROBORANTIA, in Medicine, flrengtheners ; or fuch
medicines as {trengthen the parts, and give new vigour to
the conftitution. _
ROBORTELLO, Francesco, in Biography, an Italian
man of letters, born at Udine in 1516, was the fon of a
notary and noble of that city. He was educated at Bulogna,
and about 1538 was invited to occupy the chair of eloquence
at Lucca. In 1543 he removed to Pifa, where he held a
fimilar profeflorfhip. In 1552 he was called to Padua to
fill the chair of Greek and Latin eloquence, vacant by the
death of Lazzaro Buonamici. He quitted Padua for
Bologna in 1557; whence, in 1560, he was recalled by the
fenate of Venice to his chair at Padua. . He died in 1567,
in his s1ft year. The univerfity gave him a {plendid funeral,
and the German nation ereéted a handfome monument to his
memory in the church of St. Antonio. At moft of the
places of his refidence he was involved in quarrels with his
colleagues, and his writings are full of attacks upon his
contemporaries. He publifhed numereus works, among
which were, ‘* Annotations on various Authors, Greek
and Latin,”? 1543, republifhed in 1548, with feveral {mall
treatifes ;
ROC
treatifes; a corrected edition of ‘ Aniftotle’s Poetics,
together with a paraphrafe on « Horace’s Art of Poetry ;’?
an edition of the “* Tragedies of /Efchylus ;” of ‘* AZlian’s
Taétics,” with a Latin verfion; and of * Longinus de
Sublimitate,”’ with annotations. He alfo publifhed a valuable
work « De Vita et Victu Populi Romani fub Imperatori-
bus Cefaribus Auguttis,”? with ten other differtations on
fubjeéts of Roman antiquity.
ROBUR Carotinum,
Oak. .
ROBUSTI, Gracopro, in Biography. See Tixto-
RETTO.
ROCA, or Rocca, in Geography, a cluiter of iflands in
the Caribbean fea, near the coaft of South America. N.
lat. 12° 20’. W. long. 66° 6’.
Roca, Cape, acape on the W. coaft of Portugal, ge-
nerally called by the Englifh failors the «* Roek of Lifbon.’”
N. lat. 38° 45’. W. long. go° 34’.
Roca Point, a cape on the E. coaft of England, in the
county of Durham. N. lat. 55° 1. W. long. 1° 21'.
ROCAB, a town of Arabia, in Hadramaut ; 50 miles
S.S.W. of Sahar.
ROCABERTI, Joun Tuomas ne, in Biography, a
Spanifh prelate in the feventeenth century, was defcended
from a noble family, and born at Pefelada, on the frontiers
of Catalonia, about the year 1624. He entered into the
order of St. Dominic ; was made provincial of Aragon in
1666 ; general of his order in 1670; archbifhop of Valentia
in 1676; inquifitor-general in Spain in 1695; and twice
appointed viceroy of Valentia. By his authority as general,
he feleéted from the mafs of manufcripts belonging to his
order, the moft valuable unpublifhed labours of feveral of its
members, which he direéted to be printed, but at his own
private expence. Befides fome devotional traéts, he pub-
lifhed a treatife * De Romani Pontificis Auétoritate,’’
1693, in three vols. folio. This work was very favourably
received in Spain and in Italy ; but the fale of it was pro-
hibited in France, by a decree of the parliament of Paris.
He {pared no pains in procuring all the treatifes which had
been compofed by different authors in defence of the pope’s
authority and infallibility, and made provifion for their
being printed in an uniform edition at Rome. This enor-
mous colleétion is entitled “* Bibliotheca Maxima Pontifica,’’
&c., and confilts of twenty-one folio volumes. The arch-
bifhop died in 1699.
ROCAIBA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Hedsjas; 120 miles E.N.E. of Mecca.—Alfo, a
town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed; 17 miles E. of
Mecca.
~ ROCAMA, in Botany, an Arabian name, applied by
Forfkall, in his Fl. Aigypt-Arab. 71, to the Linnzan 77i-
anthema pentandra, which he there eftablifhes as a diftin&
genus. See TRIANTHEMA.
ROCAMADOUR, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Lot; 22 miles N. of Cahors. N.
lat. 44° 48!. E. long. 1° 42!.
ROCAMBOLE, a mild fort of garlic, by fome called
Spanifh garlic; being much of the nature of fhalot ; and
well known in cookery, in quality of a fauce. See At-
LIDM.
ROCAPARTIDA, in Geography, an ifland in the North
Pacific ocean. S. lat. 16°. W. long. g2° 14!.
ROCAS, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman,
near the fea; 30 miles W.N.W. of Oman.
ROCAVION, atown of France, in the department of
the Stura; five miles S.S.W. of Coni.
9?
in Afronomy. See Royar
gO ¢€
ROCCA, Awncero, in Biography, a learned Italian
monk and titular bifhop, was a native of Rocca Contrata, a
town in the marche of Ancona, and born in the year 1545.
When young he took the habit among the hermits of St.
Auguttine, and purfued his ftudies at Rome, Venice, Pe-
rufia, and Padua. Having diftinguifhed himfelf by his
proficiency in the various branches of literature, facred and
profane, he was honoured with the degree of doétor of di-
vinity by the univerfity of Padua, and afterwards acquired
much celebrity as a preacher at Venice. His general ap-
pointed him to feveral confidential and honourable employ-
ments, and at la& made him fecretary to his order. After
he had retained this poft fome years, pope Sixtus V.
placed him in the Vatican in 1585, and confided to his
fuperintendance thofe editions of the bible, the councils,
and the fathers, which iffued from the apoftolical prefs dur-
ing his pontificate. In the year 1595, pope Clement VIII.,
by way of reward for thefe fervices, made him apoftolical
facriftan, and titular bifhop of Tagafté in Numidia. He
collected a very large and excellent library, which he left
by his will to the Auguftinian monaftery at Rome ; but
upon the exprefs condition, that it fhould be always open
for the benefit of the public. This was the firft library
formed in that city to which the public had freedom of
accefs, and it was properly called, after the name of its
beneficent founder, the ¢« Angelical Library.”? Rocca died
in 1620, at the age of 75. He publifhed « Bibliotheca
Theologica et Scripturalis ;”? «* Note in Novam Teftamen-
tum;”’ ‘De Patientia 5”? ‘* De Cometis ;?? « Obfervationes
in VI Libros Elegantiarum Laur. Valle ;?? « Obfervationes
de Lingua Latina ;” and other pieces which were colle@ed
together, and printed in two vols, folio, in the year 1719.
From his manufcripts was alfo publifhed, in 1745, a very
curious colleétion, entitled «* Thefaurus Pontificiarum An-
tiquitatum, necnon Rituum ac Czremoniarum 3? in two
vols. folio.
Rocca, in Geography, a town of Iftria; one mile N. of
Monfalcone.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Lavora ; 19 miles
N. of Sezza.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Wett Indies ; 24.
miles W. of Orchilla.—Alfo, a town of the Ligurian
republic; nine miles S.E. of Genoa.—Alfo, a town of
Italy, on the eaft bank of lake Maggiore ; 30 miles N.W.
of Milan.
Rocca, La, a town on the S.W. coaft of the ifland of
Canary ; 15 miles S.W. of Civdad de los Palmas.
Rocca Albegna, a town of Etruria; 28 miles S. of
Sienna. ;
Rocca dell’ Afpro, atown of Naples, in Principato Citra ;
15 miles W.S.W. of Cangiano.
Rocca Bruno, a town of France, in the department of
the Maritime Alps, near the coaft of the Mediterranean ;
three miles E,N.E. of Monaco.
Rocca Contrada, atown of the duchy of Urbino; 24
miles E.S.E. of Urbino.
Rocca del Efle, a rocky iflet among the Canaries ; eight
miles E. of Gratiofa.
Rocca Gloriofa, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra ;
feven miles W. of Policattro.
Rocca Lanzone, a town of the duchy of Parma; nine
miles W.S.W. of Parma.
Rocca del Marino, a town of Italy, inthe Trevifan; 16
miles N, of 'Trevigio.
Rocca Minolfa, a town of Naples,
Molife ; eight miles S. of Molife.
Rocca Menfina, a town of Naples, in Lavora; three
miles N. of Sezza.
in the county of
Rocca
ROC
Rocca di Neto, a2 town of Naples, in Calabria Citra;
fourmiles §.S.W. of Strongoli. ;
Rocca del Ouefte, or Weft Rock, a rocky iflet among the
Canaries ; fix miles S.W. of Alegranza.
Rocca Romana, a town of Naples, in Lavora; fix miles
N. of Capua. ;
Rocca Vallé Ofeura, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra; five miles S. of Sulmona.
Rocca Vecchia, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 14 miles
N.E. of Sezza.
Rocca Voltraia, 2 town of Etruria; three miles N.E.
of Volterra.
ROCCABIANCA, a town of the duchy of Parma ;
r5 miles N.N.W. of Parma.
ROCCABILIERE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Maritime Alps, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Nice. The place contains 1143, and the
canten 3631 inhabitants, on a territory of 455 kiliometres,
in five communes.
ROCCALANA, a town of Italy, in the country of
Friuli; 16 miles N.N.W. of Friuli.
ROCCARION, atown of France, in the department
of the Stura ; four miles S.W. of Coni.
ROCCELLA, in Botany, an Italian name for that {pecies
of Lichen, known to our dyers under the appellation of
Argol, or Orchall ; for which, in dyeing red or purple, the
Scottith Lichen tartareus is but an inadequate fubftitute,
the colours it affords being far lefs permanent. See LicHeEn,
fe&. 8. n. 115.
ROCCO Ronto, in Biography, an ancient Neapolitan
contrapuntift and writer on mufic. Padre Martini (Hor.
della Muf. vol. i. p. 447-) places Rocco Rodio at the head
of the Neapolitan fchool, after Tin&or. But it is difficult
to afcertain the exa@t period when Rocco Rodio flourifhed.
We have, however, been fo fortunate as to find an edition
of his precepts, to which P. Martini alludes, that was
printed at Naples 1609; but this date tells us nothing, as
the work had certainly appeared much earlier in another form.
Battifta Olifante, the editor of this edition, feems not to
give the rules of Rocco Rodio in his own words, but expla-
nations of the doétrines and examples he had left. If this
expofition of the rules eftablifhed by Rocco Rodio was
written by himfelf, he muft have flourifhed late in the fix-
teenth century : as Adriano Willaert and Cipriano Rore are
both mentioned in the text: and both thefe matters were
living after the year 1550. The full title is the following :
s¢ Regole di Mufica di Rocco Rodio, fotto breviffime rifpofte
ad alcuni dubij propoftogli da un Cavaliero, intorno alle varie
opinioni de Contrapontifti. Con la Dimoitratione di tutti i
* Canoni fopra il Canto-fermo, con li Contrapenti doppij, e
rivoltati, eloro regole. Aggiontavi un’ altra breve Dimo-
ftratione de dodici Tuoni regolari, fintie trafportati. Et di
nuovo da Don Batt. Olifante, Aggiontivi un Trattato di
Proportioni neceffario, 4 detto Libro, e riftampato. In
Napoli, MDVIIII.”’
The rules and examples for compofing canons of all
kinds are remarkably fhort and clear in this tra&t, which is
fo fcarce, that we have never feen it in any public library or
catalogue of books; and P. Martini, who mentions the
work, feems never to have been in poffeffion of it. Our
copy was purchafed at the fale of the late Mr. Belway’s
colleétion of mufic, the admirable organift of St. Martin’s
church.
Rocco, in Geography, atown of the Ligurian republic ;
ii miles S.E. of Genoa.
ROCELLA, atown of Naples, on the coaft of Calabria
BO
Citra, near which is a celebrated coral fifhery ; ro miles N.E.
of Giarau.
ROCH, Capr, a cape on the E. coaft of Majorca. N.
lat. 39° 40'. E. long. 3° 5!.
ROCHDALE, a market-town and parifh in the hundred
of Salford, and county of Lancafter, England, is fituated
in a valley watered by the river Roch, at the diftance of 46
miles S.E. from Laneafter, aad 197 N.N.W. from London.
In the town, befides the parifh church, there are places of
worfhip for Prefbyterians, Baptifts, and Methodifts. Here is
a free grammar-{chool, founded by archbifhop Parker, alfo an
Englifh free-{chool, ere&ted and endowed by Mrs. Hardman,
and feveral Sunday-fchools. ‘The market days are Monday
and Saturday ; and there are fairs annually on the 14th of
May, Whit-Tuefday, and the 7th of November. The
petty feflions for Rochdale and Middleton divifion of the
hundred of Salford are holden here. This town is fituated
in three townfhips, viz. Caftleton, Spotland, and Wardle-
worth. The largeft portion of it is within Wardleworth.
The parifh is of great extent, and is divided in feven diftriGts,
or townfhips, viz. Blackenworth, Butterworth, Todmorten,
Wuerdale, and the three townfhips above-mentioned, all of
which maintain their poor feparately. According to the
late parliamentary returns, thefe united diltri&s contained
6552 houfes, and 37,224 inhabitants. The vicarage here is
fuperior in value to any other living of a fimilar defcription
in the kingdom. In the reign of Henry VIII. it was rated
as low as 11/. 4s. g$d., but it has fince increafed to nearly a
hundred and fifty times that amount. It is in the gift of
the archbifhop of Canterbury, to whom the tithes belong,
which are let for a term of years. Nine chapels of eafe are
attached to the church of Rochdale, viz. St. Mary’s in the
town, Littleborough, Milnrow, Todmorton, Whitworth,
Friermeer, Lydgate, Saddleworth, and Dobcrofs; mott of
which are in the patronage of the vicar. Rochdale parifh
is rich in the mineral produis of flate, ftone, and coal. - It
is alfo, and has long been, diftinguifhed for its trade. A
branch of the woollen manufa€ture is its ftaple, of which
the chief articles are bays, flannels, coatings, and broad
cloths; but there is likewife a confiderable cotton trade
carried on both in the town and its vicinity. In the town-
fhip of Whitworth formerly refided Mefirs. John and George
Taylor, better known by the name of the Whitworth
Dodtors. “ The fame of thefe ruftic artifts,” fays Dr.
Aikin, “is almoft equal to that of the celebrated Swifs
dogor mentioned by Mr. Coxe, and has fpread not only
over the more immediate neighbourhood, but to remote parts
of the kingdom, and even to the metropolis itfelf. They
were chiefly noted for fetting broken and diflocated bones,
and for the cure of cancerous and other tumours by cauttics,
properly termed by themfelves 4een.”? Lord Byron, the
poet, is lord of the manor of Rochdale, and takes his feat
as an Englifh peer under the title of baron Byron of
Rochdale. At his court-leet, the officers and conttables
for the civil government of the parifh are annually ap-
pointed.
The principal feats in this vicinity are Belfield, which
formerly belonged to the Knights Templars; Foxholes, the
refidence of the Entwifle family ; and Studley, long the
property of the Holts, a memorable name in this diitri@ of
the country. The houfe appears to have been erected by
Robert Holt, efq. in the reignof Henry VIII. and coniifts
of acentre and two wings. Whitaker, in his Hiltory of
Whalley, defcribes it as containing within “¢ much carving in
wood, particularly a rich and beautiful fcreen between the,
hall and the parlour, with a number of crefts, cyphers, and
cognizances
ROC
izances belonging to the Holts, with other neighbour-
ine families. It oes abandoned for the warmer and more
fertile fituation of Caitleton by Robert Holt, efg. about
the year 1640.” ne *
The townfhip of Caitleton derives its name from an an-
cient caitle which formerly reared its embattled walls within
its limits, on a fpot where ftill remains a lofty artificial
mound of earth called the keep. Dr. Whitaker fuppofes
that a caftle ftood here anterior to the Norman conqueit, as
in arecord inthe Harkian colle&tion, apparently part of an
inquifition taken after the death of Thomas of Lancafter,
« itis defcribed as the fcite of an ancient caftle long fince
gone to decay.”” A Defcription of the Country from thirty
to forty Miles round Manchefter, by J. Aikin, M. D. gto.
London 1795. Whitaker’s Hiftory and Antiquities of the
ancient Purith of Whalley, &c. 4to. 1806. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. ix. by John Britton, F. S. A.
Rocupate, a town of Pennfylvania, in Crawford county,
containing 401 inhabitants.
ROCHE, atown of France, in the department of the
Upper Rhine; two miles S. of Delmont.—Alfo, a river of
America, which runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 42° 20! W.
long. 82° 53'.—Alfo, another which runs into the fame lake,
N. lat. 41° 48'.. W. long. 81° 25’. . a
Rocue, or Stony River, a river of America, which runs
into the Miffifippi, N. lat. 40° 50’. W. long. g1° 42’.
Rocue, La, a town of France, in the department of the
Leman, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Bonneville ; 12 miles N.E. of Annecy. The place contains
2447, and the canton 7685 inhabitants, on a territory of
150 kiliometres, in eight communes. The town is fituated
near the river Bonne, and is fo called from a rock near it,
and lies on the declivity of a hill, in a fertile country, di-
‘verfified with arable lands and meadows. It is furrounded
by an ancient wall and defended with towers. The principal
occupations of its inhabitants are tanning of leather and
making of fhoes. It contains, befides a parifh church, fe-
veral religious houfes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Blanc ; ro miles S.E. of Monttier.
Rocue, La, or Roche en Ardennes, or en Famine, atown
of France, inthe department of the Sambre and Meufe, be-
longing to the duchy of Luxemburg: formerly a well for-
tified town, with a caftle commanding the town and ram-
parts, furrounded with the waters of the river Ourte, which
pafles through it. It isthe capital of acomté, called “ the
comté of Ardennes,’? which comprehended 51 towns and
villages. In 1703 it fuffered very much from fire; 28 miles
S. of Liege. N. lat. 50° 10'.. E. long. 5° 33!.
Rocue / Aéeille, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Vienne ; 6 miles N. of St. Yriax.
* Rocue des Arnauds, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Higher Alps; 6 miles W. of Gap.
Rocue Beaucourt, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordogne; 12 miles S.W. of Nontron.
Rocue* Bernard, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Vannes, fituated on the Vilaine; 21 miles S.E.
of Vannes. The place contains 6272, and the canton 10,959
inhabitants, on a territory of 2124 kiliometres, in 8 com-
munes. N. lat. 47° 31’. W. long. 2° 12’.
Rocue /es Beaupré, a town of France, in the department
of the Doubs; 5 miles N.E. of Befancon.
Rocue Blanche, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Puy de Déme’; 5 miles S. of Clermont.
Rocue Bonnet, a {mall ifland, near the W. coaft of
France, in the bay of Bourg Neuf.
Rocne Canillac, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ROC
ment of the Corréze, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Tulles ; 9 miles S.E. of Tulles. The place con-
tains 375, and the canton 6845 inhabitants, ona territory of
2324 kiliometres, in 11 communes.
Rocue Chalais, La, a towa of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordogne, on the Dronne; 15 miles $.W. of
Riberac.
Rocue Darrien, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Northern Coafts, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftric&t of Lannion, fituated on the river Treguier ;
3 miles S. of Treguier. The place contains 1102, and the
canton 10,329 inhabitants, on a territory of 1122 kilio-
Metres, In 12 communes.
Rocue Guyon, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Seineand Oife, on the Seine; 8 miles N.N.W.
of Mantes. °
Rocue Melon, La, a mountain of Piedmont, near Suza,
fuppofed to be the higheft in Italy, and to be that from the
eminence of which Hannibal fhewed to his army the fertile
country which he thus animated them to conquer.
Rocue Milley, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Nievre; 12 miles S.E. of Moulins,
Rocue Reigner, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Loire ; 12 miles N. of Le Puy.
Rocue Serviére, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vendée, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Montaign; 9 miles W.S.W. of Montaign. The
place contains 425, and the canton 4542 inhabitants, on a
territory of 165 kiliometres, in § communes.
Rocue fur Yon, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vendée, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Montaign, fituated on the Yon; 30 miles N.W.
of Fontenay le Comte. The place contains 631, and the
canton 8515 inhabitants, on a territory of 275 kiliometres,
in rt communes. N, lat. 46° a4! W. long. 1° 20.
Rocue, Cape de la, a cape on the N. coaft of the ifland
of Hifpaniola. N. lat. 19° 42'. W. long. 70° 35’.
ROCHEA, in Botany, a genus of Decandolle’s, in his
Plantes Graffes, n. 103, dedicated to the memory of Daniel
de la Roche, a phyfician of Genevz, whofe inaugural differ-
tation, printed at Leyden in 1766, contains deferiptions and
plates of many plants of the natural order of En/ate, andis
often cited by writers on the genera and {pecies of that tribe.
De Theis.
ROCHECHOUART, in Geography, atown of France;
and principal place of a diftrit, in the department of the
Upper Vienne ; 18 miles W. of Limoges. The place con-
tains 1440, and the canton 7872 inhabitants, on a territory
of 180 kiliometres, in 7 communes.
ROCHEFORT, Witiam bg, in Biography, amodern
French writer, was born in 1730, at Lyons. He had a
f{maliemployment in the finances; but finding in himfelf a
greater love to letters than to bufinefs, he went to Paris, and
devoted himfelf to poetry and Greek literature. He com-
pofed three tragedies upon the Greek models, which had
too much fimphcity to pleafe ; and a comedy which was not
mere fuccefstul. In profe he publifhed a « Refutdtion
du Syiteme de la Nature ;” a “ Critical Hiftory of the
Opinions of the Ancients concerning Happinefs ;” and a.
“ Complete Tranflation of the Plays of Sophocles ;” the
laft named work gained him much credit by the elegance and
fidelity of the verfion, and the judicious notes annexed to it.
He then undertook the tafk of a complete tranflation of
Homer’s [liad and Odyfley, of which the preliminary dif-
courfes and the notes obtained more applaufe than the verfion
itfelf, which, however, he had fplendidly. printed at the
royal prefs, in 1781, in gto. He was a member of the
Academy
ROC
Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres, to which he
contributed feveral learned memoirs. He died in 1788,
highly efteered for his private and focial virtues. Gen.
Biog.
Reeeoni in Geography, a town of the county of
Neufchatel; 5 miles S.W. of Neufchatel.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Puy de Dome, and
chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Clermont; 13
miles S.W.of Clermont. The place contains 110, and the
canton 12,177 inhabitants, ona territory of 365 kiliometres,
in 14 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Jura, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Dole, feated on the Doubs; 4 miles E.N.E. of Dole.
The place contains 562, and the canton 6395 inhabitants,
onaterritory of 1074 kiliometres, in 1g communes.—Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Sambre and
Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Marche, furrounded by rocks, with an ancient caftle, faid
to be of Roman conftru€tion. The place contains $78, and
the canton 5148 inhabitants, on a territory of 2374 kilio-
metres, in 18 communes; 33 miles S.S.W. of Liege.
N. lat. 50° g'. E. long. 5° 5!.—Alfo, a fea-port town of
France, and principal place of a diftri€t, in the department
of the Lower Chareute, feated on the Charente. The place
contains 15,000, and the canton 17,842 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1623 kiliometres, in 8 communes. N. lat. 45°
56'. W. long. 0° 52'. This port has excellent docks
for building, careening, and refitting vefleis, and magazines
wellreplenifhed with naval ftores. It has alfo a marine aca-
demy, and an hofpital for feamen; but the adjacent falt-
marfhes injure its falubrity. In this refpe€t it has been im-
proved by the drying of the marfhes by canals. The town was
founded by Louis X1V. A.D. 1665; it is elegantly built and
fortified, and contains feveral churches and convents. It
has water fufficient, even at low water, to float large veflels,
and they are fheltered from all hurricanes, and alfo fecured
from all attacks of bomb-veffels. It is alfo faid, that the
worm, whichis fo deftructive to fhips’ bottoms, does not af-
fe&t them here. The approach to the town up the river is
defended by feveral forts, and is about two leagues fromthe
fea-coaft, five from the mouth of the river, and fix S.E. of
Rochelle.
Rocuerort, La, atown of France, in the department
of the Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri of the Vannes; 16 miles E. of Vannes. The place
contains 628, and the canton 9837 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1872 kiliometres, ing communes. N, lat. 47°42'. W.
long. 2° 15’.
RocuEForRT, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine and Oife; 4 miles N. of Dourdan.
Rocwerort fur Loire, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mayne and Loire, on the S. fide of the Loire ;
i3 miles S.S.W. of Angers.
Rocuzrort Sam/on, atown of France, in the department
orthe Dréme; 12 miles E.N.E. of Valence.
ROCHEFORTIA, in Borany, received that name from
profeflor Swartz, in commemoration of a French writer,
De Rochefort, of whom we know nothing but that he pub-
lithed, in 1639, Hiftoire naturelle et morale des iles An-
tiles de PAmerique, with plates; a work of which a
fecond edition appeared at Rotterdam in 1665, and an
Englifh tranflation, by J. Davies, at London in 1666.—
Swartz Prodr. 4. Ind. Occ. v. 1. 551. t. 10. Schreb. 797.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1328. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.—Clafs
and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn.
Rhamni, Juli. a
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, in five
hk O.€
deep, ovate, obtufe fegments. Cor. of one petal; tube
fhort, pervious ; limb funnel-fhaped, in five deep, ovate-
oblong, {preading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, inferted
into the mouth of the corolla between the fegments, awl-
fhaped; anthers oblong. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh,
comprefled ; ftyles two, awl-fhaped ; itigmas fimple. Peric.
Berry? nearly globofe, of two cells. Seeds few, angular.
Eif. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep fegments. Corolla
funnel-fhaped, pervious at the mouth. Fruit of two cells,
with feveral feeds.
1. R. cuneata. Wedge-leaved Rochefortia. Willd. n. 1.
Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 552.—Leaves wedge-fhaped, obo-
vate, undivided.—Native of dry, itony, mountainous places
in Jamaica. Stem fhrubby, three or four feet high, ereét,
with round, zigzag, fubdivided, grey éranches, armed with
a folitary projecting thorn, near the infertion of each foot-
ftalk. Leaves about three, carely more, together, in alter-
nate tufts, ftalked, generally quite entire, fometimes emar-
ginate, rather rigid, imooth, and fomewhat fhining, on both
fides, of a brownifh-green, flightly ribbed ; paler beneath.
Feotftalks hort. Flowers {mall, greenifh or whitifh, in denfe
forked, cymofe, terminal or axillary, clufers, fhorter than
the leaves. Calyx downy, as well as the germen and /ligmas.
The fruit was only feen in an unripe {tate by Dr. Swartz, fo
that he could not determine whether it were a berry er
capfule. :
2. R. ovata. Ovate-leaved Rochefortia. Willd. .n. 2.
Swartz Ind. Occ, v. 1. 554.—Leaves ovate, emarginate.—
Native of bufhy ftony places in Jamaica. A /brub, with
round {mooth éranches. Swartz makes no mention of thorns.
The /eaves are alternate, ftalked, ovate, emarginate at the
fummit, but otherwife entire, flightly villous, veiny, an inch
long. Flower-/talks one-fifth only of the length of the leaves,
each bearing many flowers in pairs. Unripe fruit like the
foregoing.
ROCHEFOUCAULT, Francis, duke of, prince of
Marfillac, in Biography, a well-known writer in the age of
Louis XIV. was born in 1613. He diftinguifhed himfelf
as one of the moft brilliant young noblemen about the
court, and formed a conneétion with the duchefs of Longue-
ville, which involved him in the civil war of the Fronde.
At the battle of St. Antoine, in Paris, he fignalized his
coprage, and received a mufket fhot, which for fome time
deprived him of fight. When thefe troubles were termi-
nated, he devoted himfelf to the pleafures of fociety and
literature. His houfe was the refort of the beft company
at Paris, in point of talents and underftanding, and his con-
verfation was relifhed by Boileau, Racine, Sevigné, and La
Fayette, and the other literary chara¢ters of France. Nor
did he only fhine by his wit and vivacity ; he difplayed great
firmnefs of mind under domeitic loffes (having had one fon
killed and another wounded at the paflage of the Rhine),
and under the pain of the gout, with which he was afflifted
in his latter years. Mad. de Sevigné {peaks of him as
“holding the firit rank in courage, merit, tendernefs, and
good fenfe.”? In Mad. Maintenon’s Letters is the follow-
ing portrait of the duke. ‘“ He had a happy phyfiognomy,
a grand air, much wit, and little learning. He was in-
triguing, fupple, and wary: I never knew a friend more
folid, more open, or who gave better counfel. He loved
to take the lead. Perfonal bravery appeared to hima folly,
and {carcely did he difguife this opinion; yet he was very
brave. He preferved till death the vivacity of his difpofi-
tion, which was always very agreeable, though naturally
ferious.”? .The duke de Rochetoucault died with philofo-
phical tranquillity at Paris in 1680, in his 68th year. He
made himfelf famous by.a work entitled “ Reflexions et
Maximes,”?
ROC
Maximes,’? many times printed, and tranflated. Voltaire
{peaks thus of it: ‘ This little colleGtion, written with that
delicacy and finefle which render a flyle fo captivating, had
the rare merit of accuftoming readers to think, and to give
a lively and precife expreflion to their thoughts.’” The
fundamental principle of this work is, that felf-love is the
motive of all our actions. It is therefore, perhaps, lefs the
hiftory than the fatire of the human race: but it isa fatire
which, fays a writer, pleafes, becaufe it flatters malignity,
and becaufe it excufes men from the admiration of virtue,
by giving it a principle in common with vice, and thereby
{tripping it of the heroifm attributed to it. It feems al-
lowed, fays Dr. Aikin, that the writer painted very exactly
the world in which he lived, but a lover of mankind will
fcarcely admit that world to have been a fair example of the
{pecies. Mifanthropes have taken pleafure in his fentiments,
and Swift has made one of his thoughts the bafis of his
mott finifhed piece, the poem on his own death. The duke
alfo wrote ** Memoires de la Regence d’Anne d’ Autriche,”’
2 vols. 12mo. 1713, an energetic and faithful reprefentation
of that ftormy period, in which he was himfelf an aétor.
Gen. Biog.
RocneroucauLt, La, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Charente, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri€&t of Angouleme; 12 miles N.E. of
Angouleme. The place contains 2586, and the canton
14,574 inhabitants, on a territory of 2524 kiliometres, in
17 communes. N. lat. 45° 46'. E. long. 0° 28/.
ROCHELLE, La, a fea-port town of France, and
principal place of a diltrict, in the department of the Lower
Charente, with a good harbour. The place contains in the
E. and W. divifions 18,000 mhabitants: the canton of the
former has 14,636, on a territory of 774 kiliometres, in
77 communes ; and that of the latter 13,642 inhabitants, on
a territory of 75 kiliometres, in 7 communes. In the mid-
dle age it was called Rupella and Portus Santonum: it
was, before the revolution, the capital of Aunis, and a
bifhop’s fee. It was the birth-place of Reaumur, Defagu-
liers, &c. The town is confiderable, having an academy
of {ciences eftablifhed in 1732, an hofpital, and two fuburbs.
It is regularly built in a marfhy fituation; the entrance of
its harbour is narrow, and is defended by two towers. The
circumference of its ramparts is about three miles.. Its ma-
nufactures are delft ware, glafs, refining of fugar, &c. and
its commerce, particularly to the French colonies in Africa
and America, was, before the laft war, very confiderable.
In 1361 Rochelle was given up to the Englifh. In the
16th century, the inhabitants joined in the reformation, for-
tified the town, and held out a fiege. In 1622 Louis XIII.
in order to compel them to furrender, ordered Fort Louis
to be conftru@ted at the entrance of the harbour, and in
1628 a mole was raifed which furrounded it, in order to pre-
vent the town from receiving any fuccour by fea. The be-
fieged were at length compelled by famine to furrender ; in
confequence of which it was deprived of its privileges and
its fortifications demolifhed ; but in the reign of Louis XIV.
they were repaired by Vauban. N. lat. 46° 9’. W. long.
13’.
nes New, a town of America, belonging to the
ftate of New York, in Long ifland found; 6 miles N.N.E.
of Welt Chefter. N. lat. 41° 54'. W. long. 73° 46/.
Rocuetxe Salt. See Rupevuensis Sal.
ROCHEMAURE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the depariment of the Ardeche, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri€@ of Privas; 9 miles S.E. of Privas. The
place contains 1110, and the canton 4372 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1074 kiliometres, in § communes,
Vor. XXX.
ROC
ROCHESTER, a city in the hundred of Rocheiter,
lathe of Aylesford, and county of Kent, England, is
f(tuated on an angle of land formed by the current of
the river Medway, at the diftance of 84 miles N. from
Maidftone, and 29 miles E. by S. from London. Accord-
ing to the population cenfus of 1811, it contained, in con.
junction with the adjoining town of Chatham, 3838 houfes,
and 21,722 inhabitants.
Hiflorical Events.—-Rochetter is faid to have been origin-
ally founded by the ancient Britons, who gave it the appel-
lation of Dwr-bryf, which fignifies “a fwift flream,”? in
allufion to the rapidity of the Medway at this part of its
courfe. When the Romans eftablifhed themfelves in Albion,
it became one of their itipendiary ftations, and was denomi-
nated by them Durobrive, or Durobrivis, afterwards con-
tracted to Roibis. Thefe faéts are evidenced by the Itine-
rary of Antoninus, as alfo by the Peutingerian Tables, and
receive ftrong confirmation from the frequent difcoveries. of
Roman remains, which have been made at different periods
withia the area of the prefent city. During the govern-
ment of that people, however, its hiftory is completely
barren; nor did it attain any celebrity for more than a cen-
tury after the arrival of the Saxons, who altered its name
to Hrof-ceafter, whence its modern defignation is derived.
Ethelbert, king of Kent, who was converted to the Chrif-
tian faith A.D. 597, ficft ere€ted a church here, and confti-
tuted the town a bifhop’s fee. Still, however, it was
regarded chiefly as a military ftation, and hence is ftyled by
Bede “a caftle of the Kentifh men.” In the year 676,
Ethelred, king of Mercia, pillaged Rochefter, as did Cead-
walla, king of Weflex, within a few years of the fame
period. The Danifh invaders likewife frequently plundered
it, particularly in 839, when they facked the city and com-
mitted many cruelties. In 885 they befieged it again, but
were effectually kept in check by the inhabitants, till the great
Alfred arrived with his army, and drove them back to their
fhips. About a century afterwards, Ethelred, king of Kent,
met witha fimilarreception, and being fruftrated in his attempt
upon the city, gratified his vengeance by laying watte all
the lands belonging to the fee. But thefe fieges were trivial
to what the inhabitants fuffered from the Danes in 999»
when the city was pillaged to the uttermoit, and all the in-
habitants who remained in it were put to death. From that
period Rochefter feems to have continued moftly in pof-
feffion of the Danes till the death of Canute the Great. In
the time of Edward the Confeffor it belonged to the crown ;
and as part of the royal domains was feized by the Con-
queror, by whom it was granted to his half-brother, Odo,
bifhop of Baieux, on whofe difgrace, in 1083, it reverted
to the monarch. Henry I. farmed it out to the citizens at
the yearly rent of 20/., which was paid by the przpofitus or
bailiff. He alfo granted to bifhop Gundulph, and to the
church of Rochefter, an annual fair to be held on the eve
and day of St. Paulinus, together with various rights and
immunities. Inthe fame reign, on the 11th of May 1130,
while Henry himfelf, the archbifhop of Canterbury, and
other prelates, and many of the nobility were at Rochetter,
molt of its buildings were confumed by fire. A fimilar mif-
fortune befell it in the year 1137, and again in April 1349.
Thefe feyeral calamities retarded the a ee of the city ;
and the inteftine commotions happening foon afterwards, it
did not regain any great degree of confequence till the reign
of Henry III. his monarch repaired, or rebuilt, the city
walls, and inveited it befides with a deep fofle. In 1251
the fame prince held a folemn tournament here, which was
attended by moft of the Englifh nobility, and by a great
concourfe of foreign knights. In the time of the wars be-
BiG tweea
ROCHESTER.
tecece Work and Lancafter, Rochefter fuffered much from
the arms of the contending parties, and was more than
once vifited by the plague. Henry VIII. was twice here,
once in company with the emperor Charles V. and again
svhen he came hither to meet his confort, Ann of Cleves.
During the reign of queen Mary feveral individuals fuffered
martyrdom here for their religious opinions. Queen Eliza-
beth, her fucceffor, lodged upwards of a week at Rochefter ;
and this was the firft city in which Charles II. was publicly
received, after his reftoration to the throne in 1660. In
1665, Rochefter was vifited with the fame plague, which
committed fuch dreadful havock among the inhabitants of
the metropolis. From that period nothing worthy of hif-
torical record has occurred.
Municipal Government.—Rochefter probably poffeffed a
corperate community even in the time of the Saxons, but
its nature cannot now be precifely afcertained. The firft
Norman monarch who granted to the inhabitants any pri-
vileges by charter, was Henry II. This prince gave them
the city “in fee, or perpetual ferm, for 20/. fterling per
arnum, to hold of him and his heirs for ever, with all the
appurtenances, liberties, and free cuftoms; and that they
fhould have a guild merchant, and feveral other privileges
and immunities.’? Thefe advantages were ftill further in-
creafed by Richard I., who directed his writ to the bailiff,
and the whole hundred of Rochefter, ordaining, ‘ that no
one, except his fervants, fhould purchafe victuals in the city
till the monks of St. Andrew had been firft ferved.”’ This
right was afterwards fo far extended, that even the fervants
of the monarch were forbidden to make a prior purchafe ;
and the monks continued to enjoy the privilege thus given
till the diffolution. Henry III. not only confirmed to the
citizens all former grants, but remitted to them a portion
of their annual fee-ferm, and declared they were to be
“ exempt from toll, laftage, {tallage, and murage, through-
out England and the fea-ports, and fhould have a free
market within their city, and the return of all writs what-
foever.”? Thefe privileges were renewed by Richard Il.
in 1378; by Henry VI. in 1438 and 1446; and by
Edward IV., who further extended the bounds of the city,
and ordained that the corporation fhould be ftyled « the
mayor and citizens of Rochefter.”’ Henry VIII. was the
next monarch who confirmed the privileges of Rochefter ;
and his fucceflors, to the time of Charles I., feverally did
the fame. By the laft mentioned monarch, the corporation
was made to confift of «a mayor, twelve aldermen, (of
which latter number the mayor was to be one,) twelve
affittants, or common council-men, a recorder and town-
clerk, two chamberlains, a principal ferjeant at mace, a
water-bailiff, and other inferior officers.’’ Under this
charter the city is now governed ; and by virtue of it, the
mayor ‘is eleéted annually on the Monday previous to St.
Matthew’s day. The mayor and citizens hold a court of
admiralty once a-year, for regulating the oylter-fifhery in
thofe creeks and branches of the river Medway which are
within their jurifdidion. Here are alfo held the county
afifes, alternately with Maiditone; likewife the petty
feffions for the north divifion of the lathe of Aylesford.
The market-day is Friday, weekly ; and there are two
annual fairs, on the 3oth of May andthe r1th of December.
Rochelter fends two members to parliament, and has done
fo ever fince the 23d year of Edward I. The right of
eleGtion is vefted in the freemen, who are about 630 in
cumber. Many of the reprefentatives' have been naval
officers, diftinguifhed for brilliant achievements in the caufe
of their country.
Public Stru@ures.—The buildings of a public defeription
that chiefly demand attention, are the caftle, the cathedral,
the churches, the town-hall, and the bridge, each of which
is entitled to feparate notice.
The prefent cattle of Rochefter wasone of thofe founded by
William the Conqueror, to keep in awe his newly acquired
fubjeéts ; but there feems every reafon to believe that a prior
one exifted on the fame fcite, as frequent mention is made
of the ‘ Caftrum Roffenfe’? in the Saxon annals. The
Conqueror, indeed, is faid, by fome hiftorians, to have only
repaired the former ftructure. Whatever it might be,
however, he committed to Odo, bifhop of Baieux, the
execution of the new work, and the cuitody of the fortrefs ;
but that prelate proving unworthy of his truft, he was
afterwards feized, and fent as a prifoner to the cattle of
Rouen, in Normandy, where he continued till the acceflion
of William Rufus, who reftored him to his dignities and
poffeffions ; a favour which he fhortly after ungratefully
repaid, by raifing an infurrection in favour of the king’s
brother, Robert, duke of Normandy. Rufus, upon this,
laid fiege to Rochefter cattle, and having forced ‘the gar-
rifon to furrender, bauifhed the bifhop from his dominions.
During this fiege the buildings fuftained confiderable in-
jury, which the king enjoined bifhop Gundulph and the
prior of Rochefter to repair, perhaps on account of their
having fhewn fome attachment to the rebellious caufe.
Gundulph accordingly not only renovated the walls, but laid
the foundation of the great fquare tower, which yet per-
petuates his name, and entitles him to rank among the moit
eminent architects of Anglo-Norman times. About twenty
years after this prelate’s death, the cuftody of Rochefter
caftle was granted to William Corboyl, then archbifhop of
Canterbury, aad to his fucceffors; but this grant was re-
fumed by Henry II. on his quarrel with the celebrated
Thomas a Becket. In the reign of king John, this fortrefs
was feized and garrifoned by the rebellious barons, and
having been befieged by the king, was taken, after a refilt-
ance of three months. Lewis, the dauphin of France,
who came over to the affiftance of the nobles, however,
reduced it again in fubjeétion to the barons, by whom it
was held till the acceflion of Henry III., when it was fur-
rendered to the crown, and granted for life to Hubert de
Burgh, earl of Kent, and jufticiary of England, who was
commanded to repair the buildings. The king’s favour
afterwards declining, Hubert was difpoffefled; and ¢te-
phen de Segrave, John de Cobham, Nicholas de Moels,
William de Say, and Robert Waleran, were, in fucceffion,
appointed governors of the caftles of Rochelter and Can-
terbury. About the year 1264, after the king had occa-
fioned much difcontent among his barons, by his refufal to
comply with the ftatutes of Oxford, he greatly ftrengthened
the fortifications of this caftle, and furnifhed it with every
thing neceflary to fuftain a fiege. Roger de Leybourne,
who was conitituted chief conitable, had under him John,
earl of Warren and Surrey, and other noblemen. Shortly
afterwards, Simon de Montfort, chief of the affociated
barons, marched hither to befiege the caftle, on which oc-
cafion feveral fevere contefts happened in this vicinity.
Montfort fucceeded in getting pofleffion of the city, but
failed in his attacks upon the caitle, the fiege of which he
was eventually compelled to abandon. After this event,
little more occurs in the. hiftory of this caftle, than the
narmes of thofe to whom its cuftody has been entrutted.
Edward IV. was the laft monarch who paid any attention
to the ftate of its buildings, he having “ repaired the walls,
both of the caftle and city, about the eleventh year of his
reign.’? Since then they have been alike negleéted, and
have gradually fallen to their prefent ftate of decay. Se-
veral
ROCHESTER.
veral eftates in this county hold of Rochefter caftle by the
ancient tenure of caftle-guard. On St. Andrew’s day,
old ftyle, a banner is hung out at the houfe of the receiver
of rents; and every tenant who does not then difcharge
his arrears, is liable to have his rent doubled, on the return
of every tide of the Medway, till the whole is difcharged.
Rochefter caiftle ftands at the fouth-weftern angle of the
city, on an eminence rifing abruptly from the river Medway,
which preferves it from attack on the weft, whilft its fouth,
eaft, and north fides are defended by a broad and deep ditch.
The outward walls, which formed an irregular parellelogram,
300 feet in length, were ftrengthened by feveral fquare and
round towers ; but thefe, as well as the walls themfelves, are
now verging toa ftate of ruin. The moft perfeé are on the
ealt fide, and at the fouth-eaft angle; that at the angle was
femicircular, and rofe boldly from the ditch, which is now
almoft filled up. The principal entrance was on the north-
eaft, and was defended by a tower-gateway, with outworks
at the fides. The keep, or great tower, already mentioned
as founded by bifhop Gundulph, occupies the fouth-eaft por-
tion of the caftle area. It is of a quadrangular form, 70 feet
{quare at the bafe, andis fo planned, that its angles correfpond
with the four cardinal points of the compafs. The walls
on the outfide are built inclining inwards from the bafe, and in
general meafure twelve or thirteen feet thick. Near the cen-
tre, on each fide, is a pilatter buttrefs, afcending from the bafe
to the roof ; and at the angles are projecting towers, three of
them fquare, and the fourth femi-circular, which rife twelve
feet above the roof. ‘The entrance to this part of the cattle
was moft difffeult and intricate, and difplayed much archi-
teGtural ingenuity. ‘ The firft afcent was by a flight of
twelve fteps, leading to an arched gate and covered way ;
beneath which a flight of feven iteps led forward to a draw-
bridge, tliat conneéted with the arched gateway of the en-
trance tower ; this opened into a veltibule, between which
and the keep there were no other avenues of communication
than by athird arched paflage in the thicknefs of the wall.
This latter, being the immediate inlet to the body of the
keep, was defended by a maffive gate and portcullis, the
hinges and grooves of which yet remain; and in the roof
are openings for the purpofe of fhowering down deftruéction
on the affailants.””
The interior of the keep is divided into two nearly equal
parts by a ftrong wall, with arched door-ways of communi-
cation on each floor. Inthe centre of this wall is a circular
hole for a well of confiderable depth, neatly wrought, and
open from the bottom to the very top of the keep. This
tower confilted of three floors, independent of the bafement
ftory ; but thefe floors were removed when the caftle was
difmantled in the reign of James I. The loweft apartments
were two dark and gloomy rooms, in which the garrifon
ftores were probably depofited. At the north-eaft angle is
a circular winding ftaircafe, which afcends to the fummit ;
and near it is a fmall arched doorway, leading to a narrow
vaulted apartment underneath the little tower, fuppofed to
have been a dungeon for criminals. The firft floor appears
to have been allotted for the accommodation of fervants
and inferior attendants; the fecond floor contained the
ftate apartments ; and the third was defigned for a chapel,
and for bed-rooms for the family. The roof of the keep is
now entirely deftroyed ; but it moft probably confifted of a
platform on a level with the top of the wall within the pa-
rapet ; the latter was about five feet high, and had embra-
fures about two feet wide. The four towers at the angles
were raifed another ftory, and had alfo fmall platforms, with
parapets and embrafures. Thefe, as well as the firlt-men-
tioned platfurm, commanded a very extenfive view over the
whole city, the river Medway, and the adjacent country ; fo
that no enemy could approach within the diftance of {everal
miles without being difcovered.
Cathedral and Priory.—The fee of Rochefter, though one
of the fmalleft in England, derives confiderable confequence
from its antiquity. It was eftablifhed, anda church built,
as early as the year 600, by Ethelbert, king of Kent; who,
at the fame time, attached to the church a priory for fecular
canons, and dedicated it to the honour of St. Andrew.
The firft prelate of this fee was Juftus, a man of eminent
learning and integrity, who had been fent from Reme to
affift in the converfion of the Saxons to Chriftianity. He
was initalled by St. Auguftine, the apoftle of Britain, and
frit archbifhop of Canterbury, in the year 604, from which
period the epifcopal dignity of Rochetter hasbeen held in fuc-
ceffion by ninety-four bifhops, many of whom were eminent
for their talents, piety, benevolence, and extenfive acquire-
ments. Paulinus, the third bifhop, was reputed a faint, and
his memory was held in high eftimation during feveral cen-
turies. Ithamar, the fourth bifhop, was the firft Euglifhman
who held a prelacy in Britain. Tobias, the ninth bifhop, is
highly extolled by Bede, and other writers, for his literary
attainments, and particularly for his intimate knowledge of
the Greek, Latin, and Saxon languages. Thefe three pre-
Jates were all interred in the ancient cathedral, and are the only
bifhops known to have been fo honoured of all the twenty-five
who prefided previous to the Conqueft. At the era of that
event the fee appears to have been faft verging to entire
diffolution ; but its impending fate was foon = ae arreited
by Lanfranc, archbifhop of Canterbury, who raifed Ernoft,
a monk of Bec, in Normandy, to the bifhoprics for the
avowed purpofe of improving its affairs. That bifhop, how-
ever, died in the firft year of his prelacy, and was fucceeded
by Gundulph, another monk of Bec, who proved a moft
aCtive agent in the re-eftablifhment of the fee. He not only
recovered the alienated eftates of the bifhopric, but, pulling
down the old cathedral, he ereéted a {pacious and magni-
ficent edifice in its ftead. He likewife rebuilt the priory,
and placed therein twenty monks of the order of St. Bene-
di, upon whom he beltowed extenfive privileges and
pofleffions. Gundulph had for his fucceffor Ernulph, abbot
of Peterborough ; who compofed the « Textus Roffenfis,”’
a work replete with information on matters of antiquity.
He was likewife diftinguifhed as an archite, having, befides
his works at Canterbury and Peterborough, built the dor-
mitory, and refeétory, and the chapter-houfe at Rochefter.
He was fucceeded by John, archdeacon of Canterbury, in
whofe time the monaftery was unfortunately deftroyed by
fire ; an event which occafioned the temporary difperfion of
the monks. On the re-ere¢tion of the priory, however, they
were again collected, and, through the exertions of bifhop
Afcelin, recovered fuch of their poffeffions as had been
alienated by the cupidity cf his predeceflor, John, a Nor-
man bifhop, who had obtained this fee on the death of his
namefake above-mentioned. Afcelin’s fucceffor was Walter,
brother to Theobald, archbifhop of Canterbury, who was
ele&ted by the monks of Rocheiter. This bifhop affifted at
the coronation of Henry, eldeit fon of Henry III., on
which account he was excommunicated by Thomas a Becket.
During his prelacy, the cathedral fuftained heavy damages
by fire. This bilhop died in 1182, and was fucceeded by
bifhop Waleran, who, as well as his fucceflor, Gilbert de
Granville, was conftantly engaged in litigations with the
prior and monks, which were at length fettled by folemn ad-
Judication ia the year 1207: notwithftanding this, however,
the monks thought proper to difplay their hatred to bifhop
Granville, by refufing burial to his remains in the cathedral ;
3Ci2 and
ROCHESTER.
and on being frultrated in their refiftance, they haftened the
interment, that it might take place before the interdiét
which the nation then lay under was removed. This prelate
rebuilt the bifhop’s palace, which had been burnt down by
the fire above noticed; and alfo erected a cloifter of ftone
for the monks: but the re-edification of the cathedral made
very flow progrefs, as we find it remained unfinifhed till the
year 1240, when Richard de Wendover held the bifhopric.
He had been eleéted to the fee by the monks, in oppofition
to the claims of patronage maintained by Edmund, arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, who appealed on the fubjeét to the
court of Rome, but without fuccefs. On his death, in
1250, Laurence de St. Martin was advanced to the epifcopal
dignity, and held it till 1274, when he died, and gave
place to Walter de Merion, to whom his country is indebted
for the foundation of Merton college, at Oxford, which is
confidered to be the “ firlt literary community in this kingdom
that had the fanétion of a royal charter.’”? His immediate
fucceflors were, John de Bradfield, who died in 1283 ; Tho-
mas de Ingelthorpe, who died in 12913; and Thomas de
Woldham, who died in 1316. On the deceafe of the lat-
ter, Hamo de Hethe obtained the bifhopric. He was a
very active prelate, and conferred contiderable benefits on
the priory and the church. His fucceflor was John de
Shepey, who had been a monk in the priory, and was.aman
of great learning and abilities. Some fermons attributed to
him are ftill extant in New college, Oxford, and there are in
the king’s library two MSS. of his on legal fubjeéts. He
died in 1360, when William Wittefley was confecrated
bifhop, but was foon afterwards tranflated to the fee of
Worcelter. Thomas Trilleck next obtained the bifhopric,
and after him Thomas Brinton, confeflor to king Richard II.
and the fifty-firft bifhop of this fee. Richard Young, the
third in fucceffion after him, met with great difficulties in
obtaining poffeffion of his bifhopric, owing to the death,
firtt of pope Boniface, by whofe mandate he was tranflated
from Bangor, and afterwards of his fucceflor, pope Inno-
cent. At length, however, he was inftalled, in May 1407,
and held the fee till 1418, when he was removed by death,
and was fucceeded by John Kemp, who fubfequently became
bifhop of Chichefter and of London, and archbifhop of
York and of Canterbury. His fucceflor was the learned
John Langdon, who was diftinguifhed for his extenfive
knowledgs of hiftory and antiquities, aad was author of a
chronicle of England. On his death, which happened in
1434, while he was attending the council at Bafil on the
part of Henry VI., Thomas Brown, D.D. was elefed to
the vacant fee. John Lowe, the fifty-ninth bifhop, was
provincial of the order of Auguftine friars. He held the
bifhopric twenty-three years, and is fuppofed to have re-
built the palace at Rochefter. He died in 1467, and was
fucceeded by Thomas de Rotherham, fubfequently bifhop
of Lincoln, lord chancellor, and archbifhop of York. The
next bifhop of note was the unfortunate John Fifher, who was
beheaded in 1535, by order of Henry VIII. for maintain-
ing the fupremacy of the pope in ecclefiaftical affairs. His
fucceffor was John Hilfey, D.D. a controvesfial writer of
confiderable eminence, who died in 1538. T'wo years after-
wards, the priory here was furrendered to the king ; and in
1542 anew foundation charter was granted, by which a col-
legiate body was eftablifhed in the church, to confit of a
«« dean, fix prebendaries, fix minor canons, a deacon and
fub-deacon, fix lay clerks, a mafter of the choriltérs, eight
chorifters, one grammar malter, twenty {cholars, two {ub-
facrifts, and fix poor bede{men,”’ befides inferior officers. In
the new eftablifhment, Walter Phillips, the prior of the late
convent, was made firit dean of the cathedral ; and Nicholas
Heath, D.D. was the firft reformed bifhop of the fee.
From his time to the prefent period, twenty-five bifhops have
been advanced to the epifcopal dignity of Rochefter, among
whom the moft noted were the pious Ridley, who fuffered
along with bifhop Latimer at Oxford; Francis Atterbury,
who was exiled for treafonable correfpondence in 1723 ; and
the late bifhop Horfley, one of the moft erudite divines
the church of England can boatft of.
The fituation of Rochefter cathedral is at a fhort diftance
fouth from the High-ftreet, and eaft from the caftle. It is
of a cruciform fhape, and is divided into a nave, aifles, two
tranfepts, and a choir, with a low tower and {pire rifing at
the interfection of the nave and great tranfept. This edifice
evidently appears, from the different ftyles of its architec-
ture, to have been the work of different eras. The chief
part of the nave and welt front difplay the maffive charaGter
of the early Norman age. The weit entrance is particu-
larly deferving of attention, and muft have been, when en-
tire, a mo{t magnificent piece of workmanfhip. The arch
which forms this entrance is femi-circular; and is fup-
ported on each fide by feveral columns, two of which are
cut into ftatues, reprefenting king Henry I. and his queen
Matilda, the patrons of the founder, bifhop Gundulph.
The capitals of all the columns are compofed of wreathed
foliage, mixed with the heads of birds, and other animals.
The lintel of the door, immediately under the arch, exhibits
a figure, probably defigned to reprefent the Saviour,
attended by angels, and the attributes of the four evan-
gelifts. The mouldings of the arch, and the tranfom-
ftone, are charged with varied fculpture. The remaining
parts of the cathedral are comparatively plain in their
exterior. Entering the nave by the wettern door, the
maflive Norman ftyle is confpicuous in the firft five co-
lumns, and half of the fixth, on each fide, all of them fup-
porting circular arches, decorated with zigzag mouldings,
above whichis a feries of {maller arches, having over them
arches, correfponding, both in fize and ornament, with
the larger ones beneath. Still higher are two ranges of
obtufe-pointed windows, each divided into. three lights.
The roof is of timber, with knees fupported on corbels, the
fronts of which are carved into figures of angels fuftaining
fhields, on which are painted the arms of the city, the fee,
and the priory of Rochefter, as well as thofe of the arch-
bifhopric and cathedral of Canterbury. The weit wall ap-
pears to have been divided into ranges of niches, fome of
them crowned with arches, having plain and billetted mould-
ings, fupported on {mall three-quarter columns, with fluted
capitals : others, having neither pillar nor capital, are deco-
rated with zigzag mouldings, continued down the fides of
the recefs. The alterations made in Gundulph’s defign by
the introduétion of the prefent weft window, are clearly to
be feen in the abrupt termination of the different ranges of
thefe niches, fome of them having been cut through the
centre. The two eafternmoft arches of the nave, on each
fide, exhibit a very different ftyle of architecture to the
preceding ; thefe being in the pointed ftyle, with deep
grooved mouldings, rifing from clutters of {lender columns.
The great tower is fupported by four obtufely-pointed
arches, refting on pieces of folid mafonry, which are en-
vironed by flender columns of Petworth marble. The weit
tranfept is in the pointed ftyle; but, from having been erected
at different pertods, the architecture is fomewhat diffimilar.
In the upper part of the north end is a triforium, behind
which are lancet windows, each having a fcreen in front, di-
vided into three arches of unequal height; the vaulting is
of ftone, groined, with a plain grooved moulding : feyeral
of the lefler pillars and impofts of arches are fupported by
corbel
ROCHESTER.
corbel heads, chiefly of monks, which difplay a degree of
ftrength of feature and expreffion, evincing an advanced
ftate of the art of defign. The fouth end of this tranfept
principally varies from the other in its fuperior lightnefs :
like that, it has a triforium in the upper ftory, with lancet
windows behind fcreens. The roof is of timber frame-
work, in imitation of vaulting. Under a large arch, on the
weft fide, is an opening into the chapel of St. Mary, a
ftructure probably erected inthe reign of Henry VII. It
meatures forty-five feet in length, and thirty-five in breadth,
and exhibits on its fouth and weft fides five {pacious windows,
under obtufe arches, and divided by mullions. In this
chapel the confiltory court of the diocefe is held ; and many
of the bifhops are buried within it. The choir is entered
from the nave by an afcent of ten fteps, leading through an
arch, in an unormamented {tone fereen, which fuftains the
organ and organ gallery. The ftyle of building in this part
of the church is uniform in its charaéter ; neat, lofty, and
folid, though not heavy. The whole confifts of two tiers
of pointed arches, decorated with grooved mouldings, and
reiting upon flender columns of Petworth marble, with plain
capitals. All the windows are lancet-fhaped, and are formed
of fingle lights, except thofe neareft to the altar, which are
divided by mullions, and appear to have been formerly filled
with painted glafs. The eaft tranfept of the church has two
aifles, over which are apartments, (afcended to by circular
winding ftaircafes in the wall,) in which were depofited the
veftments, and facred utenfils appertaining to the altars and
fhrines of St. William, St. Paulinus, and others, in the
choir. The northern divition of this tranfept is {till deno-
minated St. William’s chapel, from the popular faint fo
named, whofe remains were there enfhrined ; and to the
number and value of the oblations made at whofe altar the
prefent choir owes its origin. The crypt, which extends
beneath the two laft mentioned portions of the church, has
been thought by fome to beof Norman {truéture ; but more
intelligent antiquaries aflign it to the archite€t of the choir
and upper tranfept, which were built by William de Hoo, in
the reign of Henry III. The pointed arches in the windows
and entrances are evidences of the truth. Running parallel
with the fouth fide of the choir is the chapter-houfe, which
contains the library, and is entered by a richly fculptured
door-way. Ina large hollow between the inner mouldings
is arange of human heads and flowers, in alternate fuccef-
jion. Beyond thefe, and rifing above each other in detached
recefles to the centre of the arch, are fix whole lencth figures,
two of which are conje¢tured to reprefent Henry I. and his
queen Matilda, and the others the bifhops Gundulph, Er-
nulph, Laurence de St. Martin, and Hamo de Hethe, to
the lait of whom the ereétion of this door-way is attributed.
Over thefe figures are {maller ones of angels, two on each
fide, apparently finging praifes and glorifying the Saviour,
who is reprefented ftanding naked under a canopy in the cen-
tre of the arch. The library, befides an excellent collection
of printed books, contains feveral curious and valuable MSS.
among which are the original copies of the Textus Roffenfis
and the Cuttumale Roffenfe.
Rochefter cathedral extends in length from eaft to weft
306 feet, of which 150 are included in the nave and 156 in
the choir. The breadth of the nave, with the fide aifles, is
75 feet, and that of the choir is nearly the fame. The
weitern tranfept meafures 122 feet, and the eaftern one go
feet long. ‘The width of the weit front is gq feet, and the
height of the great tower 156 feet. Several of the monu-
ments in this church are curious, both from their antiquity
and their workmanfhip. In the fouth of the choir is a plain
itone cheft, fuppofed to contain the remains of bifhop Gun-
dulph, and near it is another, on the top of which is {culp-
tured, in high relief, the figure of a bifhop in pontificalibus,
defigned to reprefent Thomas de Ingelthorpe, the 44th
bifhop of the fee. A third ftone cheit, of a fimilar de-
{cription, is thought to be the tomb of bifhop Laurence
de St. Martin, who obtained the canonization of St. Wil-
liam. All thefe chefts are conftruéted of Petworth marble:
feveral others of them are difperfed throughout the cathe-
dral. On an altar-tomb, beneath a double pointed arched
canopy, varioufly ornamented, is a full-length portraiture
of bifhop Walter de Merton, whofe remains are depofited
beneath. Another altar-tomb, in St. William’s chapel, eom-
memorates bifhop Lowe; and near it are the monuments of
bifhop John Warner and two others of his family. On the
north fide of St. Edmund’s chapel, entering into the crypt,
is a headlefs epifcopal figure, {uppofed to faye reprefented
bifhop John de Bradfield, who died in the year 1283 ; and
in the narrow aifle leading to St. William’s chapel, is a
monument attributed to bifhop Hamo de Hethe. The
other perfons who have monuments here are, Richard
Watts, efq. recorder of the city, who had the honour
of entertaining queen Elizabeth at his feat called Satis;
John, lord Henniker, and his lady, the former of whom
died in 1803, and the latter in 1792; fir Richard Head,
and the Rev. Samuel Denne, the learned compiler of the
*¢ Memorials’? of this cathedral, inferted in the Cuftumale
Roffenfe.
Adjoining to the cathedral, on the fouth, are the remains
of the chapter-houfe and cloifter belonging to the priory,
which exhibit a very beautiful feries of Norman arches and
ornaments, but in a ftate of great dilapidation. The door-
way of the chapter-houfe lies under a richly ornamented arch,
having on each another of equal elegance, fupported on fhort
thick columns with flowered and figured capitals, and dif-
playing an unufual variety of mouldings, zigzag, quatrefoil,
and billeted. The mouldings of the fouthernmoft arch unite
with thofe of a fmaller arch, belonging to the cloifter, and
thefe again with the mouldings of a fecond highly enriched
door-way, the {pace between the tranfom of which and the
inner moulding exhibits the mutilated remains of an hiftorical
{culpture. Anarch, rifing from two three-quarter columns,
and interfected by two others fpringing from a central co-
lumn, connects this door-way with a third, likewife rich in
ornaments, though lefs fo than the others. Gundulph’s
tower ftands on the north fide of the cathedral between the
tranfepts. ‘The mafonry of this building is extremely folid,
the walls being ten feet in thicknefs, though the entire build-
ing is only 40 feet {quare. The angles are ftrengthened by
pilafter buttreffes, and the windows have femicircular arches.
The precinéts of this cathedral appear to. have occupied
nearly half the area contained within the walls of the city.
There were three gates leading into them, viz. the Cemetery
gate, St. William’s gate, and the Prior’s gate; the firit
and latt of which are itill remaining. Only a few traces of
the offices of the monattery now exift feparately, but confi-
derable parts of their walls are incorporated into other
buildings. The porter’s lodge confifts of a {mall embattled
tower, with a pointed archway in the centre. The {cite of
the bifhop’s palace, ereéted by Gundulph, is occupied by a
range of modern houfes; and on that of the prior’s lodge
{lands the prefent deanery.
Rochefter had formerly four churches, befides the cathe-
dral, which were dedicated to St. Nicholas, St. Margaret,
St. Clement, and St. Mary, but the lait is now totally de-
molifhed, and St. Clement’s is only to be difcovered as
forming part of fome houfes on the north fide of the High-
ftreet, near the bridge. The church of St. Nicholas was
built in 1421, and confills of a nave, aifles, and a chancel,
with an embattled tower at the north-weft angle. The
y} windows
RO:€
windows are large and pointed ; each being divided into
three lights, with crockets above. St. Margaret’s church
is only remarkable for its fine fituation, on a lofty eminence,
to the fouthward of the High-ftreet. The town-hall ftands
on the north fide of the fame {treet, and was ereéted about
the year 1687. In the lower divifion of this ftruture is the
city prifon ; and in the higher, the hall, a large and lofty room,
containing full-length portraits of king William and queen
Anne, and of feveral perfons of diftin€tion, connected with
the city. The bridge over the Medway, here, was con-
ftru@ted in the reign of Richard Il. by fir Robert Knolles,
and John, third baron de Cobham, who not only defrayed
the expence of its ereGtion, but alfo left a confiderable
eftate for its repair. For height and ftrength, this ftructure
3s allowed to be fuperior to any in England, with the ex-
ception of the bridges in the metropolis. It meafures 560
in length, but is only 14 feet broad between the parapets.
Its arches are eleven in number, but of thefe, three have
been rebuilt in modern times.
The charitable inftitutions in this city are, St. Catharine’s
hofpital, a grammar-fchool, an alms-houfe for the relief of
poor travellers, and a free-fchook. The hofpital was
founded and endowed in 1316, by Simond Potyn, who re-
prefented this city in feven parliaments, for the maintenance
of twelve poor people, who have an allowance of coal,
candle, and money, annually.
The grammar-{chool was founded by king Henry VIII.,
for twenty {cholars, to be called ‘ King’s fcholars,””? with
an upper and under matter ; together with four exhibitions
to the univerfities. The alms-houfe, which ftands on the
north fide of the High-ftreet, was built in the reign of
queen Elizabeth, the proprietor of Satis, before-mentioned,
who left eftates for its fupport. The founder of the free-
{chool was fir Jofeph Williamfon, knt., who died in 1701,
and bequeathed 5ooo/. to be expended in the ereétion of a
fuitable building, and in the purchafe of lands and tenements
to maintain two mafters, and defray the incidental expences
of the eftablifhment. The Hiltory and Antiquities of Ro-
chetter and its Environs, &c. 8vo. Rochefter, 1772. The
Hiftory and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent,
by Edward Hatted, F.R.S. and S. A., Canterbury, 4 vols.
folio, 1778, reprinted, &c. in 8vo. 1797- Hiftory of Kent,
by John Harris, D.D. F.R.S. folio, Lond. 1719. Regif-
trum Roffenfe, and Cuftumale Roffenfe, by John Thorpe,
D.D. A New Topographical, Hiftorical, and Commercial
Survey of Kent, by Charles Seymour, 8vo. 1776. A Topo-
graphic Survey of the County of Kent, by Richard Kilburn,
4to. Lond. 1759. Beauties of England, &c. by E. W.
Brayley, vol. vit.
Rocuester, a townfhip of America, in the county of
Windfor and {tate of Vermont; containing gtr inhabitants.
—Alfo, a townfhip of Plymouth county, Maffachufetts,
52 miles S. of Bofton ; containing 2954 inhabitants.—Alfo,
a townfhip in Strafford county, New Hamphhire, on the
W. fide of the N. branch of Pifcataqua river; 22 miles
N.W. of Portfmouth ; incorporated in 1722, and contain-
ing 2118 inhabitants. One term of the court of common
leas is held annually in this town.—Alfo, a townfhip
in Ulfter county, New York, extending W. to Dela-
ware river ; about 12 miles W. of Efopus.—Alfo, a town-
fhip of Upper Canada, on lake St. Clair, between ‘Tilbury
and Maiditone.
ROCHET, or Rocket, a lawn garment, worn by
pifhops and abbots, refembling a furplice, except in this,
that the fleeves are gathered at the writs; whereas the fur-
plice is quite open. ‘This was one of the facerdotal vett-
ments; and in that refpect differed from a furplice in that
it had no fleeves.
ROC
Menage derives the word from the Latin rochettus, a di-
minutive of rocchus ; ufed in writers of the lower ae for
tunica, and formed originally from the German rof. The
regular canons of St. Auguftine alfo wear rochets under
their copes.
Rocuets alfo denote the mantles worn on days of cere-
mony, by the peers fitting in the Englifh parliament.
Thofe of vifcounts have two bands, or borders, and a
half; thofe of earls, three; thofe of marquifes ehite and
a noe and thofe of dukes, four. t ‘
OCHET, the name given to a fifh, otherwife
lus, and red-gurnard. Re GuRNARD. ge le
ROCHETTA, in the Glafs Trade, ancther name for
polverine.
Rocuetta, in Geography, a town of Feance, in the
Lana of the Maritime Alps; 16 miles N.E. of
JINice.
ROCHETTE, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri€&t of Chambery, on the Galon; 10 miles S. ER of
Chambery. The place contains 855, and the canton gogz
inhabitants, on a territory of 85 kiliometres, in 18 com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Forefts ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Dierich.
ROCHFORD, ‘a market-town, in a hundred of the
fame name, and county of Effex, England, is feated on
the bank of a {mall rivulet, called the Broomhill, at the
diftance of 16 miles S.E. of Chelmsford, and 39 miles E.
of London. The petty feffions for Rochford divifion of
Effex are held here. The privilege of holding markets was
granted to this town by king Henry III., and confirmed
by Edward I. The market-houfe is a mean ftru@ure of
timber. The market-day is Thurfday, weekly ; and there
are annual fairs on Eafter Tuefday, and the Wednefday
next after the 29th of September. None of the buildings
in the town are worthy of notice. The parifh church
which ftands about half a mile to the weitward, is a plain
edifice, with a lofty brick tower at the weft end. Near it
ftands Rochford-hall, the manor-houfe. It is a large and
ftately building, for fome time fucceffively the feat and
refidence of the Rochfords, the Botelers, earls of Ormond
and Wiltfhire, fir Thomas Bullen, and Richard, lord Riche.
This town gives the title of an earl to the family of Naflau.
The parifh contains, according to the population returns of
1811, 190 houfes, and 1214 inhabitants.
The manor of this town was held by Suene at the time
of the Domefday furvey ; and now is vetted in the Long
family of Wanttead park. A fingular cuftom, called the
Lawlcfs-court, appertains to this manor; and is faid
to have originated in a confpiracy againft the lord of
the manor; but detecting it, he ordained as a punifh-
ment, that the tenants fhould ever afterwards aflemble, at
a certain hour of the night, on the fame fpot where the
confpirators met, and do homage for their lands. The
place is called King’s-hill, where they were to aflemble at
midnight on the firit Wednefday after Michaelmas day, and
tranfaét all their bufinefs in whifpers, and record the minutes
with coal, initead of pen and ink. This ridiculous cuftom
was, till lately, continued. About four miles S.W. is Had-
teigh Caitle, confifting of fome bold ruins; and near it is
Southend, a noted watering-place. See SouTHEND.
Raleigh, in this vicinity, though now an inconfiderable
village, was formerly a market-town, and the head of the
barony of Suene, a powerful Anglo-Saxon Dane, who is
reported to have built a caltle here, of which fome im-
portant earth-works itillremain. Thefe confift of a mount
of an oval fhape at the bafe, which is environed by
double ditch and rampart, and is further feeured by addi-
9 tional
ROE
tional embankments on the eaft fide. The principal ditch
is nearly fifty feet wide, and appears to have been originally
of great depth. The church of Raleigh is a handfome
Deistined in the pointed ftyle of architeCture, and contains
a very ancient tomb, of beautiful “ Gothic”? workmanthip,
but without any infcription to determine the name of the
perfon it was defigned to commemorate.
About three miles to the N. W. of Rochford, on the fum-
mit of a hill, ftands the remains of a very ancient church,
fuppofed to be the fame which Simeon Dunelmenfis {tates
to have been founded by Canute and Turkill in memory of
the victory obtained by them over king Edmund Ironfide,
within the adjoining parifh of Aflingdon or Afhingdon.
The tower is alow maffive oGtagon, fupported by itrong
buttreffes ; and in the interior are five thick columns with
flightly ornamented capitals, dividing the nave from a north
aifle. At Canewdon, to the eaftward of Afhingdon, is an
ancient encampment, of an oblong form, which probable
conjecture attribut:s to the Danes. Its area contains about
fix acres of ground. The Hiftory and Antiquities of the
County of Effex, by Philip Morant, M.A. 2 vols. folio,
1768, London. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v.
by E. W. Brayley and John Britton.
ROCHLITZY, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leip-
fic, on the Mulda; containing three churches and a citadel,
and a manufa@ture of cloth, {tuffs, and linen; 20 miles S.E.
of Leipfic. N. lat. 51°8!. E. long.:12° 41'.
ROCHOIS, La, in Biography, one of the firft fingers
in Lulli’s famous operas, whofe abilities were not very ftu-
pendous, if we may judge of them by the fongs which he
had to execute. Good voices and good action feem to have
conitituted the principal merit of this finger. Many of them
were brought from remote provinces of the kingdom, before
they had any knowledge of mufic, and were taught their
parts by Lulli himfelf and his father-in-lav, Lambert,
merely by the ear. But Luili not only taught his vocal
performers to fing, but to aét; and fometimes gave inftruc-
tions even to the dancers. The celebrated La Rochois, we
find, had no other matter in finging than the opera com-
pofer, Lulli. Hitt. de la Muf. par Bonnet, t. iii. p. 207
and 209.
ROCHSBURG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
the lordfhip of Schonburg ; one mile E. of Penig.
ROCHSTADT, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Halberitadt ; 10 miles E. of Halberitadt.
ROCHUKE, a town of Bulgaria, fituated on the banks
cf the Danube, at the foot of a hill which continues for
feveral miles near the river, and is cevered with vineyards.
It is a large and populous town, about the frze of Liver-
pool.
ROCITO, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; 7 miles S.
of Volturara.
ROCK, in Geology, a large mafs of ftone, forming part
of the folid covering or cruft of the globe. In common lan-
guage, rocks are the bare projecting ftony mafles that rife
above the level of the ground or fea; but the geologift de-
nominates every bed of ftone that cempofes the compact
part of our planet a rock, whether it be elevated to view,
or buried deep under the furface.
The compofition, itru€ture, and arrangement of rocks
comprife a moft important part of the natural hiftory of the
earth, which is now beginning to engage the attention of
philofophers in various parts of the wor Numerous and
extended obfervations have greatly enlarged our knowledge
of faéts, and expofed the fallacy of many of thofe unfounded
diftinétions and premature generalizations, which, dignified
ROC
with the name of fyftems, have retarded the progreis of
{cience.
In the earlieft periods of civilization, when ftone began
to be employed for purpofes of archite@ure or fculpture, it
mutt have been immediately perceived that the rocks of dif-
ferent diftri€ts varied greatly from each other ; and often in
the fame mountain, the upper and lower rocks were ob-
ferved to be of various kinds and qualities.
In the knowledge of the qualities which enfure durability
to the labours of the architeét, the ancients appear to have
greatly exceeded the moderns; but they did not extend
their inquiries refpeéting rocks to any other objects than
thofe of immediate utility. Nor, till about the middle of
the lait century, was the ftru€ture of the external part of
the earth regarded as an object deferving the inveitigation
of men of fcience, who confined themfelves to forming
theories of the earth in their ftudies, in preference to an ac-
tive examination of nature.
About that time, Lehman, a German mineralogift, ob-
ferved that certain rocks occupy the lowett relative pofition
in mountainous diftri&s, and that thefe rocks contain no re-
mains of animals or vegetables; but in the upper rocks, nu-
merous impreffions and petrified relics of animals and vege-
tables abound. Hence he inferred, that the firlt were con-
folidated before the exiftence of organized life ; and on this
account, they were called primitive or primary. The latter
were called fecondary rocks, becaufe they not only con-
tained thefe organic reliquiz, but alfo fragments of the
former rocks, and hence were fuppofed to be of later
formation.
This divifion into two claffes was continued by geologilts
until the clofe of the lait century, when M. Werner, the
celebrated profeffor of mineralogy at Freyburg, introduced
into his arrangement another clafs, called tranfition rocks,
which includes thofe rocks that are, in many of their cha-
racters, fimilar to primary rocks, but in which fome organic
remains occafionally occur: hence he fuppofed they were
formed when the earth was pafling from an uninhabitable to
a habitable ftate. The ftratified fecondary rocks he deno-
minated fleetz rocks, from the German word fez, fignify-
ing flat, becaufe thefe rocks are generally divided into pa-
rallel ftrata, which are not greatly inclined from an hori-
zontal pofition. The lower of thefe rocks were called the
oldeit fitz rocks, and the upper the newer fletz rocks.
(See GzoLocy, where a detailed account is given ofthe
Wernerian arrangement.) Since that article appeared, more
extended obfervations have induced even the warmeft fup-
porters of the Wernerian fy{tem to queftion the propriety of
fome of its diftin@ions.
« The fyitem of claffification introduced by Werner was
formed principally from obfervations made in Saxony, and
had great merit, a3 illuitrating the geology of that part of
Germany ; but it has been objeGted with much reafon to
the general adoption of the terms, that they were framed to
fuit a particular theory, before a fufficient number of faés
had been collected to warrant its reception. Subfequent
difcoveries have alfo proved, that the different clafles, into
which Werner has divided rocks, have not the marked and
definite characters neceflary to conititute a natural fyftem
of arrangement. Even the profeifor who firft introduced
into this country the divifions of tranfition and fletz rocks,
as a moft important difcovery of Werner, now {tates his
Opinion, ‘ that tranfition rocks may alternate with fretz rocks,
and, therefore, that the tranfition and flatz claffes are not
Separated from each other in the manner generally alleged.’
This admiffion is the more remarkable, when we recolle@
the extreme confideuce with which the propriety of this
clafiification
ROCK.
claffification was fupported, and the folemn trifling often
employed to determine whether certain rocks belonged to
the tranfition or fleetz clafles.”? (Bakewell’s Introduétion
to Geology, 2d edit.) Indeed the term primary, or pri-
mitive, is objected to by fome geologifts, who confider
thefe rocks as having been ina {late of igneous fufion by
fubterranean fire, which gave to them their cryftalline ftruc-
ture; but the heat a¢ted with lefs force on the rocks
by which they are covered, hence the latter are more
earthy. Nor are appearances wanting to fupport this
opinion. Well-authenticated inftances are known of veins
fhooting from the lower into the upper rocks; and
though much labour has been employed to controvert this
fa&t, it is now undoubted. The granite of Cornwall
fends up veins into the fuperincumbent {chiftus, or killas ;
hence it was inferred that the latter, which is confidered as
a fecondary rock, was older than the granite or primary
rock. It is evident the killas cannot be of more recent
formation. Both rocks were probably contemporaneous ;
in which cafe, we may conceive that veins might fhoot from
the lower into the upper, previoufly to their acquiring a
compact folid flate. Nor will the abfence of organic re-
mains alone prove the prior formation of thefe rocks; for
among rocks abounding in petrifaétions of animals or ve-
getables, many beds of rock occur in which no fuch.remains
are ever met with, although we are certain to find them in
the {trata immediately above and below. We have no
means of afcertaining that the fimilar rocks of different
diftri@s were formed at the fame time; nor can we be
certain that they have not once contained organic re-
mains, that were deftroyed during the procefs by which they
acquired their prefent cryftalline itructure. We may, how-
ever, with apparent probability, infer, that their formation
was prior to the exiitence of animals and vegetables in our
planet, in its prefent fate ; becaufe the rocks which im-
mediately cover them contain almoft exclufively the organic
remains of zoophytes, or thofe zaimals which are confidered
as forming the firit link in the chain of animated beings.
It is only from the exiltence of thefe organic remains,
we can infer, with any certainty, that the rocks in which
they occur were formed int fucceffion. The difference of
thefe remains in the upper and lower rocks mark diftin&
epochs in the natural hiftory of the globe. In the lowett
rocks, which have a cryftalline granitic ftru€ture, no animal
or yegetable remains have ever been found; but the cal-
careous rocks, which immediately cover them, contain fome
few remains of zoophytes and fhell-fifh ; and in the argil-
laceous flate rocks, allo, we occafionally meet with vege-
table matter. In the fand-ftone ftrata over thefe, the re-
mains of vegetables are abundant. Above thefe again, in
the upper calcareous ftrata, entire fifh are occafionally
found, with zoophytes and fhell-fifh, of a {pecies different
from thofe in the lower ftrata. In the thick beds of alu-
minous fhale and clay over thefe, occur the remains of the
fhark and alligator; and in the alluvial foil which covers the
whole, the bones of the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hip-
popotamus, and the maftodonton or mammoth, and of va-
rious unknown quadrupeds, are found both in our own
country, and in many parts of Europe, Afia, and America.
But neither in the upper nor lower rocks, nor in alluvial
ground, have any remains of human fkeletons been found,
except where mines had formerly been worked, or in fitua-
tions where their occurrence could be explained by recent
caufes ; fuch as inundations and volcanic operations, as on
the fhores of Guadaloupe and in the neighbourhood of
Vefuvius.
We believe our own countryman, Mr. W. Smith, was the
firft perfon who obferved that remains of diftin& genera and
fpecies of animals were peculiar to certain ftrata, and that the
occurrence of the fame remains was fufficient to identity
the fame ttratum, throughout a whole diftriét, wherever it
could be examined. The fagacious naturalift M. Cuvier
has applied the fame difcovery to illuttrate the geology
of the country round Paris, a diftriét moft remarkable
for the number and variety of foflile fkeletons, and other
reliquiz which it contains. See STRATA.
It is not a little remarkable, that few of the reliquie, whe-
ther in the upper or lower rocks, belong to exilting {pecies
of marine or terreftrial animals ; and the vegetable petrifac-
tions found in northern latitudes refemble moft thofe of tro-
pical climates.
The natural hiftory of rocks comprifes, the fubftances of
which they are compofed, their internal and external ftruc-
ture, their pofition, and the order of fucceffion, from the
lowelt rocks with which we are acquainted upwards to the
furface—their decompolition, and the mode of their forma-
tion. The latter is the province of {peculative geology, for
it is only in one clafs of rocks, the volcanic, that we have
any experience of their actual formation.
The mineral repofitories peculiar to certain rocks will be
defcribed under the article Verns, Mineral and Metallic.
The Compofition of Rocks:—Rocks are either fimple or
compound. Thofe rocks whichare compofed of one mine-
ral fubftance, are: called fimple, fuch as flate, ferpentine,
lime-ftone, &c. although thefe minerals may be compofed of
various elementary fubitances. Thus clay-flate, or flate, con-
fitts of filex and alumine, combined with oxyd of iron and
carbon ; but the combination is fo intimate, as to prefent
the appearance of an homogeneous fubftance. When two
or more minerals enter into the compofition ef rocks, they
are called compound. Thus granite is compofed of quartz,
felfpar, and mica, clofely united together, but each of thefe
minerals preferves its own peculiar character. The ele-
mentary fubttances of which all rocks, both fimple and
compound, are formed, are, the earths filex, alumine, lime,
magnefia, the oxyd of iron, carbon, and fulphur. (See Sinex,
Avumine, &c.) The newly difcovered earths and me-
tallic ores, except iron, rarely form the fubftance of rocks,
but are found in the veins and fiflures by which they are in-
terfected.
From the above elementary fubftances, either feparately
or combined, all the fimple minerals are formed which com-
pofe rocks and mountains. But it may be remarked, that
filex enters moft largely into the compotition of all the lower
cryftalline rocks (except granular lime-ftones) : it forms
more than two-third parts of the lower cruft of the globe,
The moft important fimple minerals which form rocks and
mountains, are quartz, felfpar, argillaceous f{chift, or clay-
flate, lime-itone, hornblende, ferpentine, chlorite, mica, talc,
hornftone, jafper, flint, bituminous fhale, and alum-flate.
Bafaltic or trap rocks, and lava, are fometimes compofed
of one apparently homogeneous fubftance, but more fre-
quently they prefent, the appearance of compound rocks.
For the characters of thefe minerals, fee QUARTZ, FELsPAR,
&e.
When two or more of thefe minerals are intermixed toge-
ther, they form compound rocks ; in thefe the minerals are
either clofely united together, without any vifible cement 3
or aggregated and held together by the intervention of an-
other mineral fubftance, which ferves as a cement, and is
‘fometimes called the palte.
The Struéure of Rocks, internal and external. The latter,
or the ftru€ture of rocks en mafe, is as diltint from the
former, as the order of architecture of a building is diftinet
3 2 from
ROCK.
from: the form of the bricks or ftenes of which it is
conttru@ed.. The internal ftruGture of fimple minerals
belongs properly to the department of the mineralogift,
and that of compound rocks, with their external ftruc-
ture, to the geologift. Compound rocks are either
Granitic, compofed of grains or cryftals, united without
a cement, as in granite.
. Porphyritic, coniifting of a compa& ground, in which
diftin& cryftals are imbedded ; or of a granitic ground, in
which fome of the cryftals are much larger than the reft.
Amygdaloidal, from the Latin amygdala, an almond, con-
taining kernel-fhaped cavities, filled with other mineral fub-
flances.
Conglomerated, compofed of fragments, or rounded ftones,
cemented together, as in breccias and pudding-ftone.
Granular, compofed of {mall grains, either cemented, or
adhering, as in fand-ftones.
The external itru€ture of rocks is either
Stratified, compofed of layers or itrata.
Tabular, in large plates: this includes the flaty ftru€ture in
the mais.
Columnar, in regular columns or prifms.
Globular, in {pherical males.
Indeterminate, which includes all unftratified rocks that
have no determinate fhape. ;
Stratified mountains, or rocks, are compofed of layers or
ftrata lying over each other, and divided by parallel feams,
like the leaves of a clofed book. In the feams or partings
which divide the ftrata, there are frequently thin lamine of
foft earthy matter, but fometimes the furfaces of the upper
and lower ftratum are clofely joined, and require confi-
derable force to cleave them afunder. The layers are denomi-
nated ftrata. See StrATA.
It has been admitted, without fufficient evidence, that all
ftratified rocks were formed of the fediment of turbid water,
which arranged them in fucceflion over each other, as the
muddy waves of the ocean depofit their contents in regular
layers upon the fhore. This mode of formation is called
mechanical depofition. It has alfo been generally believed,
that all rocks divided by parallel feams were formed mecha-
nically by the a€tion of water, and as fuch layers occur oc-
cafionally in cryftalline rocks, it was inferred by fome
geologiits that this was a proof that fuch rocks had
been formed by water. Thus the tabular ftruture, which
confifts of tables or plates of rock that have generally
a vertical dire€tion, and frequently a flaty cleavage, has
been confounded with ftratification : this has given rife to
much confufion and contradi€tion in the defcription of rocks ;
fome geologifts denying, and others afferting the ftratification
of the fame rock. The tabular and flaty ftru€ture of many
rocks may, with as great probability, be attributed to cryftal-
line arran , as the lamellar ftru€ture of a cryftal of fel-
fpar, or a plate of mica. The laws of cryftallization have but
recently arrefted the attention of philofophers, and their re-
fearches have been principally confined to their effe&ts in a
fmall. fcale. The cryftallization of mountain maffes is
equally deferving of notice, as to this caufe muft we refer
both their tabular, columnar, ~ eed ftru&ture.
The columnar ftru€ture confifts of regular columns or
polyhedral prifms, and is almoft peculiar to trap or bafaltic
rocks, and to volcanic rocks: thefe fometimes form vatt
ranges of natural columns, as in Iceland, the Lipari iflands,
the Motta in Sicily, the Giants’ Caufeway in Ireland, and
at Staffa. It was long contended againft all probability,
that thefe columns were the effects of accidental rents occa-
fioned by the drying or fhrinking in of the mafs ; but their
Vor. XXX.
a)
regularity, and (in many inftances) the convex and concave
articulations of the joints, prove that they are effe@is of cryf-
tallization, ‘Thefe columns have been obferved by Col. Imrie
and others formed in currents of lava, that could be traced
to the craters of volcanoes. ‘TranfaGtions of the Wernerian
Society, vol. ii. pt. 1.
The globular ftruéture confiits of balls, fometimes de
tached, at other times imbedded in rocks of the fame kind.
Thefe balls are frequently compofed of concentric {pherical
layers. This itructure 1s not unfrequent in bafaltic and
granitic rocks, The balls are generally harder than the rocks
in which they are imbedded, and frequently retain their fhape
after the outer rock is decompofed. Inftances of this ftru@ure
occur in the bafaltie rock of Staffordfhire, called Rowley Rag.
(See Rowxey Rag.) Globular diftin@ concretions of granite
are from one to two or more fathoms in diameter. Thefs con-
cretions are again compofed of curved lamellar concretions, and
always include a harder central mafs. The {paces between the
globes are filled with granite poffefling lefs folidity, which
decays more readily, and thus leaves the hardet central maffes
heaped on each other, or ftrewedabout. Thefe diftinét concre-
tions muft not be confounded with rolled maffes. Beautiful
examples of thefe concretions occur in the ifland of Arran,
Bohemia, the Hartz, the Fichtelgebirge, and other places.
The indeterminate or amorphous itru€ture appears to be
the molt common in unftratified rocks; but our confined
and partial obfervations may frequently lead us to conclude,
that rocks have no determinate ftru€ture, whereas, could we
afcertain their arrangement throughout their whole extent,
we might perceive that their ftructure, viewed on a great fcale,
was as regular as that of many ftratified rocks.
The pofition of rocks, with re{pe& to each other, is an in-
terefting fubjeét of geological inquiry, as it is fuppofed to de-
termine their relative ages, and to elucidate the mode of their
formation. When one rock covers another in fuch a manner
as to appear moulded upon it, having the fame elevations and
depreffions, it is faid by the German geologifts to lie in a cons
formable pofition. In this manner the fchiftofe or flaty
rocks frequently cover rocks and mountains of granite.
Stratified rocks are alfo generally conformable to the fhape
of the lower rocks, except in fituations where the ftrata
appear to have been broken by fome fubfequent convulfion
of nature, which has deranged their original pofition, and
occafioned them to abut againft each other, or has given the
upper itrata a contrary inclination to the lower. In this
cafe their pofitioa is faid to be unconformable. Where
mafles of unitratified rocks cover other rocks, filling up the
cavities, and lie without any conformity to the fhape of the
lower rocks, they are called unconformable and overlying.
This pofition is common to moft rocks of volcanic origin, and
to bafaltic rocks ; in the former there can be no doubt re-
{pecting the mode of their formation. Streams of liquid
lava pouring through vatt fiffures and openings have covered
the inequalities of the lower grounds, filling up vallies, and
accumulating as the lava cooled and confolidated, thus
forming immenfe mounds ard abrupt precipices ; fome geo-
logifts afcribea fimilar formation to bafaltic and porphyritic
overlying rocks.
Thofe rocks which are commonly imbedded in other rocks,
are faid to be fubordinate formations ; thus granular lime-ftone,
ferpentine, and hornblende, frequently form beds in {chiftofe
rocks, fuch as gneifs, mica-flate, and clay.flate, and are then
defcribed by geologiits as fubordinate to the latter.
Befide the above pofitions, the continuity of rocks is fre-
quently broken by vertical feams or fiffures filled with mineral
matter different from that of the reck which they interfed.
3D (See
ROCK.
{See Veins, Mineral and Metallic.) Thefe vertical feams of
rock are fometimes of vat extent, and vary in width from a
few inches to feveral hundred feet. The moft obvious in-
ference is, that the folid covering of the globe has been rent,
and the mineral matter ejected in a {tate of fufion into the
jnterftices. The fimilarity of the mineral matter in the
greater part of thefe fiflures, provincially called dykes, to
that of volcanic eruptions, adds much probability to this
opinion. Where thefe dykes occur, the original pofition of
the rocks on each fide is generally changed.
The diflocation of rocks and ftrata has been moft noticed
in mining diftri€ts, where it is not unfrequently obferved,
that a ftratum which has extended with a regular inclination
over a large track of country, is fuddenly thrown down feveral
hundred yards or more, and often funk below the power of
the miner to regain it. Sometimes the ftrata are thrown
upwards, and a feries of rocks, which exift on one fide of
the fra€ture, are entirely removed on the other, and have
totally difappeared.
The.change in the original pofition of all rocks and
ftrata, with refpe€t to the level of the fea, is a moft im-
portant and incontrovertible fact. Whether the fea has
diminifhed or retired into cavities in the earth, or whether
the rocks and mountains have been raifed by an expanfive
force, which has breken the folid covering of our planet,
and lifted them from the watery aby{s to the prefent eleva-
tion, are queftions that may long divide the opinions of geo-
logifts; but that the fummits of our higheft mountains
were buried for ages under the ocean cannot admit of doubt.
On fome of thefe fummits, remains of marine animals are at
prefent widely {pread ; indeed, many of the calcareous moun-
tains of vaft extent and height appear to be almoft entirely
formed of marine fhells, which are not heaped together in
confufion, but the upper and lower beds of rock contain
remains of {pecies diftin& from each other ; this proves that
they were not depofited in their prefent fituation by any —
fudden inundation, but have been collected in fucceffion at
dittant periods of time.
In {chiftofe mountains, confidered as primary, the beds
of rock have generally a vertical pofition. Some geologifts
fuppofe that all thefe beds were originally depofited hori-
zontally, and have been fubfequently elevated by fome
mighty convulfion of nature. Sauflure, who has invef-
tigated with fo much labour the ftru€ture of the Alps, has
drawn this conclufion with refpe& to the rocks which com-
pofe Mont Blanc, and the mountains in its vicinity ; but
we are inclined to believe that the {tructure of thefe moun-
tains, as defcribed by this intelligent philofopher, may in
many inftances be explained in a more fatisfa¢tory manner,
by confidering it as the refult of cryftallization on a large
fcale, and the vertical beds of rock as plates of enormous
eryftals: indeed, Sauffure himfelf appears to have been very
frequently impreffed with furprife at the tendency to
cryftalline arrangement obfervable in thefe mountain maifles,
which he defcribes as prefenting regular pyramidal or
rhomboidal forms. The cryflalline nature of the rocks
themfelves, and the minerals which fill the vertical feams,
point to cryftallization as the great agent in the formation
of thefe mountains, whether it took place in an aqueous
folution, or when the whole was in a ftate of igneous fufion
deep under. the furface. In one fituation near the great
pyramids of granite, on the fouth-ealt fide of the valley
of Chamouni, he defcribes a chain of mountains feven or
eight leagues in extent, in which the vertical fection of the
beds prefents an arrangement exactly fimilar to that of the
fticks of an opened fan. The loweit beds are nearly hori-
zontal, but they gradually rife till they become vertical a¢
the fummit. He fays, that many other inftances might be
cited of a fimilar arrangement. Now, we can fcarcely con-
ceive it poflible for any overturning of the mountain to have
produced fuch a pofition of the beds; but in the cryttalliza-
tion of minerals on a fmaller fcale the diverging ftru@ure
is common. There is, however, one faét, which, if it can
be fatisfaCtorily afcertained, will prove the truth of Sauf-
fure’s opinion, that the vertical pofition’ of fome of thefe
rocks was not their original one. In his defcription of the
rocks in Valorfine, he fays, that he found vaft beds of pud-
ding-ftone in a vertical pofition, between fchiflofe rocks in
a fimilar pofition ; the beds on one fide are gneifs or mica-
flate, and on the other flate and fand-ftone. The bed of
pudding-ftone is roo toifes thick ; it confifts of a fine pafte
or cement, compofed of extremely fine {chiftofe fand-{tone,
with minute plates of mica, that are perfe@ly parallel to
the feams which divide the beds. :
The fragments vary in fize, from that of a grain of fand,
to fix or feven inches in diameter ; fome are angular and others
rounded, refembling the boulders on the fhores of the lake
of Geneva. Thefe fragments and boulders are of gneifs,
mica-flate, and quartz, but none are of clay-flate. Sauffure
has obferved, that it is impoffible for thefe rounded boulders
to have been originally placed in a vertical fituation. If
they were formed mechanically by the a¢tion of water, like
thofe on the borders of the lake of Geneva, this inference
is undeniable ; and we mutt farther admit with Sauffure, that
the mafs of this mountain, which is 1181 toifes above the
level of the fea, has been overturned by the fame revolution
which has given a vertical direction to the whole; for all thefe
beds having the fame inclination and diretion as that of
the pudding-ftone, we are compelled to grant that their
original fituation was the fame, and that they have fuf-
fered the fame change from the fame caufe. The only
objection to this inference that can, with any probability,
be urged, is, that thefe rounded {tones may not really be
water-worn boulders and pebbles, but were formed in the
fame manner as the bolls of bafalt and granite, which are
fometimes imbedded in bafaltic or granitic rocks, and which
are acknowledged to be the refult of a tendency to cry{-
talline arrrangement.
Sauflure, however, was fully eonvinced that they were
real boulders, and his guide, on feeing a number of the fame
rounded fragments on the fummit of a mountain in the
vicinity, exprefled his furprife at finding, in that elevated
fituation, the pebbles and boulders he was accuftomed
to fee on the borders of the lake. The boulders, in this
fituation, were evidently the remains of fimilar beds of pud-
ding-ftone, of which the pafte or cement had been decom-
pofed and wafhed away.
It is obferved, that fecondary ftrata always rife towards
the primitive mountains in their vicinity, which adds proba-
bility to the opinion, that the latter were forced up from
great depths, and have raifed with them the rocks by which
they were originally covered, and which now border the
primary. The difciples of Werner, however, contend, that
the elevation of fecondary ftrata is occafioned by the incli-
nation of the rocks on which they were originally depofited,
and that they have undergone no fubfequent change.
Succeffion of Rocks.—There are certain rocks, which com-
monly occupy the loweft relative pofition in various parts
of the world; the rocks which cover them are frequently
arranged in a fequence, which has much fimilarity in diftant
diftricts.
Werner, who formed his fyftem from obfervations made
in
ROCK.
ia Saxony, where the order of fucceflion prefented con-
fiderabie regularity, concluded that each principal rock
conftituted what he called a univerfal formation, or was
originally {pread round the globe, and that thefe formations
fucceeded in a determinate order, encircling each other like
the coats of an onion. :
More recent and extended obfervations do not confirm
this conclufion to the full extent to which it was carried by
the German géologifts. Of the thirteen rocks which he
claffes as primary, fome are entirely unknown in various
parts of the world, and one of them, the topaz rock, has
hitherto been found only in Saxony. Many of the fecondary
rocks, which occupy a confiderable {pace in Europe, are no
where met with in North or South America. In Afia,
we are informed by travellers, that a range of mountains,
compofed of jafper, extends far more than a thoufand
miles through the eaftern parts of Siberia, including Gore
ifland, between that country and America. A _ geologiit,
who refided in Siberia, might be difpofed to regard jatper
as the principal rock-formation in the world, as it extends
over a far greater fpace than the diltri€ts in which Werner
laid the foundation of his fyitem ; on the contrary, in many
parts of Europe, jafper is little known, nor is it even enu-
merated among the principal rocks of Werner.
Mr. Bakewell, in his ‘ Introduétion to Geology,”
admits only three principal rocks in the clafs of primary ;
in which arrangement he is fupported by D’Aubuiffon, an
intelligent difciple of Werner, who, on a recent examination
of the mountains in-the department of Mont Blanc, found
that many of the rocks, heretofore regarded as primary,
contain fome organic remains ; hence he admits of one pri-
mary formation only, which includes granite, gneifs, and
mica-flate.
Brongniart, a celebrated French mineralogift, has more
recently declared his opinion, that it is no longer poffible to
admit the claffifications eftablifhed by Werner. “ At the
time when thefe were formed, they rendered an effential
fervice to geology, and created the {cience ; but new obfer-
vations muit produce correfpondent changes in the denomi-
nations and fyftem of arrangement.”? Journal des Mines,
May 1814. Without adhering to fyftems, further than
they are fupported by faéts, we confider granite as the
loweft rock that is generally met with in alpine diftriGs.
Granite is frequently covered by a rock called gneifs, a kind
of flaty granite; on this occurs micaceous fchift, or mica-flate.
For the charaéters of thefe rocks, fee Granire, Gneiss, and
Mica-Slate.
Thefe three rocks are frequently obferved graduating
into each other, and fometimes alternating. The fubftances
which compofe them appear to have been in a fluid ftate, and
to have united in various forms and proportions; and cer-
tain caufes have given to the outer part a {chiftofe or flaty
ftruGture. The gneifs and mica-flate are generally moulded
over the granite, with the fame elevations and depreffions.
Beds of other rocks, particularly of granular lime-itone,
hornblende rock, and ferpentine, occur occafionally in thefe
rocks, with beds and veins of metallic ores.
The higheft mountains on the continents of Europe and
Afia are compofed of thefe rocks. Mont Blanc is 15,680
feet above the level of the fea.
Granite rocks are in fome inftances immediately covered
by flate; and in others, fecondary ftratified rocks reft upon
granite, without the intervention ef rocks which ufually ac-
company it. More commonly, mountains of flate, or the
coarie kind of flate-rock, called by the Germans grey-wacke
and grey-wacke flate, cever the mica-flate and gneifs. Im-
“menfe beds of lime-itone frequently accompany this kind of
flate, in which the remains of marine animals, principally zoo-
phytes, appear, but different from any known exiting {pecies.
A very thick bed of fand-ftone, frequently coloured red by
the oxyd of iron, often accompanies the coarfe flate. It
is called by Werner the old red fand-itone, and is fucceeded
by beds of lime-ftone, in which the organic remains of zoo-
phytes and fhell-fifh are more abundant : thefe are the loweft
rocks in which metallic veins ufually occur. Over this lime-
ftone we meet with numerous {trata of argillaceous and filice-
ous fand-ftones, and foft flate or faale, abounding with impref-
fions of vegetables, impregnated with bituminous and carbo-
naceous matter, and alternating frequently with beds of coal.
Thefe fecondary {tratified rocks, called by the Germans
fleetz rocks, will be more particularly defcribed under the
article STRATA.
Again, over the ftrata containing coal, or more properly
on the boundary of thefe itrata neareft the fea, we meet
with calcareous ftrata containing the remains of marine
animals, but different from thofe found in the lower rocks.
Thefe calcareous {trata confift of calcareous fand-ftone, roe-
itone, and chalk. See Rox-Stone, and CHALK.
It is remarkable that chalk, which is extenfively fpread
over the fouthern counties of England, and the oppofite
coaft of France, and in many of the countries adjoining
the Baltic, is unknown in North and South America,
and various parts of the world. Over the chalk are found
thick beds of clay and fand; and in fome parts of Eu-
rope there occurs ever thefe a feries of ftrata, containing
the remains of frefh-water fhells and quadrupeds. See
Srrata, in which an account will be given of the frefh-
water formation of {trata in the vicinity of Paris and the
fouthern parts of England. This appears to be the lateit
formation of rock that we are acquainted with, except what
is taking place in our own times by volcanic fires.
It is worthy of remark, that we meet with no organic
remains in the loweft rocks we are acquainted with ; that the
rocks over thefe contain a few remains principally of marine
animals ; that the rocks which immediately cover the marine
remains, or the coal feries, abound in vegetable impreffions
and carbonaceous matter; but we rarely meet with animal
remains of any kind in thefe ftrata, until we approach nearer
the fea-fhore, when other calcareous itrata occur again, con-
taining, almoit exclufively, the remains of marine animals, but
different from thofe in the lower rocks. Thefe latter ftrata
confift of calcareous fand-ftone, roe-itone, and chalk. See
Rokr-Stone. ;
Befide the rocks, in which fome order of fuperpofi-
tion may frequently be traced, there are other rocks
which are thrown over them, apparently by fome great
convulfion of nature which has broken the furface of the
globe, and forced them into their prefent pofition, without
any regular order of fucceflion. Thefe rocks confift of por-
phyry, fienite, trap, or bafalt. From the nature of thefe
rocks, and the fimilarity of their pofition with that of vol-
canic rocks, mary philofophers have attributed the fame
mode of formation to both, and fuppofe that the former
have been orignally currents of lavas formed in remote
ages.
Etusibuids, who has made more extended obfervations on
volcanoes than any philofopher who has preceded him, fays, that
in the fubftances which have been ejected during volcanic
eruptions, a gradation may be traced from the more ancient to
thofe of mcre recent date, and that the latter have always a
nearer refemblance to the lavas ejected at the prefent time. If
this obfervation be correct, it will probably lead to the con-
3D2 clufion,
ROCK.
clufion, that. rocks of porphyry, fienite, trap, bafalt, and
lava, had all a fimilar mode of formation, as they agree in fo
many characters of compofition and ftructure. See VoLcANno,
Voicanic Produds, Trap, and SIENITE.
As Mont Blanc in Switzerland is the higheft mountain
on the continent of Europe or Afia that has been examined
by any eminent mineralogilk, we fhall give a fhort account of
jts ftru€ture, and the rocks which compofe its f{ummit, as de-
{cribed by Sauffure, who afcended it in 1786, and who had
devoted many years to the ftudy of the rocks in its vicimity.
Thefe rocks, fituated nearly 2400 fathoms above the fea,
are interefting, as being the molt elevated that have been
obferved by naturalifts ; and the {carcity of rock f{pecimens,
brought from great elevations, renders his account the more
deferving of notice. A more numerous collection of fuch
f{pecimens from various parts of the globe would throw much
light on this department of f{cience.
After having gained the higheft point of the mountain,
‘the firft thing which itruck me,” fays Sauflure, “in
the entire view of the high mountainous fummits which I
had under my eyes from the fummit of Mont Blanc, (the
higheft of them all,) was the kind of diforder which pre-
yailed in their difpofition. When we contemplate the range,
of which Ment Blanc forms a part, from lefs confiderable
elevations, it appears.as if thefe coloffal mountains were fitu-
ated ina line, and formed a chain; but this appearance va-
aifhes entirely from the bird’s-eye view which is here pre-
fented.. The mountains to the north of Mont Blanc, in
Savoy and Switzerland, are indeed united among themfelves,
fo as to form mountain chains, but the primitive mountains
do not prefent this appearance. They are diltributed in
great mafles, or in groups of various ftrange forms, de-
tached from each other, which appear at leaft but acciden-
tally united, without any regularity. Thus. on the eaft,
the lofty peaks called les Aiguilles de Chamoun, the moun-
tains of Argentiere, of Courtes, and of ‘faleul, form one
triangular group, almoft. detached from Mont Bianc, and
only connected with it at the bafe by a narrow ridge.
“ On the fouth-eaft likewife, mount Zuc, La Rogne, and
the other primitive mountains to the north of the fummit of
VP Allée Blanche, form a group nearly triangular, feparated
from Mont Blanc by the valley of the glacier of Miage,
and which is only conneéted with Mont Blanc by the bafe
of the mountains which clofe that glacier to the north.
« Mont Blanc itfelf forms a ma{s almott ifolated, the dif-
ferent parts of which are not in the fame line, and have no
relation of fituation with the other groups.
s¢ @n catting my eyes {till further, I confirmed the fame
obfervation. ‘The primitive mountains of Switzerland and
Italy, which I had fufficiently near to be under my eyes,
prefented only feparated matles, or detached. groups, with-
out order or regularity. Notwith{tanding this irregularity
in the forms and diftributions of the grand mafles, I ob-
ferved certain important refemblances in the ftructure of
their parts. Allthat I diftin@ly faw, appeared compofed
of plates ( feuillets), arranged in the fame manner nearly
from north-eaft to fouth-weft. TI had particular pleafure
in obferving the fame ftruéture in the Aiguille du Midi,
which I had formerly endeavoured but in vain to ftudy,
being prevented by the inacceffible walls of gramite that
furround the bafe. Thad a view of the Aiguille du Midi
on the fecond day of my afcent, and never loft fight of it as.
f proceeded. I affured myfelf that it is entirely compofed
of magnificent plates of granite, perpendicular to the ho-
rizon, and directed from north-eaft to -fouth-weft. Three
of thefe plates, feparated from each other, form the fummit,
decreafing gradually in height from the fouthern face, on
the fide of the Col du Géant.
“«¢ When feen from the bafe, thefe plates had the appear-
ance of being bent, like the leaves of an artichoke ; but this
mult be an optical illufion, for all thofe which I could now
fee diftin@ly appeared {traignt ; and if there were any ex-
ceptions, they were only local, and of {mall extent.
“This great phenomenon of the vertical pofition of the
plates can only be explained, by admitting a great over-
turning of the whole mafs, which has lifted them from their
original horizontal pofition.
«© Another queftion, which I wanted anxioufly to re-
folve, was alfo now anfwered. Thefe great plates of
rock preferved the fame nature and quality at the fummit
as at the bafe, where I had fo frequently examined them.
This obfervation proves a remarkable property in moun-
tains with vertical beds: each bed preferves the fame nature
from the bottom to the top. ;
« From this magnificent obfervatory I could comprife in
one view the whole of that great phenomenon—which I had
before contemplated but in parts—the elevation of the beds
forming the mountains on the fide of Mont Blanc. On
whichever part I turned my eyes, I faw the fecondary
chains of mountains, and even the primitive of the fecond
order, raifing their beds againft’ Mont Blanc, and the high
fummits in its vicinity. Such were the mountains on the
north of Repefoir, of Pafly, of Servoz, and Le Buet; on
the fouth, the Col du Ferret, Great St. Bernard, and thofe
of the chain of Cremont, more remote, and beyond the
mountainous chains, whofe efcarpments turn to Mont
Blanc. We faw others, whofe efcarpments were turned in
a contrary direction. Thefe appearances are in perfect ac-
cordance with the theory which fuppofes that the cruft of
the globe has been broken, and the beds of rock raifed from
their horizontal pofition. It follows from hence, that the
horizontal diftance from the bottom of the valley of Cha-
mouni (if that were once the ancient furface of the globe)
fhould have fome correfpondence with the height of Mont
Blanc ; and that this diitance is nearly the thicknefs of the
ftony cruft, which has been broken and elevated ; and that,
confequently, Mont Blanc, which actually rifes about a
league above the furface, was in its original pofition buried
two leagues beneath it.””
The naked rocks on the fummit, which form two kinds
of arretes or cre{ts of a dark colour, are of granite. The
felfpar in this granite is white, inclining to grey, green, or
reddifh : when expefed to the flame of the blowpipe, it yields
a colourlefs tranfparent glals, but full of bubbles. The
fel{par is fometimes intermixed with a kind of earthy iteatite.
The quartz in this granite is femi-tranfparent and whitifh,
and appears rather un€tuous in the fracture. Very minute
fragments were rounded by the flame of the blow-pipe: it
is, therefore, more fufible than rock-cryftal. Thefe gra-
nites are alfo intermixed with green and black hornblende,
and with chlorite, which feems to fupply the place of mica,
as the latter fcarcely appears, and only in minute fpangles.
In fome places, thefe granites graduate into irregularly
fchiftofe rocks, compofed of quartz and felfpar, whofe
feams are filled with a brown argillaceous and ferruginous
earth, that melts into a black glafs. The granite on the
actual {ummit is compofed, like the above, of quartz, fel-
{par, and hornblende or tteatite. Felfpar conftitutes about
three-fourths of the mafs: the hornblende and fteatite form
too {mall a portion to be eftimated, the quartz forming
nearly the whole of the remaining fourth part. On the
northern fummit, befides the above fpecies of granite, he
met
ROCK.
met with a kind of trap rock, compofed of minute cryftals
of white felfpar and hornblende. On the fouthern fummit
he alfo found rocks of petrofilex (hornitone), of a pearl-
colour. It is deferving notice, that the definition of
a granites, as given by Sauflure, would, according to
the Wernerian fyftem, bring them under the denomination
of fecondary granites; though furely, if any granite can
properly be confidered as primary, it is that of Mont Blanc,
and the mountains in its immediate vicinity.
The following extraét from profeflor Jamefon’s Geog-
nofy comprifes a fhort view of the order of fucceffion of
rocks, as laid down by the German geologifts; with ob-
fervations on the fucceffion of the rocks of Saxony and
Hanover, defcribed in the quaint language peculiar to the
{chool of Freyburg.
~ © In the primitive clafs of rocks, we obferve feyeral rocks
always difpofed in conformable and unbroken ftratification,
and in which the newer.and newer {trata have always.a lower
and lower level. Gneifs, mica-flate, and clay-flate, are of
this kind. . The granite itretches under them uninter-
ruptedly, and fometimes rifes through them, or juts up in
the form of fingle caps or great mafles ; fo that the gneifs
and other rocks are difpofed on its furface, fometimes in a
concave, fometimes in-a convex direCtion, fometimes faddle-
fhaped, and frequently mantle-fhaped. It is evident from
thefe relations of the ftrata, that granite will frequently
form the greateft heights on the furface of the globe.
“« Porphyry has a very different kind of ftratification from
the preceding rocks. It occurs fometimes broken, fome-
times unbroken. When broken, it prefents caps, upfillings,
and fhield-fhaped ftratification. When unbroken, it forms
widely extended maffes: its pofition is unconformable, and
averlying.
“© Grey-wacke occurs fometimes in a conformable, fome-
times in an unconformable pofition; alfo in caps, upfillings,
and fhield-thaped, and frequently mantle-fhaped, ftrata, fur-
rounding the older mountains.-
“ The lime-ftone and fand-ftone ‘formations are ufually
difpofed in a mantle-thape, round the older formation ;
fometimes they are broken, but more frequently unbroken.
They. are very common and widely diftributed formations.
** Coal, again, fhews a very peculiar character: its ori-
ginal extent is not confiderable ; it even appears interrupted,
or broken ; but its internal charaGters fhew that its prefent
apparently broken appearance is its original one. It occurs
commonly in trough and bafin-fhaped hollows, and its ftrata
have confequently a concave direétion.
«The rocks of the newelt ficetz-trap formation are diftin-
guifhed from the older by their unconformable, overlying,
and broken ftratification. In thefe refpects they nearly
agree with porphyry. When the continuity of the forma-
tion is broken, it occurs in caps, upfilliags, and rarely fhield-
fhaped. 3
Pe he defcription we have now given of the fucceffion and
itru€&ture of the different clafles of rocks, will enable us to
inveftigate the itruGiure of the whole mountain groups.
We fhall illuftrate this by avery fhort defcription of two
well-known tracks of country, the Hartz, and the Saxon
Erzgebirge; or metalliferous mountains.
“ Defeription of the Hartz.— An immenfe mafs of granite
forms the centre of this country ; it rifes through the other
ftrata, and is elevated a confidérable height above them
all, forming the famous mountais—the Brocken. Mantle-
fhaped Jtrata of clay-flate are wrapped around this central
mats. It is worthy of remark, that gneifs and mica-flate,
two of the moft confiderable of the older formations, are
wanting in this country. To the clay-flate fucceeds tranfition
lime-ftone, then grey-wacke, and grey-wacke flate ; and the
whole of thefe are wrapped around the granite in mantle-
thaped ftrata, and invariably with lower and lower outgoings,
correfpending to the newer and newer ftrata. The fletz
recks that immediately fucceed the tranfition furround them
in mantle-fhaped ftrata. Immediately on the neweft of the
tranfition rocks refts the oldeit of the fletz, the old red
fand-itone ; to this fucceeds the other fieetz formation, in the
following order, according to their relative age :—firft fletz
lime-ftone, firft fletz gypfum; fecond or variegated
fand-ftone, fecond or newer fletz gypfum, fecond fletz
lime-itone. Thefe fleetz rocks are the links that conne& the
tranfition with the alluvial, the next clafs of rocks. Thefe
are found in the loweft fituations. We have thus, from
granite to the alluvial formation, all the feries marked with
a diminifhing level, in proportion to the newnefs of the
ftrata.
“ Defcription of the Saxon Erzgebirge. — The mine diftri& of
the electorate of Saxony has a bafis of granite which rifes
through the fuper-incumbent rocks: in the different places at
Altenberg, Johanngeorgenftadz, and Bobrifch, on the road
leading from Freyberg to Drefden.. The newer formations,
viz. gneifs,, mica-flate, topaz-rock, and clay-flate, are
wrapped around the granite in mantle-thaped ftrata, and the
diminifhing levels of the outgoings correfpond to the new-
nefs of the formations. Over thefe we meet with other pri-
mitive formations that overlie the older formations, and their
continuity is partly broken, and partly unbroken ; here are
porphyry, fienite, newer granite, quartz, and ferpentine.
Still lower down we meet with tranfition rocks, of which the
lime-itone appears at Kalk-grun and Wildenfels; the amyg-
daloid at Voghtland; and the grey-wacke and grey-wacke
flate near Freyberg. Still lower down, and often covering
the preceding formations, we find fand-itone and lime-ftone ;
and in feveral places, as at Hainchen, Pottchappel near —
Drefden, and Zwickau, there are depofitions of the coal
formation. Lajtly, the neweft fleetz-trap formation covers
all the others in unconformable, overlying, and very broken
{tratification.”’
Decompofition of Rocks.—Where rocks rife above the fur-
face, and are expofed to the action of air and moiiture, they
are liable to decompofition and difintegration. The former
confifts in the feparation of the conftituent parts, the latter
in the feparation of the integrant parts: the one may be
compared to the moulding of the itones of which a building
is conitructed, the other to the disjointing and diflocation of
the ftones in a found itate, when a building is thrown down.
Both thefe proceffes frequently take place in the fame
rock.
The difintegration of rocks is fometimes rapidly effe@ted
by earthquakes, lightning, andthe immediate a&tion of fub-
terranean fires.. It is, however, to the more conftant ope-
rations of moifture and change of temperature, that the
deftruGtion of rocks and mountains may be principally at-
tributed ; but no well-authenticated obfervations have yet
been made to determine the extent of thefe effe&ts during a
given period of time. It has been vaguely ftated, that the
height of the Pyrenées is diminifhing about one foot in a
century ; hence it was calculated that a million years would
be required to level the rocky boundary which feparates
France and Spain. It is obvious that a lapfe of many cen-
turies would be required to verify fuch a conclufion; and
though the decompofition and difiutegration of rocks are,
in many fituations, {ufficiently rapid to be obfervable during
the fhort period of a. fingle life, yet, in. other fituations,
rocks
ROCK.
rocks prefent the fame unvarying outline for ages, and
preferve their angular fharpnefs, which is either natural,
or, in fome inftances, the effe&t of art. Thus, the blocks
of granite remaining in the quarries at Sienna, in Up-
per Egypt, have all the impreflions of the tools with
which they were -worked during the latter period of
the Roman empire; and the bafaltic rocks formed by the
extinét volcanoes of Auvergne are fo compact, as to prefent,
at this day, the appearance of trickling lava fuddenly con-
gealed, though the period of their formation was prior to
the record of authentic hiftory. The caufes of difintegration
are, the viciffitudes of the atmofphere, change of tempe-
rature, and the abforption and congelation of water. The
fudden dilation or contra¢tion produced by the expanfion
and congelation of water, is alone fufficient to rend the
ftrongeft rocks when it enters their fiffures. In Greenland
the rocks are faid, from this caufe, frequently to burft with
anoife like thunder. The external caufes of decompofition
are, principally, water and oxygen. Mineral fubitances,
containing fulphur or metallic matter capable of a higher
degree of oxygenation, abforb oxygen from water, or the
atmofphere. To this caufe the decompofition of ftones, con-
taining pyrites, is to be attributed. Calces of iron, mode-
rately oxygenated, are the molt general caufe of decompo-
fition; they at by abforbing a greater portion of oxygen,
by which they gradually {well, and are difunited from the
other conftituent parts of the {tone in whofe compofition
they enter. When leait oxygenated, their colour is black,
or dark brown; and in fome inftances, when combined with
alumine, or magnefia, greenifh-grey ; the alumine, as it be-
comes more oxygenated, turns to a purple-red and orange,
and finally a pale yellowifh-brown; the magnefia becomes
at firft blue, then purple and red. Iron, in its metallic ftate,
or, at leait, when but flightly oxygenated, alfo decompofes
water; butif expofed to the air, it becomes further oxyge-
nated, and the compound into which it enters gradually
withers, as Dr. Higgins obferved, in imitating pozzolana.
Higgins, on Cements, 124.
Stones, into whofe compofition calces of iron, highly
oxygenated, feem originally to have entered, are faid, by
Mr. Kirwan, to decompofe with great difficulty, of which
he inftances red jafper ; but perhaps the more perfect vitrifi-
cation’of thefe minerals may be the caufe of their durability.
Calcareous rocks are liable to the decompofing effects of
water, partly mechanical and partly chemical. Carbonate of
lime is infoluble in water, except when aided by carbonic
acid; but as this exifts more or lefs in almoft all water, it
aéts flowly upon lime-ftones, particularly on 'thofe of a loofe
texture. Potafh and foda enter alfo into the compofition
of many rocks; and to the exiftence of potafh in felfpar,
one of the conftituents of granite, the decompofition of
granite rocks may be generally attributed.
From the combination of fome extraneous mineral fub-
ftance with rocks, remarkably rapid inftances of the decom-
pofition of rocks are fometimes known to take place. Ac-
cording to Dolomieu, all the houfes of Malta are built of a
fine grained lime-itone of a loofe and foft texture, but which
hardens by expofure to the air. There is a circumttance
which haitens its deftrution and reduces it to powder,
namely, when it is wetted by fea-water ; after this it never
dries, but is covered by a faline eflorefcence, and a cruft
js formed fome tenths of an inch thick, mixed with com-
mon falt, nitre, and nitrate of lime. Under this cruft the
ftone moulders to duft, the cruift falls off, and other cruits
are fucceflively formed, until the whole {tone is deftroyed.
A fingle drep of fea-water is fufficient to produce the
germ of deftru€tion, which gradually increafes and {preads,
like acaries, through the whole mafs of {tone ; nor does it
{top there, but after fome time affects all the neighbouring
ftones in the wall. The ftones moft fubjeét to this decay
are thofe that contain moft magnefia; thofe that are finer
grained, and of a clofer texture, refilt it. Notwithftanding
the {peculations of Dolomieu and Mr. Kirwan on the caufe
of this uncommon property in the ftone of Malta, we con-
ceive that a fatisfa€tory explanation is {till wanting.
We have before ftated, that water is the principal agent
in the gradual deftruétion of rocks, but fometimes entire
mountains are fuddenly levelled by fubterranean currents,
which work their paflage through fiflures and cavities, and
filently prepare the caufes of the moft alarming cataftrophes
in alpine diftri€ts. In proportion to the elevation and ab-
ruptnefs of rocks, thefe cataftrophes are more frequent and
extended. Inthe cantons of Switzerland numerous in-
{tances of this kind are on record, and one, which we fhalt
f{ubfequently notice, occurred in our own times.
The town of Pleurs, about a league from Chavennes, con-
taining about 2200 inhabitants, and numerous {plendid
palaces, was fuddenly buried under a mountain on the
25th of Auguft, 1618.
On the fame evening an inhabitant, who entered the
town, advifed his neighbours to leave the place, faying, he
had feen the mountains cleaving, but could obtain no credit ;
his daughter, whom he had perfuaded to depart with him,
returned to lock up fome valuables, and was overwhelmed
with all the other inhabitants in one common ruin. Mr.
Coxe fays vineyards, chefnut trees, and houfes, now cover
the {pot where this unfortunate town once ftood.
On the 23d of September, 1714, a great part of the
mountain Diableret fell in between two and three o’clock
in the afternoon, and buried more than 100 huts, and a con-
fiderable part of the valley. Thofe who faw this difafter
fay that it happened in a moment, and at the fame time
whirling clouds of duft arofe fuddenly, which darkened the
air like a fudden night.
In 1751, a mountain fell down, fituated near Pafly, be-
tween Salenches and Servoz. Sauffure fays, the noife was
fo dreadful, and fo thick and dark a cloud of duft arofe,
that many perfons fuppofed that the world was at an end.
Intelligence was received at Turin, that a terrible volcano
had broken forth in thefe mountains: in confequence of
which the king fent the celebrated naturalift, Vitaliano
Donati, to verify the report, who gives the following ac-
count of the event. «I hurried with extreme pleafure to
examine fo extraordinary a phenomenon. After having
travelled four days and four nights without halting, I came
in front of a mountain all covered with fmoke, and from
which were inceflantly detached, both by day and night,
large mafles of ftone with a noife perfeétly like that of
thunder, or of a large battery of cannon, but louder and
more terrible. The peafants had all retired from the vici-
nity, and did not dare to look at the ruin, but at the dif-
tance of two miles, or even farther. All the neighbouring
hills were covered with a duft much refembling afhes. All
faid they had feen at intervals a fmoke, which was red
during the day, and accompanied with flames at night. I
attentively examined the fmoke, but neither perceived flames
nor any {mell of fulphur. Nor did the rivulets I examined
with care, prefent the leaft appearance of fulphuric matter.
Thus perfuaded, I entered the fmoke, and though quite
alone, went to the brink of the aby{fs, where I faw alarge
rock darted down, and obferved that the {moke was only
duft raifed by the fall of the rocks, the caufe of ee I
00n,
ROCK.
foon after fought for and difcovered.—A great part of the
mountain fituated above that which had fallen was com-
pofed of earth and ftones, not difpofed in beds, but con-
fufedly heaped together. I thus perceived that the moun-
tain had been fubjeét to fimilar falls, which had left the
large rock that fell this year without a fupport, and with
a confiderable projeétion. This rock was compofed of
horizontal beds, of which the lower were of flate, or rather
of fragile {chiftofe ftone of little confiftency, while the two
beds beneath thefe were of marble like that of Porto Venere,
but full of fiffures, which crofled the beds. The fifth bed
was wholly compofed of flate in vertical plates, entirely dif-
united; this bed formed all the upper part of the fallen
mountain. Upon the fame level fummit were three lakes,
the waters of which penetrated conitantly through the fif-
{ures of the beds of rock, and decompofed their fupports.
The fnow, which had fallen in Savoy in greater abundance
than had ever been feen in the memory of man, increafed
the effe&, and the united waters occafioned the fall of three
million cubic fathoms of rock, a mafs fufficient to form
a large mountain.”
On the 2d of September 1806, at five in the evening,
the Knippenhoul rock, which formed the fummit of mount
Rofenberg, was on a fudden detached from its fituation ;
and at the fame time part of the mountain, about 280 feet
thick on the eaft fide, and feveral feet thick on the welt,
gave way, and fell into the valley which feparates the lake
of Zug from that of Lauwertz. One part of the moua-
tain fell into the lake of Lauwertz, which caufed fuch an
agitation in the waters of the lake, that they overthrew a
number of houfes, chapels, mills, &c. along the northern
fhore. Upwards of 1000 perfons were the victims of this
calamity. A fociety of thirteen travellers were on the
road from Arth to Schwetz ; nine who walked firft perifhed,
the other four efcaped. In this convulfion enormous pieces
of rock were carried through the air to prodigious diftances.
The lake of Lauwertz has loft about a quarter of its ex-
tent. That rich plain, before fo beautiful, now prefents a
mountain of roo feet in height, 14 league in length, and
as much in breadth. The villages of Goldau and Rothen,
confifting of 115 houfes; that of Bufingen, of 126; and that
of Kuflock, have totally difappeared. Of Lauwertz, which
had 25 houfes, there remain ten buildings, all much damaged.
Twenty years previoufly, general Pfyffer prediéted this
cataftrophe, fromthe knowledge he had of the nature
of the mountain. A profeffor of Schwitz faid, that
above Spietsfleu there was a lake of water which had un-
dermined the rock for feveral years, and that below there
was a cavern of great depth, where the waters were in-
gulphed. The quantity of water which had fallen during
the preceding years haitened the cataftrophe, and the rains
of fome preceding weeks decided it. On the roth, eight
hundred perfons were employed in digging for the bodies of
thofe who were deftroyed by the falling of the mountain.
In forming a channel to draw off the waters, between thirty
and forty labourers were fwallowed up by a torrent of
muddy water which broke in upon them fuddenly. Annual
Regifter, 1806, page 449.
In the mountainous parts of North Wales, Cumberland,
and Wettmoreland, fimilar effets, on a diminutive feale,
are taking place ; and the fcattered mafles of rock, {pread
widely over the fides and feet of the hills, prove that they
haye once had a greater elevation. q
By the decay of rocks and mountains, new and pro-
ductive foils are formed to renovate the furface of the globe,
and fit it for the {upport of vegetable and animal life ; and it
has been remarked that thofe rocks which form the moft fer-
12
tile foils, are precifely thofe which decompofe with the
greatelt rapidity, whillt thofe which are unfavourable to ve-
getation refift, for ages, the effects of atmofpheric influence.
It can fearcely be denied that this beneficent provifion of
the Author of nature, is ordained to repair the conftant waite
and change which are taking place on the furface.
* Nec {pecies fua cuique manet, rerumque novatrix
Ex allis alias reparat natura figuras.”” Ovid.
The formation of rocks, or the procefs by which they ac-
quired their prefent form and confiftence, may, perhaps,
ever remain a fubjeét of uncertain fpeculation, as no ana-
logous formations are now taking place, except in one clafs
of rocks, the volcanic.
Some geologifts contend that all the folid materials in the
mineral kingdom were once ina ftate of aqueous folution,
from which rocks and {trata were formed, partly by chemical
precipitation, and partly by fediment ; the lower cryftalline
rocks being entirely chemical produéts, the intermediate or
tranfition partly chemical and partly mechanical depofitions ;
and the upper rocks and {trata principally mechanical, or
formed of fediment or the fragments of former rocks. It has
been objected to this hypothefis, that neither the elementary
fubitances, nor the compounds of which rocks are formed, are
foluble in water. In reply to this it has been contended, that
though the fubftances called elementary are infoluble, in all
probability there was a time when they exifted in a morefimple
uncombined ftate ; andthat the more fimpleelements wereonce
foluble in water, though the prefent fubftances called ele-
mentary are not fo; in the fame manner as very foluble fub-
itances are known to become nearly infoluble by chemical
union with each other, of which we have an inftance in the
tartareous acid and potafh, which are both very foluble, but
when united in certain proportions, they form a falt that
can only be diflolved in twenty times its weight of water.
According to thefe geologifts, the quantity of water which
once covered the whole globe muit have been much greater
than at prefent ; but in what manner it has been diminifhed
they do not attempt to explain.
Other geologifts fuppofe that moft of the rocks, whether
ftratified or not, were formed of the fand, or fediment, wafhed
down from former continents, and that they have acquired
their prefent {truéture and hardnefs from the aétion of a
central fire, which they believe to exift conftantly in our
planet, but which is called into greater aétivity at certain
periods by laws with which we are unacquainted. Accord-
ing to the fyftem of thefe philofophers, the prefent conti-
nents were raifed from the bottom of the ocean by the action
of the fame fire, and the rocks of bafalt and porphyry were
forced through, and fpread over, the furface in a itate of
fufion, like currents of lava from aGtive volcanoes. It muft
be admitted, that the only inftances we have of the formation
of rocks, in our own times, are from the agency of fire ; and
that fome of the lavas prefent the cryftalline internal ftruc- .
ture, or contain imbedded crytftals as perfe& as thofe found
in primary rocks. _ It is foreign to the purpofe of this article
to difcufs the probabilities of thofe two theories which have
acquired the names of the Neptunian and Plutonian, for an
account of which, fee Earrn. The defcent of ftony
mafles from the atmofphere, fometimes of great fize and
weight, is now fully proved; and the formation of thefe
ftones, from the concretion of gafeous matter, may probably
throw fome light ultimately on the moft abftrufe queftions in
geology, and lead to new, and more correct, views of the
nature of our planet. _ Perhaps the different primary beds
of itone, that environ the globe, were formed by fimilar
concretions from an atmofphere of vaft extent. Of one
thing
ROCK.
thing we are certain, that the formation of many of the fe-
condary ftrata was fubfequent to the exiftence of animal and
vegetable life; were it not fo, their remains could not be enve-
loped in them. Another faé is not lefs certain, that many
of thefe beds were depofited very gradually, and form a
medium in a ftate of perfe@ tranquillity: this is proved by
the extremely delicate unbroken fibres and {pines of fome of
the organic remains which could not have been preferved
entire, had the particles of the {tony matter, by which they
are covered and imbedded, been of confiderable fize, or
had they been depofited in a tumultuous element. See
STRATA.
Rocks, befide furnifhing the metallic ores, and materials
for architecture, have the moit important ufes in the phyfical
conftitution, of the globe, not only as forming the folid
bafes or fkeletons on which iflands and continents are con-
ftruéted, but thefe elevations and inequalities are abfolutely
neceflary to fupply the dry land with pure and running
ftreams, and to drain the fuperfluity of moifture in rainy
feafons, which would otherwife form ftagnant and putrid
pools, infeGting the air with death: without thefe rocky
elevations the earth muft remain a folitary defert, fitted only
for the abode of reptiles and amphibious animals. ‘Thus,
by the very irregularity and confufion which feem to pre-
vail in the difpojition of the fraGured furface of the globe,
it is rendered falubrious and produétive, and prepared to
fatisfy the wants, and gratify the various inclinations and
inftinG@s, of its numerous inhabitants.
Rock, in Agriculture, a {tony fubitance of different kinds,
that frequently affords much interruption to tillage, and is
highly injurious as a fubftratum, that occafionally upholds
water, and prevents its pafling downwards. Where this lait
is the cafe, they are moftly of the clofe, hard, compact
kind. They may likewife be hurtful in other ways, as by
covering the furface of grafs-land, and by occupying lands
which might otherwife produce ufeful plants. Their ef-
fe€ts, as non-conduétors of water, depends upon their qua-
lities, in fome meafure, as well as upon that of the beds of
earthy matter in which they are fituated, and will be more
fully confidered in {peaking of Sprine-draining. The rocky
beds of free-itone, blue-ftone, and lime-ftone, as well as
thofe of fome otker forts, exift in very different ftates, in
different parts of the kingdom; and are, on that account,
more or lefs favourable to the purpofes of hufbandry, in the
ground by which they are covered,
Rocks of particular kinds are not unfrequently inftru-
mental, in their decompofitions, in contributing to the
formation of land or foil. Thofe lands or foils which arife,
in fome degree, from the decompofition of rocks of the fand-
ftone and granite kinds, are for the moft part of the thin,
poor, hungry defcription ; continuing for very great lengths
of time, in many cafes, with but very flight coverings of
vegetable matter or plants of the grafly fort upon them,
But thofe proceeding, in fome meafure, from the decom-
pofition and mouldering down of rocks of the lime-ftone,
chalk, and fome other kinds, are in general well and clofely
befet with plants of the permanent grafs kind, and give,
when broken up, deep rich earthy beds, for the nourifh-
ment and fapport of different ferts of vegetables as
crops.
White lands are fituated immediately upon beds or
layers of rocks or ftones, they moftly become dry, and
fuitable for the purpofes of vegetation, much fooner than
where they are depofited upon an under-foil of a clayey or
marly nature.’ This approach of the rocky ftrata towards
the furface-beds of land or foil, is probably one great caufe
of the fertility of land in moift or wet climates, fuch as thofe
II
of fome parts of this country, as many of the more northern
diftris, and moft parts of Ireland.
The rocks and ftrata of other kinds, from the decompofi-
tions of which land or foils have been formed, as well as
thofe which conftitute the more internal parts of the globe
itfelf, have a certain order and arrangement, which is not
altogether ufelefs to the inquiring farmer; efpecially as
ftrata of the rocky nature, which are very different in their
kinds, not unfrequently happen to be aflociated together; -
and thofe which are placed dire€tly below the layers of land
or foil contain materials, which may, in many cafes, be of
utility in ameliorating them. But the general view of the
nature, compofition, and pofition of racks whether of the
primary or fecondary kind, as well as of other natural
ftrata of a fimilar defcription, properly belongs to the
general head of rock ; which fee. See alfo Sorz and Sus-
SOIL- ;
Rock, in Ornamental Gardening, a fubftance or body,
which is of much utility in producing effect in the forming
and laying out the grounds of country refidences. It is
fuggelted by Mr. Loudon, that, though in reality thefe
can neither be created, increafed, nor taken away, yet that
feveral operations may be effeéted with them, which feem
of the fame nature, and confequently to be of much im-
portance in landfcape. They may, it is fuppofed, be either
Jhewn, concealed, or rendered more charaGerijiic. They may
be fhewn with more and better effe&t, by taking away earth
from about them, and forming breaks aud abruptnefles in
the furface of the ground where they are. This may, it is
faid, be accomplifhed in many different ways; but that
thofe methods are to be preferred, which are moft effe@tual
in fhewing a perpendicular furface, or upright front of
rock ; as it is not only the grandeft manner of feeing them
that can be contrived, but, at the fame time, the moft eco.
nomical and confiftent with the good management of the
land; no horizontal furface of any confequence, whether of
the wood or pafture kind, being to any material extent de-
ftroyed. Rocks appear in this way in a great many fitua-
tions, in different parts of the country, in the ornamental
grounds of refidences.
It is alfo further fuggefted, that rocks may be fhewn by
removing of wood, either alone, or in connection with
ground. This praétice, itis fuppofed, would often have a
fine effe& on the fides of hills, mountains, and fteeps, as
well as upon the banks of rivers and lakes; in the laft of
which cafes, it would frequently be affifted in conne@ion
with the removal of water, which can often be effe&ted with
eafe: as, for inftance, when a lake has an outlet, or when
the channel of a river has confiderable declivity. In all
cafes where rocks are to be fhewn, it is conftantly the moft
preferable to exhibit erect, projecting, or at leaft nearly
perpendicular furfaces ;. as other kinds never occur in nature,
except under the furface of water, or in barren deferts: for
although they were originally, or after convulfions of na-
ture, left wholly naked, yet by time and circumftances
they have gradually become clothed on their upper furfaces
by an earthy matter and vegetable produtions,
Rocks may be concealed, it is imagined, either com-
pletely, or in a partial manner, and by any one or the whole
of the materials which fhew them. Complete concealment
is, however, it is thought, rarely defireable, except in
cafes where the rocks are of the barren or difagreeable
kind; as in the inftance of a perfe€tly naked furface of
rocks, or fmall naked angular fragments of them itaring
through ground of uniform or fimple furface: in the former
of which cafes, they fhould be covered with earth; and in
the latter, be blown out of the ground by means of gun-
powder,
ROC
powder, or dug out of it in other ways, as is frequently the
cafe in forming and laying out ornamented grounds. —
But partial concealment may often take place in circum-
ftances of this kind, and is, it is fuppofed, bett effected by
wood ; and in cafe the form of the part or parts, which ap-
pear, be in the grand ftyle, and the concealment accom-
plifhed in a judicivus manner, the imagination, which is ever
ready to magnify the extent or power of indiftinét objects,
will, it is fuppofed, conceive the reit to be much more
noble, then if they had been of forms capable of being ad-
vantageoufly difclofed. Partial concealment may likewife
fometimes be effected by earth or water, and even by build-
ings; in all of which, the general principles are the fame,
it is f{uppofed. ts
It is ttated, that ia rendering rocks more charaterittic,
the firlt requifite is to attend to their general characters :
thefe may either be grand, terrific, fanciful, or romantic
and picturefque. Grandeur here confiits, it is fuppofed,
commonly in the breadth of light and fhade, or the height
of the mafles; and may be heightened by increafing thete,
either by removing fmall parts of the rock itfelf, or by
clearing away the appertaining matters, which tend to con-
ceal or injure the principal mailes. Romantic or terrific
rocks may, it is thought, fometimes be improved by con-
cealment or difclofure, but rarely by increafing their cha-
raéter. And thofe of picturefque beauty may often be
operated upon with fuccefs, .either by giving more breadth,
variety, or intricacy to the rocks themfelves ; or by covering
them with vegetation; or planting trees before them, to
effect variety or harmony; or buthes and creepers above
them, to hang over and produce fhade and intricacy. An
excefs of intricacy is, however, fuggefted, as dangerous,
and as tending more than any other quality to make a rock
trifling. Crags are faid to be frequently trifling on this ac-
count, as well asthe rock in different fituations. In fhort,
the management of rocks, it is imagined, is yet very little,
if at all, underitood in this country. In many parts they
are indeed feen fhewn, but in fuch a way as that they ap-
pear little better than upright mafles of red earth. The
fubjeét is unqueftionably deferving of more attention than it
has hitherto met with, from the defigners of ornamented
grounds. ae
Rocx-Work, any fort of work or defign, which is formed
of the parts or fragments of rocks, or large ftones, in gar-
dens or pleafure-grounds. . ;
All works of this nature fhould be contrived in fuch a
manner, as to harmonize as much as poffible with the pe-
culiarities of the fituations or places in which they are made.
See Rock and Srone. t
They were formerly much more common, in both thefe
fituations, than they are at prefent.
Rock Alum. See Arum. ;
Rock-Buitter, in Mineralogy, a {faline mineral, formed in
the fiflures of rocks of alum-flate. It occurs both mafkive
and ftalactitical, and fometimes pulverulent. It has a
greyifh-white or a {traw-yellow colour, and a fweetifh and
fomewhat acidulous aftringent tafte, like alum. It is in-
deed a kind of native alum. The feel is fomewhat grealy,
from which and its coiour it has received its name.
Rock-Cork, Suber Montanum, a flexible and fomewhat
elaitic mineral, found in mineral veins. It is fometimes
maffive, and fometimes in lamine or plates; thefe have been
called rock-leather and rock-flefh. The common colour is
a yellowith-grey of various fhades: it is fometimes a yel-
lowifh-brown. and cream-colour. It has a fibrous ftruc-
ture, and but little luftre. The fractured furface is deli-
cately uneven. This mineral is opaque, and very foft,
Mot. XXX,
ROC
yielding to the nail. It breaks with great difficulty,
and cracks when handled: it is fo light as to fwim on
water, and is almoit infufible in the flame of the blow.
pipe.
The conftituent parts, as given by Bergmann, are,
Silex - - - - 56.2
Magnefia - - - 26.1
Alumine’ - - - - 2
Lime ~ - = - 12.7
Iron - - - - 3
100
Rock-cork approaches in its nature to afbeitus, from
which it differs principally by the promifcuous arrangement
of the fibres.
Rock-Cry/la/, the pureft variety of eryftallized quartz.
(See Quarrz.) This ftone is fometimes employed in
jewellery, and is differently named, according to the places
from whence it is procured, as Briftol {tone, Scotch
pebbles, &c.
Rockx-Fi/2, 2 common Englifh name for the gobius ma-
rinus, or fea-gudgeon. See Gosrus Niger.
Rock Germanders in Botany, a {pecies of veronica ;
which fee.
Rocx-Oi. See Perroteum.
Rock-Ouzel, in Ornithology.
AMZEL.
Rock-Rofe, in Botany. See Cistvs.
Rock-Salt, in Mineralogy and Geology, a natural falt, of
the fame kind as common table falt. This ufeful mineral
forms large beds and mafles in many parts of the world, and
even compofes entire mountains. [t occurs in large colum-
nar or in {pheroidal concretions, and alfo cryftallized in
cubes. Rock-falt is fubdivided by Werner into two kinds,
foliated and fibrous. The more common colours of foliated
rock-falt are, white, grey, reddifh-brown, and red; but
fometimes it is violet, fky-blue, and green, and is more
or lefs tranfparent or pellucid: it breaks into cubical frag-
ments, which have a vitreous luftre: the ftru@ure is indit-
tinétly foliated. In fibrous rock-falt the fibres are generally
{mall and curved ; in other refpects it differs little from the
former. The tafte of both is like that of common falt.
The red varieties are coloured by earthy matter and oxyd of
iron; the white and tran{parent are extremely pure, being
compofed almoit entirely of muriatic acid and foda, or, ac-
cording to Davy, of chlorine and fodium. _ Inthe pureft kind
alfo, there is fcarcely any trace of water of cryttallization.
According to Henry, pure tranfparent rock-falt, calcined
for half an hour in a low red heat, equal to four or five de-
grees of Wedyewood’s pyrometer, loft abfolutely nothing of
Its weight. It is remarkable, alfo, that if free from any
adventitious moifture, it may be fuddenly and ftrongly
heated with fearcely any of that found called decrepitation,
which is produced by a fimilar treatment of all the varieties
of manufactured common falt. The fpecific gravity of the
pureft {pecimens of rock-falt is about 2.170, of the lefs pure
about 2.130.
Rock-falt is widely diitributed over the globe ; it appears
principally in the lower fecondary itrata. It is mott fre-
quently accompanied with fulphate of lime or gypfum, and
by beds of clay impregnated with falt. Befide the beds of
rock-falt which are known, numerous brine-{prings in va-
rious parts of the world atteit the exiftence of this mineral
deep under the furface, as it is evident thefe {prings perco-
late beds of falt, or {trata impregnated with it. Several brine-
{prings have recently been — in the deep coal-mines
3 of
See Ring OvuzEr, and
ROC
of Northumberland and Durham. In the coal-mines near
Athby-de-la-Zouch, in Leicefterfhire, there are fprings of
brine 245 yards below the furface 5 and though thefe {prings
are in the centre of the ifland, they.are 140 yards below the
level of the fea. How much deeper their fource may be, has
not been afcertained.
The moft obvious hypothefis refpeCting the formation of
rock-falt is, the one which fuppofes that it was depofited from
the fea, or by the deficcation of falt lakes which formerly
covered the prefent continents. Againft this it has been
objected, that the compofition of rock-falt is much more
pure than the contents of fea-water, which contains a
quantity both of muriate and fulphate of magnefia, ful-
phate of foda, and of fulphate of lime. Rock-falt is
alfo found at great heights above the prefent level of the fea.
Thefe objections will, in a confiderable degree, be invali-
dated by the confideration that whatever impurities there
may be in fea-water, if the procefs of evaporation go on
very flowly the falt will be cryitallized nearly pure. Of this
we have an inftance in the fpecies of falt made at Lyming-
ton, in Hamphhire, called /a/t cat, which is gradually formed
in the courfe of ten or twelve days, by fpontaneous evapo-
ration of the liquor which drains from the common falt.
This falt is fo pure (though evaporated from the moft im-
pure part, the mother water, or refidue of fea-water), that
1000 parts contain only 12 of foreign impurities, or little
more than one per cent. Thus if the deficcation of lakes
or bafins filled with falt water were very gradual, as it
mutt be, except in the vicinity of fubterranean fires, the mu-
riate of foda or rock-falt would be cryftallized before the
other falts, which being more deliquefcent might be fepa-
rated and wafhed away. In this manner the fulphate of
lime or gypfum, which exifls in fea-water, and accompanies
rock-falt, may alfo have been depofited, and being nearly in-
foluble would remain.
The occurrence of rock-falt deep under the earth, or
high above the level of the fea, can {carcely form an objec-
tion to its formation from fea-water; for it is admitted by
all geologilts, and is proved by undoubted fats, that the
ocean once covered our prefent continents. Now by what-
ever procefs the dry land was raifed above the fea, whether
by the elevation of the former, or the depreffion of the beds
of the latter, extenfive hollows and clofed vallies mutt have
formed lakes of falt water, from which the falt might be
depofited by evaporation. Some of thefe vallies or hollows
would occur in elevated fituations. With refpe&t to the
beds of rock-falt placed under other ftrata, however diffi-
cult it may be to explain the formation of the fecondary
ftrata, the exiftence of organic remains in them prove that
each ftratum was once the uppermoft part of the globe, and
the ftrata by which it is covered were depofited upon it in
{ucceffive, and probably at diftant periods. Nor is the diffi-
culty greater with re{fpeét to the ftrata covering rock-falt,
than the ftrata covering coal and beds of coal-fhale abound-
ing in vegetable impreflions. No organic remains have in-
deed been difccvered in the ftrata over the rock-falt of
Chefhire, but they are commonly met with at greater depths
over the rock-falt beds in Poland, and in other parts of
Europe. The occurrence of rock-falt at the fides or feet
of extenfive mountainous chains, may perhaps illuftrate its
formation, as it is probable thefe extenfive chains once
formed the boundaries of inland feas or lakes, when the re-
lative level of the ocean and our continents was very dif-
ferent from the prefent. :
Rock-falt is not mined in any part of our ifland, ex-
cept Chefhire, though it was bered through at Droit-
wich ; and it exifts, in all probability, in many of the
ROC
weftern counties through which the red fand-rock extends.
We have proofs of its exiftence from the brine-{prings at
Droitwitch, in Worcefterfhire, at Lemington in Warwick-
fhire, and at Afhby Wolds, in Leicelterfhire ; and alfo in
the counties of Northumberland and Durham, on the eaftern
fide of England. ‘The {prings at Droitwitch furnifh a brine
as ftrong as thofe of Chefhire. A defcription of the rock-
falt of Chefhire being given as an article of rural economy,
we fhall proceed to give a fhort account of the moft im-
portant repofitories of this ufeful mineral in other parts of
the world.
Salt is very abundant in Africa; all the plains and fandy
defarts are impregnated with falt, and the greater part ot
the {prings in thefe defarts are fo faline, that it is not pofli-
ble to drink the water. 'To the fouth of Abyffinia, at the
feet of the mountains which feparate that country from that
of the Gallas negroes, falt exifts in dry and folid mafles.
The fummit of the mountains which border the defart to
the weft of Cairo, prefents an immenfe plain covered with 2
mafs of falt. According to Horneman it is fpread over fo
large a track of furface, that no eye can reach its termination
in one direCtion ; its breadth extends feveral miles. ‘I'o the
welt of the defart of Sahara are the great falt rocks of
Tegaza, on the fouth-eait frontier of the defart of Zuen-
ziga, a little diftance from Cape Blanc. ‘They are worked
by the Moors. Thefe falt mmes furnifh the white and co-
loured falt, which is carried by caravans to Cafnah and
Tombuétoo, to fupply the Negro ftates; for it does not
appear that there are any falt mimes in Negro land properly
called. The mines of falt {pread in that part of Africa
which the ancients called Libya, have been well indicated by
Herodotus, and it is in this country that he has defcribed
buildings conftruéted of rock-falt, like thofe in Caramania
and Arabia. Other falt mines, according to Park, are
found on the fouthern frontier of the great defart Sahara.
Their produce is alfo fold to the Negroes on the borders of
the Niger andthe Johibe. In the kingdom of Tunis, mount
Had Delfa is entirely compofed of very compact falt of a
red and violet colour. The lake des Marques, and the plains
near it, alfo contain much falt. There are mines of rock-
{alt in the country of Bamba, in the kingdom of Congo.
On all the weltern coaft of Africa there are falt lakes and
marfhes. In the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope,
and in Caffraria, rock-falt is lefs common; but there are
falt lakes to the eait of the Cape, on the frontiers of Caf-
fraria, which contain at’ the bottom beds of falt varioufly
coloured.
Salt lakes exift in the Cape Verde iflands, and natural
falt-marfhes, particularly in Bona Vitta.
Spain is the only country in the fouth of Europe which
contains extenfive repofitories of rock-falt in confiderable
mafles above the furface. It is found there in elevated fitua-
tions, forming entire hills : brine-{prings alfo iffue from the
feet of the mountains which traverfe that country. Ac-
cording to the defcription of Mr. Bowles, the repofitory of
rock-falt which lies between Caparofo and the river Ebro,
is inachain of hills which extend from eaft to weft. Thefe
hills are compofed of lime-ftone, mingled with gypfum, the
chain extending more than two leagues. In the moft ele-
vated part is fituated the village of Valtierra, on a flope
towards the middle of whichis found abedof rock-falt. It
may be about 400 paces long, and 80 wide. The falt is
contained in a bed of about five feet in thicknefs.
“J examined,”’ he adds, “ with attention thofe beds of
falt ; I compared them with the layers of earth and gypfum
in which it isimbedded ; I found the outfide layer to be com-
pofed of gypfum ; and, immediately afterwards, I met with
two
ROC
two inches of white falt, fucceeded by two inches of ftony
falt, and a layer of earth, I found others alternately com-
pofed of earth and falt to the very bottom of the mine,
which is of gypfum, undulated like the other layers. The
layers of faline rock are of a dufky blue, thofe of falt are
ite.
SF This mine is confiderably elevated above the fea, for you
afcend continually all the way from Bayonne, _
« The fecond hull is that of Cardona, in Catalonia, near the
mountain of Montferrat, fixteen leagues to the N.W. of
Barcelona, and a few leagues from the Pyrenees.
«© The village of Cardona is fituated at the foot of a
rock of falt, ehacl from the fides of the river Cardonere,
feems nearly mural. This rock is a block of maffive falt,
which rifes from the earth about four or five hundred feet,
without crevices, chafms, or layers. " No gypfum is found
nearit. This block is about a league in circumference ; and
its elevation is equal to that of the furrounding mountains :
as its depth is not known, it is impoflible to fay on what it
i general, the falt, from the top to the bottom, is
white, though fome parts are red ; fome is alfo found of a
fine blue. There are alfo in Spain other repofitories of rock-
falt and faline fprings. In La Mancha, at Almengranilla,
there is a mafs of falt fimilar to that of Cardona; it is feventy
yards in diameter, mixed with fulphate of lime, and covered
with the fame ftone, including cryitals of red quartz ; above
which are filiceous pudding-itones, and a itratum of car-
bonate of lime.’
The mines of rock-falt that are wrought at Poza, near
Burgos, in Caftille, are remarkably fituated, being placed
in a vat crater. A French traveller, M. Fernandez,
found pumice-ftones, puzzolana, and other volcanic pro-
duétions there. ;
Rock-falt is likewife found near Aranjuez and Ocanna, in
the tranfition hills between Sierra Morena and Madrid. ,
On the north fide of the Pyrenées no beds of rock-falt
have been difcovered, but numerous brine-{prings occur, par-
ticularly at Salies : in the department of the Lower Pyrenées
the foil is calcareous, and iulphate of lime is found in the
ighbourhood of the fpring.
ag rn are falt-{pring i Satie to the fouth of Thouleufe.
alfo at Salins and Montmorat, in the department of the Jura ;
in the firft of thefe the water contains fifteen ger cent. of
falt. 3 pas)
There are about twenty brine-{prings in the department of
La Meurthe, which contain, on the average, thirteen per
cent. of falt. Thefe {prings are at no great diftance from
each other; fome are at the foot of the chain of Jura, the
others at the foot of the Vofges: the product of thefe brine-
{prings fupplies Switzerland with falt. There are falt-{prings
in the department of Mont Blanc, in the midit of the Higher
Alps. In the fame department, near St. Maurice, there is
a falt-rock near the region of perpetual {now, which is pro-
bably the highett fituation in Europe where this mineral oc-
curs. The rock confilts of gypfum, intermixed or impreg-
nated with falt, which is extracted by folution in water ; the
infoluble part remains porous and light. Various brine-
fprings alfo occur in other partsof France.
Though there are numerous brine-{prings in the north of
Germany, no beds of rock-falt appear on the furface, until
we approach the circle of Auftria and the neighbouring
countries. The range of falt-rocks commences at Halle, in
the Tyrol, paffes through Reichenthal in Bavaria, and con-
tinues to Hallein in Salzburgh, Halitadt, Ifchel, and
Ebenfel, in Auftria, and terminates at Anffe in Styria.
noc
The falt at Halle is worked in a peculiar manner: parallei
galleries are run into the rock, in thefe dykes are formed, and
water is let into them, where it remains from five to twelve
months. When the water is faturated, it is drawn of in
pipes, and the folution is evaporated. :
Oncomparing the geological fituation of the greater part
of the beds of rock-{alt and brine-{prings, it will be feen
that they occur mott frequently at the foot of high moun-
tainous chains. The mines of rock-falt in Tranfylvania,
Upper Hungary, Moldavia, and Poland, may be cited in
further proof of this. Thefe mines are numerous, and very
important from their extent, and the vaft mafles of falt they
contain. They are found along the chain of the Carpathian
mountains, and fpread nearly in an equal degree on each fide
of the chain accompanying thefe mountains to the extent of
more than two hundred leagues, from ‘Wieliczka in Poland,
towards the north, to Fokizian or Rymnick in Moldavia, to
the fouth.
The ftrip of land that contains the falt-rock or brine-
{prings, is near forty leagues broad in fome parts. In it
may be reckoned about fixteen mines, that are worked for
falt ; forty-three indieations of mines that have never been
wrought ; and four hundred and twenty, or four hundred and
thirty, brine-{prings.
The mott contiatiete of thefe commence in the north-
eaft, and extend in a foutherly direGtion, including thofe of
Wieliczka, Bochnia, and Samber, in Poland ; and fome
brine-{prings in Buchovina and Moldavia, particularly near
Ockna. On the fouth-weft of the chain, following the fame
direétion, are thofe of Sowar, near Eperies, in Upper Hun-
gary; of Marmarofch, in Hungary; of Dees, Torda,
Paraid, and Vifackna, near Hermhtelk, in Tranfylvania,
&e.
The falt-mines of Wicliczka, near Cracow, and thofe of
Bothnia, which appear to be a branchof them, have become
celebrated from the accounts given of them by almoft every
traveller who has vifited that country ; many of their defcrip-
tions are too highly culoured. They are, indeed, very an-
cient, having been worked ever fince the year 1251; but
have nothing to diftinguifh them above others, except the
extent of the works in the beds of rock-falt, the dimenfions
of which ftillremain unknown. The ground that covers the
rock-falt 1s compofed, like that over moft other falt-mines, of
alternate ftrata of fand, pebbles, and marle, including large
blocks of fait. You.go down to thefe mines by fix fhafts,
of four or five yards in diameter. Various ftruétures have
been formed in the body of the falt itfelf. We find there a
itable, chambers, and chapels, all the parts of which, as
pillars, altars, and ftatues, areof falt. The thafts and gal-
leries are perfe@ly dry, fo that you are more incommoded by
duft than dirt. There are {prings, however, both of falt
water and of frefh inthefe mines. It appears that the air is
not fo foul in them as in moit falt mines; but the workmen.
do not refide in them, as fome have aflerted. In certain parts
of the mine,” hydrogen gas fometinies colleéts and ex-
plodes.
The fait is cut out in little afcending fteps. Itis formed
into parallelepipedons, weighing about eighty or a hundred
pounds, or into cylinders, which are put into cafks. This
mine produces about fix thoufand tons of falt every
ear.
if According to the defcription of Dr. Townfon, the falt in
the upper mines does not form continuous {trata, or rocks,
but exifts in immenfe detached blocks or maffes, imbedded in
marle. He gives the following account of the ftrata which
cover the falt.
3E2 Vegetable
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Yards.
Vegetable foil - ‘5 z é i 4
Sandy clay = - a ts uy IO
Fine fand effervefcing with acids us e 7
Marle with fand, containing fragments of fand-ftone 18
Sand-ftone - = = zi x 2
Marle mixed with falt, in {mall particles and cubes 40
At the depth of forty yards in this marle the falt 1s
found. The blocks of this mineral are of fuch a fize, that
in paffing through the galleries formed in them, fometimes
the upper, and fometimes the lower end only of a block
may be feen ; but often, though the galleries are three or
four yards high, the breadth can only be obferved, and
even in fome places the blocks of falt form the fides of the
gallery for fifteen or twenty yards. Thefe blocks com-
pofe the upper bed of falt, and from them the whole of
what is called the green falt is obtained. This falt,
which is of a greenifh or blackifh hue, owes its colour to
numerous fine particles of a fub{tance which feems to be of
the nature of argillaceous {chiftus feattered through it. This
variety of falt, on account of its impurity, is retamed in the
country for home confumption. In this marle, alfo, blocks
of fand-ftone are fometimes found imbedded, and the marle
itfelf is ftrongly impregnated with falt. Lower down
there is another bed of falt, called fzybicker falt, which is in
fome places two or three yards thick; it 1s of a purer
quality than the former, andis exported to foreign countries.
This variety of {alt-rock is difpofed in very extenfive beds.
The mine has been driven in one place twelve hundred yards,
from eaft to weft, and four hundred from north to fouth ;
falt being ftill found there. The utmoft extent Is yet un-
known. The nature ef the ftratum beneath the {zybicker
falt has not been afcertained; for the miners, being appre-
henfive of increafing the quantity of water, have never pro-
ceeded to a great depth in this ftratum. The greateft depth
of the mine is two hundred and forty yards. It does not
appear that the remains of organized bodies have been found
in great abundance in the ttrata connected with the falt-
rocks now defcribed. None have been obferved, according
to Dr. Townfon’s information, in the {zybicker falt, or the
lower ftrata; but fome have been feen in the marle which
envelopes the block of green falt ; fuch as bivalve thells, at
the depth of feventy-two yards; crabs’ claws, at the depth
of eighty yatds; and charred coal, mixed with falt and
gyp{um, at the great depth of two hundred yards.
From the circum{tance of mafs being formerly celebrated
in thefe mines two or three times a week, it has been faid
that the workmen, to the amount of five hundred, live
conftantly below ground. They do not, however, continue
longer than their hours of working. ‘To keep the mines
dry, the falt water is drawn up in leathern facks, and is
thrown away ; the fmall quantity of frefh water which they
afford is referved for the ufe of the horfes which are em-
ployed in the fubterraneous operations. At the time Mr.
Townfon vifited them, twenty-four horfes were conftantly
kept below ground.
{nthe mine of Bochnia the falt prefents itfelf im a ftratum
at once, and not in detached pieces. The ftrata of clay, as
welPas thofe of falt, are undulated, and not of an uniform
thicknefs. The falt is fometimes brown, at others reddifh,
and at others tranfparent. The different coloured falt is
not arranged in parallel layers. The ftrata dip at an
angle of about forty degrees with the horizon. Dr. Town-
fon informs us that very beautiful fpecimens of fibrous
muriate of foda are found in it.
At Thorda the mafs of falt is divided into horizontal
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but undulated ftrata. Thefe trata are about eight or ten
inches thick. The loweft are the moft undulated.
Near Ockna, in Moldavia, there is a hill of rock-falt, in
many parts of which the falt appears expofed to view.
The mines on the fouth-eaft of the Carpathian chain
appear more numerous, and are difperfed through a greater
{pace of ground than thofe on the north-ealt. ‘They are in
general very near the furface. Some of tliofe in Tranfyl-
vania are fo to fuch a degree, that perfons are appointed to
cover the falt with turf, when it is wafhed bare by the rain.
Thefe mafles, however, are fo thick, that their bottom has
never been found. They are not worked to the depth of
more than a hundred and feventy or eighty yards, becaufe
the extraction of the falt becomes then too expenfive. In
the county of Marmarofch they have been wrought to the
depth of upward of two hundred yards. Thefe mines con-
tain hkewife a great deal of petroleum, and the ground in
which they are contained is every where furrowed by rivers.
The mud interpofed between the water of thefe and the
falt, 1s imagined to prevent the falt from being diffelved by
them.
At Paraid, in Tranfylvania, there is a valley, the bottom
and fides of which are of pure falt. Walls of falt appear
there fixty or feventy yards high.
: The mine of Eperies is three hundred and fixty yards
eep. »
In the falt mines of Marmarofch, water has been found
included in the fubftance of the falt-rock.
The mines of the fouth-weit of the Carpathian mountains
are generally wrought by means of fhafts. There are at
leaft two to each mine; one for the workmen, the other
for drawing up the falt. The falt is cut out in afcending
fleps, which produces empty {paces, of 2 conical form, in the
midit of the ftrata. The ladders reach perpendicularly to
the bottom of this conical {pace: fo that within it they
{tand perfeétly detached. . Thus the greater part of the
body of falt is extraéted, leaving empty fpaces, which are
conical, and which communicate with one another by means
of galleries. It has been thought, that, in order to leave
lefs falt, it would he better to give thefe {paces the fhape
of a parabola. he falt is fo plentiful, that the miners are
paid only for fuch pieces as weigh upwards of eighty
pounds, the others being rejected as ufelefs. When the
workmen are incommoded by water, it is drawn up in
leathern bags, to be emptied out of the mine.
The Tranfylvanians and Moldavians extra&t falt from
their brine-{prings, by throwing the water on wood fires,
as the Gauls and Germans did in former times.
No falt-mine, or brine-{pring, is known either in Sweden,
or in Norway.
There are a great number of both, and particularly of falt
lakes, in Rufha. Among thefe is the falt lake of Tor, to-
wards the northern extremity of Little Tartary.
There are fimilar falt lakes in the Crimea.
At Balachna, on the banks of the Wolga, are fome very
rich brine-{prings.
Tn Ruffia, in Afia, we find the brine-{prings of Permia, of
which there are a great number at the foot of the mountains
of Poyas.
About eighty verfts from Yena Tayeofka, in the defart
between the Wolga and the Uralian mountains, there is a
mine of rock-falt.
In the government of Atftracan, to the north of the
Cafpian fea, in the environs of Orenburgh, and in the
country of the Bafhkirians, falt lakes are very common,
and the water evaporating during the fummer, the falt
appears
Or
appears cryftallized on their furface, and round their borders.
When this water is highly concentrated, it has a deep red
colour. The falt formed in them has often the fame hue ;
and when this is the cafe, it diffufes a very perceptible
violet {mell.
One of thefe is the falt lake of Elton, above Aftracan, in
the re-entering angle formed by the Wolga. The Kal-
mucks called it the Golden lake, becaufe of its red ap-
pearance, when the fun fhines on it.
The lake of Bogdo, fituate near this, yields a perfectly
white falt, free from fulphate of magnefia, and preferred to
that of lake Elton.
Near A ftracan, too. is the mine of Iletzki, celebrated for
the quantity of falt it furnifhes. The falt lies at no great
depth, and refts on a very hard clay. The foil above it is
fandy, and full of holes, containing water faturated with falt.
In Siberia there is a mine of rock-falt on the right bank
of the Kaptendoi ; and on that of the Kawda are fourteen
brine-Springs. Others are found in the government of Ko-
livan, and in the environs of Irkutfk, near the lake Baikal,
in the centre of Afiatic Ruflia. Lattly, the country near the
€afpian fea is fo impregnated with muriate of foda, that in
the environs of Gourief, the fogs and dew that fettle on
people’s clothes, andon plants, are faline. Pallas.
Among the Mongul Tartars, the foil is fo thoroughly
penetrated with muriate of foda, that the people hxiviate it,
and evaporate the folution to obtain falt.
That part of China, which borders on Tartary, contains
falt-mines, and the ground is itrongly impregnated with
falt.
Salt is found in the fame manner throughout almoll the
whole table-land of Great Tartary, Thibet, Hindooitan, and
particularly Perfia, where very extenfive plains are feen
covered with a faline eflorefeence. The ifle of Ormus, at
the mouth of the Perfian gulf, appears, according to the
accounts pf travellers, to be one large rock of falt. This
fubftance is alfo found in folid mafles near Balach, on the
ealtern fide of Perfia. In the defart of Caramania, accord-
ing to Chardin, rock-falt is fo abundant, and the atmo-
{phere fo dry, that the inhabitants ufe it for building their
houfes. It is found in the neighbourhood of If{pahan,
and in the mountains to the north of that city.
The repofitories of rock-falt in America are lefs known.
According to Ulioa and others, it is found in vaft quan-
tities in the elevated defarts of Peru, at the extraordinary
height of 10,000 feet, or more, above the prefent level of
the fea. It is extremely hard, forming folid. continuous
rocks of a dull violet colour.
The mountain of Xaragua, in the ifland of St. Domingo,
affords falt ; and in the fame ifland there is a very remark-
able falt lake, about 22 leagues in circumference, called
Henriquelle. The water, which is inhabited by lizards,
alligators, and land-tortoifes, all of a large fize, is deep,
clear, bitter, falt, and of a difagreeable {mell. Near the
middle of the lake is an ifland, about fix miles long and
three broad, well ttocked with goats, whence it has the
-name of Cabrito ifland; and in this ifland is a {pring of
frefh water..
Salt lakes occur in other of the Weft India iflands. In
North America, weit of the Alleghany mountains, in the
ftate of Kentucky, are numerous repofitories of rock-falt
and brine-{prings: thefe are called /icks, where the elks and
buffaloes formerly repaired in herds, to lick the foil impreg-
nated with rock-falt.. On the weftern fide of the great
river Miffouri, a chain of mountains extends 80 miles in
length, and 45 in breadth, and of confiderable height : it
conlills of pure rock-lalt, barely covered with earth, but
RAD AC
without any tree or fhrub. Further weit, in California,
falt is found in a very pure ftate, in large and folid maffes.
From the preceding account it will be feen that this moft
ufeful mineral is found in every quarter of the globe; and
in many parts it exifts in mafles of immenfe fize and extent,
compared with the rock-falt in our own ifland, in the county
of Chelter. Such, however, is the fuperior induitry of our
inhabitants, that the quantity annually exported from that
county alone greatly exceeds that procured from any other
diftrict in the known world, being not lefs than 140,000
tons, the produce of the falt-rock and brine-{pring ; while
the celebrated mines at Wieliczka, in Poland, are {tated to
yield only about 6900 or 7000 tons. Where rock-falt is
white or colourlefs, it is immediately applicable to all ufeful
purpofes ; but when mixed with earthy matter, it is ren-
dered pure by the fimple procefs of folution in water. The
liquor is afterwards drawn off into pans, leaving the in-
foluble part behind; and the water is then evaporated
either by the natural warmth of the climate,. or by fires.
See SALT.
Rock-Salt, in Rural Economy, that fort of foffile, rocky,
faline material, which is dug out of the bowels of the earth,
from different depths, in fome parts of this and other coun-
tries, where it exifts in layers of different thicknefles. ‘The.
beds of this kind of falt, which are found in the county of
Chefter, are highly intereiting and important to the country,
whether confidered as affording an article of manufaéture and
commerce, or as forming a fource of revenue. ‘The dif-
covery of the beds or ftrata of this fort of matter, in this
diftrict, is, however, of no very remote date, as will be feen
under the head of Rock-Salt Pits ; but the layers are pretty
numerous, and of confiderable extent, differing greatly in
their purity, though, in many inf{tances, requiring a greater
or lefs degree of preparation before the falt can be ufed.
It is remarked by the writer of the account of the Agri-
culture of Chefhire, that, from fome experiments made on
different {pecimens of rock-falt, it would appear that the
tranfparent kind of it is an almoft pure muriate of foda
which contains no admixture of either earth or earthy falts ;
and that the colour of the lefs tranfparent and brown fpeci-
mens is derived from the earth that enters, in greater or lefs
proportions, into their compofitions. That on 480 grains
of tranfparent rock-falt being diflolved in four ounces of
diltilled water, there was, fir{t, no precipitate let fall, on the
addition of carbonate of potath. Secondly, no alteration
was produced by this folution on blue vegetable juices.
Thirdly, on the addition of a few drops of tinéture of galls,
a flight purple tinge was given to the folution; and after
{tanding fome hours, there was a brown fediment at the bot-
tom of the veflel. Fourthly, on the addition of muriate of
barytes, there was no precipitate thrown down. From the
firft of thefe trials, it is fuppofed that rock-falt has ne
muriate of lime, or muriate of magnefia, combined with it ;
from the fecond, that it has no uncombined acid or alkalis
from the third, that it contains fome portion of iron; and
from the fourth, or lait, that there is no fulphate of lime
contained in it.
And that, on examining different fpecimens of the lefs
tran{fparent, and the brown rock-falt, with the fame re-
agents as in the above trials, it was found that thefe con-
fifted of muriate of foda, or fea-falt, in combination with a
certain proportion of earth, varying in quantity from one
to thirty per cent. ; alfo, that the earth was wholly the ar-
gillaceous or common clay ; but that fome of the {pecimens
contained a few grains of fulphate of lime, in 480 of thofe of
the rock-falt.
The beds of this falt are now well known to be the ae
cipa
ROC
cipal caufe of the falt-brine fprings in this county ; and, in
conneétion with fome other circumftances, to have a great
fhare in caufing the vaft differences in their ftrength, in dif-
ferent places. See Savt-Brine Springs.
This is a ftrong fort of falt, which is found ufeful for a
variety of domeftic purpofes, according to the different
manner in which it is prepared, or the difference in the fize
of the particles or cryftals of which it is compofed, as will
be more fully fhewn under the head Satr.
Although rock-falt is found in various parts of the above
diftri€&, there are no pits of it wrought at prefent, except
in the vicinity of Northwich. And part of the inferior
rock-falt, which is procured there, is, it is faid, ufed at
fome of the refineries in that neighbourhood ; and a further
quantity fent down the river Weaver, for tne fupply of the
refineries at Frodfham, in the fame county, and thofe on the
banks of the Merfey, in Lancafhire. ‘The purer rock-falt,
or that which is called in general Pruffian rock, is carried
by the fame conveyance to the port of Liverpool; whence,
according to the above writer, it is exported chiefly to Ire-
land, and the ports of the Baltic. The annual quantity of
rock-falt fent down the firft of the above rivers is found, on
the average of the laft ten years, to be 51,109 tons. But
in this, it 1s obferved, is included what is ufed at the Frod{-
ham and Lancafhire refineries, which may probably be about
one-third of the whole. And it is added, that it appears,
from the report of the committee of the houfe of commons,
appointed to inquire into the laws refpeting the falt duties,
printed in June 1801, that,
in 1798 20,162
rea were exported } 330983 bo of rock-falt.
1800 349939
Of this quantity, :
in 1798, - - 16,095
1799» : z 22,374 ¢ tons
1800, - - 19,663
were fent to different ports in Ireland: the remainder was
principally exported to Denmark, Ruffia, Sweden, Pruflia,
and Germany. However, a {mall quantity went to
Guernfey, Jerfey, and the Weft Indies.
This fhews, in a ftriking manner, the great utility and
advantage of this article in a manufacturing and trading
point of view, as well as in other ways.
In regard to the original formation of the beds or {trata
of rock-falt, in this and other countries, different theories,
opinions, and conje€tures, have been formed and propofed ;
but it is one of thofe geological queftions which is extremely
embarrafling in its nature, and very difficult in its folution.
Mr. Holland has, however, in the above work, ingenioufly
{tated feveral fuppofitions on the fubjeét, and the objections
to which they are expofed. It is remarked, that wherever
rock-falt is met with, fulphate of lime feems to be very
generally difcovered in mixture with the earthy {trata above
it. Andthe writer of the “ Memoire fur le Ser Marin,’’
in the 11th volume of the Annals of Chemiftry, it is added,
informs us, that this is the cafe in Poland, Tranfylvania,
and Hungary ;-alfo, that there 1s commonly a layer of
gypfum betwixt the ftrata of {tone and the bed of falt.
This gypfeous layer is of different colours, and is found
ceryftallized, {triated, and mixed with marine fhells. The
gypfum above the beds of rock-falt in Chefhire is, in like
manner, found cryftallized and ftriated ; but no marine ex-
uviz, or organic remains, it is obferved, are ever met with
in any ofthe ftrata. Nor does gypfum accompany it, as is
ufual in other places, as near Cordova, in Spain, where
ROC
vock-dalt forms a mountain 500 feet in height, and three
miles in circumference, as noticed by Kirwan and Townf-
hend. Jars, the author of the “* Voyages Metallurgiques,””
who, it is afferted, has given the moft particular account
we have of the upper ftratum of rockfalt about Northwich,
remarks, that ‘it appears to have been depofited by layers
or beds of feveral colours ;’’ and that ‘ thefe layers of falt
are in fuch a pofition, as to lead us to believe that the de-
pofition of it was made in waves, fimilar to thofe which are
formed on the fea-coatft.’’
This, Mr. Holland fays, coincides with an opinion fug-
gefted by Mr. Stanley, a friend of his, in regard to the pro:
bable origin of the beds of rock-falt, now in exiftence in this
diftri€t ; who ftates that rock-falt is there found in feveral
{trata, one above the other, with intermediate beds of in-
durated clay, in the vallies of the Weaver, and thofe of the
other rivers and brooks emptying themfelves into it; but
that it has never been found fo near the furface, as to be
above the level of the fea, or beneath any folid rock. If
beds of rock-falt are to be confidered as fo many depofits of
falt from fea-water, we muft fuppofe the fea, at fome former
period, to have occupied the vallies in this county; and
that, from time to time, the communications were inter-
rupted between thefe vallies (then deeper than they are now)
and the fea. Earthquakes, or accumulations of {and in the
eftuaries of the Merfey and the Dee, might, it is contended,
have caufed the interruptions. Whenever the fea-water in
the vallies became feparated from the fea, the falt contained
in it would fubfide, by the natural procefs of evaporation.
This, it is f{uppofed, would the more eafily have taken place,
if, by any fubterraneous fermentation, the ground below
the water fhould have been heated. To account for a
greater accumulation of {alt than the fea-water filling all the
loweft parts of the diftri€t would contain, we muft fuppoie,
itis faid, that the ob{truGtion interpofed between the vallies
and the fea had heen repeatedly broken down, and re-
newed again. ‘Tides, unufually high, might occafionally
overcome the refiftance of the accumulated fand ; and if the
intervals between the inundations were only of fhort dura-
tion, a fubfidence of falt might take place, equal to the
formation of the thickeft ftratum of the rock-falt now ex-
ifting. Long intervals between the inundations would admit
of an accumulation of clay, and other earthy particles, over
the falt thus depofited ; and in this manner would be formed
a new bafis for another ftratum of rock-falt to repofe upon.
Thus, it is thought, the reguler and aftonifhing exiftence of
the falt {trata may be accounted for, without necellarily
fuppofing them coeval with the original formation of the
earth: but to confirm the theory, it is fuggefted that much
obfervation and clofe inquiry into the natural hiftory of the
county would be required.
Mr. Holland, however, juftly thinks that there are many
objections to the theory which fuppofes the beds of rock-
falt, in this diftri€t, to have been formed by Cepofition from
the waters of the fea; fome of which he {tates rather for the
fake of promoting difcuffion and inquiry, than of affording
any very decided opinion on a matter of fo much doubt,
uncertainty, and obfcurity. ‘Though on making a per-
pendicular fection of the upper bed of rock-falt, an irrerular
itratification, fuch as noticed by Jars, may, he fays, by
frequent accurate examination, be obferved, the general
appearance of the fides of the openings, whence the rock-
falt is taken, is that of a confufed and irregular red mafs ;
in which fome portions of falt have a greater, others a lefs,
proportionate admixture of earth; while, here and there,
they may be feen perfeAlly pure and tranfparent. He,
therefore, afks, is it likely that this irregularity and confu-
fion
ROC
fion would have exifted, had the beds of rock-falt in this
diftri@ been formed by the evaporation of fea-water inun-
dating the land at certain intervals of time, as the above
theory fuppofes? On the contrary, fays he, would it not
be natural to expe@ from reafonings, @ priori, that the falt,
thus depofited from fea-water, would be difpofed in layers
_perfetly regular, and differing from one another merely in
thicknefs, or a few other circumftances of inferior mo-
ment?
Another fa& which, it is fuppofed, invalidates, in fome
meafure, the notion that the rock-falt has been depofited
from the waters of the fea, is the great difproportion of
quantity, fhewn by analyfis to exiit, between the earthy
falts contained in the brine of this diftri€@, and thofe held in
folution by fea-water ; the ratio here being as one to ten,
or the proportion which the earthy falts bear to the pure
muriate of foda in fea-water is ten times greater than that
which prevails in the Chefhire brine. ‘The dicertaining of
this fa& proves, it is fuppofed, that the rock-falt (from the
folution of which the brine is formed) is combined with a
much fmaller proportion of earthy falts than exifts in fea-
water ; a circumftance difficult to be accounted for, on the
f{uppofition that the beds of this fubftance were formed by
the evaporation of the fea-water, occupying the vallies and
lowett parts of the land. It muit be noticed, however, as
worthy of attention, that the earthy falts, intermixed with
the rock-falt in the above diftriG, are the fame which are
held in folution by fea-water, being principally muriated
magnefia and fulphate of lime.
There is, however, a {till ftronger proof, it is fuppofed,
againft the notion that the beds of rock-falt in this county
are depofitions from the fea-water, in the circumftance that
no marine exuvyie have ever been difcovered in the ftrata.
This, it is imagined, would almoft indubitably have been
the cafe, had the land been covered with fea-water during a
period of fufficient length for the depofition of beds of falt
of fuch prodigious thicknefs; and the fa&, that no fuch
exuviz do actually exift, is fuppofed in itfelf fufficient to
induce a fufpicion that the theory in queftion cannot be
well founded. Other objeCtions too, it is obferved, offer
themfelves to its validity ; fuch as the enormous depth of
fea-water neceflary to the production of a body of rock-falt
forty yards in thicknefs; the difficulty, if not impoffibility,
on fuch principles, of accounting for the formation of the
fingular infulated mountain of rock-falt at Cordova, in Spain ;
with others of a more trivial nature, which will readily pre-
fent themfelves in this inquiry.
It is, however, at the fame time candidly acknowledged,
that there are many fa¢ts and circumftances of a€tual ob-
fervation, that confer a itrong degree of plaufibility on the
opinion, againft which it has been contended. The cer-
tainty that the furface of the county was at fome former
period much lower than it is at prefent, and the diminution
of the thicknefs of the {trata of rock-falt in proportion as
they recede from the fea, are circumftances which un-
doubtedly range themfelves on this fide of the queftion :
and, upon the whole, it is thought, that it may be doubted
whether the theory, which regards the beds of rock-falt as
depofits from fea-water, does not accord more exactly with
exifting appearances, than any other which has been ad-
duced on the matter.
It is fuppofed that many things, which at firft feem ob-
jeétions, may be obviated by a reterence to the principles of
the Huttonian theory of the earth, and the excellent illuf-
trations of it by profeffor Playfair. However, in the pre-
fent ftate of our knowledge, any opinion formed on the
2
ROC
matter muft, it is imagined, from its very nature, be purely
theoretical. See Rocx-Sait Pits.
Rocx-Salt Pits, fuch pits, fhafts, mines, or openings,
as are dug or made in any other manner in the ground,
for the purpofe of getting and raifing rock-falt from them.
Pits of this fort are met with in many parts of the county
of Cheiter, which are wrought to very corfiderable extents,
and are of great importance to the interefts of the diftri&
in many different ways, as well as to the nation in general,
as may be feen under the head Rock-Salt.
According to the ftatement of Mr. Holland, in his
Agricultural Survey of the above county, the firft bed
and pit of falt-rock was found and wrought in Marbury,
at a {mall diftance from the town of Northwich, at the
depth of about thirty yards from the furface, in the year
1670, when fearching for coal. The bed was thirty yards
in thicknefs, and refted upon a ftratum or layer of hard
clay. In confequence of this difcovery, other fimilar at-
tempts were made; and on finking fhafts or pits any where
in the vicinity of it within the {pace of half a mile, it was
found to exiit at about the fame depth from the furface of
the earth, when not prevented from being dug down to by
brine-{prings or thofe of common water. This continued the
only place im which it was found until the year 1779, when
this fort of rock was again met with in fearching for brine
in the neighbourhood of Lawton, at the depth of about
forty-two yards, but only of the thicknefs of about four
feet ; there being beneath it a bed of indurated clay ten
yards in thicknefs, which being penetrated through, a fecond
itratum of rock-falt was difcovered twelve feet in thick-
nefs; and on continuing the finking Of the pit, another
layer of indurated clay, fifteen yards in thicknefs, was
pailed through; below which appeared a third ftratum of
rock-falt, which was funk into not lefs than twenty-four
yards ; the loweft fourteen yards, being the pureft, or the
leaft mixed with other fubftances, were the only parts that
were wrought.
Until this period, in the neighbourhood of Northwich,
no attempts had, however, been made to fink pits in order
to find a lower itratum of rock-falt; as the one which had
been fir met with was fo thick, and furnifhed fuch an
abundant fupply for every demand, there could be no other
inducement to this than the expectation of meeting with -a
ftratum, at a greater depth, which might contain a lefs ad-
mixture of earthy matters. It would feem, too, that the
fear of meeting with fprings below, which might impede
the working out of the materials from the pits, and even
render this wholly impracticable, prevented the proprietors
of them from finking deeper. As, however, no inconveni-
ence or interruption of this nature had occurred, on fink-
ing through different alternate ftrata of rock-falt and
clay at Lawton; and it had been found that there was
a lower ftratum of rock-falt there, which was more pure
than thofe nearer the furface, the owners of one of the
works or pits in this vicinity were induced, a little time
after the trials at Lawton, as in 1781, to fink deeper
than had yet been done, and to pafs through the bed
or body of indurated clay lying underneath the rock-falt,
which had been fo long known and wrought. This
indurated clayey material was found to be from ten
to eleven yards in thicknefs ; and immediately beneath it a
fecond itratum of rock-falt was met with, the upper part
of which differed little in purity from that of the higher
itratum or layer of rock; but on penetrating into it to the
extent of from twenty to twenty-five yards, it was there
found to be much more pure and free from earthy admix-
ture,
ROC
ture. But it continued to have this increafed degree of
purity for four or five yards only ; while, for fourteen yards
itill lower, to which depth the pit or fhaft was funk, the
proportion of earthy matter was again as-large as in the
upper part of the ftratum. It was therefore, on this ac-
count, thought ufelefs to fink the pit to any greater depth.
Many other proprietors of pits, fhafts, or mines, in the
fame neighbourhood, it is ftated, followed the example
which had been thus {et them; and penetrated through the
bed of indurated clay lying beneath the upper ftratum of
rock-falt. A fecond ftratum of rock-falt was conftantly
. met with below this ; and on pafling down into it, the fame
order of difpofition as to purity was obferved, as in the
pit or mine in which it had been firft noticed and examined ;
and the fame has been found to prevail in all the pits, fhafts,
works, and mines, which have fince been funk in the fame
vicinity.
It 1s further noticed, that there is great uniformity in
the ftrata which are paffed through in finking pits for
rock-falt or brine; and that they very generally confift of
clay and fulphate of lime mixed in various proportions ;
that of the latter fomewhat increafing as the pit, fhaft, or
work approaches the rock or brine. The workmen diftin-
guifh the clay by the appellation of metal, giving it the
name of red, brown, or blue metal, according to its
colour ; and the fulphate of lime by that of plaifler. See
QUARRY.
The itrata formed by thefe are, in general, clofe and
compact ; allowing very little frefh water to pafs through
them. In fome places, however, they are broken and
porous: and they admit fo much frefh water into the pit
or work, that whenever they have been met with, it has
been ufual to difcontinue any attempts to pafs through
them in finking the pits. In thefe places the workmen call
the metal faggy. It was thought not only impraéticable to
overcome a water, which vulgar prejudice had magnified
into a great ttream running under ground ; but it was be-
lieved, even if the finking could be continued below this,
that the water could not be kept out of the pit, fhaft, or
work, and that it would either weaken the brine fo as to
deftroy its value, or would find its way into the cavity of
any rock, pit, or mine which might be found below it.
Later experience, it is faid, has proved, that thefe ideas
were not altogether well founded. A few years ago an
attempt was made in Witton to pafs through this porous
ftratum, in order to get to the brine. It was met with
about twenty-eight yards from the furface; the thicknefs
of it was about thirteen feet; and the quantity of water,
which was forced through it into the pit or fhaft, was three
hundred and fixty gallons a minute. By means of a fteam-
engine, the finkers were enabled to pafs through this water;
to fix a gauge or curb a few yards below it, in a ftratum
of indurated clay ; and thence to bring up a wooden frame,
fupporting a wall of puddled earth twelve inches thick, by
which the accefs of the frefh water into the pit or fhaft
was in a great degree prevented, and an opportunity given
to pais down to the brine below. A fhaft was afterwards
funk through this porous ftratum, for the purpofe of ob-
taining rock-falt; which object was, after a fhort time,
defeated, by the influx of brine into the fhaft at the fur-
face of the upper ftratum of rock-falt ; an accident origin-
ating ina caufe completely diftin@ from the frefh water in
the porous ftratum or bed. An exaét feGion of the dif-
ferent ftrata funk through in reaching the fecond bed of
rock-falt in the pit at Witton, near Northwich, is given
by Mr. Holland in the above report ; and all the ftrata in
REOC€
the neighbourhood of the laft town are fuppofed to have
neatly a fimilar difpofition. The inclination of them in the
pit or fhaft at the above place was from north-weft to fouth-
eaft; and the dip about one yard in nine. The ftratum
through which the frefh water flowed is fhewn, and the
level it found, itis faid, was fixteen yards from the furface,
which, it is remarked, nearly correfponds with that of the
brock below. The line of feparation between the loweft
ftratum of earth, and the firft of rock-falt, is very exa@ly
defined; they are perfeétly diftin&, and do not at all run
into each other. It is farther noticed, that in carrying a
horizontal tunnel for one hundred yards along the upper
ftratum of rock-falt, this was found to be irregular and
unequal on its furface; the irregularities in a great meafure
correfponding with thofe on, the furface of the ground
above.
The higheit bed or body of rock-falt in the pits near
Northwich is*the thickeft in thofe fituated the moft to the
north-eaft, gradually declining in thicknefs towards the
fouth-weft, fo as to lofe one-fixth of it inthe courfe of
about a mile. It decreafes from about thirty yards in thofe
the fartheft to the north-eait, to about twenty-five in that
the moit to the fouth-weft. }
A fingular appearance is remarked to prefent itfelf on
making a horizontal fection of the ftratum of rock-falt in
the pits: on the whole of the furface made by fuch a tec-
tion, various figures, it is faid, may be obferved, differing
in form and fize, fome of them being nearly circular, others
approaching more to an oval form, while in many an irre-
gular pentagon may betraced. Some of them are not more
than two or three feet in diameter; others are ten or twelve
feet. The lines which form the boundaries of thefe figures
are white, and from two to five or fix inches wide. On ex-
amining thefe appearances, they are found, it is faid, to be
owing to the rock-falt, in the white lines forming the divi-
fions of the figures, being perfeétly pure, and free from
earthy admixture. When combined with the falt, having
earth in various proportions mixed with it, a general effect
is produced, it is faid, not very diftantly reflembling mofaic
work. This difpofition is uniformly obferved, it is faid,
throughout the whole thicknefs of the itratum of rock-falt ;
and that in whatever part of it fuch a fection as the above
is made, fimilar appearances are met with. To what caufe
it has been owing that the rock-falt has been depofited in
this fingular manner, it is thought difficult to conceive.
The whole ftratum of rock-falt may, it is fuppofed, be
compared to a mafs of bafaltic columns; the lines of fepa-
ration in each pillar being marked by the pure and tran{-
parent white falt. Thefe appearances, it is noticed, afford
feveral grounds for inferences favourable to the theory of
the earth mentioned under the head rock-falt, to the illuttra-
tor of it. See Rocx-Salt.
’ Tt is likewife further obferved, that the divifion betwixt
the lower portion of the upper bed of rock-falt, and the
indurated clay or {tone beneath it, in pits of this kind, is
as exactly defined, as that between the upper portion of it
and the earth above. ‘That in pafling through this ftone
{mall veins of rock-falt are met with, here and there run-
ning in it, in various dire€tions; and that wherever there
has been any littlé crevice in it, it is found filled up with
rock-falt, to which the clay and oxyd of iron have given a
deep red tinge. The thicknefs of this itratum of {tone
is faid to be uniformly found to be from ten to eleven
yards; and the lower part of it is as diftinét from the
fecond bed of rock-falt, as its upper part is from the firtt :
alfo that its termination is equally abrupt or fudden.
9 And
HO“
And that the perpendicular fe&tion of the fecond bed
of rock-falt varies little from that of the upper bed, till
it has been penetrated about twenty yards from the furface,
when it aflumes a more {tratified appearance, and is here
found, as already noticed, to have a much f{maller propor-
tion of earth combined with the muriate of foda. A fec-
tion of this ftratum, fimilar to the above, difplays the fame
figured appearance in the roof of the pit, as that of the
upper ftratum.
In the very inftructive report mentioned above, the writer
has given a coloured reprefentation of the roofing of a rock-
falt pit, and another of the part where the lower furface
of the upper bed of rock-falt joins the inferior clayey or
other ftrata. Thefe, as well as other matters in that work,
are particularly worthy of the attention of the inquirer on
this fubject.
But though beds of this fort of material have been occa-
fionally met with in fome other parts of the fame diltriét,
they have not been wrought, principally on account of the
want of water carriage: as the working of thofe pits at
Lawton was foon difcontinued, it is now only from the
pits ‘in the neighbourhood of the town of Northwich that
rock-falt is procured. At this time there are ten or twelve
in number; at all of which the rock is wrought in the
lower itratum or bed only. The pits or fhafts are for the
moit part fquare, and built or formed with timber; but
there is one at the diftance of about a mile from the town
of Northwich, which is of a circular form, and built in
brick-work.
In regard to the manner of working the pits or mines,
there is nothing of any very great interelt or moment to be
noticed. By means of boring and blafting the rocky
ftratum, and the ufe of wedges with the different mechani-
cal inftruments employed in mining, the falt-rock is fepa-
rated, fo as to be raifed in large maffes, which vary in
form and purity. However, before any confiderable ex-
tenfion of the workings in the pits, in any particular direc-
tion, takes place, care is taken to make fure of a good
fafe open roofing for the cavity which is to be formed in
_ getting out the rock. In doing this the workmen make
ufe of pointed implements of the common pick kind, work-
ing the materials out in an horizontal manner, fo as to form
an excavation in the rock, and making it in as fimple a
way as poflible, or as the work will admit. In confequence,
however, of its being fituated a few feet above the purer
part of the ftratum, the rock which is obtained during this
procefs is commonly of inferior quality, and is, for the
moft part, made ufe of in the refineries. The depth of the
workings from the excavations or roofings, it is remarked,
depends in a great meafure upon the nature of the ftratum,
and the proportion of it occupied by the rock of the purer
quality, or, as it is termed, Pruffian rock. Fifteen or fixteen
feet may perhaps, however, be taken, it is thought, as the
average depth of the workings in the pits. The cavity
thus formed prefents a ftriking appearance; and when
illuminated by candles fixed in the rock, the effec, it is
aflerted, is highly brilliant. In fome of the pits or fhafts,
the excavated roofs are fupported and kept up by pillars
eight or ten yards fquare, which are in general arranged
with a degree of irregularity: others are worked out in
aifles ; the choice here however feems to be wholly arbitrary,
depending on the men who are employed in the work.
Until thefe few late years, horfe labour was wholly em-
ployed in raifing rock-falt from the pits and fhafts about
the town of Northwich; but this method has now, in fome
meafure, given way to the beft kind of fteam-engine, which
Vou. XXX
ROC
has been fubftituted in its ftead, in many of them with very
great advantage. In others, however, horfe labour is ftill
continued to be made ufe of for this purpofe. The men
who are employed in working the rock-falt pits, have their
pay by the quantity of the material which they raife, hav-
ing in general fomewhat lefs than half a crown for the ton
weight, they finding tools and every thing elfe neceflary for
the work.
Rock-Fi/h Creek, in Geography, a river of Virginia, which
runs into James river. At the mouth of this river is a pre-
cipice, hanging over a navigable part of the river, formed
of marble, variegated with red, blue, and purple. N. lat.
37° 37'. W. long. 78° 54!.
Rock-Caflle River, a river of Kentucky, which runs into
the Cumberland, N. lat. 36° 43'. W. long. 84° 14/.
Rock Point. See Punva de Calenduras.—Alfo, a cape
on the N. coait of the ifland of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° 8/.
E. long. 118° 35’.
Rock River, a river of America, which runs inte lake
Michigan, N. lat. 37°37! W. long. 83° 35’.
Rock Town, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coatt.
N. lat. 4° 35’. W. long. 7° 50!.
ROCKAWAY, a {mall poft-town of America, in Mor-
ris county, New Jerfey, on the S. fide of a rtver of the fame
name ; 15 miles N. by W. from Morriftown.
ROCKBENT, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Lan-
calter county, containing 1026 inhabitants.
ROCKBRIDGE, a mountainous county of Virginia,
bounded N. by Augufta, and S. by James river, which di-
vides it from Botetourt county. It contains 10,318 inha-
bitants. The famous natural bridge is in this country. Here
isan ufeful academy, for twenty to forty itudents, liberally
endowed by the late general Wafhington, and called,
after him, ‘“ Wafhington Academy.”? ‘The chief town is
Lexington.
ROCKCASTLE, a county of Kentucky, containing
1731 inhabitants.
ROCKEN, acape on the S. coaft of the Ifle of Wight.
N. lat. 50° 34!. W. long. 1° 13!.
ROCKENBACH, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; 5 miles N. of Neuftadt.
ROCKENHAUSEN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Kaiferflautern ; 10 miles N. of it. The place
contains 940, and the canton 5129 inhabitants, in 17 com-
munes.
ROCKENHOF, a town of Germany, in the territory
of Nuremberg ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Nuremberg.
ROCKET, in Pyrotechny, an artificial fire-work, con-
fifting of a cylindrical cafe of paper, filled with a compofi-
tion of certain combuttible ingredients ; which being tied on
a {tick, mounts into the air to a confiderable height, and there
burtts.
The rocket has a great part in all fire-works of entertain-
ment, being not only ufed fingly, but fometimes alfo as an
ingredient in others.
Befides the rocket here defined, which is properly called
the /ky-rocket, there is another, which, fromthe {phere it
moves in, viz. the water, isdenominated qwater-rocket. For
the mechanifm, preparation, &c. of each of them, we refer to
the article PyroTecuNny.
Dr. Pemberton, in his Chemiftry, p. 209, &c. has given
the following concife account of rockets. A rocket (he
fays) is a hollow cylinder, ufually made of paper, of a
thicknefs equal to about one-fixth of its diameter within,
and filled with gunpowder, or fome like compofition. Li
3F a rocket
ROCKET.
a rocket be made of great bignefs, intended for a fignal in
war, or fuch like ufe, its cafe may be made of a more folid
material.
Near one end the cafe of the rocket is drawn in, till its
diameter be reduced to one-half of the whole internal dia-
meter. This place is ufually called the choke. The moft
approved length of the cafe, from the choke, is about fix
times its internal diameter, to be filled with gunpowder ; if
the rocket be {mall, beat into fine duft, and rammed in
with as even ftrokes as can be, that the powder be uniformly
comprefled. In great rockets, the charge is ufually a little
weakened by adding to the gunpowder a {mall portion of
charcoal and of fulphur.
To the end of the rocket is added a cylindrical cavity,
not above half the length of the rocket trom its choke in
height, and of fuch a diameter, that, together with the
materials put into it, it may not exceed the weight of the
reft of the rocket. Thefe materials, befides fome corn
powder to burft the cafe, confifts of fome compofition, that
may give the appearance of ftars, a fhower ef fire, or the
like.
Thefe fiery fhowers may be made of faw-duft, boiled in
water, itrongly impregnated with nitre, and while wet
rolled among’ gunpowder in duft; or by gunpowder
mixed with melted brimftone, and when cold, grofsly
beaten.
Thefe {tars are a mixture of gunpowder, nitre, fulphur,
antimony, camphor, and the like combuftible materials,
moiftened with a folution of fome gum, in order to form
pellets of a convenient fize. Thefe pellets are to be covered
over with thread, well foaked in a ftreng folution of nitre,
and while wet rolled in gunpowder. ‘To charge the rocket
with larger balls, any of the aforefaid ingredients (of
which nitre, in a fufficient quantity, mut always be one)
may be mixed with turpentine, melted pitch, or rofin, and
tow fteeped in it. In this way larger balls may be formed,
which fhould be covered over with thread, prepared as juft
now defcribed.
It is neceflary for giving the rocket a fufficient degree of
motion, that the powder within the rocket be bored with a
tapering cavity from the choke. At the choke this cavity
mutt be as wide as the choke itfelf ; at the farther end it
need not be more than one-half that width. The length of
this bore muit be but one inner diameter of the rocket fhort
of the whole height to which the rocket is rammed. The
ufe of this bore is to increafe the furface, that takes fire at
once ; that a greater body of fire may iffue out of the mouth
of the rocket. For from the vehemence with which the
fire iffues out, the rocket receives its motion. Rockets
are ufed in all fire-works that have motion, except fuch
as are thrown into the air after the manner of bombs.
When the rocket is defigned to mount upwards, a flick,
eight or nine times the length of the rocket, is tied to
it, fufficient to poife the rocket at an inch or two from its
mouth.
Rockers, Sky, Theory of the Flight of. Mariotte takes
the rife of rockets to be owing to the impulfe or refiftance
of the air againit the flame. Dr. Defaguliers accounts for
it otherwife, as we fhall {tate in the next article, with re-
marks upon the theory. We fhall here add, that the {tick
is attached to keep it perpendicular; for if the rocket
fhould begin to tumble, moving round a point in the choke,
as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and ftick,
there would be fo much fri€tion againft the air, by the ftick
between the centre and the point, and the puint would beat
againft the air with fo much velocity, that the re-action of
the medium would reftore it to its perpendicularity.
When the compofition is burnt out, and the impulfe
upwards is ceafed, the common centre of gravity is
brought lower towards the middle of the ftick; by which
means the velocity of the point of the {tick is decreafed.
and that. of the point of the rocket is increafed; fo
that the whole will tumble down, with the rocket end
foremott.
All the while the rocket burns, the common centre of
gravity is fhifting and getting downwards, and ftill the fafter
and the lower as the ftick is lighter; fo that it fometimes
begins to tumble before it be burnt out : but when, the ftick
being a little too heavy, the weight of the rocket bears a
lefs proportion to that of the ftick, the common centre of
gravity will not get fo low, but that the rocket will rife
{traight, though not fo faft.
Mr. Robins, confidering the great ufe that may be made
of rockets, m determining the pofition of dittant - places,
and in giving fignals for naval and military purpofes, pro-
cured fome, with a view of afcertaining the height to which
they rife, and the diftance at whi they may be feen.
The greateft part of them did not rife to above 400 yarde,
one to about 500, and one to 600 yards nearly. The
greateft diftance at which thefe were obferved, was from 35
to 38 miles. Others were fired at a different time ; one of
which rofe to 690 yards; and it was obferved, that the
largeft, which were about 2% inches in diameter, rofe the
higheft. In fome fubfequent experiments, conduted by
M. DaCofta, Mr. Banks, &c. it was found that of two
rockets, of about 34 inches diameter, one rofe to about 833,
and the other to 915 yards. In another trial, a rocket of
4 inches diameter role to r1go yards. In other experiments,
a rocket of 13 inch rofe to 743 yards; one of 2 inches to
6593 one of 24 inches to 3803 another of the fame lize to
1071; one of 3 inches to 12543 one of 3% inches to 1109;
and one of 4 inches rofe to near 700 yards, and, turning, fell
to the ground before it went out. Befides thefe, there was
one of the rockets of 24 inches in diameter, which rofe to
784 yards, and another of the fame fize to 833 yards.
From thefe experiments it is inferred, that rockets from 23
to 34 inches in diameter are fufficient to anfwer all the pur-
poles for which they are intended ; and they may be made ta
rife toa height, and to afford a light capable of being feen
to confiderably greater diftances than thofe juft mentioned.
The manufaéture of large rockets is expenfive ; and they are
more uncertain than thofe of a fmaller fize. Phil. Tranf.
vol. xlvi. p. 578, &c. or Robins’s Math. Traéts. vol. i.
P- 317, &ec.
To prevent mifchief from the fall of the rocket-fticks,
which are fometimes very heavy, they now bore the
flicks of large rockets, and fill them with powder, that
they may fhiver in the air before they fall. See Fire-
Works. ;
Rockets, Congreve’s, a new {pecies of war rockets, being
thus called from the name of their inventor, fir William Con-
greve. They differ from the common rocket, as well in
their magnitude and conftrudtion, as in the powerful nature
of their compofition ; which is fuch, that without the in-
cumbrance of any ordnance, (the rocket containing the
propelling power wholly within itfelf,) balls, fhells, cafe-
fhot, and carcafles, may be projected to the diftance of from
1000 to 3000 yards, which renders them a moft efficacious
{pecies of artillery; as they may not only be employed
in every cafe, and for every purpofe, of the ufual light
and heavy ordnance, but they are available alfo in a va-
riety of inftances, in which the nature of the prone os
other
ROCKET.
other impediments prevent the effectual introduétion of that
arm.
Thefe rockets are of various dimenfions, as well in length
as in calibre, and are differently armed according as they are
intended for the field, or for bombardment and conflagration ;
carrying, in the firft inftance, either fhells or cafe-fhot, which
may be exploded at any part of their flight, fpreading death
and deftruction amongit the columns of the enemy ; and in
the fecond, where they are intended for the deftruétion of
buildings, fhipping, ftores, &c. they are armed with a
peculiar {pecies of compofition, which never fails of deftroy-
ing every combuftible material with which it comes in
contact.
The latter are called carca/s-rockets, and were firft ufed at
Boulogne, their powers having been previoufly demonftrated
in fome experiments made at Woolwich by fir William Con-
greve, in the prefence of Mr. Pitt and feveral of the cabinet
minifters, in the month of September 1805. Sir Sidney
Smith was ordered to command the expedition intended for
this purpofe; but from the latenefs of the feafon, it being
near the end of November before the preparations were
completed, nothing was done that year. In 1806 fir
William Congreve renewed his propofition for the attack of
Boulogne by rockets, which was ordered to be-put in exe-
cution after lord Moira, at that time mafter-general of the
ordnance, and lord Howick, firit lord of the admiralty, had
fatisfied themfelves of the efficacious nature of the weapons,
from other experiments made again at Woolwich for that
purpofe. The attack was accordingly made under the
command of commodore Owen, late in Oftober 1806;
having been put off during the f{ummer months, in confe-
quence of the negociations for peace, at that time pending
between the courts of England and France.
From this delay, however, inftead of being conduéted
upon the grand fcale at firft intended, it became a mere de-
fultory attack, in which not more than 200 rockets were
fired. The town, however, was fet on fire by the firlt
difcharge, and continued burning for near two days: it was
fuppofed alfo that fome fhipping were deftroyed, but the
greater part of the rockets eertainly went over the bafin
into the town.
After this, their firft introdu€tion as a military weapon,
the carcafs-rockets have been ufed in almoft every expedition,
and in nearly all under the immediate infpection of their
inventor. Their reputation was completely eftablifhed at
Copenhagen, where they did incredible execution: after the
fiege, they were ordered by lord Chatham, the matter-general
of the ordnance, to be reported upon by a committee of field
officers of artillery, who had witneffed their effeét in that
bombardment, and who pronounced them to be * a powerful
auxiliary to the prefent fyflem of artillery.” Indeed the
powers of this weapon are now eftablifhed upon the beit
of all teftimonies, the bet of all criterions, the te{timony of
the enemy; a ftriking inftance of which occurred at the fiege
of Flufhing, where general Monnet, the French com-
mandant, made a formal remonitrance to lord Chatham re-
Specting the ufe of them in that bombardment ; than which
no better faé need be recorded of the effe& they muft have
produced. If fuch, therefore, be the acknowledged power
of the weapon in fuch an early ftage of its progrefs, and
only when a handful, as it were, were ufed, merely by way
of experiment, under the inventor, with not more than
twenty or thirty men to affift him, what may not be
expegted, when regularly organized in the fervice, and
enerally combined with the other implements of bom-
ardment ?
At prefent we have fpoken only of the carcafs-rockets ;
it is not, however, in bombardment only that this {pecies of
artillery may be advantageoufly employed ; their powers in
the field having been demonttrated to be equally irrefiftible.
The crown prince of Sweden was the firft general who bore
teftimony to their effeéts in this fervice ; a {mall corps of
rocketeers, under the command of Capt. et a of the royal
artillery, having been attached to this divifion of the allied
armies; and who, in the ever memorable battle of Leipfic,
while yet the fate of empires was fufpended in fearful equi-
librium, glorioufly maintained the honour of the Britifh
arms, and incontrovertibly eitablifhed the reputation of the
rocket-fy{tem.
They were afterwards employed with great effe& when
the Britifh army, under the command of the duke of Wel-
lington, crofled the Adour ; and, had the war continued, we
fhould, in all probability, have feen them as commonly in
active fervice in the field as the other artillery. In confe-
quence of thefe fuccefles, and a variety of other inftances,
which our limits will not allow us to enumerate, his royal
highnefs the prince regent commanded the formation of a
rocket corps, which took place on the 1ft of January 1814,
by augmentation to the regiment of royal artillery, as
propofed by lord Mulgrave, mafter-general of the ord-
nance.
Having thus given a fketch of the hiftory, improve-
ment, and introduétion of the rocket-fyftem of artillery, we
fhall proceed to give {uch explanation of the nature and ap-
plication of the weapon in different fpecies of attack and
defence, as may be confiftent with the general intereft of the
fervice ; fuch only being fuffered to tranfpire; for, the
military rocket being exclufively an Englifh weapon, all
the more minute and important particulars, both of con-
ftru€tion and compofition, are very properly kept a pro-
found fecret, being probably known in complete detail by
no perfon except the inventor himfelf.
The general form of all the different kinds of rockets, for
whatever fervice they may be defigned, is cylindrical, being
formed in {trong metallic cafes, and armed, as we have before
ftated, either with carcafs compofition for bombardment and
conflagration, or with fhells and cafe-fhot for field-fervice.
They are, however, of various weights and dimenfions, from
the eight-inch carcafs, or explofion rocket, weighing nearly
three hundred weight, to the fix-pound fhell-rocket, which
is the fmalleft fize ufed in the field. The fticks which are
employed for regulating their flight are alfo of different
lengths, according to the fize and fervice of the rocket ; and
which, for the convenience of carriage, are ftowed apart
from the rocket, and fo contrived as to confift of two or
more parts, which are conne¢ted to it, and to each other,
when requifite, with the utmoit expedition.
Rocket ammunition is divided into three clafles, Aeavy,
medium, and light ; the former including all thofe of above
42lbs., which are denominated according to their calibre, as
eight-inch, feven-inch, fix-inch, &c. rockets; the medium
include all thofe from the 42lb. to the 24lb. rocket ; and the
light, from the 18-pounder to the 6-pounder inclufive.
The carcafs-rockets are armed with {trong iron conical
heads, containing a compofition as hard and folid as iron
itfelf, and which, when once inflamed, bids defiance to any
human effort to extinguifh it ; and confequently involves, in
an inextinguifhable Pesca: every combuitible material with
which it comes in contaét. The 42-pounder and 32-
pounder carcafs-rockets, are thofe which have hitherto been
chiefly employed in bombardments: the penetration of the
32ib. carcafs-rocket in common ground is nine feet ; and
3F 2 int
ROCKET.
in fome inftances where they have been employed, they have
been known to pierce through feveral floors, and through
the fides of houfes: this is the fmalleft rocket ufed in
bombardment, and the largeft employed in the field; the
more ufual fize for the latter fervice being the 24, 18, 12,
and 6-pounders.
The ranges of the eight-inch, feven-inch, and fix-inch
rockets, are from 2000 to 2500 yards ; and the quantity of
combuttible matter, or buriting powder, from 25lbs. to 5olbs.;
and from their weight combined with lefs diameter, they
poflefs a greater power of: penetration than the heaviett
fhells, and are therefore equally efficient for the dettruc-
tion of bomb-proofs, or the demolition of ftrong buildings ;
fo that the facility of application, on which the inventor has
hitherto refted the merit of the rocket-fyftem, 1s not its only
excellence ; for it thus appears, that it actually will propel
heavier mafles than can be done by any other means, that is
to fay, mafles, to project which, it would fcarcely be poffible
to caft, much lefs to tranfport, mortars of fufficient magni-
tude. The largeft rocket that has yet been con{tru&ted, has
not, we believe, exceeded three hundred weight; but fir
William Congreve feems to have in contemplation others of
much {uperior magnitude, weighing from half a ton to a ton
weight, which being driven in very {trong caft-iron cafes,
may poflefs {uch force, that, when fired along trenches cut
to the foot of the glacis, from the neareft point of the third
parallel, againft the revetement of any fortrefs, even un-
impaired by a canonnade, it fhall, by its mafs and form,
pierce the fame; and, having pierced it, fhall with one
Nature of Ammunition. Armed with
explofion of feveral barrels of powder, with which it is
loaded, blow fuch portion of the mafonry into the ditch,
as may, with very few rounds, complete a pratticable
breach.
The 42 and 32-pounders are thofe, as we have before
ftated, which have hitherto been principally ufed in bom-
bardment, and which, for the general purpofes of that fer-
vice, are found quite fufficient, as they will convey from
7lbs. to rolbs. of combuttible matter each, and have a range
of upwards of 3000 yards.
The 32-pounder rocket may be confidered as the me-
dium rocket, being the fmalleit ufed in bombardment as a
carcafs or explofion rocket, and the largeit ufed with thot
or fhell in the field; but as the 24-pounder is very nearly
equal to it in all its applications in the latter fervice, being
quite equal to the propelling of the Cohorn fhell. or
12-pounder fhot, it is, from the faving in weight, generally
preferred to the 32-pounder. ; j
The 18-pounder, which is the firft of the light nature of
rockets, is armed with a glb. fhot or fhell; the 12-pounder
with a 6lb. ditto; the g-pounder with a grenade; and the
6-pounder with a 3lb. fhot or fhell. From the 24-pounder
to the g-pounder rocket inclufive, a defcription of cafe-fhot
rocket is formed of ‘each nature, armed with a quantity of
mufket or carbine balls, put into the top of the cylinder of
the rocket.
The following table prefents a general view of the ranges,
elevations, and other particulars of feveral of the moft ufual
defcriptions of Congreve rockets.
Extreme Range.
Elevation for extreme Range.
42-Pounder carcafs- Capeafes large, 18lbs. of combuftible matter Yards
rockets 3 ares {mall, 12lbs. ditto “. ‘ ae Elevation for extreme range
42-Pounder —fhell-2'|_ gn wt), 54-inch - - Tighe?) not lefs than 60°
rockets - , 12-pounder f{pherical -
Espo licdee Shie cals large, 18lbs. of combuftible matter =. 2000 60° j H
3 Bat aeHa a Carcaffes 2 medium, 12lbs. = 13-inch carcafs - 2500 60° to 55°
ESN fmall, 8lbs. = ro-inch ditto - 3000 Ge
a2 Pounder et Shells, g-pounder {pherical - - 3000 50°
32-Pounder cafe-fhot } j large, containing 200 carbine balls - 2500 GGs
rockets - 5 ee fmall, 100 ditto - - -. 3000 50°
32-Pounder _explo- Strong iron cones, containing from slbs. to) | from 2500 °
fion rockets —- talbs. of powder, to burit by fuzees - $| to 3000 33
12-Pounder cafe-fhot large, 72 carbine balls - = 2000 45°
rockets - § etn | {mall, 48 ditto - =) y25 OO). 45°
Note. The mean velocity of any rocket is to that of its equi-
valent fhellin about the ratio of 8 tog, the rangesbeing the fame.
From the preceding table it will be feen, that the
32-pounder carcafs-rocket will range 3000 yards, with the
fame quantity of combuttible matter as that contained in the
10-inch fpherical carcafs ; and 2500 yards, with the fame
quantity as that of the 13-inch {pherical carcafs. It will
be feen alfo, that the 12-pounder cafe-fhot rocket, which is
fo portable that it may be ufed with the facility of muf-
quetry, has a range nearly double that of field artillery,
carrying as many bullets as the 6-pounder fpherical cafe:
add to which, that from the nature of the conftruGtion of
the rocket, thefe bullets are projeted from it in any part of
its track, with an increafe of velocity, whereby its operation
becomes: frequently moft deftruGtive at that point where any
diferent {pecies of ammunition ceafes to be effective.
Of this defcription of cafe-fhot rocket, 100 infantry fol-
diers will carry into aétion, in any fituation where muf-
quetry can at, 300 rounds, and ro frames for difcharging
them; from each of which, four rounds may be fired ina
minute. And of the fame defcription of cafe-fhot for the
ufe of cavalry, four horfes will carry 72 rounds, and four
frames ; from which may be fired.16 rounds in a minute 3
each horfe not having more than the ordinary burden of a
dragoon’s horfe.
The rockets ufed by the cavalry are, however, now de-
fizned to be the 12-pounders, armed with a 6-pounder
fhell or cafe-fhot; each horfe carrying four of thefe
rockets.
Every third man, befides his portion of ammunition,
has, in addition, to carry the chamber from which the
rockets are difcharged. ‘This chamber, however, weighs
but
ROCKET.
but fix pounds, ard is, therefore, but little additional bur-
den; fo that the rockets may be difcharged parallel to the
furface, and as near to it as poflible.
The weight of ammunition carried by the troop horfe,
xeith the fall complement going into a¢tion, is fuch, that the
horfe is fully equal to any ordinary operations. But in long
marches, {mall tumbrils are provided for carrying a part of
the ammunition; which leaves the horfe, in travelling, one
{tone four pounds of ammunition to carry, a burden of two
ftone lefs in line of march than that of the heavy dragoon’s
or artillery-man’s horfe: to which we may further add, that
as the rocketeer has no heavy duty to perform, no guns to
fponge, nor any to limber up or unlimber, he may, upon
an average, be a lighter man by three {tone than is required
for an artillery-man, who has conttantly the above duties to
perform ; a difference amounting, within a few pounds, to
the whole weight of the ammunition carried by the men
even in action.
A fubdivifion of rocket cavalry: confifts of 24 horfes and
20 men, four of the horfes being employed in carrying the
ammunition for the fubdivifion. Each of thefe ammunition
horfes carries 18 rockets and rocket-fticks, and a proportion
of {mall ftores, weighing in all, including faddle, faddle-
bags, &c. 19 ftone; fo that thefe 20 men will carry into
action 152 rounds of 12-pound fhell or cafe-fhot, and fix
chambers, or bouches a fei; from which, without any ex-
traordinary exertion, 80 rounds of 6-pound ammunition
may be difcharged in three minutes.
It is obvious that the combined celerity and quantity of
the difcharge of ammunition of this defcription of artillery
cannot be equalled, or even approached, taking in view
the means and nature of the ammunition employed, by any
other fyftem. The univerfality, alfo, of the operation,
not being encumbered with wheel-carriages, muft be duly
appreciated ; as, in fact, it can proceed not only wherever
cavalry can aét, but even wherever infantry can get into ac-
tion, as has been already ftated.
The heavier fpecies of rockets, as the 32-pounder or
24-pounder, as allo the 18 and 12-pounders, are fometimes
carried in cars of a peculiar defcription, which not only
convey the ammunition, but are contrived alfo to difcharge
each two rockets in a volley, from a double iron-plate
trough, which is of the fame length as the boxes for the
tticks, and travels between them; but which, being move-
able, may, when the car is unlimbered, be fhifted into its
fighting pofition at any angle from the ground ranges, or
point blank, up to 45°, without being detached from the
carriage. The limbers are always fuppofed to be in the
rear. The rockets are fired witha port-fire and long ftick :
two men will fight the light car, and four men the heavy
one. -
At prefent we have confined our remarks to rocket ca-
valry: it is obvious, however, that they may, with equal
facility, be accommodated to the ufe of infantry. In this
cafe, one man in ten, or any greater proportion, carries a
frame of very fimple conftruGtion, ftanding on three legs,
like a theodolite, when fpread; and which clofes fimilarly,
for the convenience of carrying. It is mounted at top with
an open cradle, from which the rockets are difcharged,
either for ground ranges, or at any required elevation.
The reft of the men carry each three rounds of am-
munition, which for this fervice is propofed to be either
12-pounder fhell-rockets, or the 12-pounder rocket cafe-
fhot ; each round equal to the 6-pound cafe, and ranging
2500 yards; fo that 100 men will bring into action, in any
fituation where mufquetry can be ufed, nearly 300 rounds
of this defcription of artillery, which ranges at 45°, nearly
double thofe of light field ordnance. F
When the rockets are employed in bombardments, they
are difcharged from frames of a different conftruétion ; the
rockets employed in this fervice being larger than thofe ufed
for the field: they are, however, equally fimple, and the
difcharges may be made with great rapidity. In many
cafes, however, the frames are difpenfed with, and the
rockets are thrown from a battery ereéted for that purpofe.
The great advantage of this fyftem is, that as it difpenfes
with apparatus, where there is time for forming a work of
this fort, of confiderable length, the quantity of fire that
may be thrown in a given time is limited only by the length
of the work ; one Boe feet in length being fufficient for
firing 100 rockets in a volley, and fo on for any greater
length ; or an inceflant and heavy fire may, by fuch a bat-
tery, be kept up from one flank to the other, by replacing
the rockets as faft as they are fired in fucceflion.
Another ufe is for the defence of a pafs, or for covering
the retreat of an army, by placing any number, hundreds
or thoufands, of 32 or 24-pounder fhell-rockets, or 32-
pounders armed with 18-pounder fhot, limited as to quan-
tity only by the importance of the objeét which is to be
obtained ; as, by this means, the moft extenfive deftruétion,
even amounting to annihilation, may be carried amongit the
ranks of an advancing enemy, and that with the expofure
of {carcely an individual. For this purpofe, the rockets
are laid in batteries of 100 or 500 in a row, according to
the extent of ground to be proteéted; fo that one man is
in faé&t alone fufficient to fire the whole in fucceffion, be-
ginning with that neareft to the enemy, as foon as he fhall
perceive him near enough to warraat his firing. Where the
batteries are very extenfive, each battery may be fubdivided
into {maller ones; fo that the whole, or any part, or par-
ticular divifion, may be fired, according to the number and
pofition of the enemy advancing.
A fimilar application of the rocket artillery is as follows :
a low work is thrown up for the defence of a poft, or of a
chain of pofts, confifting merely of as much earth and turf
as is fufficient for forming the fides of fhallow embrafures,
for large rockets, placed from two to three feet apart, or
nearer ; from which the rockets are fuppofed to be. dif-
charged independently, by a certain number of artillery-
men, employed to keep up the fire according to the necef-
fity of the cafe. In this manner, fuch an inceffant fire may
be maintained as would be next to impoffible for an ad-
vancing enemy to pafs through, not only from the quantity,
weight, and deftruGive nature of the ammunition, but from
the clofenefs of its lines, and its contiguity to the ground.
The larger kind of thefe rockets are alfo equally applicable
to the attack and defence of fortified places. ‘They may
alfo be employed by infantry againft an attack from cavalry :
they may be even carried by a {torming party into the place,
by which the parapet may be fcoured of the enemy, any
ftreet or paflage enfiladed; or thrown occafionally into the
town, as well to diftra&t the attention of the garrifon, as
to ferve as an index to each of the ftorming divifions, as to
the fituation and progrefs of each party. In fa&, there is
no limit to their application, being as general and extenfive
as that of gunpowder itfelf,
In naval warfare the rocket-fyftem likewife poffeffes
peculiar advantages ; for in confequence of there being no
re-action in thefe projeétiles on the point of difcharge,
rockets, carrying the quantity of combuttible matter, as, by
the ordinary fyftem, would require to be thrown from the
largeft mortars, and from fhips of very heavy tonnage, ar
z e
ROCKET.
be ufed in the fmalleft boats of the navy ; and the 12-pounder,
and 18-pounder, have been frequently fired from four-oared
gigs ; and it fhould alfo be remarked, that rockets of the
above weight will ricochet in the water remarkably well at
low angles ; they may alfo be employed to facilitate the cap-
ture of a fhip by boarding, by being thrown, by hand, into
the ports, &c. by the boarding party, as foon as they get
along-fide, as the confufion and deftruétion which will thence
inevitably enfue, cannot but facilitate the performance of
this dangerous duty. Thefe rockets are alfo peculiarly
adapted to add to the dreadful effeéts of fire-fhips ; for, ac-
cording to the prefent fyitem, it is not improbable that a
number of fire-fhips may pafs harmlefsly through an enemy’s
fleet, by the exertion of their crews in towing them clear,
whereas, if they were fupplied each by a fufficient number
of rockets, fuch an extenfive and devattating fire would be
fpread in every direétion, as to involve every veflel of the
enemy in that deftru€tive element. After the above ftate-
ment, little need be faid in reference to the general utility and
importance of the rocket-fyftem. It will be fufficient to
obferve, that it confifts, firlt, in their being a f{pecies of
projectiles of the moft deftru€tive kind, which, containing
in themfelves the propelling power, difpenfes with the ufe
of heavy ordnance, and confequently offers great facilities to
the movement of an army. 2dly. The extenfive nature of
the fire that may be kept up, by a few men, againft any im-
portant point. 3dly. It may be employed in a variety of
cafes in which the ufual artillery, from the nature of
the ground, or other impediments, cannot be rendered
effective ; and laftly, in naval bombardments, in confequence
of its trifling re-aétion, it may be thrown from cutters
and {mall boats, and therefore from points which could
never be approached by the veffels ufually employed in that
fervice.
It may alfo not be amifs to obferve, that in point of ex-
pence the rocket likewife poflefles the advantage. The
32-pounder carcaf{s-rocket cofts only 1/. 1s. 11d. complete,
in every refpeét, for fervice; whereas its equivalent, the
to-inch fpherical carcafs, with the charge of powder ne-
ceffary to convey it 3000 yards, which power is contained
in the rocket, cofts 1/. 2s. 7d., independent of any charge
for the mortar, mortar-bed, platform, difference of tranfport,
&c. &c. attaching to the fpherical carcafs, and not to the
rocket, which a¢tually requires no apparatus whatever to
ufe it in a bombardment, and has, therefore, no charge
attaching toit, beyond the firft coft, but that of tranfport ;
and a veilel of 300 tons will carry 5000 of them at leaft.
It is alfo further to be obferved, that the above 1/. 1s. 11d.
fuppofes the whole conftru€tion to be effeGted by manual
labour: by introducing machinery, which we underftand is
about to be done, the expence of the 32-pounder carcafs-
rocket will be reduced to 18s., or even to 16s., by ufing
bamboo inftead of the ufual ftick, which is but about
three-fourths of the expence of the 1o-inch fpherieal car-
cafs, independent of all the other charges of tranfport, &c.
attending the latter.
But the comparifon, as to expence, is {till more in favour
of the rocket, when compared with the larger nature of
earcafles. The 13-inch fpherical carcafs cofts 1/. 175. 114d.,
to throw it 2500 yards, while its equivalent rocket cofts
but 1/. 5s. od., being a faving, on the firft coft, of 12s. 114d.,
and a fimilar proportion of faving runs through the whole
fyftem.
Rocker Light Ball, alfo invented by fir William Con-
greve, is a {pecies of light ball thrown into the air by means
of one of his rockets; where, having reached the fummit
of the rocket’s afcent, it is detached from it by an ex-
plofion, and remains fufpended in the air by a {mall parae
chute, to which it is conneéted by a chain. Thus, in lier
of the tranfient momentary gleam obtained by the common
light ball, a permanent and brilliant light is obtained, and
fufpended in the air for five minutes at leaft, fo as to afford
time and light fufficient to obferve the motions of an enemy
either on fhore or at fea; where it is particularly ufeful in
chafing, or for giving diftant and more extenfive night
fignals, It is to be oblerved, that nothing of this kind can
be obtained by the projeétile force of either guns or mor-
tars, becaufe the explofion infallibly deftroys any con-
{truétion that could be made to produce the fufpenfion in
the air.
Floating Rocket Carcajs.—This is another of the inventor’s
applications of his rocket, and of the parachute; for the
purpofe of conveying combuftible matter to diftances far
beyond the range of any known projeétile force; at the
fame time that it is cheap; fimple, and portable. The float-
ing carcafs, like the light ball, is thrown into the air at-
tached to a rocket, from which being liberated at its greateft
altitude, and fufpended to a {mall parachute, it is driven
forward by the wind, and will, in a moderate breeze, afford
ranges at leaft double thofe of the common carcafs; and
may, therefore, for naval purpofes, from a bleckading {qua-
dron, be thrown in great quantities, by a fair wind, againft
any fleet or arfenal, without the {mallett rifk, or without ap-
preaching within range either of guns or mortars. Thus,
in the blockade, a few years back, of the Ruffian fleet at
Baltic fort, it might have been continually ufed, at alk
events, with great profpe& of fuccefs, and certainly where
no other means of annoyance could be applied. The rocket
containing this carcafs is not larger than the 32-pounder
carca{s-rocket ; and the whole expence, added to the rocket,
does not exceed five fhillings ; nor are the approaches of the
carcafs itfelf neceflarily vifible by night, as it may be fo
arranged, as not to inflame till fome time after it has fettled.
It is evidently, therefore, capable of becoming a very harafl-
ing weapon, with a great chance of doing as much mifchief
as any other carcafs amongft large fleets and flotillas, by
lodging unperceived in the rigging, or lighting on extenfive
arfenals, in fituations where no other means of annoyance
whatever exifts.
Rockets, Theory of the Motion of. The theory of the fight
of rockets differs very effentially from that of the ufual pro-
jectiles. In the latter, the body is launched into {pace with
a certain and determinate velocity ; and by rejecting the re-
fiftance of the air, a moft beautiful theory is eftablifhed,
poflefling great fimplicity and generality, and which is,
therefore, highly interefting to the fpeculative mathema-
tician, notwithftanding it is of little or no ufe to the prac-
tical artillerift. In order to render the theory ufeful in the
latter fenfe, a great variety of experiments have been made
to afcertain the effect of the air’s refiftance, which is not
at all confidered in the former cafe, the initial velocity ef
the ball, the ftrength of fired gunpowder, &c. &c.; yet
after all, it muft be acknowledged that very little has been
gained, and the practitioner is {till much more guided by
his own experience, than by any light that has been thrown
upon the fubje& from long and intricate mathematical
theories.
The motion of rockets is more complicated than that of
comm)n projectiles, partaking, in fact, of all the anomalies
that attend the accelerated motion arifing from the rocket
compofition, and the uniform motion i the rocket-cafe,
after the compofition is expended ; and as little or no advan-
tage
ROCKET.
tage has yet been gained from the experiments that have
been made with cannon, even where the angle of elevation
and the initial velocity of the ball were both accurately
known, it feems totally ufelefs to Jook for any affiftance
from mathematical inveftigations, with refpe& to deter-
mining the ranges, &c. of military rockets: becaufe if we
could determine with the greateft accuracy the point, po-
ition, and velocity of the rocket, at the moment when the
compofition was expended, the remaining part of its track
would itill be fubje& to all the inequalities attending on
common projectiles.
If we confine our inveltigations only to that motion which
has place during the time the compofition is burning, it is
not improbable that much light might be thrown on the
fubjec&t from a well arranged courfe of experiments; and
that their motion might be reduced to precife rules, in fe-
veral applications of the rocket-fy{tem, particularly in the
cafes we have mentioned, where they are intended co be ufed
as a kind of battering-train.
The great impediment in gunnery to the exact deter-
mination of the momentum of any given ball, when pro.
jeCted with a given velocity, and from a given diftance, is
the refiftance of the air ; becaufe it can only be found from
experiment at certain diftances, and it is difficult from a few
partial cafes to infer a general law. That the refiftance of
the air to the fame ball is as fome funétion of the velocity,
there can be no doubt ; but we much queftion whether that
determined by Dr. Hutton, wiz. r = .00002576 v* —
-00388 v, although the moft accurate of any yct found, is
as corre&t as could be wifhed. Indeed, when we confider
the infinitude of different forms under which the funétion of
a fingle variable may appear, it feems much_too confined a
{cale to attempt to reduce it to the fimple form av’ + 60;
viz. to limit the dimenfion of the funétion, and attempt
every accommodation by means of the co-efficients a and 6.
With regard to the rocket, the cafe is very different: the
very medium, which in the former inftance is the great im-
pediment to an accurate theory, is here the principal agent
in producing the motion ; and moreover, we are here, from
the nature of the weapon, enabled to afcertain all the fuc-
ceflive energies of the propelling power, and the refifting
force, which, in the other cafe, are only determinable at
two or three different diftances: on which account, it is to
be prefumed that more advantage may be here expected to
be gained from experiment, than in the cafes above re-
ferred to.
Inttead of a ball impinging on the balliftic pendulum, at
the diftance of 60 or 100 yards, as pra¢tifed in gunnery
experiments, a rocket might be fixed to the fame pendulum,
and its whole energy obferved with the greateft accuracy ;
. or, in cafe fuch experiment fhould be thought inconclufive,
for want of that partial vacuum which has place behind the
rocket when in flight, it might be attached to fome wheel,
or revolving body, and its fucceflive energies meafured by
the motion of fome weight attached to the revolving axis of
the machine. This is a moft important advantage attending
experiments on the momentum of rockets, which it is im-
_poffible to accommodate to other projectiles.
We are not aware, however, that any fuch experiments
have yet been undertaken; and, therefore, all our invelti-
gations on the flight, momentum, &c. of rockets muit ne-
ceffarily be hypothetical. In fa, we have two diftin&
theories of the motion of rockets, the one by Mariotte, and
the other by Defaguliers ; the latter attributing their mo-
tion to the momentum of combuttion, and the other to the
elaftic nature of the gas generated by the combuftion and
the refiftance of the air. Defaguliers illuftrates his hypo-
thefis as follows: “ Conceive the rocket to have no vent
at the choke, and to be fet on fire; the coufequence will
be, either that the rocket will burit in the weakeit place,
or if all its parts be equally itrong, and able to fuftain the
impulfe of the flame, the rocket would bura out immove-
able. Now as the force of the flame is equable, fuppofe
its a€tion downwards, or that upwards fufficient to lift
40 pounds; as thefe forces are equal, but their direétions
contrary, they will deftroy each other’s action. Imagine
then the rocket opened at the choke; by this means, the
aétion of the flame downwards is taken away, and there re-
mains a force equal to 40 pounds aéting upwards, to carry
up the rocket and ftick.’? Although there is fome in-
genuity and plaufibility in the above reafoning, we are by
no means inclined to admit its accuracy. The aCtion of the
flame or gas within the rocket, when clofed, as fuppofed
above, we conceive to arife wholly from the elaftic nature
of the gas, and the re-action it experiences again{t the ends
and fides of the rocket-cafe ; the whole of which ceafes, as
foon as a free vent is given to the flame; and, therefore, if
a rocket could be fired in a vacuum, asthe flame would, in
that cafe, experience no refiftance, there would be no re-
action, and confequertly no motion would enfue. In order
to fubmit the above fuppofition to experiment, take a ftrong
piece of whale-bone, and bend it into the form of a bow, by
means of a bit of thread or filk faftened to each extremity :
then if this bow be fufpended by its middle, and two pieces
of board, or two books, be fet up on their edges, each
touching one end of the bow, and the {tring by which it is
bent be cut, both books will, from the Caftie nature of
the whale-bone, be thrown down with confiderable force.
Now repeat the experiment, but fet up only one book,
leaving the other end of the bow entirely free ; then cut the
ftring as before, and it will be found that, for want of the
re-action of the other book, no effeét, or very little, is pro-
duced on the ftanding book: it may be a little difturbed,
but it will not fall. This we confider to be a very fimilar
cafe to the action of the gas on the rocket, when fhut up
and opened, as fappofed by Defaguliers; and if fo, it
fhews very diftin@ly the inaccuracy of his hypothefis.
As a mere matter of mathematical inveftigation, it cer-
tainly reduces the theory to the molt fimple Foae becaufe
here it is not effential, fo far as regards the propelling
power, what may be the velocity of the rocket; which
power is, therefore, fuppofed uniform during the whole time
of combuftion: whereas, in Mariotte’s theory, which attri-
butes the motion of the rocket to the refiftance or re-action
of the air, the propelling force will decreafe as the velocity
increafes, in confequence of the partial vacuum left behind
the rocket in its flight ; fo that the velocity becomes, as it
were, both a datum and quefitum ; and the correct folution
of the problem neceffarily involves the integration of partial
differences of the higheft orders.
We mutt confefs that we feel no inclination to meet the
problem under this formidable fhape, unlefs we had a good
fet of experiments on which to reft our firlt premifes, and
from which, therefore, fome ufeful conclufions might be
expected to be deduced. We fhall, therefore, in what fol-
lows, avail ourfelves of a few problems relative to the mo-
tion and flight of rockets in non-refilting mediums, as given
by Mr. Moore of the Royal Military Academy, in his
Treatife on the Motion and Flight of Rockets; who, we pre-
fume for want of experiments, has adopted the hypothefis of
Defaguliers, by fuppofing the motion of the rocket to arife
from the momentum of the ignited compofition. We shall
alfo fuppofe the rocket and {tick perfectly free the moment
after being fired; for, without this, it is obvious that the angle
12 ok
ROCKET.
of elevation of the rocket’s direCtion, and that of its a¢tual
difcharge, will be effentially different. ‘The firft motion of
the rocket, like all other motions not produced by a great
momentary impulfe, is flow ; and before the ftick is clear of
the frame, gravity has been ating upon the rocket, and
depreffed it below its natural pofition, while the ftick is
prevented from being equally deprefled, by the top of the
frame; fo that the angle of projection is in fact confiderably
lefs than the angle of the frame, or flope of the rocket’s firit
pofition. In confequence of this, the rocket has the ap-
pearance of falling the moment after projection; and, for
this reafon alfo, the angle for producing the greateft range
of a rocket exceeds very confiderably that which gives the
extreme range of a fhell projected from a mortar.
Prop. I.
The ftrength or firft force of the gas from the inflamed
compofition of a rocket being given, as alfo the weight and
quantity of the compofition, the time of its burning, and
the weight and dimenfions of the cafe and ftick ; to find the
height to which it will afcend, when projected perpendicu-
larly upwards.
It is obvious here, that the principal point of inveftiga-
tion is the height to which the rocket will rife, and the ve-
locity it will have acquired, at the moment when the com-
pofition is all expended ; as the determination of its farther
afcent, with thefe data, depends upon~well-known and
eftablifhed principles. We fhall, therefore, only confider
the former cafe. For this purpofe, put
the weight of the rocket-cafe and ftick.
the weight of the compofition.
the time in which it will be confumed.
the medium preflure of the atmofphere.
the aflumed force of the inflamed compofition.
the diameter of the rocket’s bafe, and pd” its area.
the {pace defcribed. And
velocity acquired in any indeterminate time ¢.
Then s2fd? is the conftant impelling force of the com-
polition.
Now the weight of the quantity of rocket-matter that is
Ho ea
28 QZ FRM
: 6 raeiGse: Cites
eonfumed in the time ¢ is —-; therefore, ¢ — — is the
a F a
. cé
weight of the part unconfumed; and w + ¢ — ee
m= he (making m= w +c), is the weight of the whole
a
mafs, at the end of the time ¢.
4 i
Henee snpd’* — (»— =) is the motive force, and
Pp ct
sn pd’? —( m— —
? a asnpd’ i
— — 1, the accelerating force.
ct am—ct
papavetts
2
Therefore, from the known formule for variable forces,
we have v= 2¢ft, which hence becomes
2agsnpd?t
am—et
ns aizohh
the fluent of which is
d
esate seein x hyp. log. (F — :) — 2g%, or
v = — &. hyp. log. =) — 2g;
&
2agsnpd*
- é
where 6 =
This fluent, corrected for the cafe in which ¢ = 0, gives
the corre&t fluent,
d am mais
v= 6b. hyp: log — a ;
i ° am—ct oe
which, when ¢ = a, becomes
m
v= b.hyp. log. — 294
Te pos) ieee Si?
the velocity required.
Again, to- find the {pace defcribed in the fame time, we
have ¢ = vi, ore = bi x hyp. log. i eile —2gtt.
m— ct
The corre& fluent of this is « = (0: — 2) hyp. log.
c
am+ = (am—ct).hyp. log. (am—ct) + bt—gPfs
ab.
and in the cafe when ¢= a, it becomes x = — +
@
m—
((m —c) hyp. log. +e — 2) the {pace fought.
It will be obferved, however, that in both thefe cafes,
gravity has been fuppofed to aét direétly in oppofition to
the motion of the rocket ; but had we confidered the flight
uninterrupted by gravity, (as we muft fuppofe, in efti-
mating its flight, when projected at any given angle, where
gravity is not confidered as in any refpeét retarding the
rocket’s motion in the firft line of projeétion,) then the laft
terms in each of the above expreffions will difappear, and
we fhall have fimply
m
v = 4b. hyp. log. > and
m—C
m—C
x=
b
SP ca ey eer Saat)
Having thus determined the height of the rocket, and its
velocity, when the compofition is juft confumed, it follows
that its whole height may be determined in the ufual man-
ner, by the known formula for the afcent and defcent of
heavy bodies.
Prop. II.
To determine the path of a rocket near the earth’s fur-
face, neglecting the refiftance of the air.
If, during the time the rocket was on fire, the weight of
the whole mafs remained conftant, the path of the rocket
would, from the known laws of the compofition and refolu-
tion of forces, bea right line ; but this not being the cafe,
on account of the continual wafting of the compofition, the
accelerative force will be different at every inftant; and,
therefore, fince the accelerative force of gravity is conftant,
the path of the rocket will neceflarily be a curvilinear one.
Let AC (Plate Pyrotechny, fig. 16.) be the firft direétion
of the rocket, and AD the curve in which it moves ; draw
CDB perpendicular to the horizontal line A B. Now the
path of the rocket will be determined by finding the relation
between A B and BD, or between A C and C D, theangle
BAC being given.
: Now
R'O"e€
Now we have found, generally for AC, « = (4 —
abm
——) hl am + £ (am —ct) h. 1. (am — ct) + bf
é
while CD = gt*. Hence, by afluming any number for
t, the relation between A C and C D will be determined, or
the relation between A B and DB; for reprefenting AC
by ¢ (¢), we have A B = cof. A . 9 (#), and CB = tan.
A .cof, A¢(t), and DB = tan. A. cof. AG (*) —
gt’.
Prop. III.
To find the velocity of the rocket in the curve at any
given inftant.
Let AC ( Plate Pyrotechny, fig. 17.) =x, and AD =z,
being the fpace defcribed by the rocket in the time ¢; then
am
= V; the ve-
calling the velocity at C = 6.h. 1. se
am—ct
locity at D ia the curve will be expreffed generally by
a following from the laws for the refolution and com-
x
pofition of motion. Now, by the laws of falling bodies,
CD = g?’: and putting 4 and / for the natural fine and
cofine (to rad. 1) of the angle CAB of projeGtion, we
fhall have AB =/x, CB = éx, and DB (the ordinate
of the curve) = £2 — gt’. Therefore
& = [(#% — 2gtt)* + Px") and
vo! al Lage (24 —2g18)"]) acs
x x
Again, by the theory of variable motions, + = ots
confequently
; 2 gy? gz oo ag ‘29!
see EVs 2gtt)*] Say Le
Vi
v= [vl + kV — 2gt)}5 or
eos 232 2 ane : m am < 2 5
1 —ifdb%,(h, 1 Say, hs, bh. — 2gt))%,
the velocity of the rocket at D3; which requires no cor-
rection. oR
When the angle of projection is go°, 7 = 0, andé = 1;
am
t in thi » Wi ie . log. ———— —
therefore v, in this cafe, will be = 4 . hyp. log ae
2gt, as determined in the preceding part of this article ;
and when g = 0, or when the action of gravity is not con-
fidered, the velocity of the rocket in its rectilmear path is
v =’. hyp. log. wr, which agrees with what has
been already obferved.
When the angle of elevation is 30°, £ = 3, and/ = Z
«/ 3, therefore
wv ‘Gat 1.
an —2g1)')}
am—ct & y.
And when the angle of elevation is 60°, then changing the
values of £ and /, we have
v= (}57-h. Le
Vor. XXX.
m
4(2b.hL
a
am—ct
am a am
3
Sitd 5 é.hel.
}
ae t)?)?
am — am—ct 2gt)')
RAO IE
Prov. IV.
To find the horizontal range of a rocket, the angle of
elevation, and the time the compofition is on fire, being
iven.
Let D (Plate Pyrotechny, fig. 18.) be the place of the
rocket, when all the matter it contained is juit exhaufted ;
and C m and Cnthe meafures of the velocities of the rocket
in the direéticns A C, DI, the latter of which is a tangent
to the curve at D; then by trigonometry, fin. < Cam(=
2CB = IDB) = = - fia. << Cman = C cof. of the
ce
velocity at C
velocity at D ie pean
Whence, calling the velocities at C and D, V and v, com-
puted on the principles of our fecond propofition, we have
fin. IDB = = cof. CA B: and fince we have found the
angle of elevation =
angle I D B, it will be eafy to determine that part of the
range denoted by BL. For the curve from D being a
parabola, DH = = 7 ,»and VE = m7 » (from the laws
of projectiles in vacuo,) where s and u reprefent the
fine and cofine of the angle 1 DH; confequently V F =
s7v?
VE+ EFS VE + DB= + be — gt
whereof x is given by the firft propofition.
Again, by the nature of the parabola VE: V F:: EH?:
FL? = os . Gr ea st’), and therefore
eae Te ee + he — sey whence
AL s uv
5? v7 y suv"
— + kx — nr) — +x,
V§ ( 48 é ? 2g ij
the entire range of the rocket, as required.
For a great variety of other propofitions relative to
this fubjeét, fee Moore’s Treatife on the ** Motion and
Flight of Military Rockets.”
Rocket, in Botany. See Eruca.
Rocket, Baflard. See Resepa.
Rocket, Corn, Sea, or Bynes poten Rocket, a diftin&
genus of plants, called by Tournefort erucago, and by Lin-
nzus Bunias ; which fee.
Rocker, Garden, aname by which the hefperis of botanifts
is fometimes called. See Hespenis.
Rocket, Water, Marfh, or Winter, the name of a
fpecies of Si/ymbrium ; which fee.
Rocker isalfo ufed for a habit. See Rocuerr.
ROCKFORD, in Geography, a poft-town of America,
in North Carolina ; 573 miles from Philadelphia.
ROCKHILL, a townhhip of America, in Bucks county,
Pennfylvania, containing 1508 inhabitants.
ROCKINGHAM, a market-town and parifh in the
hundred of Corby, and county of Northampton, England,
is fituated clofe to the river Welland, at the diftance of 26
miles N.N.E. from Northampton, and 84 miles N.N.W.
from London. In former times it was a place of fome
note on account of its caftle and appendant foreft. This
caftle was built by William the Conqueror, on the fummit
of ahill overlooking the town, ‘and appears to have bees
3G occa.
RiO;C
occafionally the refidenee of feveral of our early monarchs.
In the reign of William Rufus, a great council of the
nobility, bifhops, and clergy, was aflembled here to ter-
minate the difpute between the king and Anfelm, arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, refpecting the right of inveftiture,
and obedience to the fee of Rome. The council fat on
Sunday the 11th of March, 1094, in the chapel belonging to
the caiftle. Edward III. frequently honoured this fortrefs
with his prefence; as is evident from the numerous difpatches,
and other inftruments of royal authority, which are dated
at Rockingham, in different years ofhisreign. EdwardIV.
fettled the manor here, together with the caftle and forett,
on his queen, Elizabeth, for her life-time. Thefe after-
wards formed part of the duchy of Cornwall, and continued
fo till the reign of Edward VI., when they were granted
to Edward, lord Clynton, from whofe family they paffed to
the Watlons, one of whom, fir Lewis Watton, was created
baron Rockingham, of Rockingham cattle, in the year 1644.
At what period the caftle was difmantled is uncertain ; but
it is probable that event happened early in the reign of
Henry III., as in the 34th year of that monarch, it is
defcribed as being in a ruinous condition. Leland, who
vifited it in the time of Henry VIII., gives the following
account of this ftruéture in the firft volume of his Itinerary.
« The caftelle of Rokingham ftandith on the toppe of an
hill, right ftately, and hath a mighte diche, and bulwarkes
agayne withoute the diche. The utter waulls of it yet ftond.
The kepe is exceding fair and ftrong; and in the waulles
be certein {trong towers. The lodgings that were within the
area of the cattelle be difcovered and faul to ruine. One
thing in the waulls of this caille is much to be notid; that is,
that they be embatelid on booth the fides. So that if the area
of the caftelle were won by cumming in at either of the 2 greate
gates of the caftelle, yet the keepers of the waulles might
defende the caftelle. I marked that there is a ftronge
tower in the area of the caftelle, and from it over the dun-
geon dike is a drawbridge to the dungeon toure.’”? All
that now remains of the original building is the arched
-gateway of the grand entrance, which is flanked by two
mafly baftion towers. Rockingham foreft extended about
20 miles in length, from Oxendon bridge to Stamford bridge,
and four or five miles in breadth. Leland fays there were
only * fallow dere in it’’ “ with dyers lodges for kepers’’ in
his time.
The town of Rockingham confitts chiefly of one irregular
ftreet. The market-day is Thurfday, weekly ; and there
is an annual fair on the 25th of September. Thefe pri-
vileges were granted by Henry III., at the requeft of
Edmund, earl of Cornwall, the then pofleflor of the manor ;
but they are at prefent only nominal. According to the
population returns of 181i, this parifh contains 49 houfes,
and 230 inhabitants. The church is not remarkable, ex-
‘cept for fome handfome monuments, erected to comme-
morate different individuals of the Watfon family. An
altar-tomb, in the chancel, bears the recumbent ftatue of a
man in armour, with that of a female by his fide; and on
the entablatures are the figures of nine children, {culptured
in relief. This tomb was ereéted in memory of Edward
Watfon, grandfather of the firlt lord Rockingham, and
his wife,. one of the daughters of fir Edward Montague,
lord chief juftice of the court of king’s bench. Another
handfome monument commemorates Lewis Thomas, lord
Sondes, who died June 21, 1806. Beauties of England,
&c. vol. xi. by John Britton, F.S.A. The Hiftory and
Antiquities. of Northamptonfhire, compiled from MS.
ColleGtions of the late learned Antiquary, John Bridges,
efg. by the Rev. P, Whalley, 2 vols. fol. Oxford, 1791.
I
ROC
RocxinGcuam, one of the fix counties into which the
ftate of New Hampfhire is divided. It lies on the S.E.
part of the itate, having the Atlantic on the S_E., the
county of Hillfborough on the W., Strafford on the N.,
and the ftate of Maflachufetts on the S.; about fixty miles
long and thirty broad, and comprehending the only fea-port,
and moft of the commercial towns, in the ftate. ‘Che num-
ber of inhabitants is 50,175. Its chief towns are Portf-
mouth, Exeter, and Concord.—Alfo, the N.E. townfhip
in Windham county, Vermont, on the W. bank of Con-
neéticut river, which feparates it from Walpole, in New
Hampfhire. It contains 1954 inhabitants.—Alfo, a county
of Salifbury diftri€, in North Carolina, bounded E. by Caf-
well, and W. by Stokes. This county is watered by the
river Dan, on the banks of which are large tracks of low
fertile land. Many parts of the county furnifh iron ore.
The number of inhabitants is 10,316.—Alfo, the chief
town of Richmond county, North Carolina, fituated on an
eminence, about 6 miles E, of Great Pedee river, and con-
taining a court-houfe, gaol, and a few dwelling-houfes ; 74
miles from Hillfborough.—Alfo, a mountainous county of
Virginia, bounded N. by Shenandoah, and S$. by Augttta.
It contains 12,753 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town (uiually
called Rockiown, though its legal name 1s Harrifonburg) and
the feat of the courts of the above county, fituated on a
branch of the Shenandoah river, and containing a court-
houfe, gaol, and about 30 houfes ; 52 miles S.W. of Straf-
burg, in Pennfylvania.
Rockincuam Bay, a bay on the N.E. coalt of New
Holland, N.W. of Cape Sandwich. This bay was fo
called by Cook in June 1770, who fays that it is large, and
appears to afford good fhelter and good anchorage. The
N. point of this bay is in S. lat. 17° §9!, and its boundary
is formed by an ifland of confiderable height, which is
marked in the chart by the name of ‘* Dunk Ifle,’’ and
which lies fo near the fhore as not to be eafily diftinguifhed
from it. The longitude of the N. point of the bay is 213°
57! W.
ROCKLAND, a county of New York, in the United
States, on the W. fide of Hudfon river: it was feparated
from Orange county, and is now tke fouthernmoft county in
tke ftate on that fide of the river, bounded by New Jerfey
S.W., Orange county N.W., and Hudfon’s river E. The
number of inhabitantsis 7758.
ROCKLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the margra-
viate of Anfpach ; 2 miles N.E. of Waflertrudingen.
ROCKMANSTATT, a town of Bavaria, in the
bifhopric of Bamberg; 5 miles S.W. of Weifmain.
ROCKNABAD, Adi Rockny, a famous rivulet of the
cleareft water, about two feet broad, running between two
gardens in the vicinity of Shirauz, im Pertia.. See Sur-
RAUZ.
ROCKSALT, a townfhip of Philadelphia county, in
Pennfylvania, containing 1508 inhabitants.
Rocxsart, in Mineralogy. See Rocx-Salt.
ROCKY, in Geography, a {mall river of North Carolina,
which difcharges itfelf into Yadkin river.
Rocky Bay, a bay on the E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat.
53° 30’. W. long. 56° 10o'.—Alfo. a bay on the coalt of
Terra del Fuego, in the ftraits of Magellan; 6 miles S.E.
of Dolphin bay.—Alfo, a bay on the S.E. coaft of Nova
Scotia, N.E. of Halifax harbour.
Rocky J/land, a large rock in the river Detroit, Upper
Canada, on the E. fide of Grofle ifle, compofed of hme-
ftone, lying in pretty regular ftrata.
Rocky Meadow. See Prairrede Rocher.
Rocwy Mount, lies in Catabau river, in the loweft
part
kOD
part of Chefter county, South Carolina, and is one of the
largeft fifhing places in the fouthern tates. It is faid that a
fifherman, with a hand net, fometimes takes 10 or 12,000
fhad in a day.
Rocky Point, a cape on the S. coalt of Jamaica, S. of
Carlifle bay.—Alfo, a cape on the S. fhore of lake Erie.—
Alfo, a cape on the coaft of New Albion. N. lat. 41° 8!.
E. long. 236° 5'.—Alfo, a cape on the S.E. coaft of Alath-
ka, fo named by Capt. Cook in 1778. N. lat. 55° ro’.
E. long. 198° 50’.
Rocky River, a river of the Indiana territory, which
runs into the E. fide of Miflifippi river, about 70 miles be-
low the mouth of Mitta river.
Rocky Land, in Acriculture, that fort which is much
covered or befet with rocks or ftones, either upon the fur-
face or underneath it. Land of. this kind 1s very common,
and of confiderable extent in many parts of the country,
and, of courfe, often very injurious to the operations of til-
lage, as well as of planting, and many others. See CLear-
1nG, and Rectarine, Land.
ROCO Granpkg, in Geography, an ifland on the coaft of
the Spamfh Main, in the Weit Indies. N. lat. 11° 5/.
W. long. 67° 39!.
ROCOU. See Rovucov.
ROCQUIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ardennes; 12 miles N. of Rethel.
ROCROY, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftriét, in the department of the Ardennes. The place con-
tains 2875, andthe canton 8077 inhabitants, on a territory
of 237% kiliometres, in 12 communes. N. lat. 49° 55/.
E. long. 4° 35!. f
ROD, VircGa, Virge, a wand, or long flender flick, or
“ftaff. See VerGer.
Rop is alfo ufed for a land-meafure of 164 feet: the fame
with perch and pole. It is likewife along meafure in Sweden,
equal to 8 ells or 16 feet, the Swedih foot being to the
Englifh as 40 to 39. See Measure.
There are alfo localrods of feven yards and an half, or
more. Likewife fome of fmaller lengths in particular
places. See Weicurs and Measures. ;
Rop, in Gauging. See Gauaine-Rod.
Rop, in the Manege, called in French gaule, is a {witch,
held by the horfeman in his right hand, partly to reprefent
a {word, and partly to condué& the horfe, and fecond the
effets of the hand and heels.
Rov, Golden, or Aaron’s, in Botany.
Rod.
Ron, Shepherd’s. See Teazer.
Rop, Golden, Tree. See Bosra.
Rop- Knights, in Ancient Cufloms. See RepMAns.
Rop, Black. See Brack-Rod, and Usuer.
Ron, Ezehiel’s. Sce EzexieL.
Rop, Fifhing. See Fisuine.
Ron, Rhineland. See Ruise.anv.
RODA, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in Thurin-
gia; 3 miles N. of Sangerfhaufen.—Alfo, a town of Spain,
in the province of Aragon; 20 miles S. of Ainfa.—Alfo,
a town of Spain, in Catalonia, on the Tar; 6 miles N.N.E.
of Vicque.—Alfo, atown of Saxony, in the principality of
Altenburg ; 28 miles W.S.W. of Altenburg.—Alfo, a
river of Germany, which runs into the Mayne, 2 miles be-
low Hanau.—Alfo, a town of Egypt, on the Nile; 3 miles
E. of Afhmunein.
Ropa, La,-a town of Spain, in New Cattile; 19 miles
S. of Alarcon.
RODABERG. See Rairrvix.
RODACH, a town of Germany, in the principaltty of
See GoLpen-
ROD
Coburg; 6 miles W.N.W. of Coburg. N. lat. 50° 21!.
FE. long. 10°57'. The town lies on a river of the fame
name, which runs into the Itfek, 6 miles S. of Coburg.
RODAK, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Delhi; 50 miles E. of Hiffar. N. lat. 29°. E. long. 76°
!
35°
RODANSEE, a lake of the Ucker Mark of Branden-
burg, S. of Templin.
RODAS, a town of South America, in the province of
Popayan ; 65 miles S. of Santa Fé de Antioquia.
RODATIO, unufual fhortnefs of the eye-lathes.
RODAY, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt-
land ; 6 miles W. of Plauen.—Alfo, a river of Germany,
which runs into the Wumme, 2 miles W. of Rotenburg,
in the county of Verden.
RODAUN, a river of Pruffia, which joins the Motlau at
Dantzic, near which both together fall into the Viftula.
RODAW, atown of Pruifia, in the province of Ober-
land ; 14 miles E.N.E. of Marienwerder.
RODBYE, a fea-port town of Denmark, in the ifland of
Laaland, with a convenient harbour. The principal article of
trade is corn; 10 miles S.E. of Nafkov. N. lat. 54° 42’.
E. long. 11° 24!
RODDA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;
4miles N.W. of Sana.x—Alfo, a town of Egypt, on the
Nile, at the-mouth of one of the branches of the canal of
Jofeph ; 115 miles S. of Cairo.
RODDEN, a river of England, in the county of Salop,
which runs into the Tern, 3 miles W. of Wellington.
Roppen Cribs, in Agriculture, a fort of large wicker-
work bafket, for containing the hay or other fodder in farm-
yards. [tis obferved by Mr. Marthall, in his «* Rural Eco-
nomy of the Vale of Gloucetter,’’ that thefe large bafkets are
made of the top wood of willow pollards, and are an utenfil
common to this county and to Lincolnfhire, though fituated
on the oppofite fides of the ifland: but they are alike grafs-
land counties, wherein cattle are fattened on hay. They
are about fix feet in diameter. The height of the bafket-
work is two feet and a half; of the ftakes, three feet and a
half ; their heads rifing about a foot above the bafket. The
width between the flakes twelve to fourteen inches. The
fize, that of large hedge-ftakes. The thicknefs of the rods
varies from that of a {mall hedge-ftake, down to a well-fized
edder.
And in making thefe hay-bafkets, the ftakes are firit
driven in a ring ef the required fize firmly into the ground.
Some of the larger rods are then wound in at the bottom, in
the bafket-work manner. Upon thefe the fmaller rods are
wound; the middle part of the work requiring the leaft
{treugth, referving the largeft for the top. In the winding
and due binding of thofe the principal part of the art. of
withy crib making refts. Some makers warm thefe thick
rods in burning ftraw: others wind them cold; one man
drawing them with a rope, while another beats them at the
itake with a wooden beetle, until they acquire a degree of
{upplenefs. They are moftly made by men who go about
the country, and who by pra¢tice make them very com-
pletely ; winding in the top rods fo firmly and fo regu-
larly, that it is difficult to know which has been the af
ut in.
¥ When in ufe, the cattle lay their necks between the tops
of the ftakes. Each being thus kept inits place, the maiter
cattle are in a degree prevented from remning round: and
driying away the underlings. The clofenefs of thefe cribs
prevents a waite of hay, either by the wind or by the cattle.
On the whole they are ufeful, fimple, cheap, and if well made,
will laft feveral years.
3G2 RODE-
ROD
RODEBACK, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 10 miles E.N.E. of Braamfted.
RODELHEIM, a town of Germany, which gives title
to a branch of the houfe of Solms; 3 miles W. of Franc-
fort on the Maine.
RODEMACK, or RopeMAcHERON, a town of Franee,
in the department of the Mofelle ; 7 miles N. of Thion-
ville.
RODEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 8 miles
S. of Gemunden.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the pala-
tinate of Culm; 4 miles N.W. of Bretchen.
RODENBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the county
of Schauenburg, annexed to Hefle Caflel ; near which is a
medicinal {pring ; 4 miles S. of Hagenburg.
RoprnpurG. See ARDENBURG. ~
RODENTHALL, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgeberg ; 6 miles E. of Chemnitz.
RODEO de Tala, a town of South America, in the
province of ‘Tucuman; 100 miles N. of St. Miguel de Tu-
cuman.
RODER, Gros, a river of Saxony, which runs into
the Schwartz Eliter, 2 miles below Eliterwerda.
Rover, Klein, a river of Saxony, which runs into the
Schwartz Elfter, near Hertzberg.
RODERICKE, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Berne; 3 mies S. of Aarburg. ;
RODERODE, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 4 miles E.N.E. of Smalkalden.
RODERSDORF, atown of Saxony ; 4 miles S.W. of
Plauen.
RODES, or Ruopez, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftri€, in the department of the Aveyron, and
capital of that department ; before the revolution the fee of
a bifhop, fuffragan of Bourges ; 32 miles N.N.E. of Alby.
The place contains 6233, and the canton 12,168 inhabit-
ants, on a territory of 2474 kiliometres, in 33 communes.
N. lat. 44° 21!. E. long. 2° 39).
RODHEIM, a town of Germany, in the county of
Hanau Munzenberg; g miles N. of Francfort on the
Maine.
RODIA, a town of Naples, in Capitanata, on the coat
of the Adriatic; 14 miles W.N.W. of Viette.
RODIALOWITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Boleflau ; 12 miles S.E. of Jung Buntzel.
RODIGA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua ;
g miles N.W. of Mantua. ;
RODING, or Rove, a river of England, in the
county of Effex, which runs into the Thames, below
Barking.
RODITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; 2 miles W. of Hof.
RODNEY, Gerorce Brypces, in Biography, a cele-
brated naval commander, was the fon of Henry Rodney,
efq. of Walton on Thames, a naval officer, who com-
manded the yacht in which king George I., attended by
the duke of Chandos, ufed to embark in going to or coming
from Hanover, and who, in confequence, slkea leave that
his fon might be called George Brydges. He was the
fecond fon, and born in 1718. At the defire, or by the
command, of his royal and noble god-fathers, he entered early
into the navy, and in 1742 he was lieutenant in the Namur,
commanded by admiral Matthews. In November of the
fame year, he was promoted by the admiral to the command
of the Plymouth, of fixty guns; on returning home he was
removed into the Sheernels, a {mall frigate; and in 1744
he was appointed to the command of the Ludlow-caftle, of
forty-four guns, Captain Rodney was, during the war, very
ROD
fuccefsful, and attained toa confiderable degree of profef-
fional eminence. In 1753 he married Mifs Compton,
daughter of Charles Compton, efq. and fifter to Spencer,
then earl of Northampton. In 1757 he was engaged, under
the command of admirals Hawke and Bofcawen, to attempt
a defcent on the coaft of France, near Rochefort: and in
1759 he was advanced rear-admiral of the blue. In this
fame year he was fent to bombard Havre de Grace, where
a large force was collected for the purpofe of attempting an
invation of this country. He executed the truft committed
to him fo completely, that the town itfelf was feveral times
on fire, and the magazines of ftores and ammunition burnt
with fury upwards of fix hours, notwithftanding the exer-
tions ufed to extinguifh it. Thus had admiral Rodney the
happinefs of totally fruftrating the defign of the French
court ; and fo completely did he deftroy their preparations,
that the fort itfelf, as a naval arfenal, was no longer, during
the war, in a ftateto annoy Great Britain, In 1767 admiral
Rodney was very inftrumental in the capture of the iflands of
St. Pierre, Granada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent, when the
whole Caribbees came into the pofleflion of the Enghih.
For his fkill and bravery in the war, he was, after the con-
clufion of it, raifed to the dignity of a baronet. In 1768,
after an expentive, and to fir George Rodney a ruinous,
conteft with Mr. Howe, he was eleéted member of parlia-
ment for Northampton. His affairs were now fo deranged
that he exiled himfelf to France, the government of which
had long fince trembled at his name. The French king wifhed
to take advantage of his pecuniary embarraflments, and
through the duke de Biron made him the mott unbounded
offers, if he would quit the Englifh for the French fervice.
In reply to this fhameful propofal, he faid, ‘* my diltreffes,
fir, it is true, have driven me from the bofom of my country,
but no temptation can eftrange me from her fervice. Had
this offer been voluntary on your part, I fhould have deemed
it an infult, but I am glad to learn it proceeds from a fource
that can do no wrong.”? The duke was fo ftruck with the
patrioti{m of the admiral, that he became attached to him as
a friend.
Before fir George Rodney’s arrival in England, the French
had united with the Americans in a war againft this country.
Towards the clofe of the year 1779, the chief command of
the Leeward iflands was given him; upon which he hoilted
his flag on board the Sandwich. From this time he was very
fuccefsful againft his majetty’s enemies, but our limits do
not allow us to particularize all the advantages that refulted
from his fervices during the remainder of the war of which
we are {fpeaking. Inthe firft year he had done enough to
obtain a vote of thanks from the houfe of lords; and the
freedom of the cities of London and Edinburgh ; but his
great triumph, and that which muft not be pafled over, was
on the 12th of April 1782, in an engagement in the Wett
Indies with count de Graffe. ‘This battle was fought among
the iflands of Guadaloupe, Dominique, the Saintes, and
Marigalante. As foon as the day broke, admiral Rodney
threw out the fignal for clofe a¢tion, and every veflel obeyed
it moft ferupuloufly. The Britifh line was formed at the
diftance of one cable’s length between each fhip. As the
fhips came up feparatcly, they ranged clofe alongfide their
opponents, paffing along the enemy for that purpofe, giving
and receiving, while thus taking their ftations, a moft dread-
ful and tremendous fire. The action continued in this
manner till noon, when admiral Rodney refolved to carry
into execution a manceuvre, which he expected would gain
him acomplete and decifive victory : for this purpofe, in his
own fhip, the Formidable, fupported by the Namur, the
Duke, and the Canada, he bore down with all the fail fet
on
ROD
on the enemy’s line, within three fhips of the centre, and
fucceeded in breaking through it in a molt mafterly ityle.
As foon as he had accomplithed this, the other fhips of his
divifion followed him, and they all wore round, doubled on
the enemy, and thus they placed between two fires thofe
veflels which, by the firft part of the manceuvre, they had
cut off from the reft of the fleet. As foon as admiral
Rodney, and the veffels which followed him, wore, he
made the fignal for the van to tack, by which means they
gained the windward of the French, aud completed the
diforder and confufion, in which the breaking of the line had
thrown them. One confequence of the breaking of the
line was, that opportunities were given for defperate actions
between fingle fhips. The whole lofs of the enemy on this
occafion amounted to eight fhips; one had been funk, and
another blown up after fhe had been taken, and fix {hips
remained in poffeflion of the conquerors. It was eiteemed
remarkably fortunate, and glorious for the victors, that de
Graffe’s fhip, the Ville de Paris, was the only firft rate
man-of-war that had ever, at that time, been taken and
carried into port by any commander of any nation. And
this fhip was on ¢the prefent occafion fought fo well, that
when it {truck there were but three men left alive and unhurt
en the upper deck.
The Britifh nation were fo fenfible of the bravery dif-
played both by officers and men in this ation, and of the
importance of it as the only means of preferving the re-
mainder of the Welt India iflands, that they eBed the
moft exceflive joy when intelligence of the vi€tory arrived.
It came extremely feafonable in other points of view.
Neither by land, nor by fea, except where admiral Rodney
had been engaged, had we been able to meet the enemy, on
any occafion, with great and decifive advantage ; and, in too
many initances, we had retired from the conteit not in the
moft honourable manner. As the means of obtaining more
favourable terms of peace, this important victory was hailed
with joy and exultation; and as admiral Rodney was looked
up to as the caufe of it, the gratitude of the nation towards
him was deeply felt, and expreffed in warm and glowing
language. It was recollected that the fortune of fir George
Rodney had been peculiarly fingular, as well as highly
glorious in the war. Within little more than two years he
had given a fevere blow to each of our three powerful con-
tinental enemies, the French, Spaniards and Dutch. He
had in that time taken an admiral of each nation; added
twelve line of battle fhips, alltaken from the enemy, to the
Britifh navy ; and deftroyed five more. He received the
unanimous thanks of both houies of parliament; and his
majeity added dignity to the peerage of the realm, by
elias the victorious admiral to a feat in the upper
houfe. t
It has been obferved, that the vitory of the 12th of
April was gained by putting in pratice an entirely new
fyftem of naval taétics, the adoption of which formed an
era in our naval hiftory, and may be regarded as the caufe
of the glorious victories, by which the fame of Britifh fea-
men has been raifed to fuch a pitch of glory; and the
maritime power of our enemies in the late war, has not
only been crippled, but abfolutely annihilated. It has been
faid, in order to derogate from the honour of the admiral,
that, in the inftance of the 12th of April, it was the effect
of chance, and not effected by the forefight of fir George
Rodney. This idea has been fatisfactorily expofed and re-
futed. The only queftion on the fubje& is, and into which
we fhall enter at large under the word Tactics, Naval,
whether the honour of the plat: is due to admiral Rodney or
Mr. Clerk, the author of atreatife on ‘ Naval Tactics.’?
ROD
With the brilliant vitory of the r2thof April fir George
clofed his profeffional career ; to his title was added a penfion
of 2000/. to defcend to his heirs. He died m London the
24th of May,1792. For his important fervices to the Weft
Indian iflands in particular, a ten:ple was built to receive his
ftatue at Spanifh Town, Jamaica.
A contemporary of the noble admiral faid, that as an
officer of nautical abilities, none were his fuperiors, and but
few his equals. He poffeffed a bold and original genius,
which always carried him dire&ly to the objeét he had in
view. Asaman, he was benevolent, generous, and friendly.
He has been known to be writing his private letters, and
dictating to three fecretaries at the fametime. ‘ In private
life he difplayed the manners of an accomplifhed gentleman;
and he who, when called by his country, could hurl its
thunders againit the foes, and lead its navies to almoft unde-
viating victory, was, in peace, the ornament of domettic
fociety, and a pattern of that elegant and polifhed beha-
viour, which almoit always diftinguifhes the higher orders
among us.”” Stockdale’s edition of Campbell’s Lives of the
Admirals.
Ropney, Cape, acape of New Zealand, being the N.W.
point of the entrance into the river Thames. S. lat. 36°
15’. W. long. 184° 53'.
Ropyey Point, the N. point of Norton Sound, on the
N.W. coaft of North America, fo called in honour of
admiral Rodney. N. lat. 64° 30'. W. long. 166° 3!.
RODOE, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Norway; four
miles E.N.E. of Chriftianfand.
RODOLDESCO, a town of Italy, in the department
of the Mincio; 10 miles S.E. of Mantua.
RODOLPH L., in Biography, emperor of Germany,
founder of the imperial houfe of Auttria, born in 1213,
was the eldeft fon of Albert IV., count of Hapfburgh and
landgrave of Alface. He was brought up in the court and
camp of the emperor Frederic II., and early diftinguifhed
himfelf by his courage and dexterity in martial exercifes.
On the death of his father, in 1240, he fucceeded to a terri-
tory of moderate extent, which he endeavoured to augment
by military enterprife. He entertained a band of adven-
turers of different nations, whom he employed either in de-
fending him from his enemies, or in attempts to aggrandize
himfelf at their expence. In 1245 he married a daughter
of Burcard, count of Hohenburgh, with whom he obtained
fome acceffion of eitates. Some years afterwards he ferved
under Ottocar, king of Bohemia, againft the Pagan Pruffians.
In 1273, as he was encamped before the walls of Bafil,
with whofe bifhop he was at enmity, he received the very
unexpected intelligence, that he was unanimoufly eleéted
king of the Romans.
Redolph, then in his 55th year, willingly accepted the
offered elevation, though fenfible of the arduous tafk he was
undertaking againit the oppofition of two unfuccefsful can-
didates. He was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, and immedi-
ately itrengthened himfelf by marrying two of his daughters
to the count palatine of Bavaria, and duke of Saxony. He
alfo took meafures for ingratiating himfelf with the pope,
Gregory X., who gave his fanétion to the eleGtion. Al-
phonfo, one of the unfuccefsful candidates, was induced by
the pope to renounce his pretenfions; but Ottocar, the
other, king of Bohemia, refufed to acknowledge the new
emperor, and manifefted the bittereft animofity againft him.
The king of Bohemia was, at this time, one of the moft
powerful princes in Europe, and was diftinguifhed by his
abilities and military {kill Befides Bohemia and Bavaria,
he poffefled territories in the north of Germany and Hun-
gary ; and had lately acquired Auftria, with Carinthia and
2 Carniola,
k OD
Carniola. Both parties having prepared for the conteft,
war broke out between the emperor and the king in 1275,
and Rodolph commenced his operations with all the vigour
of his charaéter. He firft marched againit Henry, duke of
Lower Bavaria, whom Ottocar had {ecured in his intereft,
and foon brought him to change his party. He then pene-
trated into Auftria, and appeared under the walls of Vienna,
before Ottocar thought of his danger. This prince, finding
himfelf unable to fave the Auttrian capital, bent his haughty
{pirit to fue for peace, which was granted upon the con-
dition of his renouncing his:claims upon the Auttrian pro-
vinces, and confenting to acknowledge the emperor, and do
homage for Bohemia and his other fiefs. The Auftrian
provinces, as fiefs, devolved to the empire, and were taken
pofleffion of by the emperor.
The mind of Ottocar was fo much irritated by the lofs
and difgrace he had undergone, that he could not bring him-
felf to a faithful execution of the treaty, and the war was
renewed in 1277. A fierce battle enfued, in which Rodolph
was beaten to the ground by a Thuringian knight, and
brought into great danger; but, on the other hand, Ottocar
was killed, and his army entirely defeated. Rodolph was
prevented from taking pofleflion of Bohemia by Otho, mar-
grave of Brandenburgh, and he entered mto an accommoda-
tion, by which Wenceflaus was acknowledged king of
Bohemia, while he himfelf was to hold Moravia for five
years, and was to retain the Auitrian provinces. The fe-
curing of thefe to his family was thenceforth a great objet
of his policy, in which he encountered many difficulties, but
at length he fucceeded in fettling them upon his two fons,
Albert and Rodolph.
In the midit of thefe tranfactions, the emperor, thinking
it would be for his honour to revive the imperial authority
in Italy, after the death of Gregory, during the fubfequent
fhort-lived pontificate, fent commiflaries into that country to
exact homage from feveral of the towns; but, on the ac-
ceffion of Nicholas III. he found it expedient to confirm to
the papal fee its pofleffions in Romagna. He afterwards
attempted to reftore the authority of the empire in Tufcany ;
but in this he alfo failed, and was obliged ta content him-
felf with drawing large fums from Lucca and other cities
for the confirmation of their privileges. No foreign foe now
remaining, Rodolph turned his attention to the reftoration
of peace and order in Germany ; and for this purpofe it
was necefiary to enforce the laws againft building private
fortrefles, which were the retreats of banditti, or the refuge
of turbulent nobles, who defied all law and authority. Of
thefe ftrong-holds he razed feventy ir one year, condemning
to death many of their owners for their violations of the
public peace. He made many progrefles through the im-
perial cities, adminiftering juftice and making falutary regu-
lations, fo that he obtained the title of « a living law,” and
deferved to be regarded as a fecond founder of the German
empire. In 1283 he engaged in a war again{ft Philip, count
of Savoy, who had appropriated feveral imperial fiefs in Hel-
vetia ; but in an a€tign near Morat he was overpowered by
numbers, unhorfed, and obliged, for faving himfelf, to {pring
into the lake, where he fupported himfelf by the branch of a
tree till refcued by his followers. He was, however, vic-
torious, and brought the count to terms of fubmiflion. He
was likewife fuccetsful againft the count of Burgundy, who
had transferred his homage from the empire to France ; but
he failed in-an attempt to gain poffeflion of Bern, which had
declared itfelf an independent republic. The troubles of
Bohemia, in which the oppreflions of the regent Otho had
excited revolts, while the minor king, Wenceflaus, was de-
tained asa prifoner, called Rodolph into that country. He
W OD,
delivered Wenceflaus, whom he married to one of his daugh-
ters, and left him at the head of the government, in a {tate of
tranquillity. The final obje&t of this emperor was to fecure
the imperial crown to his only furviving fon, Albert ; but the
ele€tors were not to be perfuaded into this meafure, and
Rodolph was feverely mortified with the difappointment.
His ftrength had already begun to fail, and as he was upon
his way to Spire he was obliged to ftop at Germerfheim,
where he died in July 1291, in the feventy-third year of his
age, and the nineteenth of his reign.
There is fcarcely an excellency of body or mind which
the biographers of the houfe of Auftria have not attributed
to its founder ; and it appears from the hiftory of his aCtions,
that few princes have furpafled him in energy of charaGter,
and civil and military talents. In the beginning of his ca-
reer, he feems to have been little fcrupulous in the means of
aggrandizement ; but, as an emperor, he was in general mo-
derate and equitable. In his fixty-fourth year he married,
for his fecond wife, a princefs of Burgundy, only fourteen
years of age, but no iflue proceeded from this ill-forted
union. By his firlt marriage he had a numerous offspring,
of whom fix daughters were all united to powerful families.
Mod. Univ. Hitt.
Rovotru IL.,emperor of Germany, fon of Maximilian IT.,
was born in 1552. His father procured him the crown of
Hungary in 1572, and that of Bohemia in 1575, together
with the title of king of the Romans. On the death of
Maximilian, in 1576, he fucceeded to the imperial throne,
being then regarded as a highly accomplifhed prince, con-
verfant with various branches of knowledge. Unfortunately,
his talte and acquirements were fo far from qualifying him
for the {tation to which he was elevated, that they diverted
his attention from the principal duties of a fovereign. He
was attached to mechanical inventions, and {pent whole days
in the fhops of clock-makers, turners, and other artifts.
Chemiftry was alfo one of his favourite {tudies, with its ufual
attendant in that age, alchemy. Having been educated
among the Jefuits, his zeal for the Catholic religion rendered
him unfriendly to thofe tolerating principles upon which his
father had aéted. He had fucceeded to the fole potfeffion
of the territories of the houfe of Auttria, and finding that
the Proteftant religion had fpread in them to a degree that
threatened to fubvert the {uperiority of the Catholic, his
firft care was to reftore the preponderance of the latter.
His meafures for this purpofe occafioned revolts, and a
total alienation of the minds of his Proteftant fubjeéts. In
the other parts of the empire, Rodolph took part againft
the Proteftants, and his interference was a principal caufe of
the depofition and expulfion of the archbifhop and elector
of Cologne, who had embraced the Proteitant religion, and
married. ‘Troubles foon arofe in his Hungarian dominions,
where fultan Amurath ITI. made various incurfions, in which
he over-ran part of Hungary and Croatia. Thefe were,
however, chaftifed by feveral defeats given to the Turks by
the imperial generals. But Mahomet UL., the fucceflor of
Amurath, took the important town of Agria, in Upper
Hungary, and war was maintained, with various fortune, in
that kingdom, till a peace was concluded with fultan Achmet,
in 1606. Rodolph took little perfonal fhare in thefe events,
being chiefly occupied with his ftudies ; and his Hungarian
fubjeéts had contraéted fuch a contempt for his chara¢ter,
that they invited his brother, the archduke Matthias, to
undertake the government, and in 1607 elected him for their
king. Matthias prepared ‘to take poffeffion of his king-
dom, and, marching with an army through Auttria, pro-
jected to make himfelf matter of that duchy. The timid
and pacific Rodolph was perfuaded to enter into a treaty
with
ROD
with his brother, by which he ceded to him Hungary and
Aultria, and Matthias was folemnly inaugurated as fovereign
of thofe countries.
Soon after, difturbances arofe in the empire on account of
the difputed fucceflion to the duchies of Juliers and Cleves,
with which were affeciated the caufes of diflention between
the Catholics and Proteitants of Germany. Confederations
were formed, and both parties prepared for war. The em-
peror convoked diets, and diligently exerted himfelf, in order
to prevent extremities. He, however, gave his chief con-
fidence to his coufin the archduke Leopold, who, at length,
marched into Bohemia, to awe the Proteftants that had
been rendered difcontented, by attempts to introduce the
infernal inquifition into the country, and by violations of
their privileges. In this emergency they applied for aflift-
ance to Matthias, who entered Bohemia, and obliged Leo-
pold to difband his troops. Not content with this fuccefs,
he fo wrought upon his brother, that Rodolph refigned
to him his remaining kingdom ef Bohemia, of which Mat-
thias received the crownin 1611. Rodolph was, at that
time, in a declining itate of health ; he died in January 1612,
in the fixtieth year of his age, and thirty-fixth of his reign.
It is faid, that the predictions of the cclebrated but fuper-
{titious aitronomer Tycho Brahe, had rendered him diftruit-
ful of all his relations, fo that he finally fhut himfelf up in
his palace, which he never quitted either for exercife or
amufement. Among his various ftudies was that of aftro-
nomy, his attachment to which induced him to invite Tycho
Brahe to Prague, where he was patronized till his death ;
and the fame patronage was afterwards given to the more
eminent Kepler. The Rodolphine tables, commenced by
the former, and completed by the latter, have perpetuated
the name of this emperor as a promoter of fcience. Mod.
Univ. Hitt. Gen. Biog.
RODOLPHE, , one of the moft celebrated pro-
feffors on the French horn that ever exifted. Though he
ufually played the fecond horn, he mounted as high as the
firft ever went. His execution was truly wonderful! and
he had found the means of producing founds with his inftru-
ment that were never heard before.
This able mufician was equally powerful in compofition
as in performance. In 1773 he fet “ Jemona,”’ a ferious
opera, for the marriage of the compt d@’Artois. For the
Italian theatre he had previoufly fet, in 1765, the comic
opera called “* Marriage by Capitulation ;”” and, in 1767,
“©The blind Man of Palmyra.”
RODOME, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Aude; g miles S.W. of Quillan.
RODON, a town of Sweden, in Jamptland, on lake
Storfio; 7 miles N.W. of Ofterfund.— Alfo, a {mall
ifland on the weit fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 62°
23'. E. long, 17° 20!. -
RODONDA, a fmall ifland at the entrance of the har-
bour of Rio Janeiro.
RODONI, Caps, a cape on the coalt of Albania, in the
Adriatic. N. lat. 41°55’. E. long. 19° 16!.
RODOPE, a mountain of Romania; 50 miles S. of
Filippopoli.
_RODOSTO, a town of European Turkey, in the pro-
vinee of Romania, on the north coaft of the fea of Mar-
mora, where the, Armenians have one church, and the
Greeks five. The environs are fertile in corn and wine;
53 miles N.E. of Gallipoli. :
RODRIGO. - See Civnan Rodrigo.
RODRIGUEZ. See Dirco Ruis.
Ropricuez Key, a {mall ifland on the coaft of Florida.
N. lat. 25°.
ROE
RODRIGUEZIA, in Botany, a genus fo named in the
Flora Peruviana, p. 105, after Emanuel Rodriguez, a
Spanifh botanift, apothecary to the king of Spain. De
Theis. !
RODSEG, in Geography, a town of Iitria; 16 miles
N.N.E. of Pedena.
ROE, Sir Tuomas, in Biography, a diftinguifhed tra-
veller and negociator, was born, in 1580, at Low Layton,
in Effex. He was fent at an early age to Magdalen col-
lege, in Oxford: after he had left that feminary of learn-
ing, he pafled fome time at one of the inns of court. He
was made an efquire of the body to queen Elizabeth, to-
wards the clofe of her reign; and in 1604 he was knighted
by king James. At the inftigation of Henry, prince ot
Wales, he undertook an exploratory voyage to Guiana.
Having fitted out a fhip and pinnace at his own charge, and
that of his friends, he failed in 1609 for the river Amazons,
up which he proceeded to the diftance of 300 miles, landing
in various places to examine the country. Having fpent
thirteen months in a laborious furvey of this part of the
American continent, in fearch of gold, no doubt, he re-
turned to England in 1611. In 1614 he was fent, at the
defire of the Eaft India Company, as ambaflador to the
Mogul emperor, for the purpofe of concluding a treaty of
peace and commerce. He arrived at Surat in the autumn
of that year, and refided at the Mogul court till the begin-
ning of 1618. His condué in this {tation did honour te
himfelf and his country; and he made a great number~of
curious obfervations on the court and people, of which we
have fpecimens in Purchas’s Pilgrims. On his departure
from this country, he vifited the court of Schah Abbas in
Perfia, with whom he made a treaty, by which the Eat
India Company obliged itfelf to afliit him with a fleet, for
the purpofe of expelling the Portuguefe from Ormus, on
condition of being allowed a free trade with Perfia. After
his return, fir Thomas Roe was elected in 1620 a repre-
fentative in parliament for Cirenceiler ; and in the following
year he was nominated ambaflador to the Ottoman Porte,
which pott he occupied under the fultans Ofman, Muttapha,
and Amurath IV. He performed, in this capacity, fome
moft important fervices for his country ; and he was, at the
fame time, very ferviceable to the Greek church, by pro-
te€ting it from the oppreflions of the Turkifh minifters, and
from the intrigues of the Jefuits, and other perfons attached
to the Papal fee. In return for his various fervices, he was
aflifted in his colleétion of manufcripts in the Greek and
Oriental languages, which he prefented to the Bodleian
library ; and to his care was entrufted the celebrated Alex-
andrian manufcript of the Bible, prefented to Charles I.
by Cyril, patriarch of Conitantinople. During his em-
bafly, fir Thomas drew up “A true Relation of what
lately happened in Con {tantinople, concerning the Death of
Sultan Ofman, and the fetting up of Muftapha, his Uncle,’?
&ce. This was printed in London in 1622. He alfo kept
minutes of his negociations at the Porte, which remained in
manufcript till 1740, when they were publifhed by the fo-
ciety for promoting learning, under the title of « The Ne-
gociations of fir Thomas Roe, in his Embafly to the Otto-
man Porte, from the Year 1621 to 1628 inclufive.”*
After his return from Conittantinople, he was fent, in
1629, to mediate a peace between Poland and Sweden.
He was afterwards employed in negociating a treaty with
the king of Denmark at Copenhagen ;_and he went a fecond
time to that court; and alfo to thofe of feveral German
princes; and was prefent at the congrefs of Hamburgh, and
its removals to Ratifbon and Vienna. In 1640 he was a
reprefentative in parliament for the univerlity of Oxford,
and
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and made feveral {peeches upon very important occafions.
While a member of parliament, he was fent, in 1641, to
the diet at Ratifbon, to negociate for the reftoration of the
late king of Bohemia’s fon to the Palatinate ; and after his
return, the king created him a privy-counfellor, and chan-
cellor of the order of the Garter. The view of the ap-
proaching national dilturbances was thought to have
fhortened his life, which was terminated in 1644. He left
the chara@er of a very able and upright minifter, a true
patriot, and accomplifhed gentleman. Befides the works
already referred to, he left in manufcript “ A compendious
Relation of the Proceedings and Aéts of the imperial Dyet,
held at Ratifbon in 1640 and 1641”? and “ A Journal of
feveral Proceedings of the Knights of the Garter.”’? Biog.
Brit.
Rog, in Geography, a river of Ireland, in the county of
Londonderry, which rifing in the Cairntogher mountains,
flows northward through Newtown Limavaddy into lough
Foyle.—Alfo, the name of a {mall ifland in Clew bay,
county of Mayo, Ireland.
Ror, Za, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayenne; 7 miles N.W. of Craon. i
Ror of a fifh is that part which contains the {pawn or
feed thereof.
That of the male fith is ufually diftinguifhed by the name
of oft roe, or milt; that of the female by Aard roe, or
{fpawn. :
The foft roe, when fqueezed, yields a liquor refembling
milk ; whence its name mi/t. The French call it exprefsly
milk, lait.
M. Petit found 342,144 ovula, or little eggs, in the hard
roe of a carp eighteen inches long.
Leuwenhoeck, tom. ii. p. 216, only found 211,629 eggs
in a carp, but four times the number in a cod; and, p. 188,
he fays, that a common cod contains 9,344,000 eggs and
that the eggs of a fifh of one year old are as big as thofe of
a fifh of twenty-five years old. Mem. Acad. R. Scien.
an. 1733, p- 290. See Mixr and Fecundity of Fisu.
Roz is alfo one of the beafts of chafe. :
Rog-Buck, the Englifh name of the cervus with ramofe,
cylindric, and ere& horns. It is the {malleft of the deer-
kind, and has been called capreolus and caprea, though with-
out the leaft refemblance of the goat-kind. See Cervus
Capreolus and DEER.
The roe-buck is called a hind the firft year; gyrle, the
fecond; henufe, the third ; roe-buck of the firft head, the
fourth ; and a fuir roe-buck, the fifth.
The roe-buck is a deer well known in Germany; and
feems to have alfo been formerly found in England, though
now the race be extiné&.
Ros-Buck Hunting. See Huntixe. ;
Rox-Buck J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf
of Mexico, near the coaft of Weit Florida. N. lat. 30° 17'.
W. long. 88° 444—Alfo, a {mall ifland & the eait ex-
tremity of lake Ontario. ;
Rox-Stene, Oolite, in Mineralogy, a variety of lime-ftone,
fo called becaufe it is compofed of {mall round globules,
fuppofed to refemble the roes of fifhes, imbedded in a cal-
careous cement. Thefe globules are compofed of concentric
lamelle, and are evidently the refult of cryftallization.
They vary in fize from a grain of muttard-feed to that of a
pea: when they are as large as the latter, it 1s called pea-
ftone. Roe-ftone is one of the fecondary lime-ftones, which
may be confidered as belonging to the chalk-formation. It
lies under chalk in various parts of England, being fepa-
rated from it by beds of fand and clay. It is found alfo in
many parts of Europe, but, according to Humboldt, is
ROE
not met with in South America. Some of the ftrata of this
{tone are extenfively ufed for purpofes of archite€ture: the
moft diftinguifhed are the Ketten ftone in Northamptonfhire,
the Bath fire-ftone in Somerfetfhire, and Portland ftone in
the ifland of Portland. Portland ftone is of a yellowifh-
white colour: the more compaét varieties, when clofely
infpected, fhew a tendency to cryftalline arrangement ; it is
compofed of carbonate of lime, with a {mall admixture of
filex and alumine.
The ifland of Portland is properly an ifthmus, fituated in
Weymouth bay, in the Britifh Channel. The ftone is got
in every part of the ifland, but the quarries at Kingfton are
the moft produétive. According to Mr. Smeaton, the firlt
ftratum in the guarry is a dark coloured reddifh earth, about
one foot thick. To this fucceed fix feet of ftone of an
inferior quality, called cap. Immediately under this lies
the roe-{tone or free-ftone, which is ten or twelve feet deep ;
and beneath this bed there is flint or clay. In fome parts,
irregular veins of quartz run through the roe-ftone. The
{tratum of ftone that is wrought for fale lies nearly parallel
with the upper furface of the ifland; and, in general, the
cover of earth and rubbifh upon it is thin. Several beds of
{tone lie continuous one above another, varying in thicknefs
from two to four feet, and fometimes more.
Portland {tone was brought into repute in the reign of
James I., and was employed in the conftruétion of the ban-
quetting-houfe at Whitehall. After the great fire in Lon-
don, this ftone was generally ufed by fir Chriftopher Wren
in the conftruétion. of the new public edifices, as St. Paul’s
cathedral, the monument, and almoft every building of note
in the metropolis. See Stone for Architeure.
The different beds of roe-ftone abound in marine organic
remains, of which the pear encrinite is perhaps the moft re-
markable. In the lower beds are found the hippocepha-
loides, or horfe-head mufcles, which, according to Mr.
Townfon, are not cafts, but petrifations of the fifh itfelf,
and do not reprefent the interior furface of the fhells, from
which they are perfectly diftin&. This ftratum alfo con-
tains the anomia Spinofa of Linneus. The {pines are ex-
tremely delicate, and in fome {pecimens are more than halg
an inch in length; from which circumftance we may infer,
that the calcareous earth of this {tratum was depofited in an
extremely comminuted ftate, and in a tranquil element,
otherwife it is almoft impoffible to conceive that thefe {pines
could have remained unbroken.
ROEDBACH, in Geography, a river of the duchy of
Berg, which runs into the Rhine, two miles below Zons.
ROELL, Hermann-ALexanper, in Biography, a ce-
lebrated Proteftant divine, and theological profeflor, was
born in 1653 at Doélberg, in Weftphalia. He received
an excellent education in the languages and elementary
branches of {cience. In 1670 he went to the univerfity of
Utrecht, where he received leétures from the celebrated
Francis Burmann on the fcriptures; and on his return to
Germany, he itudied for fome time at Marpurg, and after
that at Heidelberg. From thence he went to Bafil and
Zurich ; and in 1676 he once more vifited the United Pro-
vinces, and {pent two years at the univerfities of Utrecht
and Leyden. No fooner had he returned to his native
country than he received an inyitation to become paitor of
the Proteftant church at Cologne, which he declined, owing
to ill health; and he undertook the chaplainfhip to Eliza-
beth, abbefs of Hervorden, and daughter of Frederic, king
of Bohemia; which poft he retained till the death of the
princefs, in 1680, After this he was appointed preacher
to Albertine, princefs of Orange, and widow of William of
Naffau ; in whofe houfehold, and at Deventer, he exercifed
the
ROE
the miniftry till the year 1686, when he was ele&ted profeffor
ef divinity at the univerfity of Franeker. In 1704 he ac-
cepted an invitation to fill the divinity chair at the univerfity
of Utrecht, a poft which he retained with great reputation
till his death in 1718, when he was in the 66th year of his
age. He was author of many works chiefly on theological
topics, among which are ‘* A Commentary upon the Epiftle
to the Ephefians ;” “ An Analylis of the Epiftle to the
Coloffians ;” « An Analyfis and Abridgment of the Pro-
phetical Books of the Old Teftament ;’’ “ Two philo-
fophical Differtations on Natural Religion, and one on
Innate Ideas.’’ , :
ROELLA, in Botany, fo named by Linnzus, in Hort.
Cliff. 492, to commemorate William Roéll, profeffor of
anatomy at Amfterdam, who enriched Cliffort’s garden with
many rare plants, the feeds of which he had procured from
Africa and Japan, Among thofe from the Cape of Good
Hope, was the firlt fpecies of the prefent genus.—Linn.
-Gen. 88. Schreb. 118. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 918. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 353. Juff. 165.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 123. Gaertn. t. 31.—Clafs and order,
Pentandria Menogynia. Nat. Ord. Campanacee, Lion. Juifl.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, turbinate,
permanent, in five large, deep, lanceolate, acute, toothed
fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped, deciduous ;
tube rather fhorter than the calyx; limb fomewhat fpread-
ing, longer than the calyx, deeply five-cleft. Nedtary of
five converging {cales, in the bottom of the corolla, perma-
nent. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, ftanding on the
neCtary ; antkers awl-fhaped, converging, equal in length
to the filaments, and ona level withthe calyx. Pif. Ger-
men inferior, oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens ; ftigmas two, oblong, depreffed, fpreading.
Peric. Capfule cylindrical, fhorter than the calyx, crowned
with its enlarged {preading fegments, two-celled, buriting
at the fummit. Seeds numerous, angular.
Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, clofed at the bottom by
valves bearing the itamens. Stigma in two fegments. Cap-
fule inferior, cylindrical, opening at the fummit.
Obf. Linneus attributes two cells to the capfule ;
Gaertner only one. Probably one may be occafionally
abortive. The effential diitin@ion feems to confift in the
capfule having a vertical opening, inftead of difcharging
the feeds by torn lateral orifices, as in Campanula, to which
genus this is certainly, in other refpeéts, very nearly allied.
All the known fpecies are natives of the Cape of Good
Hope, being green-houfe plants in England, and having
blue flowers.
1. R. ciliata. Ciliated Roella. Linn. Sp. Pl. 241. Hort.
Cliff. t. 35. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n.1. Curt. Mag. t. 378.
(Campanula africana frutefcens aculeofa, flore violaceo ;
Comm. Hort. v. 2. 77. t. 39-)—Leaves lanceolate, fringed,
with a prominent point. Flowers terminal, folitary.—Found
in various parts of fouthern Africa. The Dutch have long
cultivated it. Mr. Maffon fent feeds to Kew in 1774. The
plant is not very common, though much to be admired for
' the beauty of its flowers, which are produced in fucceflion,
throughout moit part of the fummer; but it is not eafily
increafed, nor long preferved, being impatient of our damp
winters. The /lem is fhrubby, of humble growth, branch-
ing in a determinate manner; the branches flender, round,
leafy. Leaves copious, alternate, fmall, of a pale dull green,
linear-lanceolate, fringed, each ending in a prominent, awl-
fhaped, rigid point. Flowers folitary at the ends of the
branches, an inch and half, or more, in diameter, their co-
Jours well defcribed by Curtis as follows. ‘* The bottom
of the fower is white, of a yellowith cait; next fucceeds a
Vor. XXX.
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circle of deep blue, inclining to black, with a furface
highly glazed; the next rele is greyifh-blue, refembling
fatin; the next nearly white, and the outermoft, (or limb,)
pale purple.” Each /af of the plant is accompanied by
an axillary tuft of fmaller, obtufe, entire, naked ones.
2. R. /quarrofa. Trailing Roella. Linn. Suppl. 143.
Thunb. Prodr. 38. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2.—Leaves
ovate, recurved, toothed, fringed. Flowers terminal, ag-
gregate. Stem herbaceous, diffufe.— Gathered by Thun-
berg at the Cape, and fent from thence to Kew garden, by
Maffon, in 1787. It blofloms in June. The dranches are
more {preading and decumbent, as well as of a lefs fhrubby
nature, than the former. The /guarrofa of Bergius, from
whom the younger Linnzus adopted the name, is defcribed
as a fhrub, with folitary flowers. Ours, befides the terminal
tuft, has generally feveral fcattered lateral flowers, on fhort
leafy ftalks, or branches, which may explain this apparent
difagreement.
3- R. decurrens. Decurrent Roella. L’Herit. Sert. 4.
t. 6. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3.—Leaves lanceolate, entire,
fringed, decurrent. Flowers folitary, terminal.—Sent from
the Cape, by Mr. Maffon, in 1787. This f{pecies is annual,
flowering in September. The roof is {mall and tapering.
Stem much branched from the very bottom, {preading and
partly decumbent, hairy. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, fringed,
for the moft part entire ; ftrongly decurrent, fo as to render
the ftem winged. Flowers terminal, feffile, pale blue, foli-
tary, except occafionally on the moft luxuriant branches.
4- R. mufcofa. Moffy Roella. Linn. Suppl. 143. Willd.
n. 4. Thunb. Prodr. 38.—Leaves ovate, toothed, reflexed,
fmooth. Flowers terminal, folitary. Stem herbaceous, dif.
fufe.—Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg. A very fmall
annual fpecies.
5. R. fpicata. Spiked Roella. Linn. Suppl. 143. Willd.
n. 5. Thunb. Prodr. 38.—Leaves lanceolate, fringed,
nearly entire. Flowers terminal, fomewhat fpiked. Stem
fhrubby, ere&t.—Found by Thunberg at the Cape. We
have feen no fpecimen of this or the lait.
Linnzus, in Sp. Pl. 241, has 2 R. reticulata, adopted
from Van Royen and Petiver, which appears to be no other
than his own Gorteria ciliaris ; Cullumia ciliaris of Brown,
in Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 5. 137.
ROEMER, Otaus, in Biography, a Danifh aftronomer
and mathematician, who flourifhed in the 17th and 18th
centuries, was born at Arhuffen, in Jutland, in the year
1644. From an elementary fchool at his native city he was
fent to the univerfity of Copenhagen, in 1662, where he dif-
tinguifhed himfelf by the progrefs which he made in his aca-
demical ftudies, and particularly in the mathematical fciences,
which were the favourite fubjeéts of his purfuit. By dili-
gent ftudy he had, in 1671, become fo expert an aftronomer,
that, being introduced to M. Picard of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, who was fent by Louis XIV. to make
aftronomical obfervations in the northern regions, he was
fele&ed to accompany him when he returned to France.
Here he prefented him to the king, whe appointed him ma-
thematical preceptor to the dauphin, and fettled a penfion
upon him. Roemer was united with Picard and Caffini in
making aftronomical obfervations, and in 1672 he was ad-
mitted a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris. He refided ten years at Paris, and acquired a high
reputation by his many difcoveries, among which was ee
very important one by which he afcertained the velocit
with which light moves, by means of the eclipfes of Jupi-
ter’s fatellites. (See Licut.) This difcovery was after-
wards confirmed by Dr. Bradley. In 1681 Roemer was re-
called to his own country by Chriftian V. king of Denmark,
3H whe
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who appointed him profeffor of aftronomy, at the univerfity
ef Copenhagen, and gave him the flattering title of his own
mathematician, with a confiderable falary. He was alfo em-
ployed in reforming the coin ; improving the public build-
ings; regulating the weights and meafures; and in furvey-
ing and laying out the high roads throughout the kingdom.
In 1687 the king direGted him to travel through Germany,
France, England, and Holland, in order to colleét fuch in-
formation, on a variety of points, as might be applied to
beneficial purpofes in Denmark. Upon his return home in
the following year, he was made counfellor of the chancel-
lery, and in 1693, affeffor of the fupreme tribunal of juitice.
Chriitian V. was fucceeded by Frederic IV. who ap-
pointed Roemer, in 1705, burgomaiter of Copenhagen, and
in 1706, honoured him with the dignity of countellor of
ftate. Roemer died in 1710, juft as he was about to give
the world the refult of his obfervations. Thefe, however,
were publifhed under the title of ‘* Bafis Aitronomiz,” in
1753, by Peter Horrebow, who had been his difciple, and
was, at the time, profeflor of aftronomy at Copenhagen.
Accounts of Roemer’s aftronomical obfervations, and fome
other of his pieces, will be found in the different volumes of
the “ Memoires”’ of the Royal Academy at Paris, particu-
larly vols. 1. and x.
ROENBERG, in Geography, a town of Brandenburg,
in the New Mark; 8 miles E. of Zullichau.
ROENENG,a long meafure in Siam, equal to one league,
containing 4204 Englifh yards, or 24 miles nearly.
ROENSEL, in Geography, ariver of the county of Mark,
which runs into the Wipper, about a mile above Wipperfurt.
ROER, a river of Germany, which rifes near Winter-
burg, and runs into the Rhine at Roerort.—Alfo, a river of
France, which rifes S. of Montjoe, in the department to
which it gives name, and runs into the Meufe at Ruremond.
Roer, one of the three departments of the region of
France, called the Reunited country ; compofed of the duchy
of Juliers and a portion of the electorate of Cologne, titu-
ated in N. lat. 51°, onthe left hand of the Rhine. It con-
tains 6697 kiliometres, or 259 fquare miles, and 516,246
inhabitants. It is divided into 4 circles or dittri€ts, 40
eantons, and 993 communes. The diftriéts are Ajisx-la-
Chapelle, including 165,261 inhabitants; Cologne, with
15752153 Crevelt, with 137,605; and Cleves, with 76,206
inhabitants. According to Haflenfratz, this department is
23 French leagues in length and 13 in breadth; and com-
prehends 4 circles, 40 cantons, and 324,960 inkabitants.
Its capital is Aix-la-Chapelle. Its contributions, in the
-r1th year of the French era, were 4,564,150 fr. and its
expences for adminiftration and public initruétion were
331,036 fr. 66 cents. Interfperfed with heaths and marfhes,
this territory is, in general, fertile in grain, fruits, and paf-
tures. It has mines of copper, iron, lead, and coal, with
cold and hot mineral fprings.
ROERMONT. See Ruremonp.
ROERORT, a town of the duchy of Cleves, at the con-
flux of the Roer and the Rhine; 15 miles N. of Dufleldorf.
ROESBACH, a river of the duchy of Berg, which
runs into the Rhine at Duffeldorf.
ROESCHILD, Roscutrp, Roefkild, or Rofkild, a town
of Denmark, in the ifland of Zealand, ereéted into a bi-
{hopric in the year 1012. In the year 1150 it was firft en-
compafled with a rampart and ditch, and in 1268 or 1278 it
obtained the privileges of a city. It gradually increafed to
‘uch an extent as to contain 27 large churches and convents
within-its walls. Some of the churches of the neighbouring
villages were included within its circuit, and its itreets ex-
tended as far as the fea-fhore. The kings of Denmark were
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formerly elected and crowned in this city, and made it the
place of their refidence. Its fubfequent decay has been
owing to frequent fires, to the tyranny of its bifhops, and
alfo to the flourifhing ftate of Copenhagen. 'The reforma-
tion contributed alfo to its decline, as the monks and clergy
who {pent a great part of their revenues in this place, were
obliged to quit the country. At prefent Roefchiid is a
mean place, containing about 200 houfes; the cathedral,
built A. D. 930, where the royal families of Denmark have
for many ages been buried ; and the ruins of a royal palace.
Here are fome monuments worthy of attention, particularly
four elegant maufolea in alabaiter, of late kings and queens.
The frit king who was bnried here was Harol Blaacland,
A.D. 98o, and the laft was Frederic V. furnamed the
Great, A.D. 1766. The inhabitants fupport themfelves
chiefly by agriculture, and the planting of tobacco. In the
year 1658, the famous peace of Roefchild, between the
Swedes and Danes, was concluded here: 16 miles W. of
Copenhagen. N. lat. 55°39!. E. long. 12° 6.
ROESCHULT, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland, faid to be the native place of. the famous
Linneus.
ROESENDAEL, a-town of Brabant; 8 miles E. of
Berg-op-Zoom.
ROESSEL. See Rosset.
ROETTVIK, or Ragtrvix, a mountain of Sweden,
which, according to Bergman, is calcareous, and the height
of which he eftimates at 6000 feet above the fea; obfery-
ing, asa fingularity, that upon this mountain and that of
Rodeberg, are found vaft blocks of reddifh felfpar, mingled
with quartz and brown mica.
ROEVAERT, a river of Brabant, which runs from
Breda into the fea. ~
ROEULX, La, a town of France, in the department
of Gemappe; 8 miles N.E. of Mons.
RROEUX, a town of France, in the department of the
ftraits of Calais; 9 miles E. of Arras.
ROFANI, a cape of European Turkey, on the S. coatt
of Romania. N. lat. 40°35’. E. long 24° 14!.
ROFFENSIS Textus. See Textus.
ROFRANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra; nine miles N.W. of Policattro.
ROGA, a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto ;
feven miles N. of Otranto. q
RoGa, joys, in Antiquity, a donative, or prefent, which
the Auguiti, or emperors, made to the fenators, magiftrates,
and even the people ; and the popes, or patriarchs, to their
clergy.
The word is derived by fome from the Latin erogare, to
give, or diffribute ; according to others from ogo, J afk;
hence, fay they, it isthat St. Gregory the Great calls fuch
diftributions frecaria, as being to be demanded in order
to be had. Others, again, derive it from the Greek
goles, fometimes ufed for corm; becaufe it anciently con-
filted in corn, diftributed among the populace, the fol-
diery, &c.
The emperors ufed to diftribute thefe roge on the
firft day of the year, or on their birth-day, or on the na-
talis dies of the cities. The popes and patriarchs in Paf-
fion Week.
This cuftom of roge, or largeffes, was introduced by the
tribunes of the people, to gain the populace more effec-
tually over to their intereft. The emperors at length took
it up, and made fuch diltributions to the people, and even
to the foldiery,; who are hence called by the Greek writers
of the middle age foyzopes.
Roea is alfo ufed for the ordinary pay of the foldiery. °
ROGA.
ROG
ROGANELLO, in Geography, a river of Naples,
which runs into the gulf of Tarento, near Civita Men-
drino. f
ROGATCHEYV, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Mogilev, on the Dnieper; 76 miles S. of Mo-
gilev. N. lat. 52° 36’. E. long. 30° 14!. ;
ROGATIO, Roeartion, in the Roman ea Se
a demand made by the confuls, or the tribunes, of the Ro-
man people, when a law was propofed to be pafled.
The demand was made in thefe terms: Do you will and
appoint that (for inttance) war be declared againft Philip?
This was the rogalio; and what the people returned in
anfwer, as, The Roman people do appoint war to be made
againft Philip, was the decretum, decree, or refolve.
The word rogatio is frequently alfo ufed for the decree
itfelf, to diftinguith it from a fenatus-confultum, or decree
of the fenate. y j
Frequently, alfo, rogatis is ufed in the fame fenfe with
Jaw, becaufe there never were any laws eftablifhed among
the Romans, but what was done by this kind of rogation.
Otherwife they were null.
ROGATION Weex, the week immediately preced-
ing Whitfunday ; thus called from three fafts therein;
viz. on the Monday, Tuefday, and Wednefday, before
Holy Thurfday, or the Afcenfion of our Lord; called
alfo Rogations, or Rogation days, becaufe of the extraordi-
nary prayers, and proceffions then made, for the fruits of
the earth.
Dr. Godolphin fays, the Rogation days derive their
name from certain ordinances for abftinence, or days of
fafting, which the bifhop of Rome recommended to be
obferved by the Weftern churches, before he affumed the
power of compulfion; and which he, therefore, called by
the gentle name of Rogation, the time of abitinence being
appointed at the beginning by that ordinance, which was
called Regatio, and not lex, or decretum.
The firft who appointed thefe rogations was St. Mamer-
tus, bifhop of Vienne, who, in 474, aflembled feveral
bifhops, to implore the mercy of God by a fait of three
days, on oceafion of an incurfion then made into the country
by a number of wild beafts. Others fay, it was firft fet on
foot by the fame Mamertus, in 463, on occafion of fome
great public calamities.
His example was foon followed, firit by the church of
Clermont, in Auvergne, then by all their neighbours, and
afterwards throughout all Gaul. ; ;
In 801, Leo III. confirmed this faft, and made it uni-
verfal.
ROGATORES, among the Romans, thofe who in the
comitia centuriata brought the cheit into which the people
threw the ballots containing their vetes. '
ROGE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Skone; 28 miles N.W. of Chriftianitadt.
ROGEHAUSEN, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate
of Cukn; 21 miles N.E of Culm.
ROGELGRUBE, a town of Pruffia, in the Frifche
Nerung ; 15 miles N.W. of, Elbing.
ROGELIM, in Scripture Geography, a place of Judea,
in the tribe of Gad, the refidence of Barzillai; mentioned
in the book of Kings. * fi
ROGER, in Biography, firlt king of Sicily, born in
1097, was fon of Roger, count of Sicily, and grandfon
of the Norman Tancred of Hauteville. He fucceeded in
his fourth year to the fovereignty of Sicily, under the
guardianfhip of his mother Adelaide. As foon as he aflumed
the reins of government, he endeavoured to obtain the un-
divided poffeffion of Palermo, of which a half belonged to
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the elder branch of his family, and alfo to enlarge the
bounds of his eftates in Calabria. On the death of his re-
lation, William, duke of Apulia, he was proclaimed at
Reggio duke of Apulia and Calabria; but the pope,
Honorius I1., refufed for fome time to grant him an inveiti-
ture to thofe duchies ; at length, however, an accommodation
was effeGted, and the pope became his friend. He was now
a powerful prince, and being urged by fome of his fubjeéts
to aflume the regal title, he readily complied with their
wifhes. In 1130 he convoked an aflembly of his barons at
Palermo, and received with great pomp and ceremony the
royal crown of Sicily from the hands of a cardinal, dele-
gated for the purpofe. He was invefted at the fame time
with the principality of Capua and the dukedom of Naples.
A rebellion broke out among his new fubjeéts in Italy,
which obliged him to retire to Salerno, and thence to Sicily,
Roger, at this period, had efpoufed the caufe of Anacietus,
while the emperor Lothaire had efpoufed the caufe of In-
nocent II., who was likewife acknowledged by feveral of
the Italian ftates. A formidable confederacy was formed
againit Roger, in which the republic of Pifa, then a power~
ful maritime ftate, took a leading part. An aétive war
was carried on for feveral years with various fuccefs in the
fouth of Italy. In 1137 the emperor reduced the whole
of Apulia, of which a new duke was-created, while Roger
was excommunicated by Innocent II. In 1139 he took
the pope prifoner, who was obliged to purchafe his liberty
by. the abfolution of the king, and his inveftiture in Sicily,
Apulia, and Capua. From this period the affairs of Roger
became profperous, and the fucceflors of Innocent, who
had refufed to acknowledge his regal title, were brought to
comply by the terror of his arms. About the year 1146,
Roger carried his arms into Africa, and after reducing
Malta, which from this period was annexed to the crown
of Sicily, he made himfelf matter of Tripoli, Tunis, and
other extenfive tracks along the fea-coaft, which he rendered
tributary. About the fame time he avenged himfelf of
the injuftice of the Greek emperor, Manuel, who had im-
prifoned his ambaffadors, and offered him other indignities,
by fending a powerful fleet, which took the ifland of Corfu,
and cruelly ravaged the coaft of Morea. One refult of
this expedition was, the carrying off a number of filk manu-
faéturers, and fettling.them in Apulia and Sicily, where
they introduced their art. His admiral advanced as far as
Conftantinople, the fuburbs of which he pillaged and burnt;
and he had the honour of fetting at liberty Lewis VII.
of France, who, on his return from the Holy Land, had
been intercepted by a Grecian fquadron. Manuel, how-
ever, affifted by the Venetians, purfued and in part deftroyed
the Sicilian fleet, and recovered Corfi. Roger now aflo-
ciated his only furviving fon with him on the throne, and
after employing the laf years of his life in ere€ting monu-
ments of his mumificence and piety, he expired at Palermo
in the year 1154, in the 58th year of his age, and 25th of
his reign as king, leaving the character of one of the
ableft, moft vigorous, and fortunate princes of his time.
Gibbon, vol. x. Mod. Univer. Hitt.
Rocer pe Hovenen, a learned hiftorian of the 13th cen-
tury, was probably born at the town of Hoveden or Howden,
in Yorkfhire, fome time in the reign of Henry I. Having
received the early parts of his education, he began to ftudy
the civil and canon law, which were then become the moft
fafhionable branches of learning. He was appointed do-
meftic chaplain to Henry II., who employed him in many
ecclefiaftical affairs, in which he acquitted himfelf with high
honour. He is, however, beit known by his Annals of
England, from the year 731, where Bede’s Ecclefiattical
3H 2 Hiltory
ROG
Hiftory ends, to 1202. This work, which is one of the
moft voluminous of our ancient hiftories, is more valuable
for the fincerity with which it is written, and the great
variety of fa€ts which it contains, than for the neatnefs
of its ftyle, or the regularity of its arrangement.
ROGERS, Joun, an Englifh divine, was educated at
Cambridge, and became chaplain to the faftory at An-
twerp, where he affifted Tindal and Coverdale in tranflating
the Bible into Englifh. In the reign of Edward VI. he
returned to England, and obtained a prebend in St. Paul’s
cathedral, where he was a frequent and zealous preacher.
He was the firft perfon executed in the reign of the bloody
Mary, being burnt in Smithfield in 1555. In the former
reign he had been, at leaft, an abettor of the fame fort of
perfecution of which he himfelf became the victim. This
fa& deferves to-be recorded. When the Proteftant bifhops
had determined to burn Joan of Kent, a friend of Rogers,
the divinity reader in St. Paul’s church, came to him,
earneftly defiring him to ufe his intereft with the archbifhop,
that the poor woman’s life might be fpared, and other
means ufed to prevent the {preading of her opinions, which
might be done in time ; urging, though that while fhe
lived the infeéted few with her opinion, yet fhe might bring
many to think well of it by fuffering death for it; he
pleaded, therefore, that it was better fhe fhould be kept in
fome prifon, without an opportunity of propagating her
notions among weak people ; and fo fhe would do no harm
to others, and might live to repent herfelf. Rogers on the
other hand pleaded, fhe ought to be put to death. Well
then, fays his friend, if you are refolved to put an-end to
her life, together with her opinions, choofe fome other kind
of death more agreeable to the gentlenefs and mercy pre-
feribed in the Gofpel, there being no need that fuch tor-
menting deaths fhould be taken up in imitation of the
Papifts. Rogers anfwered, that burning alive was no cruel
death, but eafy enough. His friend, then hearing thefe
words, which exprefled fo little regard to the poor crea-
ture’s fufferings, anfwered him with great vehemence,
and ftriking Rogers’s hand, which he before held faft,
faid to him, “ Well, it may perhaps fo happen, that
you yourfelves fhall have your hands full of that mild
burning.” And fo it came to pafs. Mr. Pierce, who
has recorded this anecdote, conjectures with great pro-
bability, that the friend of Rogers was the hiftorian
himfelf.
Rogers, captain Wood, a famous Englith navigator in
the early part of the eighteenth century, of whofe private
hiftory little is known, failed in the Duke, a private fhip
of war, of 30 guns and 170 men, in company with the
Duchefs, a fmaller veffel, commanded by captain Stephen
Courtney, on an expedition into the South feas againft the
Spaniards. Thefe hips were fitted out by a company of
merchants at Briftol, and they fet fail on the 1ft of Augutt,
1708. On board one of them as pilot was the afterwards
celebrated captain Dampier, (fee his article.) In pafling
the ftraits of Magellan, they not only captured feveral
fhips, but likewife took feveral towns upon the coaft, and
on the 22d of December 1709, they met with the famous
Acapulco fhip, which was the lefler of two fhips, which
at that period failed annually from the Eatt Indies to
Mexico. She carried 20 guns, and would not furrender
until fhe was overcome: an aétion began and lafted about
half an hour, when the Spaniard hauled down her colours ;
and fhe was found to be a moft valuable prize, worth
2,000,000 pieces of eight. After this they met with the
larger Acapulco fhip, but having fkirmifhed two days, they
found it impoffible to capture her. They therefore deter-
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mined to return by the Eaft Indies, and arrived in the
Downs after having circumnavigated the globe, on the
2d of O&ober, 1711. This voyage, which was abun-
dantly fuccefsful, led to the foundation of the Sourn SEa
Company; which fee. In 1718, captain Rogers having
been appointed governor of the Bahama iflands, proved him-
felf well adapted to the fituation, by the vigorous meafures
which he adopted again{t the pirates, who had become moft
inimical to the trading interefts of the country. He arrived
at Providence, after a fhort and eafy pafflage, on the 11th of -
April, took pofleffion of the town of Naffau, and the
whole ifland, much to the fatisfa€tion of the inhabitants,
and many of the pirates, who had fettled themfelves there,
fubmitted-at once to his authority. He proceeded foon
after in forming a council, and fettling the government of
thofe iflands, appointing civil and military officers, raifing
militia, and taking every other ftep neceflary for procuring
fafety at home, and fecurity from any thing that might be
attempted from abroad, in which by degrees he completely
fucceeded. Some of the pirates at firlt rejeCted the terms,
and continued to doa good deal of mifchief on the coaft of
Carolina; but when they faw that captaia Rogers had
thoroughly fettled himfelf at Providence, and was not to
be trifled with, and that the inhabitants of the Bahamas
found it to be to their intereft to be honeft, they thought
proper to folicit mercy ; fo that by the 1ft of July, 1719,
to which day the king’s proclamation had been extended,
there were not above three or four veflels of thofe pirates
which continued to trade, two of thefe being captured, and
their crews executed, the reft difperfed. ‘ Thus,’’ fays
the judicious Campbell, * in a fhort time, and chiefly
through the iteady and prudent conduct of governor Rogers,
this herd of villains was in fome meafure diflolved, who for
many years had frighted the Weit Indies and the northern
colonies, coming at laft to be fo {trong that few merchant-
men were fafe, and withal fo cruel, that flavery among the
Turks was preferable to falling into their hands.” See
Campbell’s Lives of the Admirals, Stockdale’s edition,
vols. iii. and iv.
Rocrers, Bensamin, doGtor of mufic, an ecclefiattical
compofer, whofe works are {till contained in our cathedral
fervice, and for whofe fame Anthony Wood has manifefted
great zeal. This mufician was born at Windfor, and |
brought up in that college under Dr. Nath. Giles; being
employed there, firft asa finging boy, and afterwards in the
capacity of lay clerk or finging man. Thence he went to
Ireland, and was appointed organiit of Chrift-church in
Dublin, where he continued till the breaking out of the
rebellion, in 1641; at which time, being forced to quit his
ftation, he returned to Windfor, where he was again re-
inftated as choirman ; but being foon after filenced in con-
fequence of the civil wars, he procured a fubfiftence by
teaching in the neighbourhood. And during this time, ac-
cording to his friend Ant. Wood, having addicted himfelf
much to ftudy, he acquired great credit as a compofer, and
produced feveral fets of airs in four parts for violins and
an organ, which being then imagined the bett that cou/d be
compofed of that kind, were fent as great rarities to the
archduke Leopold, afterwards emperor, and himfelf a
great mufician; and, upon their being performed by his
band, they were very much admired.
In 1658, by the favour of his friend Dr. Ingelo, he ob-
tained the degree of bachelor in mufic at Cambridge, and
acquired great reputation in that univerfity by his exercife.
Soon after, on Dr. Ingelo going chaplain to Bultftrode
lord Whitelock, into Sweden, he carried with him fome
of Ben. Rogers’s beft compofitions, which, upon being re-
peatedly
ROG
peatedly performed in the prefence of Chriftiana, queen of
Sweden, were very much applauded. :
At the Rettoration he was appointed to compofe the
mufic that was performed at Guildhall, on the day his
majefty and his brothers, the dukes of York and Gloucetter,
dined there with the lord mayor, by which he greatly in-
creafed his reputation.
- About this time he was chofen organift of Eton college,
which he refigned foon after, on being invited te Oxford,
where he was appointed to the fame office in Magdalen
college. And in 1669, upon opening the new theatre in
that city, he was created doétor in mufic. He continued,
fays Ant. Wood, in the univerfity, where he was much
efteemed, till the year 1685, when he was ejected, in com-
pany with the fellows of his college, by =e James II.
after which he long refided in the fkirts of the town,
wholly difregarded.
«“ His compofitions for inftruments,’’ fays Ant. Wood,
*¢ whether in two, three, or four parts, have been highly
valued, and were thirty years ago always firft called for,
taken out and played as well in the public mufic fchools,
as in private chambers: and Dr. Wilfon, the profeffor, (the
greateit and moft curious judge of mufic that ever was,)
ufually wept when he heard them well performed, as being
wrapt up in an ecftacy; or, if you will, melted down:
while others fmiled, or had their hands and eyes lifted up,
at the excellence of them.”’
It is to be feared, that inftead of weeping, the wicked
lovers of modern mufic would now /augh, if they were to
hear the quaint and itarched ftrains, and fee on paper the
ruffs and roll-ups of honeft Ben. Rogers at the Opera-houfe,
or profeffional concert, Hanover-fquare. But, alas! what
is the fecular mufic, that thirty years have not wrinkled,
withered, and rendered fuperannuated !
Rocers’s Peint, in Geography, a cape on the W. fide of
lake Huron. N. lat. 44° 19! W. long. 82° 45!.
ROGERSVILLE, the chief town of Hawkins county,
in the ftate of Teneffee, pleafantly fituated in Carter’s val-
ley, with a profpect agreeably variegated by fome round
hills at a diftance. It contains about 20 dwelling-houfes,
fome public buildings, ftores, &c. It has a number of
erennial {prings, and one above the level of the ftreets.
ROGETS, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg, at
the conflux of the Oura and Elbe ; 16 miles N. of Magde-
burg.
ROGGENDORF, a town of Aufiria; 8 miles W. of
Agegfpach.
ROGGEWELD, a tranfmontane divifion of the diftri&
of Stellenbofch and Drakenftein, at the Cape of Good
Hope, called the Rye-grafs country, and divided into
Upper, Middle and Little. Thefe are the fummit of a long
extended Table mountain, whofe weftern front rifes out of
the Karroo plains, behind the Bokkeweld, almoft perpendicu-
larly, to the height of two or three thoufand feet. Stretch-
ing to the eaitward, this fummit becomes more broken into
inequalities of furface, and rifes at length into the mountains
of Nieuweld, the Camdeboo, and the Seeuwberg, which
may be confidered as one extended chain. The great elevation
of the Roggeweld, and its being furrounded by the Karroo
plains, nike the temperature in winter fo cold, that for four
months in the year, the inhabitants are under the neceflity of
defcending to the feet of the meuntains, with their horfes,
cattle, and fheep. The ftrongeft and largeft breed of horfes
in the whole colony is that af the Roggeweld. See Niev-
WELD.
ROGIERS, a town of France, in the department of the
Var; 4miles S.of St. Maximin.
RYOsvE
ROGLIANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; 9
miles §.S.E. of Cofenza.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of
Corfica ; 20 miles N. of Battia.
ROGME, in Surgery, a rupture or fraéture. B
ROGNES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
ieee of the Mouths of the Rhone; 13 miles N.W. of
1X.
ROGO, an ifland of Sweden, near the E. coat, in the
Baltic. N. lat. 57° 53'. E. long. 16° 36/.
ROGONATGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 30 miles
S.W. of Rogonatpour. N. lat. 23°17. E. long. 86° 21!
ROGONATPOUR, a town of Bengal, and capital of
the circar of Pachete; 150 miles S.S.E. of Patna. N. lat.
23° 33’. E. long. 85° 44’.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 31
miles S.E. of Kifhenagur.
ROGOSNO, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 16 miles
N. of Pofen.
ROGOWA, atown of Pruffia, in the palatinate of Culm;
7 miles -E. of Thorn.
ROGSTA, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland; 2 miles
N.E. of Hudwickwall.
ROGUE, in Law, an idle and fturdy beggar, who, by
ancient ftatutes, for the firft offence, is called a rogue of the
Jitfl degree, and punifhed by whipping, and boring through
the griftle of the right ear, with a hot iron, an inch in com-
pafs ; and, for the fecond offence, is called a rogue of the fe~
cond degree, and ordered to be put to death asa felon, if he
be above eighteen years of age. For the defcription and
punifhment of rogues, as they are eftablifhed by 17 Geo. II.
cap. 5, fee VAGABoND. :
Rocues, or Whores’ March, in Military Language, a beat
of the drum, accompanied by the fifes, when a foldier is
drummed out of the regiment, or common proftitutes are
drummed out of camp or garrifon.
Rocures Yarn, a name given to a rope-yarn, which is
placed in the middle of every ftrand, in all cables and cordage
in the king’s fervice. It differs from all the reft, as being
untarred and twifted in a contrary manner, by which it is
eafily difcovered. The ufe of this contrivance is to exa-
mine whether any cordage, fuppofed to be {ftolen or em-
bezzled, has been formed for the king’s fervice, the poffeflor
of which is fubje& to aheavy fine. Falconer.
ROGUINS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhone and Loire; 6 miles E. of
Roanne.
ROGUN, atown of European Turkey, in Albania; 6
miles W.N.W. of Arta.
ROHACZOW, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Minfk, on the Dnieper ; 85 miles S.E. of Minfk. N. lat.
52° sol. E. long. 29° 33).
ROHALE, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia, N. lat. 60°37’. E. long. 17° 49/.
ROHAN, Henry, duke of, in Biography, fecond of
the name, but one of the firft rank, talents, and charaéter
of the French nobility of his time, was born in 1579, at
the cattle of Blein, in Britanny. At the age of fixteen he
diftinguifhed himfelf at the fiege of Amiens, under the eye
of Henry IV., to whom he was prefumptive heir, before
the birth cf the dauphin. After the death of Henry, he
was at the head of the Calvinift party in France, a ftation
which he retained during three religious wars againit the au-
thority of Lewis XIII. In the firft, in 1621, he defended
Montauban in perfon: the fiege was raifed, and in the fol-
lowing year a favourable peace was granted to the Proteft-
ants. The war was rekindled in 1625, but was foon termi-
nated by a peace. At length Richelieu refolved entirely to
fubdue a party which had become a fort of feparate republic
in
k OH
tn France, allied for its own defence with her enemies. He be-
fieged and took Rochelle, the flrong hold of the Calvinifts ;
and though the duke of Rohan vigoroufly maintained the
war in-Languedoc, he was at length obliged, in 1629, to
make his fubmiflion, and the party was deprived of all its
fortreffes, but {till allowed the public exercife of its religion.
To fome of the moft violent, who were enraged at the terms
of accommodation, and accufed their chief of having fold
them, he prefented his naked breaft, faying, “{trike! I
am content to die by your hands, after having ventured my
life in your fervice.”? As it was one of the conditions that
he fhould quit the kingdom till it pleafed the king to recail
him, he retired to Venice, and it is affirmed, that, during his
refidence in that city, the duke engaged in a negociation with
the Ottoman Porte, for the purchale of the ifland of Cyprus,
with a view of fettling in it Proteftant refugees from France
and Germany, and that it failed principally through the
death of the patriarch Cyril, by whofe mediation it was car-
ried on, ‘The Venetian republic nominated him its general
in chief againit the Imperialifts; but the king of France
took him from its fervice to fend him ambaflador to the
Swifs and Grifons. At the head of the troops of the lat-
ter, he drove the Germans and Spaniards out of the Valte-
line in 1633. He after this defeated the Spaniards on the
banks of the lake Como, but the Grifons becoming fufpicious
that it was not mtended to withdraw the French troops from
their country, rofe in arms, and the duke was obliged to
make a feparate treaty with themin 1637. He now retired
to Geneva, and from thence went to join his friend, the duke
of Saxe-Weimar, with whom he fought againft the Impe-
rialifts at Rheinfeld, in 1638. He was feverely wounded in
the action, and died fome weeks after, at the abbey of Konig-
feld, in Switzerland, at the age of fifty-nine. His body
was interred in the church of St. Peter, at Geneva, where’a
magnificent monument was ereéted to his memory. The
duke was author of feveral works, military and political.
Thefe are, “Les Intérets des Princes ;”? « Le parfait Ca-
pitaine, ou l’Abregé des Commentaires de Cefar ;”? « Un
Traite de la Corruption de la Milice ancienne ;” “ Un
Traité du Government des Treize Cantons ;’’ «* Memoires,”’
containing the tranfaétions in France from 1610 to 1629 ;
“ Recueil dés quelque Difcours politiques fur les Affaires
de VEtat, depuis 1612 jufqu’en 1629 ;’’ “ Memoires et
Lettres de Henri, duc de Rohan, fur la Guerre de la Val-
telin.”? The duke was one of the greateit captains of his
time, and poffeffed all the qualities requifite in the head of
a party, together with difintereftednefs, generofity, and
gentlenefs of manners. His wife, Margaret of Bethune,
- daughter of the great duke of Sully, warmly efpoufed the
interefts of her hufband and party, and was greatly cele-
brated for her courage. His brother alfo, Benjamin de
Rohan, lord of Soubife, a&@ed a diftinguifhed part in the
Calvinilt wars, and finally took refuge in England, where
he died in 1690.
Rowan, 1 Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri&t of Ploermel ; 10 miles N.W. of Joffelin. The
place contains 422, and the canton 9951 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2674 kiliometres, ing communes. N, lat. 48° 6).
W. long. 2° gol.
ROHAN-ROHAN, a town of France, inthe depart-
ment of the Two Sevres; 6 miles S.S.W. of Niort.
ROHAULT, James, in Biography, a French philofo-
pher and mathematician, was born at Amiens, in Picardy, in
1620. Having received the early part of his education at
his native place, he wasfentto Paris, to ftudy mathematics
and philofophy. In his enquiries he appears to have been
ROH
polfefled of an ardent love of truth, and to have fought after
it with the utmoitt diligence and impartiality. He itudied
both the ancients and moderns, but Des Cartes was the au-
thor which engaged moft of his notice, and of that cele-
brated philofepher he became a zealous follower. His at-
tachment to the fyftem of Des Cartes introduced him to the
acquaintance of Claude Clerfelier, who gave him his daughter
in marriage, in oppofition to the remonitrances of his family.
He engaged his fon-in-law to draw up an abridgment and
explanation of the philofophical works of Des Cartes, and
to illuftrate the fame with notes. The refult of his labours,
which he entitled “ Phyfics,’’ was taught by him at Paris,
during ten or twelve years before he gave it to the public.
Rohault died in the year 1675, at the age of fifty-five, leaving
bebirid him the chara€ter of an amiable, as well as very
learned man. His Phyfics were tranflated from the French
into Latin by Dr. Samuel Clarke, who accompanied his
verfion with notes that overfet the fyftem.of Des Cartes, in
order to make way for that of the illuftrious fir Lfaac Newton.
The belt edition of this tranflation is that of 1718. Ro-
hault alfo publifhed «* Elements of Mathematics,”’ and ‘ Dia-
logues concerning Philofophy :” and after the author’s death,
a colleGtion of pieces was made from his manufcripts, and
printed firft at Paris, and afterwards at the Hague, in 1690,
in two vols. 12mo. containing the firft books of Euclid,
Trigonometry, Pra¢tical Geometry, Fortification, Me-
chanics, Perfpetive, &c.
ROHBA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas ; 10 miles S. of Vadelkora.
ROHEETA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohud; 20 miles S.E. of Gohud.
ROHILCUND, or Rouitra, a circar or province of
Hindoottan, fituated on the E. fide of the Ganges, and
N.W. of the fubah of Oude. The territory of the Ro-
hillas was formerly called Catheir, and recently derived its
name from the conquerors of that tribe, who, about the
year 1720, left Afghaniltan, and the mountains which they
occupied between India and Perfia, and came thither in pur-
fuit of military fervice. Thefe emigrants were firft enter-
tained by Madar Saha, the Hindoo chief of Serowly,
a {mall town in the N.W. quarter of Rohilcund, who, by
robbery and predatory excurfions, maintained a large party
of banditti. Some time afterwards, the Rohillas quarrelled
with Madar Saha, and affociated with the chief of Bareilly ;
but, feparating from this chief, they made incurfions into the
territory of the rajah of Kemaoon. In this expedition they
at firft fucceeded, but were afterwards defeated; their
leader, who was an original emigrant from Afghaniltan,
being taken prifoner and put to death. After his death, his
affociate, Ali Mahomet, a youth of the fect of Jats, whom
he had captured in one of his excurfions, and brought up in
the Mahometan religion, became the chief of the party ;
and being brave and enterprifing, though young, he availed
himfelf of every opportunity that occurred for advancing
his power, and eularging his territory. Ali, chiefly by the
affiftance of the vizier Kummer ud Dein, obtained a com-
miffion for colleting the revenue of the penfion land, which,
it is faid, he punctually remitted. From this period we
may date the firft eftablifhment of the Rohilla power in
Rohilcund, the name by which they diftinguifhed the Cuttera
or Kutterah diftri€ts, and their other territories on the eaft
fide of the Ganges. Ali Mahomet fixed his refidence at
Owlah, and ettablifhed throughout his territory a permanent
fyftem of government, which, though occafionally rigorous,
afforded proteCtion to the lower clafsof people. In procefs
of time, and in confequence of feveral predatory a&ts which
he committed, Ali was attacked by the prince Mahomet
3 ally
ROH
Shah, who entered Rohilcund with a powerful armament,
and took pofleffion of theopen country. At length he was
compelled to furrender himfelf tothe king, but by the inter-
ceffion of Kummer ud Dein he was pardoned. With this
event, which happened in the year 1745, the power of the
Rohillas was annihilated in Rohilcund ; and all their officers
and principal people were removed to Delhi. Ali, having re-
~mained about a year at Delhi, under the proteétion of the
vizier, was, by his recommendation, appointed the military
governor of Sirhind, who, during his refidence in this
place, was joined by a body of 2000 or 3000 marauding
Afghans; fo that his party was computed to confift of
40,000 cavalry, and 15,000 or 20,000 infantry, of various
denominations. Whillt the Mogul and Afghan armies were
preparing for aGtion, he quitted the Panjab and retired to
Hurdwar, from whence he penetrated, in 1747, into Rohil-
cund, which he rapidly conquered, and foon after died at
Owlah. The laft army that might be reckoned imperial,
was, in 1749, cefeated by the Rohillas; by which their
independency was firmly eitablifhed in the eaitern part of the
province of Delhi. About the year 1750, the territory
which had been perfonally poffefled by Al: Mahomet, was,
by the deliberation and agreement of the principal Rohilla
officers, divided among his fons. At length, however,
Hafiz Ahmed, who potleffed military talents, in the exercife
of which he had acquired influence in Rohilcund, fuperfeded
the authority of Saud Ullah, the third fon of Ali Mahomet,
and was advanced to the fupreme adminiitration of affairs ;
and at the death of Saud Ullah, which happened at Owlah
in 1761, the power of Hafiz was eftablifhed. The form
of government adopted by the Rohillas in India, fimilar to
that which fubfifted in their native country, may be deno-
minated feudal. The fucceffors of one of the firft invaders,
viz. Daoud Khan, poffeffing very moderate hereditary
pretentions, and furrounded by perfons who had afforded
effential affiftance in the firlt conqueft, held but a limited
{way. Two of the moft refpeétable of the Rohillas never
ceafed to oppofe the progrefs of Hafiz Rhamut, who aimed
at fovereign authority ; but zealoufly attached to the in-
tereft of the widow of Saud Ullah, they formed a counter-
poife to the encroaching power of that chief. The Afghan
conquerors of Rohilcund, were a bold, rapacious, and law-
lefs fet of men; and after they had eftablifhed a kind of
government in India, they adopted the more effeminate vices
of the fouth, and became intriguing, deceitful, and trea-
cherous. ‘The Rohillas, particularly thofe of the lower
clafs, were, with few exceptions, the only Mahometans in
India who exercifed the profeffion of hufbandry, and
their attention to agriculture was amply recompenfed by the
abundance and fuperior qualities of the productions of Ro-
hilcund. This country is faid to have yielded to the Ro-
hillas one million fterling, a fum which, in later times, has
been very confiderably reduced. According to Mr. Ha-
milton, the Rohillas themfelves have been the great caufe of
the ruin of the country which bears their name ; it was par-
celled out among their chiefs, who had afterwards but a
feeble conneGtion with each other ; while their dependence
on Hafiz (Halley) Rhamut, their prince, was more no-
minal than real. In the year 1773 the Mahrattas crofled the
Ganges to invade the Rohilla country ; but a brigade of
the Britith marched to the weitern frontier of that country,
and drove the Mahrattas acrofs the river. For this pro-
tection the Rohilla chiefs had ftipulated to pay Sujah Dow-
Jah, nabob of Oude, 40 lacks of rupees; but when this
eflential fervice was performed by the Britifh army, which
moved as the allies of Sujah Dowlah, the payment of the
money was evaded. This breach of treaty led to the invafion
ROH
and conqueft of the Rohilla country in the following year,
1774; and it was'then added to the fubah of Oude. Since
this conquelt, the country has rapidly degenerated into a
wafte, under the deleterious politics of the miniflers of
Oude. The natives are faid to be a tall, handfome race of
people ; and when compared with the other inhabitants, are
white and well featured. They continued for a confiderable
time to carry about in triumph fome couches and palankeens
of European officers that were killed by their army in the
fatal a€tion of 1774, by which we purchafed a victory at a
greater expence of European lives than was ever fuffered
by the fame number of troops in India. The capital of
Rohileund is Bereifly or Barelly, which fee. The dittri&
of Rampour, fituated at the foot of the Northern moun-
tains, and poflefled by a Rohilla chief, is included in Ro-
hilcund, but it was feeured to Fizzoolah Cawn, the chief,
by the treaty of Loldong, in 1774. Jt is valued at 30
lacks of rupees per annum ; but he is, in effeG, tributary to
Oude, (which fee,) by being bound to furnith his quota to-
wards an eftablifhment for the common defence.
ROHILLAMOW, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude ;
21 miles S.S.E. of Kairabad.
ROHINI, in Afronomy, the Sanfkrit name of a flar,
{uppofed to be that defignated on our globes by « Tanri,
In mythology it is an afterifm that furnifhes more poetica!
allufion than any other inthe zodiac. Rohini is one of the
fixty daughters of Dakfha, and one of the twenty-feven
efpoufed by Soma, or the moon; the lunar regent being
male among the Hindoos, asit is with fome European my-
thologifts. (See Soma.) Under the article NAKSHATRA,
which means the afterifms marking the moon’s path, mention
is made of the poetical derivations from this fruitful fource,
and we will here add another inttance of it, relating to Ro-
hini, the favourite confort of the fickle Soma. In one of
‘their terreftrial journies, arriving at the fouthern mountain
Sahyadri, they unwarily entered the foreft of Gauri, or
Parvati, where fome men, having formerly furprifed Maha-
deva carefling that goddefs, they were punifhed by a change
of their fex, and the foreft had retained a power of effecting
a like change on all males who fhould enter it. Soma, or
Chandra, inftantly becoming a female, (Chandri,) was fo
afflicted and afhamed, that fhe haftened far to the welt,
fending Rohini to her feat in the fy, and concealed herfelf
in a mountain, afterwards named Somagiri, where fhe per-
formed aéts of the moft rigorous devotion. Darknefs
then covered the world each night, the fruits of the earth
were deftroyed, and the univerfe was in fuch difmay, that
the Devas, or divinities, with Brahma at their head, im-
plored the affiftance of Mahadeva, who, placing Chandri
on his head, fhe became male again. Mahadeva, in ftatues
and pictures, is ufually feen with the moon on his head and
forehead, and one of his names is Chandra-fekra, or moon-
crowned. (See Siva.) Another fable ftates that fhe was
vifited in her retreat by Surya, or the fun, from which con-
junction arofe a numerous progeny. Mahadeva is the fun;
and this fol-lunarian progeny is, perhaps, vegetation. Under
the article ILA is another lunarian fable, probably conne&ted
with thefe. Siva’s fpoufe, Parvati, is as jealous as Juno.
Thefe fables, taken from the A fiatic Refearches, vol. iif.
are related by Mr. Wilford, from Puranic authority ; and
were thus explained to him by an ingenious Pandit. To
the inhabitant of the countries near the fource of the Kali,
or Nile, the moon, being in the manfion of Rohini, or the
Pleiades, feemed to vanith behind the fouthern mountains,
Now when the moon is in oppofition to the fun, it is the
god Chandra ; in conjunétion, the goddefs Chandri. The
moon is believed, by Hindoo naturalifts, to have a power-
ful
ROH
ful influence on vegetation, efpecially on certain plants, and,
above all, on the Somalata, or moon-plant. (See Soma-
Lata.) This mode of interpretation, Mr. Wilford adds,
may ferve as a clue to the intricate labyrinth of the Puranas,
which contain all the hiftory, phyfiology, and {cience of
the Indians and Egyptians, difguifed under fimilar fables.
See PuRANA.
ROHITZ, in Geography, a town of Stiria, in which is
a medicinal {pring ; 20 miles E. of Cilley.
ROHL, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N. lat.
59° 55!. E. long. 26° 26’.
ROHLA, a river of Bohemia, which runs into the
Egra, near Carlfbad.
ROHN, a town of Germany, in the county of Henne-
berg ; two miles N.N.W. of Salzungen.
Roun. See Puro Ron, and PooLaron.
ROHND, a town of Bengal; 15 miles N. of Toree.
ROHOB, atownof Judea, inthe tribe of Afher, men-
tioned in the books of Jofhua and Numbers. To this
place Mofes fent twelve men to reconnoitre the land of
promife. It was afligned to the Levites of the family of
Gerfhon.
ROHOSSETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; eight miles N.W. of 'Turnau.
ROHR, a town of the duchy of Stiria; nine miles W.
of Gnaa.—Alfo, a river of the duchy of Bremen, which
runs into the Wefer near Carlfburg.—Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the principality of Culmbach; five miles S.E. of
Culmbach.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; two miles E. of Meinungen.
Rour, Jan, a town of Auttria; to miles N.W. of
Neuttadt.
ROHRBACH, atown-of Germany, belonging to the
riory of Odenheim; 10 miles W. of Heilbronn.
ROHRBECK, a town of Saxony, in the principality:
of Querfurt ; two miles S. of Juterbock.
ROHRIA, in Botany, a genus of Schreber’s, has been
fuppofed, by De Theis, to commemorate Julius Bernard
von Rohr, a German botanical writer of the middle of the
18th century, whofe works are little known out of his own
country. We rather prefume, with profeflor Martyn, that
the author of this name had in view a more recent, and very
eminent, practical botanift, long refident in South America,
Julius Philip Benjamin von Rohr, perhaps a relation of the
former, whofe difcoveries are often mentioned by Vahl, and
who has written on Gra la amara, the culture of Cotton,
and other fubjeéts. Thunberg has alfo a Rohria, adopted
from Wah) ; which having been previoufly called Berckheya,
by Ehrhart, is now retained under the latter name in Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2269.—Schreb. Gen. 30. Willd. Sp. Pl.
vy. 1. 186. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. (Tapura? Aubl.
Guian. v. 1.126. Juff. 419. Lamarck Iluftr. t. 122.)
—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. un-
certain, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
in five deep, ovate, concave, obtufe, fringed, coriaceous
fegments, the two interior ones rather longelt. Cor. Petals
five, ereét, longer than the calyx, the two uppermoft rather
largeft, the three lower {malleft ; claws narrow, dilated at
the bafe, woolly on the infide, a little bent outwards under
the border; which in each petal is ovate, ere&t ; in the
larger petals hooded inwards ; in the f{maller expanded and
bluntifh. Szam. Filaments three, one between the two larger
petals, two at their fides, conneéted below with their claws,
all thread-fhaped, longer than the corolla, woolly at the in-
fide ; anthers roundifh, ereét, dire&ted inwards. Pift.
Germen fuperior, turbinate, downy ; ftyle thread-fhaped,
ROI
villous, the length of the ftamens;: ftigmas thr
an and cpa Oe 2 ene i hee a
Eff, Ch. Calyx bell-fhaped, in five deep fegm
Petals five, unequal. panes three, Des Rigg Baier
Obf. Schreber doubted whether his plant were the fame
with Aublet’s, becaufe the latter defcribes the corolla as
monopetalous, and the three long ftamens as accompanied
by two fhort ones befides. This laft circumftance may be
accidental ; the corolla feems more material. The flowers
however are fo minute, that Schreber, having feen them in
a dried ftate only, might eafily be miftaken. As he is the
author of the name Rohria, we prefer his defcription, as
Aublet’s plant, if different, muft have another generic ap-
pellation.
1. R. petioliflora. Willd. n. 1. (Tapura guianenfis ;
Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 126. t. spake ear ables
was found in forefts, near the Serpent mountain, in Guiana,
flowering in Augutt. It isa fhrub, 12 feet, or more, in
height, with many flexible, roundifh, {mooth branches.
Leaves alternate, on fhort thick ftalks, elliptic-lanceolate,
pointed, entire, fmooth and fhining, about four inches long ;
paler beneath. Of /fpulas we can perceive no traces in
Aublet’s fpecimen, except a flight intrafoliaceous abrupt
border. SF /owers yellow, {mall, five, feven, or more to-
gether, on very fhort italks, fpringing from the fummit of
each footfalk, at the bafe of the leaf.
We prefume Schreber received his fpecimens from von
Rohr; and as they agreed with Aublet’s in the very re-
markable mode of inflorefcence, and muft have come from
the fame country, there can be little reafon to fufpeét any
real difference.
ROI des Violons, or king of the fidlers, in France.
Each profeflion, or incorporated company, had formerly a
fuperior, who was dignified with the title of king. The
mafons, carpenters, barbers, lawyers’ clerks, crofs-bow-men,
the principal foldiers called ribauds, even the poets, and
many other orders of men, had their particular kings; but
their exactions and tyranny, by degrees, occafioned the
abolition of thefe phantoms of fovereignty.
The minftrels, religious obfervers of ancient ufages, were
the laft to relinquifh this precious relic of antiquity. The
king at arms, and king of the minftrels, were the only fur-
viving monarchs of their calling. But the firft has few
tributaries, and his funtions are only exercifed occafionally ;
the other, on the contrary, was always in power, and pre-
tended to exercife his empire over the whole realm.
_ The hiftory of the firft kings of the minftrels is unknown ;
it is only recorded that, after the deceafe of Conftantin, the 3
famous violin of the 17th century, the crown pafled, in
1630, to Dummoir I., then to Dummoir IL., who relin-
quifhed the crown by a voluntary abdication, occafioned by
an anarchy, in 1685. Louis XIV. faw with indifference
the extinétion of this royalty, and declared that it was not
his intention it fhould be reftored,
This monarchy had been long agitated by internal troubles,
and civil and foreign wars. ‘The dancing-maiters, ori-
ginally incorporated with this company, had heen 50 years
foliciting its extinction ; indignant at being united with fuch
vile artizans, who difhonoured their faculty by playing at ale-
houfes (cabarets) and places of debauchery; or if not
totally filenced, that one of the ftrings of their fiddles
fhould be cut off, and they reduced to their ancient level,
and be allowed to play on no inftrument but the three-
ftringed rebec.
They had commenced a fuit againft the city dancing-
mafters, and obtained a folemn fentence againit them, Ja-
‘nuary 14th, 1667. No company was ever more difcordant,
}3 more
ROL
more tumultuous ; all the courts of juftice rang with their
divifions and quarrels, by which the law was enriched, and
the public amufed, at their expence. The interregnum
lafted from 1685 to 1741, when the celebrated Guignon,
the violinift, was ambitious of having the royalty revived
in his favour. ‘The king had the goodnefs to comply with
his requeft, and honoured him with the minitrel crown, on
the 15th of June the fame year. But his election awaken-
ing a defire to revive certain prerogatives, which he pre-
tended to be inherent in his crown, he had fuits and actions
to defend againft a hoft of muficians, particularly the or-
ganifts, who obtained a complete victory ; and Guignon,
willing to give a proof of his love for the arts and difin-
tereftednefs, generoufly, and voluntarily, refigned his fove-
reignty of king of the minttrels. 4
ROIDALK, in Geography, atown of Norway ; 48 miles
N.N.E. of Stavanger.
ROIHA. See OurrFa. :
ROIOC, in Botany, a barbarous South American, or
perhaps Spanifh, name, for one of Plumier’s genera, rightly
referred by other botanifts to Morinpa ; {ee that article.
ROISELLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftridt of Péronne; fix miles E.N.E. of Péronne.
The place contains 1122, and the canton 14,428 inhabitants,
on a territory of rgo kiliometres, in 23 communes.
ROKEJECA, in Botany, an Arabic name, inadmiffible
in fyftematic language, applied by Forfkall, Fl. /Egypt-
Arab. go, and adopted by Juffieu, Gen. 313, fora fuppofed
genus of the natural order of Portulacee, found in fandy
waite ground about Cairo. Jnflieu fuppofes it akin to Trian-
thema, "The capfule however is faid to have only one cell,
and there is a corolla of five petals. We know not that thofe
who haye feen Forfkall’s fpecimens, have thrown any light
on this fubje&.
ROKETNITZ, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; feven miles N. of Geyerfberg.
ROKHAGE. See AroKHAGe.
ROKIT, Cape, acape on the N. coatt of Africa, at the
entrance into the iftraits of Babelmandeb ; 60 miles W. of
cape Guardefai. ear ,
ROKITNO, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefk ; 72 miles E.S.E. of Pinfk.
ROKITZANY, 2 town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Pilfen ; eight miles E. of Pilfen. F b
ROKOL, an ifle, or rather large rock, which, aceording
to M. Kerguelen, is fituated in N. lat. 57° so’, andlong. 16°
W. of Paris; or about 5° S.W. of St. Kilda.
ROKOSNIA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw, on the Bog; 16 miles W.N.W. of Braclaw.
ROLAND, be ta Pratiere, J.M., in Biography,
born at Villafranche, near Lyons, of a family diltinguifhed
in the profeffion of the law. He was the youngelt of five
brothers, left orphans and without fortune. ‘To avoid en-
tering into the church, like his elder brothers, he left home
at the age of nineteen, alone, without money, or friends ;
he traverfed a part of France on foot, and arrived at Nantes,
intending to embark for India. He was, however, diffuaded
from this projeé&t, by a merchant who had feen him throw up
blood, and who was aware that the climate of the Eait
would infallibly kill him. He accordingly went to Rouen,
engaged in the direétion of fome manufactories ; diftin-
guifhed himfelf there by his love of ftudy, and his tafte for
economical and commercial purfuits ; and obtained the place
of infpector-general at Amiens, and then at Lyons. ' Hay-
ing travelled in Italy, Switzerland, and other countries, he
accumulated a great mafs of valuable information, particu-
Vor. XXX.
ROL
larly in what related to the arts, which, on his return,
gained him admiffion into a great number of learned focieties.
Early in the revolution he became a member of the munici-
pality of Lyens, and founded there a club, which he
connected with the Jacobin club of Paris. In 1790 he
went to the capital, took a decided fhare with the popu-
lar party, and in March 1792, was raifed to the admini-
{tration of the interior. He feems now to have pofleffed
an enthufialtic love and attachment to a republican form of
oagep The firft day that he appeared before the
ing, he went with ftraight undreffed hair, a black coat, and
fhoes without buckles ; his behaviour was, at the fame time,
fo very uncourtly, that his majefty difmifled him a very fhort
time before he himfelf was reduced to fcenes of adverfity
and the moit poignant diitrefs. From this time Roland at-
tached himfelf more than ever to the Jacobins, and was pro-
bably deeply implicated in the bufinefs of the zoth of June
and roth of Auguit of that fame year. He deprecated,
however, the cruelties of the 2d of September, and de-
nounced the horrors that were tranfaGting under the mafk of
patriotilm. As the violent gained afcendency, Roland was
declining in credit. On the 20th of January 1793, he, as
member of the provifional executive council, figned the
order for the execution of the king: this was one of his
lait official as: yielding to the voice of the Mountain
faction he refigned, and was involved in the profcription
which iffued againit the Briffotines; but he contrived to
efcape from Paris, and conceal himfelf among his friends at
Rouen: as foon, however, as he heard of his wife’s execu-
tion, he determined not to furvive her. He itabbed himfelf
near the high road, leaving a paper containing the following
lines; ‘* whoever you may be that find me lying here, refpeét
my remains; they are thofe of a man who devoted his whole
life to being ufeful, and who died, as he lived, virtuous and
honeit.”” Roland was kind and obliging to his friends, but
the irafcibility of his temper made him many enemies. He was
deeply readin the learned, and in feveral modern languages,
and was author of the following works: “ An Effay on the
Rearing of Flocks and the Improvement of Wool;’’ « The
Art of the Woollen-Cloth Printer, of the Cotton-Velvet
Maker,” &c. This work forms the Compendium of Mecha-
nical Arts, publifhed by the Academy of Sciences. “ Letters
written from Switzerland, Italy, Sicily, and Malta, in
1782.’ A new edition of this work was publifhed in 1800.
They are addreffed to a lady whom he foon after married, and
are filled with ufeful views and interefting accounts of the
manufaétories of various countries. See the next article.
Roranp, Maris-JeANNE PuILepon, wife of the pre-
ceding, was born at Paris in 1754. She was the daughter
of aneminent engravery who, though highly diftinguifhed in
his profeffion, had brought himfelf to ruin by extravagance
and diffipation. The daughter, brought up in the midit of
the fine arts, furrounded by books, pictures, and mufic,
became learned and fkilled in mufic and painting. Though
not what might be called regularly handfome, her perfon
was attractive, and her character excited general admiration
in the circle in which fhe moved. Her mother dying while
fhe was young, fhe was obliged, owing to the ruined
fortunes of her father, to feck aa afylum in a convent.
Here fhe lived in honourable folitude, fubmitting cheerfully
to the privations which were found neceflary in her reduced
fituation, while fhe took every means to improve her mind
by ftudy. In 1780, Roland addreffed to her, as we have
feen, his letters on Italy, and offered her his hand. She
accepted the offer, and when married they went to Amiens,
where fhe ftudied botany, and made an herbal of the plants
of Picardy. She afterwards, in 1787, vifited i
cyt an
ROL
and England, and was led, from what fie obferved in the
conftitutions of thofe countries, to ftudy the theory of go-
vernment, the refult of which was an ardent attachment to
the principles of liberty. M. Roland having been appointed
infpeétor of the manufaétories at Lyons, was deputed to
the conftituent aflembly, to obtain from it fuccours necef-
fary for the payment of the debt of that town. Madame
Roland at this period fettled with her hufband in the capital,
and took delight in receiving at her houfe the chief of the
popular party, and the moft diftinguifhed deputies of the
Gironde, that is, of the Briflotine party. Briflot, Barba-
roux, Louret, Claviere, and Vergniaud, were admitted there ;
fhe not only infufed ardour into their political deliberations,
but is fuppofed, in many cafes, to have been fomething more
than fecretary, inditing as well as writing their moft cele-
brated papers: for a time, fhe was the fecret power that
dire&ted the whole government of France. In the month
of March 1792, when the king found it neceflary, in order
to allay the public difcontents, to nominate a popular ad-
miniftration, Roland was appointed minifter of the interior:
the principal part of his labours was generally attributed to
madame Roland; fo much fo, that when he refigned, and
was urgently prefled by the aflembly to refume his funétions,
Danton exclaimed, “if we give an invitation to Roland,
we mult give one to his wife too. I know all the virtues of
the minifter, but we want men who fee otherwife than by
their wives.” According te the memoirs which fhe wrote
of herfelf, fhe was in faét the minilter without the name:
fhe revifed, or perhaps di¢tated, the letter which Roland
addrefled to the king on going out of office; ‘if he had
written fermons,’’ faid fhe, “‘ I fhould have done the fame.’
On the 7th of December 1792, having appeared at the bar
of the national convention, to repel a denunciation made
againft her, fhe fpoke with eafe and eloquence, and was
afterwards admitted to the honours of a fitting. She pre-
fented herfelf there again, when the decree was pafled againft
her hufband ; but then, the power of eloquence having loft its
charms in the ruffian breafts of the fenators, fhe was refufed a
hearing, and was herfelf fent to the Abbaye, that dreadful
bourn, from whofe gate few pafled but to a mock-trial
and favage execution. From this abode of mifery fhe wrote
to the aflembly, and to the minifter of the interior ; her
fe&tion alfo demanded for her liberty, but it was in vain ;
and on the 24th of June 1793, fhe was fent to the convent
of St. Pélagie, which had been converted into a prifon,
where fhe pafled her time in confoling her fellow prifoners,
and compofing an account of her own life, and of the tranf-
actions of which fhe had been the eye-witnefs, and in many
"of which fhe had been an actor. At length fhe was called
before the revolutionary tribunal, and underwent an exami-
nation with calmnefs and ferenity, difturbed only when one
ef the ermined favages put to her queftions offenfive to her
modeity. On the 8th of November fhe was condemned to
death for having confpired againft the unity and indivifibility
of the republic. Her execution immediately followed.
On pafling the ftatue of liberty, in the Place dela Revolution,
fhe bent her head towards it, exclaiming, “ O Liberty,
how many crimes are perpetrated in thy name.’? Madame
Roland was a woman capable of infpiring all the elevated
fentiments that fhe felt ; with the grace and animation of ene
fex, fhe poflefled the firmnefs and folidity of the other; and
the was generally admitted to be fuperior to all the men of
the party with whom her hufband acted. She particularly
excelled in the penetration and knowledge of the human
charaéter. Sheleft one daughter, whofe only provifion was
her mother’s writings, which are as follow : « Opufcules,”’
on moral topics, which treat of the foul, melancholy, mo-
ROL
rality, old age, friendfhip, love, retirement, &c.; ¢ Voy-
age en Angleterre et en Suifle ;”? and when in prifon fhe
compofed what fhe entitled, «* Appel a Vimpartiale Polte-
rite,’ containing hiltorical notices, anecdotes, and her own
private memoirs. This work prefents many well-drawn
characters of that period, with the pureft fentiments of
public and private morality. Her own memoirs are extremely
valuable, 2s giving a picture of life and manners in the
middle ranks of life in France, with a view of the progrefs
of amind which was unquettionably one of the higheft order
with re{peG to virtue and intelle&t. Biog. Moderne, 3 vols.
1814. Biographical Anec. of the Fr. Revol.
ROLAND, or OrLanvo, the poetical hero of Boiardo,
Berni, and Ariofto, and nephew of Charlemagne, celebrated
in fome ancient military fongs; for an account of which,
fee Cuanson. One of thefe begins with the following
verfe : -
« Let ev’ry valiant fon of Gaul :
Sing Roland’s deeds, her greateft glory,
Whofe name will ftouteft foes appal,
And feats infpire for future ftory.”’
See Burney’s Hilt. of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 277.
ROLANDINO, an early Italian hiftorian, was the
fon of a notary at: Padua, in which city he was born, in
the year 1200. He ftudied at Bologna, and in 1220
received the honorary title of mafter and doétor in grammar
and rhetoric. He had kept a chronicle of memorable
events as they occurred, and put his papers into his fon’s
hands after he returned from Bologna, with a charge to
continue them. This he executed with care and fidelity
to the year 1260, when he was urged to revife and com-
plete his work. He employed two years in this revifion ;
and in 1262, his chronicle, in twelve books, in the Latin
language, was read publicly before the univerfity of Padua,
fubmitted to an attentive examination, and folemnly ap-
proved. Rolandino diedin 1276. His hiftory is accounted
one of the moft exaét and faithful records of that time.
Though his ftyle is not free from barbarifms, his narrative
is clear and well arranged. Voflius affirms, that he fur-
pafled all the writers of his age in perfpicuity, order, and
judgment, and that he fhewed himfelf well verfed in facred
and profane literature. An edition of his work, with other
chronicles, was given at Venice in 1636, by Felix Ofius,
and it has been reprinted by Muratori, in the 7th volume
of his Italian hiftorians.
ROLANDRA, in Botany, ferves to commemorate Da-
niel Rolandra, a pupil of Linneus, who vifited Surinam,
and communicated an account of the Doliocarpus to the
Academy of Stockholm, which appeared in the 17th volume
of the Tranfactions of that learned body, publifhed in 1756.
Several of his papers on Entomology are to be found in the
fame collection. He was almoft the only naturalift, educated
by Linneus, whofe charaéter difappointed the hopes of his
preceptor; but he is faid to have been ftill more unfortunate,
than negligent or ungrateful. We know no particulars of
his hittory. The name was given by Rottboll, in the Col-
le€tanea of the Medical Society at Copenhagen, v. 2. 256.
—Schreb. Gen. 593. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2400. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 4. . Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 186. Swartz
Prodr. 116.. Ind. Occ. v. 3. 1388. (See Juffl. 176.)—
Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fegregata. Nat. Ord.
Compofite capitate, Linn. Cinarocephale, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx none. Florets cluftered into
a roundifh head, the clufters diftint, ftalked, feparated by
numerous, ovate or lanceolate, awned feales, fhorter than
the florets. Partial perianth chaffy, of. two unequal, com-
5 prefled,
ROL
preffed, keeled valves ; the upper one largeft, awned, en-
clofing the other, which is pointed. Cor. of each floret
very minute, of one petal, funnel-fhaped; tube long,
thread-fhaped ; limb in five very fhort, ereét, acute .feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments in each floret, five, fhorter than
the tube ; anthers united into a cylinder, below the throat.
Pift. Germen, in each floret, triangular, compreffed, acute
at the bafe, abrupt at the fummit ; ityle the len of the
tube, divided at the top; thgmas tumid, ere. Peric.
none, the feed being enclofed in the unchanged partial
calyx. Seed triangular, crowned with a toothed border.
Eff. Ch. Common Calyx none. Perianth of two valves,
fingle-flowered. Florets all perfeét. Seed with a toothed
crown.
Obf. Rottboll deferibes the corolla of each floret as
four-cleft; Swartz found it always five-cleft, with five
itamens.
1. R. argentea. Silver-leaved Rolandra. Swartz Ind.
Oce. v. 3. 1389. Willd. no 1. Ait. n. 1. (Echinops
fruticofus; Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 815? Amaranthoides
fruticofum, foliis longis, anguftis, fubtis niveis; Sloane
Jam. v. 1. 43. t. 7. f. 3.)—Native of Jamaica, Cayenne,
and Surinam. Cultivated in Chelfea garden, before the
year 1714, and faid to flower in the ftove in July. We
have never met with the living plant. The /fem is fhrubby,
ereét, branched, round, reddifh ; the young branches whitifh
and downy. Leaves ftalked, alternate, ovato-lanceolate,
minutely ferrated, about two inches long, ribbed; green
and fhining, but ronghifh to the touch, on the upper fide ;
{now-white and downy beneath. There are ufually axillary
tufts, of a few much fmaller leaves. Flowers in {mall,
round, feffile, folitary, axillary, whitifh heads.—Plumier’s
Echinops, t. 125. f. 1, which Linneus adopted from him
under the name of frutico/us, without feeing a fpecimen,
but afterwards rejected, bears too little refemblance to
Sloane’s plant to be confidered, with any probability, as the
fame.
ROLAS, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic,
near the S.W. coaft of the ifland of St. Thomas.
ROLDUC, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Maettricht ; called, in the language of the country, “ Her-
togenrode,’’ formerly well fortified, but greatly demolifhed
by wars, and the capital of a county, which contained a
great number of villages; 10 miles S.W. of Juliers. The
place contains 940, and the canton 11,196 inhabitants, on a
territory of 100 kiliometres, in 12 communes. N. lat. 50°
52'. FE. long. 6° 5!.
ROLE, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles S.S.E. of Palamow.
ROLEPARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Orifla; 25
miles S.E. of Boad.
ROLL, in the Manufadoxies, fomething wound and
folded up in a cylindrical form.
Few ftuffs are made in rolls, except fattins, gauzes, and
crapes, which are apt to break, and take plaits not eafy to
be got out, if folded otherwife. Ribbands, however, and
laces, galloons, and paduas of all kinds, are thus rolled.
The ancients made all their books up in form of rolls, or
little columns; and, in Cicero’s time, the libraries con-
fitted wholly of thofe rolls. The dearnefs of parchment,
and the cheapnefs of papyrus, of which the rolls were
made, was the reafon that {carcely any but paper rolls were
ufed.
Voffius fays, they pafted feveral fheets end to end, when
filled on one fide, and rolled them up together, beginnin
with the laft, which they called umbilicus, and to whick
they faftened an ivory or boxen ftick, to futtain the roll.
ROL
To the other extremity they pafted a piece of parchment,
to cover and preferve it,
Thefe rolls were placed in the libraries perpendicularly
to the horizon. The Jews ftill preferve the ancient ufage
of rolls for the books they read in the fynagogues.
Rott, Jo, in Military Language, is to continue one uni-
form beat of the drum, without variations, for a certain length
of time. Whena line is advancing in full front, or in echellons,
for any confiderable diftance, the mufic of one regulating
battalion may, at intervals, be permitted to play for a few
feconds at a time, and the drums of the other battalions
may be allowed occafionally to roll: drums likewife roll
when troops are advancing to charge. For the method of
performing the roll, fee Rol/, under Drum.
Rott, Long, a beat of drum by which troops are aflem-
bled at any particular {pot of rendezvous or parade.
Rott, Short. See Ruffle under Drum.
Rott of Tobacco, is tobacco in the leaf, twifted in the
mill, and wound twift over twift, about a ftick or roller.
The generality of tobacco in America is there fold in
rolls of various weights ; and it is not till after its arrival in
England, Spain, France, and Holland that itis cut. Roll
tubacco is what is chiefly ufed, both for chewing and
rafping. See Tosacco. ,
Rott of Parchment contains 20 {kins. F
Rott, Rotulus, in Law, denotes a fchedule of paper or
parchment, which may be wound up by the hand into the
fafhion of a pipe.
Of thefe there are, in the Exchequer, feveral kinds ; viz.
the great wardrobe-roll, the cofferer’s-rall, the Subfidy-roll,
&e. 2
The word is formed from the French rolle, of the Latin
rotulus ; becaufe moft inftruments and expeditions in law
were anciently written on papers, er parchments, fewed or
glued together, and thus rolled up : whence the word enrol,
and the like.
Rotts of Parliament, are the manufcript regifters of the
proceedings of our ancient parliaments.
Before the ufe of printing, and till the reign of
Henry VII. our itatutes were all engrofled in parchment,
and (by virtue of the king’s writ for that purpofe) pro-
claimed openly in every county.
In thete rolls we have alfo a great’ many decifions of
difficult points in law, which were frequently, in former
times, referred to the decifion of that high court.
Roti, Rider, a fchedule, or imall piece of parchment,
frequently fewed, or added to fome part of aroll, or record,
Noy obferves, that the court ex-officio may award a
certiorari ad informandam con{cientiam; and that which
is certified fhall be annexed to the record, and called a
rider-roll.
Ror is alfo ufed for a lift of the names of feveral perfone
of the fame condition, or entered in the fame engagement.
Rott, Court. See Court-Roll.
Rott, Mufler. See Musrer-Roll.
Rott, Size, a lift containing the names of all the men
belonging to a troop or company, with the height or ftature
of each f{pecifically marked. Every ferjeant keeps a re
fize-roll, and every captain of a troop or company ought to
have ene likewife.
Roti, Squad, a lift containing the names of each parti-
cular {quad. Every non-commiflioned officer and corporal,
who are entrufted with the care and arrangement of a {quad,
muit have a roll of this kind.
Rott-Calling, ‘is the calling over of the foldiers of a
troop, or company, by their names, to fee that they are all
prefent.
aT This
ROL
and England, and was led, from what fhe obferved in the
conftitutions of thofe countries, to ftudy the theory of go-
vernment, the refult of which was an ardent attachment to
the principles of liberty. M. Roland having been appointed
infpeétor of the manufatories at Lyons, was deputed to
the conftituent aflembly, to obtain from it fuccours necef-
fary for the payment of the debt of that town. Madame
Roland at this period fettled with her hufband in the capital,
and took delight in receiving at her houfe the chief of the
popular party, and the mott diftinguifhed deputies of the
Gironde, that is, of the Briflotine party. Brilot, Barba-
roux, Louret, Claviere, and Vergniaud, were admétted there ;
fhe not only infufed ardour into their political deliberations,
but is fuppofed, in many cafes, to have been fomething more
than fecretary, inditing as well as writing their mott cele-
brated papers : for a time, fhe was the fecret power that
dire&ted the whole government of France. In the month
of March 1792, when the king found it neceflary, in order
to allay the public difcontents, to nominate a popular ad-
miniftration, Roland was appointed minifter of the interior:
the principal part of his labours was generally attributed to
madame Roland; fo much fo, that when he refioned, and
was urgently prefled by the aflembly to refume his funétions,
Danton exclaimed, “if we give an invitation to Roland,
we mutt give one to his wife too. I know all the virtues of
the minifter, but we want men who fee otherwife than by
their wives.”’? According to the memoirs which fhe wrote
of herfelf, fhe was in fa& the minifter without the name:
fhe revifed, or perhaps diétated, the letter which Roland
addrefled to the king on going out of office; ‘if he had
written fermons,’’ faid fhe, “I fhould have done the fame.’’
On the 7th of December 1792, having appeared at the bar
of the national convention, to repel a denunciation made
site her, fhe fpoke with eafe and eloquence, and was
afterwards admitted to the honours of a fitting. She pre-
fented herfelf there again, when the decree was pafled againft
her hufband ; but then, the power of eloquence having loft its
charms in the ruffian breafts of the fenators, fhe was refufed a
hearing, and was herfelf fent to the Abbaye, that dreadful
bourn, from whofe gate few paffed but to a mock-trial
and favage execution. From this abode of mifery fhe wrote
to the aflembly, and to the minifter of the interior ; her
fection alfo demanded for her liberty, but it was in vain ;
and on the 24th of June 1793, fhe was fent to the convent
of St. Pélagie, which had been converted into a prifon,
where fhe pafled her time in confoling her fellow prifoners,
and compofing an account of her own life, and of the tranf-
actions of which fhe had been the eye-witnefs, and in many
of which fhe had been an actor. At length the was called
before the revolutionary tribunal, and underwent an exami-
nation with calmnefs and ferenity, difturbed only when one
ef the ermined favages put to her queftions offenfive to her
modeity. On the 8th of November fhe was condemned to
death for having confpired againft the unity and indivifibility
of the republic. Her execution immediately followed.
On pafling the ftatue of liberty, in the Place dela Revolution,
fhe bent her head towards it, exclaiming, ‘ O Liberty,
how many crimes are perpetrated in thy name.’? Madame
Roland was a woman capable of infpiring all the elevated
{entiments that fhe felt ; with the grace and animation of ene
fex, the poflefled the firmnefs and folidity of the other; and
the was generally admitted to be fuperior to all the men of
the party with whom her hufband acted. She particularly
excelled in the penetration and knowledge of the human
character. Sheleft one daughter, whofe only provifion was
her mother’s writings, which are as follow: ¢ Opufcules,”’
on moral topics, which treat of the foul, melancholy, mo-
rality, old age, friendfhip, love, retirement, &c.; “ Voy-
age en Angleterre et en Suifle ;”? and when in prifon fhe
compofed what fhe entitled, «* Appel. a Vimpartiale Polte-
rite,’? containing hiitorical notices, anecdotes, and her own
private memoirs. This work prefents many well-drawn
characters of that period, with the pureft fentiments of
public and private morality. Her own memoirs are extremely
valuable, 2s giving a picture of life and manners in the
middle ranks of life in France, with a view of the progrefs
of amind which was unquettionably one of the higheft order
with refpe& to virtue and intellect. Biog. Moderne, 3 vols.
1814. Biographical Anec. of the Fr. Revol.
ROLAND, or Orvanvo, the poetical hero of Boiardo,
Berni, and Ariofto, and nephew of Charlemagne, celebrated
in fome ancient military fongs; for an account of which,
fee Cuanson. One of thefe begins with the following
verfe: us
« Let ev’ry valiant fon of Gaul ;
Sing Roland’s deeds, her greateft glory,
Whofe name will ftouteft foes appal,
And feats infpire for future ftory.”’
See Burney’s Hilt. of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 277.
ROLANDINO, an early Italian hiftorian, was the
fon of anotary at Padua, in which city he was born, in
the year 1200. He ftudied at Bologna, and in 1220
received the honorary title of matter and doétor in grammar
and rhetoric. He had kept a chronicle of memorable
events as they occurred, and put his papers into his fon’s
hands after he returned from Bologna, with a charge to
continue them. ‘This he executed with care and fidelity
to the year 1260, when he was urged to revife and com-
plete his work. He employed two years in this revifion ;
and in 1262, his chronicle, in twelve books, in the Latin
language, was read publicly before the univerfity of Padua,
fubmitted to an attentive examination, and folemnly ap-
proved. Rolandino diedin 1276. His hiftory is accounted
one of the moft exaét and faithful records of that time.
Though his ftyle is not free from barbarifms, his narrative
is clear and well arranged. © Voflius affirms, that he fur-
pafled all the writers of his age in perfpicuity, order, and
judgment, and that he fhewed himfelf well verfed in facred
and profane literature. An edition of his work, with other
chronicles, was given at Venice in 1636, by Felix Ofius,
and it has been reprinted by Muratori, in the 7th volume
of his Italian hiftorians.
ROLANDRA, in Botany, ferves to commemorate Da-
niel Rolandra, a pupil of Linneus, who vifited Surinam,
and communicated an account of the Doliccarpus to the
Academy of Stockholm, which appeared in the 17th volume
of the Tranfactions of that learned body, publifhed in 1756.
Several of his papers on Entomology are to be found in the
fame collection. He was almoft the only naturalift, educated
by Linnezus, whofe charaéter difappointed the hopes of his
preceptor ; but he is faid to have been ftill more unfortunate,
than negligent or ungrateful. We know no particulars of
his hittory. The name was given by Rottboll, in the Col-
le€tanea of the Medical Society at Copenhagen, y. 2. 256.
—Schreb. Gen. 593. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2400. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 186. Swartz
Prodr. 116... Ind. Occ. v. 3. 1388. (See Jufl. 176.)—
Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fegregata. Nat. Ord.
Compofite capitate, Linn. Cinarocephale, Sull, :
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx none. Florets cluftered into
a roundith head, the clufters diftinét, ftalked, feparated by
numerous, ovate or lanceolate, awned feales, fhorter than
the florets. Partial perianth chaffy, of two unequal, com-
5 prefled,
ai“
ROL
preffed, keeled valves ; the upper one largeit, awned, en-
clofing the other, which is pointed. Cor. of each floret
very minute, of one petal, funnel-fhaped; tube long,
thread-fhaped ; limb in five very fhort, ereét, acute feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments in each floret, five, fhorter than
the tube ; anthers united into a cylinder, below the throat.
Pift. Germen, in each floret, triangular, compreffed, acute
at the bafe, abrupt at the fummit ; ityle the length of the
tube, divided at the top; ttigmas tumid, erect. eric.
none, the feed being enclofed in the unchanged partial
calyx. Seed triangular, crowned with a toothed border.
Eff. Ch. Common Calyx none. Perianth of two valves,
fingle-flowered. Florets all perfeé&t. Seed with a toothed
crown.
Obf. Rottbéll deferibes the corolla of each floret as
four-cleft ; Swartz found it always five-cleft, with five
itamens.
1. R. argentea. Silver-leaved Rolandra. Swartz Ind.
Oce. v. 3. 1389. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Echinops
fruticofus; Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 815? Amaranthoides
fruticofum, foliis longis, anguftis, fubtus niveis; Sloane
Jam. v. 1. 43. t. 7. £. 3.)—-Native of Jamaica, Cayenne,
and Surinam. Cultivated in Chelfea garden, before the
year 1714, and faid to flower in the ftove in July. We
have never met with the living plant. The /fem is thrubby,
erect, branched, round, reddifh ; the young branches whitifh
and downy. Leaves ftalked, alternate, ovato-lanceolate,
minutely ferrated, about two inches long, ribbed; green
and fhining, but ronghifh to the touch, on the upper fide ;
f{now-white and downy beneath. There are ufually axillary
tufts, of a few much fmaller leaves. Flowers in {mall,
round, feffile, folitary, axillary, whitifh heads.—Plumier’s
Echinops, t. 125. f. 1, which Linneus adopted from him
under the name of frutico/us, without feeing a fpecimen,
but afterwards rejected, bears too little refemblance to
Sloane’s plant to be confidered, with any probability, as the
fame.
ROLAS, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic,
near the S.W. coait of the ifland of St. Thomas.
ROLDUC, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Maeftricht ; called, in the language of the country, “ Her-
togenrode,”’ formerly well fortified, but greatly demolifhed
by wars, and the capital of a county, which contained a
great number of villages; 10 miles S.W. of Juliers. The
place contains 940, and the canton 11,196 inhabitants, on a
territory of roo kiliometres, in 12 communes. N. lat. 50°
52'. KE. long. 6° 5'.
ROLE, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles S.S.E. of Palamow.
ROLEPARA, a town of Hindoottan, in Orifla; 25
miles S.E. of Boad.
ROLL, in the ManufaGoxtes, fomething wound and
folded up in a cylindrical form.
Few ituffs are made in rolls, except fattins, gauzes, and
crapes, which are apt to break, and take plaits not eafy to
be got out, if folded otherwife. Ribbands, however, and
laces, galloons, and paduas of all kinds, are thus rolled.
The ancients made all their books up in form of rolls, or
little columns ; and, in Cicero’s time, the libraries con-
fifted wholly of thofe rolls. The dearnefs of parchment,
and the cheapnefs of papyrus, of which the rolls were
made, was the reafon that fcarcely any but paper rolls were
ufed.
Voffius fays, they pafted feveral fheets end to end, when
filled on one fide, and rolled them up together, beginnin
with the laft, which they called umbilicus, and to which
they faftened an ivory or boxen ftick, to futtain the roll.
ROL
To the other extremity they pafted a piece of parchment,
to cover and preferve it,
Thefe rolls were placed in the libraries perpendicularly
to the horizon. The Jews {till preferve the ancient ufage
of rolls for the books they read in the fynagogues.
Rott, Jo, in Military Language, is to continue one uni-
form beat of the drum, without variations, for a certain length
of time. When a line is advancing in full front, or in echellons,
for any confiderable diftance, the mufic of one regulating
battalion may, at intervals, be permitted to play for a few
feconds at a time, and the drums of the other battalions
may be allowed occafionally to roll: drums likewife roll
when troops are advancing to charge. For the method of
performing the roll, fee Ro//, under Drun.
Rott, Long, a beat of drum by which troops are aflem-
bled at any particular {pot of rendezvous or parade.
Roxx, Short. See Ruffle under Drum.
Rott of Tobacco, is tobacco in the leaf, twifted in the
mill, and wound twift over twiit, about a ftick or roller.
The generality of tobacco in America is there fold in
rolls of various weights ; and it is not till after its arrival in
England, Spain, France, and Holland that it is cut. Roll
tubacco is what is chiefly ufed, both for chewing and
rafping. See Tosacco. .
Roxx of Parchment contains 20 {kins. i
Rott, Rotulus, in Law, denotes a fchedule of paper or
parchment, which may be wound up by the hand into the
fafhion of a pipe.
Of thefe there are, in the Exchequer, feveral kinds ; viz.
the great wardrobe-roll, the cofferer’s-rell, the Subfidy-roll,
&e. >
The word is formed from the French rolle, of the Latin
rotulus ; becaufe moft inftruments and expeditions in law
were anciently written on papers, er parchments, fewed or
glued together, and thus rolled up : whence the word enrol,
and the hike.
Rotts of Parliament, are the manufcript regifters of the
proceedings of our ancient parliaments.
Before the ufe of printing, and till the reign of
Henry VII. our itatutes were all engrofled in parchment,
and (by virtue of the king’s writ for that purpofe) pro-
claimed openly in every county.
In thete rolls we have alfo a great’ many decifions of
difficult points in law, which were frequently, in former
times, referred to the decifion of that high court.
Rott, Rider, a {chedule, or {mall piece of parchment,
frequently fewed, or added to fome part of a roll, or record,
Noy obferves, that the court ex-officio may award a
certiorari ad informandam confcientiam; and that which
is certified fhall be annexed to the record, and called a
rider-roll.
Rorz is alfo ufed for aliit of the names of feveral perfone
of the fame condition, or entered in the fame engagement.
Roxt, Court. See Court-Roll.
Rott, Mufler. See Musrer-Roll.
Rott, Size, a lift containing the names of all the men
belonging to a troop or company, with the height or ftature
of each fpecifically marked. Every ferjeant keeps a re
fize-roll, and every captain of a troop or company ought to
have one likewife.
Rot, Sguad, a lift containing the names of each parti-
cular {quad. Every non-commiflioned officer and corporal,
who are entrufted with the care and arrangement of a {quad,
mutt have a roll of this kind.
Rott-Calling, ‘is the calling over of the foldiers of a
troop, or company, by their names, to fee that they are all
prefent.
312 This
ROL
‘This neceffary duty is performed by the ferjeants of com-
panies, morning and evening, in every well-regulated corps.
Hence we have “morning roll-call,”’ and “ evening roll-call,””
on critical occafions ; and in fervices that require prompti-
tude and exertion, frequent roll-calls fhould be made.
Roti, Calves-head, is a roll in the two Temples, in
which every bencher is taxed yearly at 2s., every barrilter
at 1s. 6d., and every gentleman under the bar at 1s. to the
cook, and other officers of the houfe, in confideration of a
dinner of calves-heads, provided in Eafter term.
Roti, Ragman’s, or Ragimund’s Roll, is a roll denomi-
nated from Ragimund, a papal legate in Scotland; who,
calling before him all the people who held benetices in that
kingdom, caufed them, upon oath, to give in the value of
their eftates, according to which they were taxed in the
court of Rome.
Rotts, or Office of Rolls, in Chancery-lane, London, is
an office appointed for the cuftody of the rolls and records
in chancery. j
The matter of this office is the fecond perfon in that court ;
and, in the abfence of the lord chancellor, he fits as judge.
See Master of the Rolls.
This houfe, or office, was anciently called Domus Con-
verforum, as being appointed, by king Henry III., for the
ule of converted Jews; but their irregularities occafioned
king Edward II. to expel them thence: upon which, the
place was deputed for the cuftody of the rolls.
Rous, Clerk of the. See Crurx of the Rolls.
Rous, or Roul, among Military Men. See Roun.
Rout, Bead. See Brav-Roll.
Rox, Check. See CuecK-Roll.
Rox, Gounter. See CountEer-Roll.
Rexx, in Antiquity. From the time of Anaftafius, we
find in the hands of the emperors, on medals, a kind of
narrow long roll, or fachel; the meaning of which has
greatly puzzled the antiquaries.
Some imagine it to be a roll or bundle of papers, me-
moirs, petitions, &c. prefented occafionally to princes,
confuls, and the like. Others take it to be a plaited hand-
kerchief, which the perfons who prefided at the games calt
forth as a fignal for their beginning. Others will have it a
bag of duft and afhes, prefented the emperor at the cere-
mony of his coronation, and called akagia, g. d. a means of
preferving innocence, by the remembrance of duft, &c.
Rout, or Roller, is alfo a piece of wood, of a cylindrical
form, ufed in the conftruétion of feveral machines, and in
feveral works and manufactures; though fometimes under
other names.
It is on fuch rolls, properly called Jeams, that the woollen,
filken, and other threads.are wound, of which the weaver’s
works confift. For which end, each loom has ufually
two, and that of the gauze-weavers three.
In the glafs manufacture, they have a running-roll, being
a thick cylinder of caft brafs, ferving to conduct the melted
glafs to the end of the table, on which large looking-glafles
are to be caft.
The founders alfo ufe a roller to work the fand which
they ufe in making their moulds.
The preffes called calenders, as ferving to calender {tuffs,
confift, among other effential parts, of two rollers.
It is alfo between two rollers that the waves are given to
filks, mohairs, and other fluffs proper to be tabbied.
Prints, or impreffions, from copper-plates, are alfo taken
by palling the plate and the paper between two rollers. See
Rolling-prefs Printinc, and Coprer-Plate Work.
Rotts, in Coining, are two iron inftruments, of a cylin-
dvical figure, which ferve to draw or ftretch out the plates
9
ROL
of gold, filver, and other metals, of which the planks or
pieces are to be formed for the {pecies.
Rots, in Printing, are two large cylinders or barrels of
wood faftened in the middle of what they call the cradle or
gallows of the prefs; and which, by means of a cord or
girt paffing over each, and a handle which gives motion to
one of them, draw the carriage of the prefs backwards and
forwards. See Printing.
Rotts, in the Sugar-Works, are two large iron barrels,
which ferve to bruife the canes, and exprefs the juice. They
are cait hollow, and their cavities are filled up with wood,
the cylinders of which are properly the rollers.
Ro.us, or Rollers, among Carpenters, Mafons, &c. are
plain cylinders of wood, feven or eight inches in diameter,
and three or four feet long ; ufed for the removing of beams,
huge ftones, and other like burdens, which are cumberfome,
but not exceedingly heavy. ;
Thefe rollers are placed, fucceffively, under the fore-part
of the mafles to be removed; which, at the fame time, are
puthed forward by levers, &c. applied behind.
Rous, £ndle/s. When blocks of marble, or other ex-
ceflive heavy loads, are to be removed, they ufe what they
call endle/s rolls.
Thefe, to give them the greater force, and prevent their
burfting, are made of wood joined together by crofs-quar-
ters; they are about double the length and thicknefs of the
common roller, and, befides, are girt with feveral large iron
hoops at each end. At a foot’s diftance from the ends
are four mortifes, or rather only two, but pierced through
and through, into which are put the ends of long levers
which the workmen draw by ropes faftened to the ends, itill
changing the mortife, as the roll has made a quarter of a
turn,
Rowt-rich Stones, in Antiquity, a feries of huge ftones,
ranged in a circle, near Morton in the Marfh,. in Oxford-
fhire. There are many fabulous traditions about them.
Among the antiquaries, fome take them to be a monument
of avictory; others, a burying place; and others, a place
for the coronation of the Danifh kings.
Near Penros, in Cornwall, is a like monument.
ROLLAND, in Geography, an ifland in the South In-
dian fea, difcovered by Kerguelen in the year 1773, fo
called by him after the name of the veffel in which he failed ;
about nine miles in circuit. N. lat. 48° 37!. E. long. 68°
’
ROLLE, Micuast, in Biography, a French mathema-
tician, was born at Ambert, a {mall town in Auvergne, in
the year 1652. His father was in rather low circumitances,
and placed him to gain his livelihood, at firft with a notary,
and afterwards with different country attornies. Difgufted
with an occupation fo little fuited to his genius, at the age
of 23 he went to Paris, depending for his fupport on his
penmanfhip. At firft he taught writing and the early rules
of arithmetic: from arithmetic he advanced by gradual
fleps to algebra, to which he became fo enthufiattically at-
tached, that he {pent every leifure moment in the ftudy till
he became diftinguifhed in that branch of fcience. In 1682,
the learned Ozanam having propofed a difficult mathema-
tical problem to exercife the ingenuity of mathematicians,
M. Rolle fent him a very clear folution of it, together with
methods which he had invented of folving other problems,
attended with ftill greater difficulty. The minifter Colbert,
always the patron of talent, having heard of Rolle, deter-
mined to draw him out of the obfcurity in which he had
hitherto been concealed, and fettled on hima penfion. He
now gave up the occupation of a writing mafter, and de-
voted himfelf entirely to the ftudy of algebra, and the
other
ROL
ottier branches of pure mathematics; and fo great was his
fuccefs, that in 1685, three years only after his name was
firft known in the mathematical world, he was chofen a
member of the Academy of Sciences. In the year 1690,
M. Rolle publifhed a treatife on Algebra, which was fol-
lowed by a new work, entitled «* A Demonftration of a
Method for the Refolution of Equations of all degrees ;’’ to
*which fucceeded two other methods; by the firlt of which
the fame equations are refolved geometrically ; and by the
fecond, feveral unrefolved queftions of Diophantus are an-
{wered. In the year 1699 he publifhed a work, entitled
« A Method of refolving indeterminate Queftions in Alge-
bra,”’ and he was appointed fecond geometrical-penfionary
of the Academy of Sciences. About this time he united
with that party in the Academy which oppofed the new geo-
metry, and carried on a controverfy againft the marquis de
PHopital, on the fubje& of infinitefimals, till the fociety
impofed filence on all the difputants. M. Rolle thought
that his favourite fcience, algebra, was capable of almoft
indefinite improvement, and he announced his defign of
drawing up entirely new elements, but death put an end to
his plans. He died in 1719, in the 68th year of his age,
having uniformly borne an excellent charaéter for piety,
probity, and amiable manners. Befides the works already
mentioned, many curious papers were communicated by him
to the Academy of Sciences, and may be found in their
«« Memoirs,’’ from the year in which he took his feat in that
body till1714. The higher branches of the mathematics
are the fubjeéts of almoft all thefe papers.
Roxie, Jonann Hernricu, the youngeft of three bro-
thers, all eminent muficians, and fons of a father who, as
mufic dire€tor at Magdeburg, had rendered the name illuf-
trious. Henry, who fucceeded his father as mufic-director
in his native city, was born in1718, and diedin 1785. He
was an excellent compofer for the church, as well as author
of pieces for the organ and harpfichord of great merit. His
oratorio of *¢ Thirfa and her Sons,’’ is full of good tafte,
new paflages, pleafing effe€ts, and true pathos.
Route, Fr. a part in Mufic and Dramatic Works. The
French have a diftinét term in mufic for a vocal and inftru-
mental part in an opera or concert. The finger’s or the
a€tor’s part in an opera or play, is equally termed rolle;
in a concert or opera each inftrumental part is called partie.
We make no diftinétion, in England, between a vocal or
inftrumental part in an opera or concert: each is called
part: as the part of Hamlet, in a play, of Mandane, in
an opera ; the firft violin, tenor, or violoncello part needs
no other diftinétion than the name of the character, or
inftrument. i
Roxie, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, and ca-
pital of a lordfhip, tituated on the N.W. fide of the lake
of Geneva; 14 miles §.W. of Laufanne. f
ROLLER. See Rot.
Rotrer, in Gunnery, a round piece of wood of about
nine inches diameter, and four feet long, which ferves in
moving mortars from one place to another, when near.
This is done by raifing the fore-part of the bed fo high that
a roller may be laid under it; then pushing the bed for-
wards, and laying another in its way, and another before
that, and fo on, the mortar is eafily moved.
Reiter is alfo a {mall wheel placed at the foot of the
hammer of a gun, or piftol-lock, in order to leffen the fric-
tion of it againft the hammer or feather-{pring.
Rotver, in Agriculture, a well-known implement formed
of wood, caft-iron, or ftone, fo as to turn upon its axis,
and be drawn over the furface of the land by means of
herfes, for the purpofe of reducing the lumpy or cloddy
ROL
itate of tillage lands, and rendering thefe, as well as thofe
of the grafs kind, fmooth and even. They are conftruéted
in different ways for different purpofes, and of different fizes
and weights to {uit different ufes in hufbandry. They are,
however, in general diftinguifhed into the tillage and grafs
kind. It has been a matter of difpute, whether rollers with
large or {mall diameters have the advantage, in point of effect
upon the land. It is probable that there may be incon-
veniencies in both extremes. The roller fhould not, however,
be fo fmall as to require much loading, as by fuch means
much time and labour are loft. A late pratical writer,
however, advifes that in conftru@ting heavy rollers, the
workmen fhould be careful that they have not too great a
diameter, whatever the material be of which they are
formed, as the preflure is diminifhed where the implement is
of very large fize, by its refting on too much furface at
once, except an addition of weight in proportion be made.
By having the roller made ios when loaded to the fame
weight, a much greater effeé&t will be produced, and a con-
fiderable faving of expence be made in the conftrué€tion of
the implement. And he recommends that all the larger
forts of rollers fhould have double fhafts, in order that they
may be drawn by two horfes abreaft ; and fuch as are em-
ployed for arable lands fhould have a fcraper attached to
them. This addition, he thinks, faves much time, and pre-
vents the driver the trouble of conftantly {craping the ma-
chine, efpecially in wet feafons, and clayey tenacious lands.
Strong frames are alfo neceflary for rollers, fo that proper
weights may be put upon them; and open boxes or carts
placed upon them may fometimes be requifite, in order to
contain any additional weight that may be thought proper,
as well as to receive ftones or other matters that may be
picked up from the ground. Pieces of wood or ftone, as
heavy as a man can lift, are the moft fuitable fubftances for
loading thefe implements with, where they have not the advan-
tage of boxes for the purpofe of containing fuch weighty
fubitances.
There has been much inconvenience experienced in the
ufe ef this fort of implement in turning at the ends of
ridges, fields, or other places, from their not moving upon
their axes, but being drawn along the furface of the ground,
by which they are liable to tear it up, and make deep holes
and depreflions before they come again into the dire@ line
of draught, and are not brought round without great exer-
tion in the teams: it has therefore been attempted, in order
to obviate thefe inconveniencies, to con{tru@ rollers in two
pieces, and by the divifion in the middle to enable the dif-
ferent parts to twift round on their proper axes, one forward
and the other in a retrograde direCtion. When formed in
this way, the cylinders are beft made of caft-iron, as they
turn with greater eafe and readinefs.
Ro.ier, Common. This is a fort of roller which is em-
ployed for the common purpofes of tillage, and which is
moitly ufed for rolling wheat in the fpring, and grafs-feeds;
they are generally about five or fix feet long, and from fif-
teen to thirty inches in diameter ; but thofe employed for
flattening one-bout ridges, in order to prepare them for
drilling turnips upon, are commonly fhorter and of much
lefs diameter, and frequently attached to the drilling im-
plement.
But of the various kinds of thefe rollers that are made
ufe of, Mr. Morley of Newark thinks that thofe of the
beit conitruétion, and which anfwer the moft perfectly in
practice, are fuch as are made of caft-iron, and divided into
two parts: the length from three feet to three feet fix
inches, covering a furface of from fix to feven feet, and
being above ten hundred weight: the frame fhould be made
in
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ina ftout manner, with fhafts for one horfe, to be fixed on
the near fide, and hooks put in on the other fide in order
to have recourfe to an additional horfe when it may be ne-
ceflary. The gudgeons or pivots fhould a&t upon {mall
cafe-hardened fri€tion-wheels, two to be fixed upon each
fide the frame; with a {mall roller made of hard wood,
about nine inches long and three inches in diameter, bound
at each end with iron, and to be fixed to the back part of
the frame, fo that both rollers may a€t with each other in
the centre wheel, which will be a means of keeping the great
roller fteady, and at the {ame time very much diminifh the
draught of the implement.
And it is obferved in the Agricultural Report of Nor-
folk, that Mr. Prieft of Befthorpe ufes a roller that is di-
vided in two parts, rifing and falling in the centre, for the
purpofe of rolling the flopes of ridges. And that the fame
ufeful tool is in practice in Suffolk by the Rev. Mr. Hill. ‘
In Dengey and Rochford hundreds, in the county of
Effex, where the wire-worm has long been fo very deitruc-
tive to the grain crops, an extremely heavy ftone roller is a
common implement on every farm; they are made fix or
feven feet long, and eighteen inches, and fome more, in diame-
ter, weighing from one and a half to two tons.
In Devonfhire they ufe. heavy granite and moor-itone
rollers with two horfes, which are from five to eight feet in
length, and of proportionate diameters, for rolling wheat
and pafture grounds, as well as for aiding the operation of
feparating the {pine from the mould on the burn-beat-lands,
in preparation for the former crop and turnips.
In many other diftriéts heavy ftone rollers, of the free-
ftone and other kinds, are preferred to all other forts for
tillage ufes. }
RotiEr, Compound. This is an implement of the roller
kind, conftituted of the plane or common and {pike kinds
united in the fame frame; but it is capable of being ufed
feparately, and its weight varied according to the nature or
circumftances of the land. It is the ingenious invention of
Mr. Amos of Lincolnfhire, in which the {pike part of the
roller is made of a piece of oak wood, feven feet long, and
fifteen inches and a quarter in diameter, hooped with iron
at each end. ‘The inventor advifes in conftructing it to di-
vide the circumference of this roller into twelve equal parts,
from which to draw parallel lines, one divifion oblique the
whole length of the roller. On the firft of thefe lines to
fet off two inches at each end, and divide the remainder into
twenty equal parts, of four inches each. On the fecond line
to fet off four inches at each end, and divide the remainder
into nineteen equal parts ; and fo of all the other lines alter-
nately. In every divifion to fix an iron fpike, fo that there
will be twenty {pikes in one row, and nineteen in the other,
throughout the whole circumference, making in all two
hundred and thirty-four fpikes. That part of the {pike
which projets out of the wood is four inches long, one inch
f{quare at the circumference of the roller, and three-quarters
of an inch fquare at the point. The tongue, which goes
into the wood, is four inches long, feven-eighths of an inch
{quare at the circumference of the roller, and tapers to a
point at the end. The plain roller is made of a piece of
oak wood, feven feet long and eighteen inches diameter. In
the centre of each end of both rollers are fixed iron bufhes
of two inches diameter. The bow part of the left-hand
fide of the frame is made of iron, four inches broad, half
an inch thick, and is a fegment of a circle twenty-feven and
a half inches radius, fixed for turning the roller upfide down.
The ftring part of the bow is five feet two inches long, and
eight by three inches fquare, made of oak wood. In thefe
pieces are fixed gudgeons of two inches diameter, on which
RF Om
the rollers move, and at four feet one and a half inch afunder.
The four fhafts are eleven feet long, fix by three and a half
inches {quare at the hinder ends, through which the centre-
bolt pafles. There are four bars four by one and a half
inches fquare, and three and a half feet long, for bracing
the fhafts together. And two bars eight feet long, and
three by eight inches fquare, with double tenons at each end,
for bracing the outfide frames together. In the outer ends
of thefe tenons are linchpins for the convenience of taking
the machine to pieces. The centre-bolt is made of ham-
mered iron, two and a quarter inches diameter; at one end
is a round head, at the other a linchpin. The principal ufe
of this bolt is to give the uppermolt roller inclination for-
ward when working, and the degree of inclination is go-
verned by the breadth of, and the diftance between the two
braces, which reft upon the fhafts when the roller is at
work, fo as to make the horfes carry a little weight on their
backs, otherwife it would be in danger of endeayouring to fall
backward. The diltance between them is twelve or fix inches
from the centre-bolt. This implement is found of vaft ufe
in reducing the ftubborn forts of foil to a fine ftate of mould,
or what is termed tilth by farmers. The ingenious inventor
remarks, that it affords the farmer a command over dry fea-
fons, and enables him to fow his {pring and fallow crops in
proper time. It likewife, he thinks, furnifhes him with the
means of cleaning his tillage lands from weeds, whether of
the root or feed kind. After paffing this fort of roller two
or three times over the land, with drag harrowing in the in-
tervals, he fuppofes it would be rendered fufficiently fine for
any purpofe that it may be wanted for. And that when
the cloddy furface is reduced to fuch a condition as to be
incapable of being longer acted upon by the fpike roller,
the plane roller may be had recourfe to with the dry harrow.
It is likewife ftated to be of great advantage in reftoring
fuch grafs-lands as have the fward in a degenerated ftate.
See Roirrne.
RotierR, Concave. The bellying or furrow-rollers have
been in common ufe fome length of time, in moft tillage
parts of the country; but the concave ones have perhaps
never yet been met with, except about Bradwell, in the
county of Effex. They are there made the {malleft in the
middle, {welling out to a large circumference at each end.
The whole of the farmers thereabouts highly approve of
this kind of roller, having very generally adopted it. It is
made of fuch lengths as to fuit the differences of the ridges
or ftitches, which are made ufe of in cultivating the ground.
And it has a feraper attached to it, for taking away the
cloggy mould that hangs upon it. The moft ufual length
of the roller part is feven feet two inches; to the ex-
tremities or outfides of the frame, feven feet nine inches ;
the length of the ends of the frame, four feet three inches ;
the diameter of the roller at the ends, one foot ten inches ;
in the concave part in the middle, one foot four inches ;
the circumference in the fame place, four feet. A repre-
{entation of it may be feen in the firft volume of the Agri-
cultural Report of Effex.
Rotrer, Drill. This is a roller originally contrived for
the purpofe of forming drills in dry light foils, for putting
the grain in; but which is likewife found ufeful in reducing
cloddy rough tillage land into a ftate of pulverization and
finenefs. The invention of it has by fome been afcribed te
the Norfolk farmers; but the writer of the Agricultural
Survey of that diftriét fays, that he has at different periods’
made many inquiries for the inventor of this tool, but could
not afcertain it thirteen years ago. Mr, Sillis, of Hartford
Bridge, near Norwich, was mentioned to him as a perfon
who had improved it. — It is defcribed as a cylinder of iron,
about
ROL
about feven feet in length, around which are fixed cutting
wheels of caft-iron, that each turn independently of the
others around the common cylinder, weighing from a ton
to a ton and a half, being drawn by four horfes, and is
heavy work. It is obferved, that the cutting wheels, being
moveable, may be fixed by wafhers at any diftance, com-
monly at four inches. By pafling over a frefh ploughed
layer, the foil is cut into little channels, four inches afun-
der; the feed is then fown broad-catt, and the land bufh-
harrowed in the direétion of the drills: thus the feed is de-
pofited at an equal depth. George, earl of Orford, gave
the writer one, but the foil was too heavy for it: for
breaking clods in a dry feafon, no tool he ever beheld comes
near toit. It is fuppofed by fome, that the main object of
the praGtice is to fave the trouble and expence of dibbling,
though it is not near fo good a practice.
And it is remarked by the author of the above Agricul-
tural Report, that they are much in ufe in Lodden hundred.
Mr. Burton, of Langley, puts in a great deal of corn thus,
and approves the method fo much, that hitherto he has
drilled little ; but thinks dibbling a yalt improvement. It
is, however, added, that the implement was more com-
monly ufed in the county ten or twelve years ago than it is
at prefent ; for the drill machine has been adopted by many,
who formerly had a good opinion of this tool. It mutt,
however, be found beneficial in its original intention, in
many cafes, on the very light friable foils; and as a pul-
verizing machine on thofe of the heavy kind, when ufed in
fuitable feafons.
Router, Lurrow. This is a tool of the roller kind,
contrived for the purpofe of rolling the furrows in ileep
hilly fituations, and other places where the common fort
cannot be employed. It is the invention of Mr. Pinchard,
and is an ufeful contrivance for the purpofe for which it was
intended.
_Rotier, Grafs. This is a heavy fort of roller, made
ule of for the purpofe of rendering the furface of grafs-lands
{mooth and even. It has been fuggetted, that the wooden
rollers of this fort, which are frequently employed with
great propriety on grafs and patture lands, are in many
cafes made too large to produce that powerful effet which
is wanted, without the aid of additional weight being given,
Tf made lefs, and well loaded, it is fuppofed that a greater
degree of preffure will be afforded. A medium fize is pro-
bably the moft effe€tual in giving the requifite preffure in
fuch cafes. A powerful implement of this fort, which is
ufed in the beft grafs diftri& of the kingdom, weighs fome-
thing lefs than half a ton. It is, however, made of wood ;
but iron or ftone, where they can be had, are much better
materials. It is ftated in the Norfolk Agricultural Report,
that Mr. Coke has the moit powerful roller for grafs-land
that the writer has feen: it was ca{t at the Carron foundery.
It is five feet fix inches high, and five feet fix inches long ;
weighs three and a half tons; is drawn by four horfes;
and coft fixty pounds. It is obferved, that it leaves the
furface of grafs-lands in the order that it ought always to
be in.
Rover, Jointed, fuch a one as is made with a joint or
joints, in order to conform to the nature of the ridges.
Thefe kinds of rollers are conftruéted by fome farmers in
the county of Effex. Mr. Tweed has invented one, which
he finds of very great ufe. He rolls all his clover-land for
drilling wheat with it, and employs it for whatever fort of
tillage-rolling is tobe performed. ‘The great objeét of it is
to prevent the horfes from PORN, by their going only
in the furrow, two of them at length.
Rotter, Spike. This fort of roller is conftruéted much
ROL
in the fame way as thofe of the common kind, only inftead
of being plain, it is ttudded or fet with a confiderable num-
ber of {pikes, by which it is {uppofed to break the foil more
effeGtually. It is mottly employed on the heavy, {ftiff,
lumpy tillage lands, for the purpofe of reducing and bring-
ing thefe into a better ftate of pulverization. In fome cafes
it may be a good implement : it may be conneéted with the
compound roller. When the drill-roller is in ufe, tltis fort
of roller is unneceflary.
Rotter, in Gardening, a very ufeful implement in many
different intentions, and for feveral different purpofes. The
kinds which are moft commonly employed in this way are
thofe of ftone and catt-iron, for comprefling the more hard
furfaces ; and thofe of the fmaller wood fort, for removing
worm-ca{ts and ether protuberances on fhort grafs-lawns,
and other defcriptions of pleafure-grounds, in the ftate of
turf or fward. They are never required to be of any great
weight for thefe ufes, but to be capable of being readily
managed by the labourer without difficulty or incon-
venience
No unufual peculiarity of form is here ever neceflary, as
the main objeét is conttantly that of rendering the furfaces,
ri which they may pafs, as fmooth and even as pof-
ible.
Moderate or middle-fized common catt-iron rollers are
pad mott ufually made ufe of, for the purpofes of gar-
ening.
Rotter, in Zrland Navigation, a term applied to an in-
clined plane, with rollers on it.
Roxter, in Ornithology, the common name of a bird of
the mag-pie kind, called garrulus argentoratenfis by authors,
and fulpeéted to be the fame with the bird defcribed by
Gefner, under the name of the d/ue crow, cornix caerulea,
and by Aldroyand under the name of pica marina. It is the
Coractas Garrula of Linneus ; which fee.
Roxver is alfo the name by which fome call the ampelis,
or garrulus Bohemicus. This, in the Linnean fyftem, is a
{pecies of the ampelis. See GARRULUS.
Rorrer, in Block-making, a cylindrical pin turning on
its ewn axis, which is ufed in fome blocks, inftead of a
fheave.
Rotrers, Cylindrical, pieces of timber, revolving on an
iron axis, and fo fixed above the deck, either perpendicularly
or horizontally, as to prevent the chafing of the meflenger
or cable againtt the jeer and topfail-fheet bitts, &c. Thofe
fixed forward in the manger are to facilitate the meflenger to
the capftan.
Rotvers, Fridion, are made of two parallel circular plates
of brafs, about a quarter of an inch thick. Four or more
folid brafs cylinders are placed at equal diftances round thefe
plates, and work upon their own axes, between them, at
right angles. Thus any pin working through thefe plates
of brafs muft touch the rolling furfaces of the folid brafs
cylinders, by which the friGtion is confiderably leffened.
Rotrer, in Surgery, along and broad ligature, ufually
of linen cloth, ufed for binding, furrounding, and contain-
ing, the parts of the human body, and keeping them in, or
difpofing them, to a {tate of health.
A roller confitts of two parts; the body, and the two ex-
tremities, which fome call Aeads or chiefs, and others tails.
There are fingle-headed rollers, that is, fuch as are rolled at
one head only, double-headed rollers, &c.
Again: fome are equally rolled and gathered together ;
as thofe applied to fractures and diflocated joints. Others
are cut into feveral chiefs or heads; as thofe for the head,
chin, &c. Others are compofed of feveral f{waths, gathered
and {titched together ; as thofe for the telticles, &e. Some
again
ROL
again are broad; as thofe for the breaft, belly, &c. Others
narrow ; as thofe for lips, fingers, &c.
Guidon direts the roller for the fhoulder to be fix fingers
broad; that for the thigh, five; for the leg, four ; for the
arm, three; and the finger, one. See Banpace.
ROLLFELD, in Geography, a town of Germany, on
the Maine; 2 miles S. of Clingenberg.
ROLLI, Paoto, in Biography, a Roman poet, born in
1687, the fon of an architect. He was a difciple of the
celebrated Gravina, who infpired him with the love of poetry
and literature. The earl of Burlington having brought him
to England, which he commemorates in the dedication of
his opera of « Aftarte’’ to his noble patron, who attached
him to the court as mafter of the Tufcan language to the
princeffes. BE
Rolli did not fpend an inaétive life in England; for, be-
fides being opera poet to the Royal Academy of Mutic till
it was broke up, teaching his language to the royal family,
and many of the firft nobility, he publifhed Italian odes,
fongs, elegies, endeca fillaba in the manner of Catullus,
which were much admired. Belides thefe he publifhed
epigrams, and fine editions in London of the Satires of
Ariofto, the complete works of Berni, Varchi, &c. 2 vols.
8vo. much efteemed; the Decamerone of Boccaccio, the
Lucretius of Marchetti, Odes of Anacreon, and a tranfla-
tion of Milton’s Paradife Loft, in Italian verfe, folio.
Upon the death of queen Caroline, his royal protectrefs,
in 1737, he left England, and returned into Italy, where
he died in 1767, leaving behind him a very curious cabinet,
and a rich library of well-chofen books.
ROLLIN, Cuarzes, an eloquent writer and profeffor,
. was born at Paris in 1661. He was intended for the fame
trade as that of his father, namely, a cutler; but a Bene-
di@tine, who had watched the opening of his mind, and
clearly perceived in him a genius for learning, procured for
him an exhibition at the college of Pleflis; and he was im-
mediately taken under the protection of the principal, M.
Charles Gobinet. He went through, with much applaufe,
a courfe of claffics and philofophy ; and then ftudied theo-
logy for three years at the Sorbonne. A way feemed now
open to him in the college of Pleffis, and in 1683 Rollin en-
tered that feat of learning. In 1687 he was made profeflor
of rhetoric, and in 1688 he obtained the chair of eloquence
in the Royal College. He became re€tor in 1694, and oc-
cupied that poft two years. During his adminiftration, he
revived the ftudy of the Greek, fub{tituted academical ex-
ercifes for the reprefentation of tragedies, and introduced
the cuftom of obliging the fcholars to get the holy {criptures
by heart. In 1698 he was appointed coadjutor of the col-
lege of Beauvais, an office which he held till 1712. In the
year 1720 he was again reCtor of the univerfity ; after which
he entirely devoted himfelf to the compofition of the works
for which his name is particularly celebrated, and of which
the following is an enumeration of the principal: « Traité
de la Maniére d’enfeigner et d’étudier les Belles Lettres par
Rapport, a l’Efprit et au Cccur,’? 4 vols. 12mo., pub-
lithed at different times between the years 1726-8, witha
fupplement relative to the itudies of children, and the edu-
cation of females. Several editions of this work have been
publifhed. « L’Hiftoire Ancienne des Egyptiens, des
Carthaginois, des Aflyriens, des Babyloniens,” &c. 13 vols.
i2mo., publifhed between 1730-38. Voltaire {peaks in
terms of high refpe& of this work: while he admits that
the latter volumes are not written with fo much care as the
earlier ones, yet he fays it is the beft hiftorical compilation
in any language ; becaufe the compilers of fuch works are
feldom eloquent, which Rollin always was. It has been
ROL
thought, and with probability, that Rollin wrote hiftory
chiefly for the opportunity of throwing into the narrative
abundance of ufeful reflections. He paid too much ‘credit
to the exaggerations of the ancient hiftorians, and is in a
good meafure void of that critical fagacity, which fhould
be charaéterittic of the writer of hiltory. This quality
could fcarcely be expected from the man who gave implicit
creed to the miracles, as they were called, of the abbe de
Paris, and who was accuftomed to pray knecling before his
tomb. The other principal work of Rollin was ‘ Hiftoire
Romaine depuis la Fondation-de Rome jufqua la Bataille
d’Aétium,”’ 8 vols. izmo. This was continued by Crevier
to the reign of Contftantine. Rollin died with a character
univerfally elteemed, at the age of 80, in the year 1741.
His writings have been popular both in France and in
other countries. Voltaire fays, that he was the firft mem.
ber of the univerfity who wrote with purity and dignity.
He began with eftablifhing his reputation as a claffical
{cholar, by a number of Latin harangues and poems, which
have been printed; and by an edition of Quinétilian, in-
tended for the ufe of {chools, which he illuftrated with fhort
notes, and a preface. This edition of Quinétihan has been
feveral times reprinted, in 2 vols. 12mo.; that in our pof-
feffion was publifhed at Paris in 1774.
ROLLING, Roration, in Mechanics, a kind of cir-
cular motion, in which the moveable turns round its own
axis, or centre, and continually applies new parts of its fur-
face to the body it moves upon.
Such is that of a wheel, a f{phere, or the like. Such,
particularly, are the motions of the earth, the planets, &c.
The motion of rolling is oppofed to that of /liding ; in
which the fame furface is continually applied to the plane it
moves along.
It mutt be noted, that in a wheel it is only the circum-
ference that properly rolls; the reft proceeds ina compound
angular kind of motion, and partly rolls, partly flides, The
not diftinguifhing between which two, occationed the diff_i-
culty of that celebrated problem, the rota Ariftotelica, Arif-
totle’s wheel.
The fri€tion of a body in rolling, or the refiftance made
to it by the roughnefs of the plane it moves on, is found
to be much lefs than the fri€tion in fliding.
Hence, the great ufe of wheels, rolls, &c. in machines ;
as much of the aétion as poflible being laid thereon, to make
the refiftance the leffer.
For the laws of bodies rolling on inclined planes, fee n-
clined PLANE and Descent. See alfo Roration.
Rotuine, in Gardening, the work of rendering any fur-
face level by means of the roller. It is praétifed equally
for the purpofe of bringing the furfaces of the gravel and
other kinds of hard walks and roads into an exact and even
order, as well as thofe of pleafure-grounds, which are in the
condition of fhort or mown grafs. And it is fometimes ap-
“plicable in other intentions, as thofe of rolling in particular
forts of feeds, inftead of putting them in by means ot
treading the beds by the feet, and the rolling down and
rendering more clofe the too loofe and open grounds of
gardens, &c.
The rolling down of garden-walks and roads fhould al-
ways be done, when poflible, immediately after flight falls
of rain, the gravel or other kinds of materials being pre-
vioufly put in fuitable order by fweeping and raking with
proper rakes for the purpofe. The roller is then to be
carefully drawn up on one fide and down the other of them
as clofe as poffible to the grafs verges, and afterwards along
the middle parts, in a forward and backward dire€tion, which
moftly completes the work.
Ta
ROLLING.
In rolling and rendering fhort-grafs pleafure-grounds
fmooth and even, it is ufual to go over them, in, the firft
place, when they are to be mown, as foon as poflible after
a good fall of rain, with a {mall wooden roller, in order to
take up and remove the worm-caits, and then to follow
with the iror one, beginning at one fide and going on in a
regular manner over the whole, in a clofe up-and-down di-
rection. The rolling, in thefe cafes, is fometimes alfo per-
formed for the purpofe of mowing only, which is always
done by the wooden roller, as it clears the grafs in the beft
manner ; the iron roller being run over afterwards, when the
mown grafs has been removed.
Rolling fhould be frequently praétifed in cafes of this
nature, in order that the walks, roads, and lawns, may be
kept in a neat, proper condition, and never be fuffered to
run into a ruinous and diforderly itate.
Roti, in Hufbandry, the ation or eperation of draw-
ing a roller over the furface of the ground, with the view of
breaking down the clods, rendering it more compact, and
bringing it even and level ; or for only levelling the furface,
as in grafs-lands. Thisis a practice that becomes neceffary
both upon the tillage and grafs-lands, and which is of much
utility in both forts of hufbandry. In the former cafe, it
is made ufe of with different intentions, as for the purpofe
of breaking down and reducing the cloddy and lumpy parts
of the foil in preparing it for the reception of crops. It is
alfo of great ufe in many cafes of light foils, in rendering
the farce more firm, even, and folid, after the feed is put
in. It is likewife found beneficial to the young crops in the
early {pring, in various inftances. And it is itated by the
author of Praétical Agriculture, that in the cafes of tiff,
heavy, and adhefive foils of different kinds, it may frequently
be made ufe of with the firft-mentioned intention with very
at advantage ; but it fhould only be employed when fuch
ands are tolerably dry, for when drawn over the ground
under the contrary circumi{tances, little benefit can be af-
forded in the way of pulverization, while much mifchief muft
be produced by the poaching of the horfes, and the plaitering
the earth round the implement. But by ufing it in the
manner juit dire€ted, all the lumpy or cloddy parts of the
furface foil may be effe€tually crufhed and reduced into a
fine powdery ifate, fit for the reception of the feed. And
that if, in fuch forts of foil, it be applied, in the intervals
between the different harrowings, it may contribute much
in the fame way, not merely by reducing a great number of
the lumps bythe preffure that it caufes, but by forcing others
fo much into the ground that they may be acted upon, and
further broken down by the fermentaticn that moitly takes
place in the foil after the land has been itirred. In all the
light and more porous forts of foil very beneficial confe-
quences may alfo be derived from this operation by the con-
folidation of furface that is thus produced, and the more
perfe& retention of moifture, by which the feed, efpecially
if of the {mall kind, is enabled to vegetate more equally, as
well as ina more expeditious manner than would otherwife
be the cafe. It is hkewife fuppofed, that, in cafes where
lands have been left rough after ploughing, for the purpofe
of more effectually deftroying weeds, it may be of utility,
by being employed before the harrows, to give them more
power in laying hold of and reducing the foil, and by the
pulverization that it affords, and the more perfe& retention
of moiiture that it caufes, in confequence of the furface
being rendered more clofe and compact, the feed-weeds are
produced more abundantly, and more readily deitroyed. It
is likewife in thefe laft methods, Mr. Donaldfon fays, that it
proves fo highly beneficial in all cafes where grafs-feeds are
fown ; as well as by the equality and fmoothnefs of furface
Vou, XXX.
that are thereby produced ; and it is well obferved by the
fame writer, that if no other benefit were derived from
rolling lands in tillage, than fmoothing the furface, even
that in harveft is of material confequence, more efpecially
where the crops are cut down with the fcythe, which is ge-
neral in moit of the fouthern diftri@s of the kingdom, and
which the increafing fcarcity of labourers muft ee in all
probability, introduce into thofe of the north. It is alfo
remarked by Mr. Morley, in the fourth volume of Communi-
cations to the Board of Agriculture, that old fward, or grafs-
feeds, upon firft breaking up, fhould always be rolled before
dibbling for either wheat, beans, or peafe, as it makes the
land more folid, and the grain, when it yegetates, will form
a ftronger root. Wheat fhould always be rolled in the
{pring after froft, as it will make the foil adhere more clofely
to the roots of the plants, which very much encourages
vegetation, aad will caufe the ftem to be much ftronger, and
the grain will be brought to greater perfeGtion. Barley
and oats fhould always be rolled when the blades are about
an inch above the ground, if the weather permits; and
turnips fhould be rolled at night, foon after the plants
make their appearance, which will be a means of deftroying a
great number of flugs and fnails, that are very deftruGtive to
the young plants. And it is f{uppofed by Mr. Somerville, in
his Agricultural Survey of Eaft Lothian, that rolling,
when conduéted in a judicious manner, is highly beneficial,
and admits of being much extended, efpecially upon all win-
ter crops after that feafon has been fevere, and without any
regard to foils, as both loams and clays, after much naked
froft, have their cohefion fo much broken as to leave the
plants quite loofe, and almoft without any eitablifhment. It
has alfo been ftated, that the rolling of wheat, rye, barley,
&c. with a roller of good length, and half the weight of the
common ones above defcribed, may be advantageous in other
ways, as it prefles down the foil that has been raifed by the
froits about the minute ramifications of the attraéting veflels
or duéts, and augments the quantity of mould upon them
by breaking the little lumps of fod; which, indeed, were
very ferviceable in winter by affording fhelter, but in {pring
will ftill be of greater ufe, by fuch imminution in fillin up
the fiffures, and preventing, in a great meatfure, the ill effeGs
droughts have en light foils, by retaining and filtering rain-
water ; whereby the foil imbibes whatever is nutritive, and
what is fuperfluous of the fimple fluid only efcapes.
But it is added, that although thefe are fome of the many
advantages rolling produces in agriculture, notwithftandin
it amounts to no more than mere conjecture, that, in BSS i
rolling corn may do more damage than it can good, if fuch
cautions as the following be not carefully attended to ; viz.
never to rell corn but in dry frefh weather; by no means to
ufe heavy rollers, nor to roll too early, as before the blades
be pretty ftrong, for the wounds that the blades may re-
ceive, the roots, being then tender, will be unable ever to
recover ; nor too late, as, when the ftalks are hardened
and grown to any height, for the roller will break them,
which injury can hardly be repaired, and the crop is thereby
greatly hurt ; that none but light lands are proper to be
rolled with this view, and thofe which have been ma-
nured that or the preceding year with dung only: in fhort,
none but rich, light foils, in general, can be improved by
rolling. in this intention; for in poor lands it oppofes
the moit aCtive principles, and undoes all that has been
done for the crop by ploughing, &c. It is confequently
concluded, that the foil, the condition, the growth of the
corn, the weather, aad the weight of the roller, are all te
be moft fcrupuloufly regarded: when all coincide, the ad-
vantages of rolling may be great; but when they do not,
K the
ROLLING.
the difadvantages may be infuperable. Rolling, then, is
neither the leaft critical, nor the moft infignificant piece of
the hufbandman’s profeflion ; therefore ought not to be
performed at random and without circumf{pe¢tion, in cafes
where young crops are concerned. i
Mr. Marfhall, in his Rural Economy of Norfolk, in {peak-
ing of rolling, remarks, that one circumftance requires to be
mentioned, which is, that the roller, notwithftanding the
lightnefs of the foil, and its pronenefs to be injured by dry
weather, is never ufed in Norfolk for the purpofe of com-
preffion. He never faw one ufed by a farmer either upon
fallow or upona lay ; not even upon the firft year of a clover-
lay, to {mooth the furface for the {cythe. The only ufes to
which he has feen a roller put, in that diftri€, are that of
fmoothing the furface before fowing, to prevent the feed from
running down too low, and that of fmoothing it afterwards
as a preparation for the fcythe; and even this operation 1s
performed with a roller not more perhaps than feven or
eight inches in diameter ; a circumftance which he confefles
he is no way able to account for ; neverthelefs, it would
be rafhnefs to condemn an eftablifhed praétice, unlefs he
could, from his own experience, or from adequate ob-
fervation on the experience of others, prove it to be in-
eligible. And it is ftated, that there is a fort of land
which, when clover is fown upon it, throws out the young
plants after a froft. Rolling in the beginning of winter, and
immediately after the froft is gone, will, in fome meafure,
prevent this. The firft rolling hinders the froft from pene-
trating fo deep as it would otherwife do; and the fecond
makes the land firm, after having been loofened by the
change from froft to open weather. In the latter cafe, or
that of grafs-land, this is alfo a procefs that is of much ad-
vantage, efpecially where fuch lands are kept under the
{eythe. And it is probable, that in many cafes of pafture
lands it may be found of great benefit. In the former itis
found beneficial in keeping the furface free from hills, and in
amore even ftate, as well as the grafs from becoming in fo
tuffocky a condition, as is often the cafe where the practice
is neglected, or not well underftood. And in the latter it
may perhaps have a fimilar effect, and keep the grafs more
free from tufts, and ina more regular condition, which is a
circumftance of great confequence in the pra¢tice of grazing.
It has been remarked, that the impreffion of the roller not
only renders the furface more level and fine, but at the fame
time induces the grafs plants to {pread more laterally, and
in that way to form a better and more clofe fward, which
may be highly beneficial in both cafes. Its importance on
new laid-down grafs-lands is therefore extremely obvious, as
it mult be highly ferviceable in thefe different intentions.
And the worm-cafts are by this means reduced and brought
into order, by which means the mowing can be performed
with’ greater facility, and in a clofer manner. Befides, it
may be ufeful in other views, as by preffing the mould, as
well asthe manure, more clofely round the roots of the
grafs plants ; and in confequence of fuch means, they may -
not only be better eftablifhed in the foil, and their vigorous
growth more effe€tually promoted, but, from the moifture
being more fully preferved in the ground, be in lefs danger
of injury from the effects of heat in the fummer months,
and of courfe better crops be afforded at the period of cutting
them down. In order to perform this bufinefs in the moft
complete and effe€tual manner, a roller of confiderable weight
is neceflary, fuch as has been already defcribed ; and it has
been advifed, in order to prevent as much as poffible the
ground from being injured by the feet of the animals that
draw it, as may frequently be the cafe where they follow
each other in the fame part, it may be the beft practice to
have them yoked double, as by that means there will be leis
treading on the fame portion of the furface; and that where
two horfes are fufficient to execute the work, more fhould
never be made ufe of ; but if a third fhould be found necef-
fary, it may be attached asa leader in the middle, before
the other two: a greater number of horfes can feldom or
ever be of any material advantage in this fort of work. It
is alfo fuggefted as neceflary, to be very careful in executing
this operation, to fee that every part receives the due im-
preffion of the implement. On lands where this fort of
work is regularly performed, it will feldom be requifite to
pafs more than once ina place, but in other cafes it may
often be done more frequeatly with benefit 5 and in particu-
lar cafes, a more frequent repetition of the operation is ab-
folutely requifite, in order to bring the ground into a pro«
per ftate. It is neceflary, in the execution of this bufinefs
on grafs-lands, to attend in a particular manner to the fea-
fon, as it cannot be performed with advantage, either when
the furface is in too dry or too moift a:condition. It is
ftated, that in thefe cafes the work of rolling may be ad-
vantageoufly performed at different feafons, as in the begin-
ning of the autumn, and in the commencement of the year,
or very early {pring months; but the latter is the moft com-
mon period. But in order to its being executed with the
greateft poffible benefit; a time fhould always be chofen, if
poflible, when the ground is in a fuitable ftate for receiving
the impreffion of the implement. In the drier defcriptions
of land it may frequently be performed in the moft beneficial
manner, after the land has been rendered a little foft by a
moderate fall of rain ; but in thofe of the contrary fort, it
may be neceflary to wait till the fuperabundant moifture be
fo much dried up, as to admit the animals employed in draw-
ing the machine, without poaching or otherwife injuring the
furface of the ground while the procefs is going on. It has
been remarked by Mr. Bofwell, that the rolling of watered
meadows fhould be executed towards the latter end of Fe-
bruary or beginning of the following month, after the land
has been left in a dry ftate for a week or ten days. And
that the work fhould be performed lengthwife of the panes,
going up one fide of the trenches, and down the other.
And in the cafe of rolling the common hay lands, it is a
good mode to proceed up one fide the field, and down the
other, fomewhat in a fimilar manner, as by that means the
work may be the moft completely executed, and with the
leaft trouble.
Alfo a writer, in the Communications to the Board of
Agriculture, mentioned above, has remarked, that fward
and meadow land fhould always be rolled in April or the be-
ginning of May, and when the ground is inamoilt ftate, as
it caufes the grafs to be of a more kind nature, and reduces
the hills raifed by the ants to a proper {tate of being mown
over.
Likewife on fuch new grafs-lands as have been juft re-
{tored to the ftate of {ward, and which are often thin and
patchy, when feeds are fown over fuch parts, the roller may
frequently be run over them in order to force in the feeds ;
but a better praétice is to turn fheep upon the lands, con-
fining them upon fuch patches by means of hurdles, in order
that they may tread them in. In either eafe, a rather moift time
fhould be chofen for the purpofe. In cafes of this nature,
where there is a degenerate f{ward, Mr. Amos, in his Minutes
on Agriculture, advifes the ufe of his compound roller,
which fhould be run over the ground early in March, when
the {ward will admit the {pikes without being injured by the
feet of the horfes, the lard being previoufly covered with
well-rotted dung, or compoft, in the proportion of from
about eight or ten tons to the acre. It fhould be well rolled in
different
ROL
different dire¢tions, till the furface {ward is pretty much
broken, then fowing the grafs-feed over the land, and after
letting it be well drefled with the {ward-drefler, and all the
rubbifh collected cleared away, rolling it well down with the
plain roller, and admitting no fort of live-ftock afterwards
upon it. In this methed of ufing the roller, vaft improve-
ments may, in many cafes of degenerated or worn-out grafs-
lands, be effected, without incurring any very heavy ex-
pences, or muchtrouble. See Swarv-Drefer.
Rotuinc-Bridge fignifies, among Canal-Makers, an 1N-
eLINED Plane ; which fee.
Rotiine-Carts. See Carrs. ,
Rotimwe-Mill, in Metallurgy, and particularly in the Zron
Manufaure, is a mill for reducing mafles of iron or other
metals into even parallel bars, or flat thin plates: this is ef-
fected by pafling the metal, whilft red-hot, between two cy-
lindrical rollers of iron or iteel, which are put in motion by
the power of the mill; and being fo mounted in a {trong
metal frame, that they cannot recede from each other, they
compre{s the metal which is pafled between them, and re-
duce it to a thicknefs equal to the fpace between their
furfaces. PF 1
It requires a moft enormous power to put in motion the
rollers which are employed for laminating iron in the large
way ; and for this reafon, the greateft number of rolling-
mills are fituated upon the banks of rivers which have the
advantage of a fufficient fall to turn the machinery. Of late
years, the improvements of fteam-engines have been car-
ried to fuch a high perfection, as to put them on a par with
water, for moft purpofes, and particularly for rolling-mills, as
the waite heat of the furnaces ufed for heating the metal
may be employed, in part, to raife {team for the engines which
turn the rollers. f }
Rolling-mills were not very generally ufed in the iron ma-
nufa&ure till within thefe fixty years. The old mills which
were firlt ufed are extremely fimple; two feparate water-
wheels are placed on the oppofite fides of the mill, with
their axles in the fame direCtion, but at different heights, fo
that one wheel can be connected with the upper, and the
other with the lower reller: it therefore requires the two
wheels to have the water delivered at oppofite fides, to make
them revolve in different direGtions, in order that the up-
per furface of the lower roller, and the under furface of the
upper roller, may move in the fame dire¢tion, and pafs the
iron betweenthem. The contruction of the rollers generally
ufed in fuch mills is fhewn at figs. 3; 5, and 6, of Plate V. Iron
Manufadure, except that the two rollers, F and G, are there
fhewn with equal pinions, d and e, fixed upon the ends of
their pivots, to compel the two to revolve equally together ;
whereas, in the mills with two feparate wheels, no provifion
is made to enfure the equal motion of the two. The gud-
geons, or necks, of the lower roller, G, are {upported in
braffes, fitted into itrong carriages of iron E, E, which
have holes through their ends, to receive four {trong iron
bolts, A A, BB; thefe ftand perpendicular, and form
the frame, to retain the rollers at the proper diftance, being
fitted through the carriages E with heads below, fo that
they cannot draw out. The upper ends of the bolts are cut
_with ferews, upon which nuts, a, a, are fitted; and thefe
being turned round by iron handles or wrenches, ferew down
the pieces D, D, and advance the rollers nearer together; or,
by a contrary motion, increafe the diftance between them:
i( fig. 6) isa {trong iron bar, extended from one bolt, A, to
the other, B, and tixed fait; it fupports an iron plate, form-
ing 2 kind of table before the rollers, to guide the iron
through them, The rollers have {quare heads upon the ends
of their gudgeons; and upon thefe {quares, large cait-iron
ROL
fockets or boxes, as L, are fitted, and thefe, at the other
ends, are fitted upon fimilar fquares on the ends of the
water-wheel axis. <A little play or loofenefs is admitted
in all thefe, fquares, becaufe the upper roller is fet at dif-
ferent heights, according to the thicknefs of the work
which is to be rolled between them: this play is required to
allow the rollers to move freely, when they are not exa@l
in the line of the water-wheel axis: it is to accommodate this
circumftance that the principal care is required in conftru@-
ing a rolling-mill. Our readers, will gain a good idea of the
beit proportions of a mill, with two independent water-
wheels, from the following dire@tions for building one in
Northumberland, which were given by Mr. Smeaton near
40 years ago. The two water-wheels are to be under-fhot,
and of act fizes, viz. 15 ft. 4 in. and 14 ft. 8in., the
mean diameter being 15 ft. The breadths in their float-
boards are to be three feet each, the finall wheel being laid
lowerthan the other by feven inches ; this, with the differences
of their diameters, will make the centre of the large wheel
11 inches higher than the other. The different heights of the
crowns of the falls or breafts, down which the water defcends
to aé& upon the wheels, and the pofitions of the water-fhut-
tles, are to be fo adjufted, that the gates or fhuttles being
equally drawn up by their ftarts, the wheels will, as near as
poflible, revolve in equal times, and with equal power. The
rings of the water-wheels are to be made of ca{t iron, that their
weight may aé as flies: the ring of the leffer wheel is to be
made fix inches in thicknefs by fix inches deep, while that
of the larger is to be only five by fix. The greater quantity of
matter in the leffer wheel, therefore, will give it nearly the
fame momentum as the larger wheel.
The rings of the water-wheels are each to be formed by
eight pieces or fellies, the exterior circle of the greater
wheel being thirteen feet diameter, and that of the lefs twelve
feet four inches; the length of the fellies is'to be about
half an inch fhorter than their true length, in order to admit
an oak wedge of one inch thick to be introduced into every
joint after the rings are {crewed together by the joint-plates
of wrought iron, which unite the fellies. “Thefe plates are
to lay upon the plain furface of the felly, and not to be let
in as the common wooden rings of water-wheels, in order
that the oak wedges may completely fill the joints at the
ends of the fellies. The wheels are to have wooden arms,
and it muft be obferved, that the mortifes through each of the
iron fellies, for receiving the ends of the arms of the wheels,
are to be about two inches and a half in width, and that
they are to be a little dove-tailed, in their length only, fo
that the mortifes being longer on the outfide of the Ting, and
the wood of the arm being fpread into them with wedges,
will produce firm ties to the centre; but asa farther fecurity,
pins are to be put in after the wedging is completed. The
mortifes in the rings for the ftarts, which fupport the
float-boards, are to be four inches by two, without dove-
tailing, or rather they fhould be larger outfide than infide.
The breaft or float-boards will fix by nails into the joints
and arms, where they fall; but that the breaft-boards for
the intermediate floats may alfo have a faltening, holes of
about one inch diameter, and about four inches deep, muft
be caft in the ring, at the places for every other float ;
thefe holes, being filled up with pieces of oak, will afford
places to drive the nails for fecuring the boards. The
axles of the water-wheel are to be of pal ere with flaunches
to {crew the arms of the wheel againft. The total length of
each axis is to be feven feet one inch, and the diameter
throughout the axis is to be a circle of nine inches. The
manner of fixing the arms upon flaunches is to be found in
Plate XXXIV. Mechanics, in our article Must.
ac hee The
ROLLING-MILL.
[he brafles upon which the necks of the water-wheel
axles are fupported, are intended to be let into cait-iron
ftocks, which are again fupported upon wooden bed-planks,
and thofe upon the cap-itones of the walls, which (under
thefe at leaft) are fuppofed to reach all acrofs the thicknefs
of the walls, thofe necks being firft truly and fmoothly
turned ; at each ead, beyond the neck, is formed an aftragal
or moulding, to keep the wheel in its place from moving
endways. The ends of the axis are terminated by an in-
dented head, fhaped fomewhat like a fquare citadel in for-
tification, and an iron box is fitted upon this to commu-
nicate the motion to the’ rollers, the furface lines of the
indented head being formed a little rounding, that the box
may not only be certain of taking its bearing in the middle,
but likewife be capable of complying with the motion of
the rollers: and in order to give {till more liberty, the end
of the box which is fartheft from the water-wheel, is
formed into a fquare of eight inches, which is again fur-
rounded by another box, whofe external furface is round.
This box is formed at the end of a round fpindle or axis
three feet long, and terminated at the other end with a
fquare of eight inches, which enters one end of a {quare
box, and at its other end receives the {quare of the roller,
fuppofed to be of fix inches, but may be of any other
fize which is thought neceffary. It is to be noted, that
all the fquares are to be made larger than thofe of the
rollers, in order that they may wear longer; and all the in-
fertions are to be lefs than thofe at the end of the water-
wheel axles, that the axis may not be rendered ufelefs by
the wear or failure of the citadel heads which are intro-
duced, as they are expected to laft many years; and if any
thing fhould happen to them, the axes are made alike on
both fides of the water-wheels, that they may change
ends; therefore; there is nothing of confequence likely to fail
by wear or breakage, except the {maller intermediate work
between the axis and the rolls, which is eafily replaced.
Holes are to be made through the boxes and joint parts
for iron bolts to pafs through rather loofely, fo as to pre-
vent the boxes and fquares feparating, but not to confine
the joints from yielding to the motion of the rolls. The
water-wheels are fuppoled to be clofely- adapted to their
conduits, and their axes to remain immoveabie as to height,
at the difference of eleven inches in level, while the rolls
are fuppofed to vary in their diameter from twelve inches
to nine. This will be allowed for, by the diitance that the
{quares upon the rolls are from the end of the axis ; for
though the houfe is fuppofed no more than ten feet wide
between the walls, the diftance between the middle of the
eitadel heads at the end of the water-wheel axis, and the
middle of the fquares of the rolls refpeétively, is upwards of
four feet ; and in that length no lefs than four joints are in-
troduced, every one of which complying a little, a {mall
difference in the height of the roll will produce no fenfible
difference in the communication of the motion from that
of aright line; all the joints being kept oiled or greafed, which
will be not lefs proper on that account than to keep the parts
from wearing. In order to preferve the dire¢tions as near as
poffible to a right line, Mr. Smeaton propofes that the lower
roll fhall be placed originally half an inch below the centre of
the axis which turns it: fuppofe the rolls were firft made of
twelve inches diameter, while the difference of the height of
the axis is only eleven, the upper roll will be juft half an
inch too high, fo that the compliance in each will be equal,
and no more than half an inch in four feet length. ‘Thus
it appears, that when the rolls are reduced by wearing from
twelve inches to eleven each, then the upper roll as well as
the lower. will be half an inch too low for its axis; ftill
neither will need to comply or vacillate more than half an
inch. The roll being now of a juft diameter to anfwer the dif-
ferent heights of the axis, let the lower roll be raifed to its
juft height, and then both the rolls will work true till they
are further reduced; but when they become reduced to ten
inches and a half diameter, the upper roll will become half
an inch too low; then raife the under roll half an inch
above the line, and the upper roll will then be truly in the
line ; fo that when the upper roll is come down to be half
an inch below the line, the rolls will be reduced to ten
inches; then raifing the under roll a quarter of an inch
more, it will be three quarters above the line, and the
upper roll will be a quarter of an inch under the line ; and
when it comes down to three quarters below the line, the
rolls will be reduced to nine inches and a half; therefore,
laftly, raife the under roll another quarter, fo as to be an
inch above the line, and the upper roll will be reduced
to half an inch below it, fo that when it is come down
to an inch below it, the rolls will be reduced to nine inches.
In this way the departure of the rolls from a right line
will never become more than half an inch, while they are
reducing from twelve to ten inches; nor more than three
quarters, while they are reducing from ten to nine and a
half inches ; at the worit they will be no more than an inch,
while they are reducing from nine and a half to nine inches.
The greateft inequality is purpofely made at this place, both
becaufe the purchafe of tle wheels is then greateft and moft
able to overcome an addition of friGtion, and becauife the
time that they will continue in this fate is the leaft. If
the axles are placed at ten and a half inches diftance in-
ftead of eleven, the vacillation each way will never ex-
ceed three quarters of an inch; nor more than one inch toe
reduce the rolls to eight anda half diameter.
The raifing of the under roll is not to be done by raifing
the whole of the bed of the roller-frame; this is to be fet
originally half an inch lower than the true line ; and when
the lower roll requires raifing, it is to be effeted by putting
iron plates under the carriages of the lower roll gudgeons,
fo that they will ftand as much higher than before, and not
to make the feveral rifes by additional plates, but to have
plates of the different gages, fo that each will lay in one
folid piece.
Mills, on this conitruétion, are ftill ufed in many iron-
works for rolling coarfe iron bars, but are unfit for any
better purpofe, from the difficalty of adjuiting the two
water-wheels to an equal velocity ; and if one roller moves
quicker than the other, the metal becomes more extended
on that fide than upon the other, and is thus rendered
convex. Another defeét is, the want of proper fly-wheels
to regulate the mill; for the caft-iron rims to the water-
wheels by no means anfwers the purpofe of fly-wheels,
unlefs they are made to revolve fo quickly that the water
lofes much of its effet upon the floats. Fly-wheels are,
perhaps, more ufeful for rolling than in any other kind of
mills, becaufe the refiftance to be overcome is fo variable ;
being at one moment very great for a large piece of iron,
then fmaller whilft it is pafled through a fecond time, be-
eaufe the iron is to be lefs reduced: and in the interval of re-
turning the iron, to put it through again, there is no other
refiftance than that of the frition of the machinery. Again,
when the iron has been pafled through feveral times, the
reliftance is greateft of all, becaufe the metal has become
harder, both by the cempreffion it has undergone, and from
being gradually cooled; alfo, the metal, being thinner,
will not yield {fo readily to the preflure, as when in a larger
mafs. By the proper addition of a heavy fly-wheel, great
advantages, in point of power, are gained, as it tends to
I equalize
ROLLING-MILL.
equalize all thefe irregularities ; and in every interval, when
the refiftance is removed, the water-wheel gives a rapid
motion to the fly, the force of which will be returned when
the work is applied: in fuch a mill, if the workmen have an
extraordinary large piece of metal to roll, they fuffer the
mill to work for a few feconds without any refiftance, then
putting in the iron, it is carried through at once by the
momentum of the fly, though requiring a power far beyond
the ordinary force of the water-wheel. The moft approved
method of applying a fly-wheel to a rolling-mill, is to have
a large cog-wheel upon the axis of the water-wheel, to
give motion to a pinion, upon the axis of which a heavy
iron fly-wheel is fixed: the wheel and pinion are of fuch a
fize as to make the fly revolve about three times to one of
the water-wheel: at the oppofite fide of the great cog-
wheel another pinion, of about half its fize, is placed, and
to the extremity of its axis produced, the rollers are con-
neéted, the two rollers being made to turn together by
means of pinions upon the ends of their gudgeons, in the
manner fhewn at de, fig. 6. Plate V.. If more than one
pair of rollers is to be worked, a cog-wheel is fixed upon
the axis which turns the rollers, and works another equal
wheel upon the axis of the fecond pair, placed parallel to the
former ; in this cafe the lengths of the two axes muit be
different, fo that the lines in which the bars will come
through the different rollers, will not interfere with each
ether, but leave fufficient room between for the men to
work. In mo{t common mills, rollers, fuch as are repre-
fented at figs. 3, 5, 6, of Plate V. are employed; but to
thefe there are fome objections; firft, the four nuts a, a,
cannot all be turned at once with fuch precifion as to bring
the upper roller exa¢tly parallel to the other; the means
the workmen ufe for this, isto have a {mall iron wrench, or
handle, fitted upon two of the nuts, a, a, and thefe they
turn round a {mall quantity every time the metal has
pafled through, in the interval whilit it is returned to be put
through again. The workman who ftands in front to in-
troduce the metal between the rollers, turns the nut on his
left-hand fide which is neareft to him ; whilit his comrade,
who receives the metal, and hands it back again to him over
the roller, turns the nut on the oppofite corner of the frame :
by this means, as only two, initead of four, of the nuts
are turned, the pieces D are conitantly put out of the hori-
zontal pofition, in which alone they can take a proper bear-
ing ; alfo, in thefe frames there is no fupport for the weight
of the upper roll ; but when there is no metal beneath it, it
falls down, and refts upon the other; when the metal is
fuddenly introduced, it lifts the roll up to its bearing with
a jerk, which endangers the breaking of fome of the parts,
and generally caufes the nuts to ftart a little before they
fettle themfelves to the itrain. In the modern mills, the
frames for the rollers are made of calt-iron, as fhewn at
Jigs) tand 2. Plate V. The cheeks, A, are caft in one piece,
and form a bed for the reception of the brafs of the lower
roller H ; a piece, C, is fitted upon the top of the calt-iron
cheeks, and is held down by two {trong wrought-iron bolts,
with nuts, a, 4, to {crew it down, and regulate the diftance
between the two rollers, the gudgeon of the upper roller, G,
being confined by a brafs let into the piece C, but to bear
it up from falling: when there is no iron between the two
rollers, another brafs is placed beneath the gudgeon, G, and
fufpended by bolts, d, d, from the piece C; by this means
the two rollers are retained always at a proper diftance
afunder. , The two ftandards A, B, fg. 2, at the oppofite
ends of the rollers, have broad feet at bottom, by means of
which they are bolted down to maflive ground-ills, which
extend all acrofs the mill-houfe. The rollers E and F are
caufed to move together equably by means of pinions a, bs
which, that they may work well, are made with accurate
teeth, of not more than 1Z or 2 inches pitch, or diftance
afunder ; and, to give the requifite ftrength, they are made
of confiderable breadth, as the figure fhews. ‘Two large
flat iron plates, I and K, are fcrewed to the two ftandards,
both to strengthen them, and to form a table, upon which
the maffes to be rolled are laid to be prefented to the
rollers, and having paffed through, are received on that at
the oppofite fide.
The rollers fhewn in figs. 1 and 2, have a number of
grooves in them, which being oppofite to each other, leave
openings of a determinate figure for the purpofe of rolling
{quare bars, with the angles upwards ; they do not there-
fore require to be adjufted in diftance, as other plain rollers
do, but are always, after the firft ereGtion, retained at the
fame diftance; in this cafe the pinions a and é ferve very
well to conneét the motions of two rollers together; but
when the rollers are required to be adjufted during the work-
ing, as in the Plate Rollers, fig. 6, the pinions muft ne-
ceflarily have very coarfe and long cogs, that they may not
be fo much affected by increafing or diminifhing the diftance
between their centres; in this cafe they work very indif-
ferently, and frequently break by the awkward manner in
which fuch coarfe teeth always meet each other when upon
wheels or pinions of {mall radius, particularly when the
proper diftance between their centres is not preferved. As
a partial remedy for this difficulty, the pinions are, in fome
mills, made very broad, with fine teeth, and mounted in a
feparate frame, exactly fimilar, except in its ftrength, to
that of the rollers; this is placed at a diftance of three or
four feet from the rollers; then a coupling, or fhort fhaft,
being interpofed between the fquares at the ends of the axis
of the pinions, and thofe of the rollers, they permit the
latter to be adjufted without difturbing the pinions; and
the length of the fhafts will accommodate for the differences
between them.
In Plate 1V. of Lron Manufadure, we have given three
figures of a very capital rolling-mill in Meflrs. Walker’s
extenfive iron-works at Rotherham, in Yorkfhire, where
they have feveral mills worked by the fame river. The one
in queftion is employed in reducing iron to {mall rods for
nail-making, by firft rolling the pieces to flat bars, and
then pafling them through a pair of flitting roliers, which di-
vides each into feveral {mall {quare rods: it 1s, therefore, much
{maller in its dimenfions than the great mills ufed for rolling
thick iron plate ; but we have fele&ted it on account of the
arrangement of its wheels, which renders it fuperior to the
mills in common ufe, as it works without the pinions of
which we have fpoken. AA, in the plan, (fg. 1.) is the
water-wheel, 17 feet diameter, and five fect fix inches broad :
it is of the under-fhot or rather breaft-kind, the water being
delivered below the centre, but. confined to aé upon the
wheel by a breaft of mafonry, curved to correfpond with
the wheel very exaétly. The pivots or gudgeons, x, of its
axis reft on bearings, fupported by the walls N. At one
end of the axis a clutch-piece, M, is fixed, to give motion
to a fecond axis 2, which, being in the fame line as that of
the water-wheel, may be confidered as a continuation thereof,
It is carried under the floor of the mill. It has two large
cog-wheels, one marked 4, and another of the fame dimen-
fions at the oppofite end, which is only feen in fig. 2, as it
is concealed in fg. 1, beneath the wheel f, which it turns.
The firtt of thefe wheels, 4, gives motion to two wheels,
a and c, which are on the axes I and H, and give motion
to the lower of each of the two pair of rollers, fituated in
the frames at EF and CD. This wheel-work is fhewn in
Sg:
ROLLING-MILL.
fig» 3+ The wheel at the other end of the fhaft, £, (fee
Jig: 2+) turns the wheel f; fituated direétly above it; and
this gives motion to two wheels, e and g, of the fame di-
menfions as aandc. Their axles, L and K, are conne&ted
with the upper of each pair of the rollers. By the intro-
duétion of the wheel f, the {mall wheels, e and g, are made
to revolve in a contrary direétion to the wheels aandc; and,
at the fame time, the centres of the former are raifed a fuf-
ficient height above the latter, to allow for the difference in
height of the centres of the upper and lower rollers of each
air. The coupling-boxes, L K and pp, which unite the
axles of the wheels to their ref{pective rollers, have fufficient
play in the joints to allow for that {mall deviation which
takes place in {eparating the rollers, to adjuft them to dif-
ferent thicknefles of the metal they are intended to roll;
though thefe thanks fhould be reprefented longer than the
limits of our plate have allowed, the {pace between the
frames for the wheels being in reality eight feet, inftead
of five feet nine inches, as given in the drawing.
By this arrangement of the wheels of the mill, the con-
trary motions of the two rollers are communicated from the
fame water-wheel, without the intervention of {mall pinions,
which, in works requiring fuch heavy ftrains as that of roll-
ing iron, always work with difficulty and enormous friétion ;
fo that they break and wear out conttantly, making great
interruptions to the work. In the prefent inftance, the
wheels are all of confiderable fize, and, therefore, tran{fmit
the power more equably, at the fame time that they give
the two rollers precifely the fame velocity, which is a cir-
cumftance of fome importance in making good rolling for
plates or bars, which will be irregular, if one roller turns
fafter than the other, in confequence of one fide of the metal
being more expanded. The framing of the mill (Plate IV.)
is very clearly exprefled by the drawing. The axles H
and I, of the wheels @ and c, are fupported in bearings,
{crewed down to iron frames, which are fecurely fixed to
the folid mafonry. On the other fide, the iron frame, OQ,
is erected to fupport the axles of the wheel L K, and alfo
that of the wheel f, as fhewn in fig. 2. The main axis hy
and the wheels upon it, are carried under ground, and fup-
ported on the walls, as fhewn by the plan. The roiler-
frames, CD and EF, (fg. 1.) are fixed down upon
ftrong beams, extended acrofs from the frame, O, to the
frame on the oppofite fide. The pofition of one of thefe
beams is fhewn by dotted lines on the right-hand fide, in
fig. 1. The rollers, C, D, are exactly the fame as fhewn
in Plate V. figs. 35 5> and 6, except that the pinions, d
and e, are omitted, being unneceflary, from the arrange-
ment of the wheels, which we have defcribed. The other
rollers at EF are made on a very different conftrudtion,
and are called flitters, becaufe they flit or cut up a bar of
iron into feveral {mall {quare bars, of a fize proper for nail-
makers, or to form hoops for barrels. Thefe flitters con-
fift of two {trong axles, mounted in a fimilar frame to the
other rollers; but inftead of carrying plain cylindrical
rollers, they have rollers compofed of iteel rims or edges,
of the fame breadth as the rods they are to flit, and leaving
between them deep grooves. The two fitters, or cutters,
are fo placed in their frame, that the rims of one roller will
enter into the grooves between the rims of the other. This
will be underitood by an examination of fig. 4. Plate V.;
though the rollers there fhewn are for a totally different
purpofe, {till the manner in which the rings of one roller
enter the grooves of the other is the fame as the flitters: but
the proportion of breadth is different, the flitters being made
with grooves of half an inch, three quarters, or one inch
wide, and many intermediate fizes, correfponding to the
rods to be cut; and they are not made from a folid roller,
but are formed of feparate circular plates of fteel of the jutt
thicknefs, fitted fide by fide upon the axis, with circular
iron plates of equal thicknefs between them, which form the
fpaces ; and being of a lefs diameter than the fteel plates,
or cutters, they leave deep grooves between the edges. A
number of crooked guide-bars are extended acrofs the frame,
and pafs through the grooves, between the cutters; but
lying at the very bottom of the grooves, and not being very
thick, they do not fill up the grooves, the circles of the
cutters projecting through thefe bars, which appear like a
grate, and one is applied to each roller. Thofe which are
called the guides of the flitters are intended to prevent the
iron adhering in the grooves between the rims, or cutters,
when preffed down into them ; for the aétion of the flitters is
to divide the iron which is pafled through them into fepa-
rate pieces, by the rim of one roller (for inftance, the lower)
forcing one piece of the bar down into the groove of the
lower roller, whilft the adjacent part is forced up, by the
rim of the lower roller, into the groove of the upper: the
bar is thus divided into as many rods as there are grooves in
the width which it covers. The angle at which the circles
of the cutters interfeét each cther, is that in which the
edges of a pair of fhears are found the moft favourable for
cutting ; and the flitters cut upon the fame principle, but
with feveral edges at the fame time.
A rolling-mil generally contains a pair of fhears, of a fuf.
ficient ftrength to clip off the ends of the largeft iron bars,
to reduce them to lengths or pieces of a fufficient fize
for laminating’ into thin plates. Thefe are made different
from other kinds of fhears, in the circumftance that the cut-
ting parts, or edges, are fituated between the centre pin or
joint, and the part or handle where the power is applied:
the latter is of great {trength, and made exceeding ttrong
in iron. ‘The fhears are fixed in a vertical pofition, the
upper blade being firmly fixed by the framing, and the lcwer
one, which is the long lever, is lifted up by the mill when
the cut is to be made; therefore it defcends when the
fhears are to open, and its own weight is fufficient for that
purpofe. The frame confifts of a very large and thick iron
plate, which is fecurely bolted down to the foundations: at
one end is an upright, which has a groove through it, to re-
ceive the moving blade, and guide it; alfo the end of the
handle of the ftationary or upper blade is fupported by the
upper end of this upright. The joint-pin of the two blades.
is {upported in a {trong focket, or iron frame, alfo ereéted
from the fame large plate, which carries the upright guide
at its other end. The two blades, therefore, lie fide by
fide, and having cutters, or blades, of fteel, let into the ad-
jacent fides of the iron levers or blades, the edges of thefe
pafs by each other when the cut is made, and will thus
cut any thing which is interpofed between them, in the fame
manner as fhears or {ciflars ; and in this circumftance is their
only refemblance to thofe inftruments. The lower or move
ing blade, which is a long lever, refts at the extremity,
upon the periphery of an elliptical wheel, or camm, (figs. 15
and 3.) fixed upon the axis, I, of the rollers, (or, in other
cafes, upon the fhaft of the water-wheel,) in an excentric
manner, fo that, in turning round, it will lift up the lever,
and clofe the fhears; but when its oppofite or fhorteft
radius comes. beneath the lever, it is fuffered to defcend, and
open the blades. At this moment the workman introduces
the end of the iron-bar between the blades, pufhing the end
of it up toa ftop, which regulates the length to be cut off ;
then as the camm turns, it clofes the blades, and cuts at
once through the bar, although fome of the largeft are as
much as three inches broad, and an inch thick.
| Rollers.
ROLLING-MILL.
Rollers are ufually made of caft-iron, and are very exactly
turned on their furfaces, and alfo their necks, that they
may turn truly when put in their places. The moft common
way of turning themis, firft to mount the roller in a flrong
turning lathe, by holes or centre points made in its ends ;
then to turn the two necks truly cylindrical ; and afterwards
putting the roller in its proper place in the roller-frame, and
placing braffes over the necks, they are held down by
blocks, fitted under the pieces which retain the gudgeons of
the upper roller ; in this fituation it is put in motion by the
mill, and a bar of iron being fixed up for a reft, the furface
of the roll is turned true, in the fame manner as if it was ina
lathe, and will be certain to be exact, being formed from the
fame necks on which it is afterwards to work. In caftin
a roller, the mould fhould always be placed at a confiderable
depth beneath the orifice where the metal is poured in, fo
that the preflure of a column of the fluid metal may be ob-
tained to confolidate the cafting, and render it free from thofe
air-holes, or porous places, which will fometimes occur in
metals caft without the preffure of a column. The long
piece of metal which filled the aperture through which the
metal ran; is left adhering to the roller, and is cut off af-
terwards. This is the fame mode of cafting that is prac-
tifed for cannon (fee that article). Cafe-hardened rollers
muft be ufed when it is required to havea very fair fur-
face; viz. forfuch purpofes as rolling iron to make thin plates
for tinning ; alfo the large rollers for gold or filver, fuch as
are now ufed in the Royal Mint; rollers for making tin-foil,
iteel-plate for faws, and for many other purpofes. Thefe
rollers are not hardened by a fubfequent procefs, as in cafe-
hardening wrought iron, but are caft in that ftate. This is
effeéted by employing iron moulds: a caft-iron cylinder of
three inches thick, and its diameter equal to that of the
roller, is bored out with great accuracy, and fitted with
ends proper to form moulds for the necks required at each
end of theroller ; this is buried in the fand of the foundry,
and when the metal is run into it, the rapid tranfmiffion of the
heat through the iron mould caufes the metal which is in
contaét with it to cool fooner than the other parts of the
mafs, and renders the furface of they roller very hard. In
turning a roller of this kind, the centres muft be chofen fo
that the circumference turns as true as it will admit, and
then a very {mall quantity being taken off, will render
it perfe€t: this care fhould be taken for two reafons ;
firil, that lefs will be required to be removed to make it true,
which is a difficult operation, as only the beft fteeltools will
cut it ; alfo, that if the metal is unequally reduced, or more
on one fide than the other, the hardeft part will there be
cut away, and the roller will have a hard and a foft fide,
and foon wear out of the circular figure, and require a fe-
cond turning. The lefs metal there is turned off a cafe-
hardened roller the better it will be, becaufe the hard part
is only a cafe of flight thicknefs, and moft hard at the
furface.
The operation of the rolling-mill is fo fimple, as fearcely
to require any defcription: the metal is heated in rever-
berating furnaces when it is in large maffes, and for {maller
pieces a kind of oven is ufed, in which the cokes are laid on
the bottom or floor of the oven without any grate-bars, and
therefore the draft of air being lefs rapid, it gives a flight,
but very regular heat, which rifes to a bright red, but no
farther, and therefore it does not wafte the iron by burning
it to fcales, as a greater heat and current of air will do.
This oven is proper for heating plates, hoops, or {mall bars,
to be rolled a fecond and third time: but for rolling large
mafles, a ftrong welding heat is requifite, that the metal may
be confolidated, and all flaws or cracks fecurely clofed. The
reverberating furnace is ufed for this purpofe ; it is made
the fame as an air-furnace for melting large quautities of
iron, except that the floor is horizontal 3 indeed it is as near
as poffible fimilar to the balling furnace. (See Plate If.
Iron Manufadure.) The furnaces are placed as near as
conveniet to the rollers.
The iron, being heated in the furnace to the
for the purpofe which is intended, is taken uk Bp awil'ot
pincers, the mill put in motion by drawing the fhuttle, and
the iron is prefented to the rollers, which are previoufly ad-
juited to the thicknefs of the piece which is to be pafled.
If this is not attended to, and the workmen attempt
to reduce the iron too much at one time, there is danger of
breaking fome of the machinery, or of {topping the mill
whilft the iron is only half paffed through: this is a dif-
agreeable accident, as it wil! require four or five men, with an
enormous wrench applied to the nuts of the roller, to turn
them back fufficiently to relieve the rollers, fo forcibly are
the {crews preffed whilft the iron is pafling through: this is
indeed evinced by the circumftance of folid catt-iron rollers
of ten inches in diameter, being fometimes broken in the
middle ; and the necks of eight and nine inches are frequentl
{napped. ‘When the iron is placed on the thelf or table before
them, their motion will draw it through, and as they cannot
recede from each other, becaufe of the nuts of the bolts
the metal is reduced to the exaét thicknefs of the {pace Be.
tween them, increafing in length, but not at all in breadth :
the iron is caught by another workman behind the rollers,
and returned over the top roller to the firfl man, who puts it
through again, firft giving the handles of the nuts a {mall
turn, to bring the rolls nearer together. In this manner it
1s repeatedly rolled, till it is reduced to any required length
and thicknefs, but the breadth is not at all increafed by
rolling ; and if it is required to increafe the breadth, it is done
by putting the iron obliquely through the rollers; or if a
great increafe is wanted, the iron is put through breadth-
wife two or three times, till it is extended to the length of a
gauge which the workman has marked upon the table in
ront. :
Rolling of black Plate, fuch as is ufed for making the
boilers of iteam-engines, tanks, or other lar e veffels, in
wrought iron. Such plates, when large, and oF confiderable
thicknefs, are rolled from the blooms, or half blooms, which
are made under the forge-hantmer. Thefe blooms, which
are alfo called flabs, are nearly the length of the intended
plate ; their breadth about one-half or one-third as much as
their length, and of a thicknefs to contain as much metal as
will make two, three, or four plates. Thefe Pieces, when
heated to a white heat, are prefented breadthwife to the
rollers, and pafled through feveral times at the fame heat
until what was the breadth of the bloom, being extended
two or three times as great, becomes equal to its length. The
thick fquare plate, thus formed, is now cut up by the fhears
acrofs into two or three pieces, of about the fame fize as the
firft, but in a dire€@tion which will make what was the length
of the firlt piece to be the breadth of the fecond. Thefe
pieces, being heated and rolled again, become extended to the
fize of the required plates : the reafon of thus dividing the
Operation is, that the rolling only extends the metal in the
direction in which it moves, and not at all in breadth: by
this means, the particles of iron being drawn by the fides of
one another, acquire fomethiug of a fibrous texture, or an
approach thereto, which is defirable in bars, rods, and
hoops, but not at allin plate, as it fhould be equally ftrong
in either direction ; therefore, by rolling it firft one way, and
then the other, the grain, as far as it is produced at all, is in
both directions. There is no doubt that better plate would
be
ROLLING-MILL.
be made, if the flabs or original pieces were cut to the pro-
per proportions of length and breadth, and of a thicknefs to
form only one piece ; then rolling it alternately length and
breadth ways every time it is pafled between the rolls, and
continuing this till the plate is finifhed, at one heat ; a better
grain or texture will be thus acquired, becaufe in the former
method it will be weaker one way, having fomething of a
grain in the direétion of the laft rolling.
Rolling iron Plates which are to be Tinned. —Thele are made
from the beft Englifh iron, and fome of the very thinneit
from foreign iron; the bars are drawn out, by the forge
hammer, to five inches broad, and half an inch thick, and
are cut into lengths of eleven inches by the fhears; thefe
are heated in an oven, and pafled breadthways through cafe-
hardened rolls: this is repeated till they are extended to
twice the length of the intended plates: the pieces are
then folded, and fet on edge -in the furnace till properly
heated, when they are rolled double, the fold being put in
firft ; they are thus extended to twice the length of the
folded plate. Now two men, with ftrong tongs, tear the two
leaves afunder at the fold, and fold each again feparately,
putting one into the other, like two fheets of paper; in
this ftate they are heated, and roiled four thicknefles to-
gether, the next time eight, and fo on, till the plate is re-
duced to the required thicknefs: in the very thinneit plate,
fuch as is ufed for tagging laces, fixteen leaves ave rolled
together. In folding the plates, care is taken every time
to put a new furface of metal outfide, otherwife, thofe
which were conftantly reduced by the preflure of the adja-
cent leaves, would, at length, become grained on the fur-
face; but by continually gaining new furfaces, which are
{moothed by the immediate contaét of the rollers, thofe
which are laid againft them are alfo rendered fmooth. A
{mall quantity of oil is fprinkled between the leaves, when
they are firft put in, and initantly fpreading over the whole
furface, prevents any adhefion ; the plates are drefied fquare
by the fhears every time before they are folded, to remove
thofe parts which, by projecting over the edges of the other
leaves, are not fo much reduced.
After being finifhed, drefled fquare, and the furface
fcowered, the plates are rolled, fingly, between a pair of
polifhed cafe-hardened rolls, without being heated; they
are therefore extended but little in fize, though rendered
much harder, and more ftiff.. Z%n-foi/ is rolled much in the
fame manner as the plates for tinning, but of courfe without
heating.
Rolling, or Shingling Iron by Rollers. —This is a modern in-
vention in the manufacturing of bar-iron, the rollers being
fubftituted for the forge hammer to work the metal, in the
procefs of rendering it malleable. This method is only
ufed in conjunGtion with the paddling procefs, that is, puddling,
or converting, caft-iren into a malleable ftate, by decarbo-
nating it in a reverberating furnace; in this procefs the
metal becomes divided into grains the fize of muttard feeds,
with a very flight cohefion, and full of interitices between
the grains; it therefore requires to be ftamped, or ham-
mered, at a welding heat, into a folid mafs; but rolling will
alfo anfwer the purpofe.
This was firit difcovered by the late Mr. Wilkinfon, who
had, in his extenfive works at Brofely, in Shropfhire, a
pair of enormous rollers, moved by the beam of the iteam-
engine, not witha rotatory, but witha reciprocating motion ;
they were five feet diameter, near ten feet long, and weighed
almoft. five tons each, although caft hollow, like garden
rollers ; feCtors were fixed on the ends of the gudgeons, te
turn each other, as they did not make above one-third of a
revolution, and then moved back again. The circumference
of the rolls were grooved with grooves, gradually ‘dimi-
nifhing from one end to the other, in the fame manner as the
rollers fhewn in Plate V. fig. 1. The mafs of iron to be
rolled was colle€ted into a ball in the furnace, which was
taken out, and pafled through the greateft of the grooves.
When it came through, a workman at the oppofite fide re--
moved the ball to the next {malleft groove, and by the re-
turning motion of the rollers, it was carried back again te
the front: the front workman then returned it in another
groove, and fo on, pafiing fucceflively through the dif-
ferent grooves, until, by gradual confolidation, it was re-
duced to an imperie& bar of malleable iron. A number of
thefe, being cut into lengths, were made up into faggots, or
piles, and by a pair of rotatory rollers finifhed into bars.
Mr. Wilkinfon hada patent for this machine, but it was
afterwards found that other rollers would effect the purpofe
better. In fig. 1. of Plate V. is a view of a pair taken
from Mr. Samuel Smith’s works, at Sheffield, Yorkshire, a
gentleman who, we believe, was the firlt who brought them
into ufe; the two grooves e and f are very coarfe, and
have teeth, that they may, more certainly, draw in the balls.
The two next grooves are plain but concave, and the re-
mainder are angular, to form fquare bars when the ball be-
comes confolidated. The ufe of thefe rollers is very fimilar
to thofe we have juft deferibed, the ball of metal being
taken from the furnace, and prefented to the rolls. As foon
as the metal comes through the rollers, a workman behind
lifts it over the upper roll to the firft workman, who puts
it between them again: in this manner the metal is rolled
ten or twelve times, being put through a {maller groove of the
rollers at each time, fo as to comprefs it in a greater degree
every time, till at laft itis reduced to a tolerable {quare bar ;
but the lait groove E, fig. 2, has teeth in different parts of
the groove, and at fuch diftances from each other, that they
will indent fo deeply upon the angles of the bars, at every
eight or ten inches of their length, as to render it eafy to
break them into fhort pieces when they come through. The
pieces, thus formed, are piled four together, and put into a
ball furnace, and, when heated, they are rolled into bars,
by rollers fhewn at fg. 4, which, at the firft five grooves,
é, fs are fimilar to the former, but the fucceeding grooves,
£,2, are made to receive the rings of the oppofite roll,
leaving {mall rectangular {paces, as is fhewn by the light
parts, jig. 4, through which the iron, being paffed, is re-
duced to a parallel {mooth bar. The fucceflive grooves
through which it is pafled are each made narrower than the
preceding, fo as to reduce the bars to the width and thick-
nefs intended. in which ftate they are fent to market, or if
required for the nail rods, or hoops, are cut up by the flitters.
The rollers are thought to inclofe the impurities in the iron,
rather than expel them; but as rollers require much lefs
power to give them motion than the hammer, it becomes
worth the confideration of manufaéturers to improve their
conitru€tion, and render them equal in effe@& to the hammer.
At prefent the rolled iron is not always fo good in quality as
the hammered, though this circumitance fhould not deter
manufacturers from ufing it, as it is fearcely poffible that a
newly invented procefs fhould be at firit brought to equal
perfeGtion with another which has exercifed the ingenuity of
manufacturers for ages palt. But in the courfe of practice
many improvements may arife, which will remain undif-
covered if the procefs, in its prefent ftate, is negleGted;
even in this ftate the puddled iron, made with rollers, is by
no means to be defpifed, when its price and quality are com-
pared ; it is for iron requiring the fibrous texture that this
procefs is beft adapted.
Rolling and flitting iron for nailrods or {mall hoops. The
iren
ROL
i ich is fubje&ted to this procefs is brought to the
mill, oe lV. before defcribed, from the forge hammer,
in bars of a fize proportionate to the nail rod it is intended
to make ; thefe are cut into lengths by the fhears, and heated
in the furnace, then rolled repeatedly through the rollers,
C, D, which are reduced every time it pafles, until the bar
becomes of the thicknefs for the {quare of the intended rod,
half an inch for inftance, and two, or two and a half, inches
wide : it is, in this ftate, prefented to the litters E, F, and
one end being introduced between the guide-bars of the
flitters, is drawn in between them by the motion, and, by
this means the ring of one roller prefles a correfpouding
breadth of the hot metal into the {pace between the rings of
the other roller; this being performed by both rollers, com-
pletely divides the bar into feveral rods of the fame breadth
with the rings of the rollers. A {mall leaden pipe is fixed
over the cutters, and being perforated with holes, conttantly
lets fall a fupply of cold water on the rollers, to prevent their
becoming hot, and thus lofing their hardnefs, which alone
preferves. their circular figure under the intenfe preflure they
have to fuftain in dividing the iron. The guide-bars are
intended to force the iron rods, when cut, out of the
grooves between the rings of the collar, which they would
not otherwife quit, after being fo forcibly preffed into them
by the rings of the oppofite roller. For making {mall
hoops, the rods, as foon as they are formed, are put through
the plaia rolls again, and flattened into a hoop. a
Rolling of Iron Hoops.—Iin the country thefe are made rom
jvon bars, which are reduced in rollers, fimilar to SB 45 toa
fize proper to produce the hoops required ; thefe are cut into
lengths, heated, and pafled through the flitters, which divide
them into three or four rods, which are immediately pre-
fented to the cafe-hardened rolls, and flattened out into a
proper hoop. The mill fhewn in P/ate IV. is equally
adapted for this work as for nail-rod ;_ but for hoops, the ad-
dition of a proper fly-wheel would be an improvement, as
is fo much heavier. ;
a Lean, where a vaft quantity of old hoops is to be
procured, they are re-manufactured, and make the very beft
fort. The vitualling-board alone confume many hundred
tons annually for the fervice of the navy: the old hoops
are made up into faggots, and fhingled, or welded into bloom
at one heat, by a forge-hammer, or in {mall works by rollers
like Plate V. fig. t. The blooms, being again heated, are
rolled out into bars by the bar rollers, fig. 4, and thefe are
cut into two or three lengths, according to the fizes of the
intended hoops; thefe pieces are heated a third time, flit
into rods as above defcribed, and then formed into hoops by
the cafe-hardened rolls. By fucceflive improvements it has
been found, that two heats are fufficient, the firft for fhin-
gling and forming the bars, and the fecond for fitting and
flattening the hoops; but in either method the grand objec
is by faggoting and rolling, always in the direction of the
length, to gain a fibrous texture to the iron.
Old hoops have been lately made up into new at one
operation ; by employing a greater power and velocity, and
making up aimaller quantity at once, it may be effected at
a fingle heat, inftead of two or three. For this purpofe the
old hoops are cut into fhort lengths and faggoted in piles,
the rivets being firft cut ont and the pieces ftraightened, that
the piles may be more clofe and compact: thefe piles are
heated in the ufual kind of furnace toa good welding heat, and
are rolled between the fhingling rollers, being pafled through
two or three grooves till they are properly reduced to go
through the flat-grooved bar rollers: after rolling through
the three grooves thereof, they are put through the flat parts,
and a guide is ufed to direé&t them itraight forwards, without
VoL. XXX.
ROL
care or attention from the workman. The bar is then car-
ried to the cutters, and flit into two or more rods, which are
immediately and {ucceflively paffed between a pair of plain,
cafe-hardened rolls, to finifh the hoops.
Vat-hoops, or others above two inches in width, do not
require to be flit, but are at once carried from the.bar rollers
to the plain rollers, which finith them. The piles for fhin-
gling muit not be made too large, or the hoops will not retain
{ufficient heat to be found; about 42lbs. will be a proper
quantity. The mill for this manufa@ure muft of courfe
have great power, and the rollers fhould move with a fuffi-
cient velocity to enable the iron to be got through the whole
procefs whilft fufficiently hot. The bar and fhinglin
rollers fhould be placed clofe together in a line, and suite
make about go revolutions per minute ; the cafe-hardened
rollers thould make 140 per minute, and fhould be placed in
fuch relative fituations as will be mott convenient to convey
the iron in the quickeft manner from one pair to the next.
A patent has béen taken out by fome, who pretend to the
invention of the above method; but they cannot prevent
other manufacturers ufing it, as it is no new invention, con-
fifting only in taking more care, and ufing rollers with a
greater velocity.
The rolling-mill is not confined to the laminating of iron,
but is likewife employed very extenfively for reducing brafs,
copper, tin, lead, as well as gold and filver, into plates and
bars. The latter metals are fearcely ever reduced by any
other means than rolling ; as this method makes no watte, is
the moft expeditious, and produces better work than ham-
mering, or any other method, particularly when an equality
of thicknefs and an even furface are defired ; fuch, for ex-
ample, as gold or filver, which is always to receive a polith ;
in thefe cafes the rollers are made of fteel hardened and po-
lifhed on the furface with the mott {crupulous nicety, that
they may produce a perfeét furface on the matters which
have been pafled through them.
Rotiinc-Prefs Printing. See Prixtixc.
Rotting, in Sea Language, that motion by which a fhip
vibrates from fide to fide. Rolling is, therefore, a fort of
revolution about an imaginary axis, pafling through the
centre of gravity of the fhip ; fo that the nearer the centre
of gravity is to the keel, the more violent will be the roll ;
becaufe the centre about which the vibrations are made is
placed fo low in the bottom, that the refiftance made by the
keel to the volume of water which it difplaces in rolling, bears
very little proportion to the force of the vibration above
the centre of gravity, the radius of which extends as high as
the maft-heads. But if the centre of gravity is placed higher
above the keel, the radius of the vibration will not only be
diminifhed, but fuch an additional force to oppofe the motion
of rolling will be communicated to that part of the fhip’s
bottom as may contribute to dimisuith this movement con-
fiderably.
It may be obferved, that, with refpect to the formation
of a thip’s body, that fhape which approaches nearetft to a
circle is the moit liable to roll 3 as it is evident, that if this
be agitated in the water, it will have nothing to reftrain it;
becaufe the rolling or rotation about its centre difplaces no
more water than when it remains upright ; and hence it
becomes neceflary to increafe the depth of the hold, the rifing
of the floors, and dead or rifing-wood afore and abaft. See
SHIP-BUILDING.
Rouuine-Tackle. See Tackrr.
Rotiine Fork, in Geography, a river of Kentucky,
which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 37° 47’. W. long.
86° 18/.
ROLLO, in Biography, the firft duke of Normandy, was
' 31L originally
ROL
originally a chieftain or petty prince of Denmark : the king
of that country having in vain endeavoured by force to fub-
due his {mall territory, lulled him into fecurity by a treaty
which he never intended to keep, and then falling perfidi-
oufly upon him, killed his brother and many of his officers,
and obliged him to take refuge in Scandinavia.- Rollo here
collected a body of troops, whom he farther attached to his
caufe by a pretended vifion which predicted the certainty
of future fuccefs ; and then he made a bold attempt upon
England, in the latter end of Alfred’s reign. The order
introduced by that prince having completely foiled the de-
figns of the adventurer, he direted his enterprifes to France ;
and failing up the Seine, committed great ravages, and ob-
tained pofleflion of the city of Rouen. He proved himfelf
fo formidable an enemy to Charles the Simple, at that time
king of France, that he was glad to make atreaty with Rollo,
by which he gave him his daughter in marriage, with that
part of Neuftria called Normandy, for her dower, on the con-
dition that Rollo fhould do homage for his territory, and
embrace the Chriftian religion. Rollo very readily fub-
mitted to the ceremony of baptifm, in which he had Robert
duke of France for his {ponfor, whofe name he affumed. ,
In governing the dukedom which he had gained by his
fword, the Dane fhewed nothing of the barbarian. He di-
vided the land among his followers upon the feudal tenure,
eftablifhed magiftracies in the different diftri€ts, and took
care that law and juftice were exa€tly adminiftered. He
feverely punifhed robbery ; treated his French fubjeéts with
mildnefs and equity ; founded bifhoprics and religious houfes ;
and aéted, in all refpeéts, like an enlightened fovereign.
Such was the reputation of his government, that the country
fhortly recovered its population and wealth, and many of his
roving countrymen fettled in Normandy, and became ufeful
and regular fubjeéts. To him is attributed the inftitution
of the exchequer, or ambulatory parliament, which, at a
later period, became {tationary at Rouen. He died, worn
out with the cares of government, in 932, having, five
years before this, abdicated his throne in favour of -his fon
William.
Roto, in Geography, an ifland in the North fea, near the
coaft of Lapland. N. lat. 68° 15!.
Roxto’s Head, a cape on the W. coatt of the ifland of
Dominica ; three miles S. of Prince Rupert’s Hand.
ROLLOCK, Rosert, in Biography, a learned Scotch
divine, was born near Stirling in the year 1556. He ftu-
died the claflics and belles-lettres under Thomas Buchanan,
who has been charatterifed by Spotfwood as learned and
wife, and a {trong defender of the church’s rights, and who
then kept a {chool of confiderable reputation. From Bu-
chanan’s fchool Rollock went to the univerfity of St. An-
drew’s, where he went through a courfe of philofophy, and,
having greatly diftinguifhed himfelf, he took his degree, and
was made regent of his college. In 1580 the magittrates of
Edinburgh obtained permiffion of the king, James VI., to
build a college, which being accomplifhed, Mr. Rollock was,
in 1583, chofen the principal, and firft theological profeflor.
His high charaéter, though not thirty years of age, brought
numerous ftudents to the new univerfity. His reputation
extended ‘to foreign, countries, where he was greatly re-
{pected by the reformed churches. He died in the year 1598,
when he had only reached. his forty-third year. He was
author of many works, among which are the following:
*¢ In feleétos aliquot Pfalmos Davidis Commentarius ;”
** In Danielem Prophetam Commentarius ;”’ “ In Epiftolam
ec. Sanétum Johannem Comment.”? He publifhed com-
mentaries on fome of the other epiftles; alfo * Analyfis
Logica ia Epiftolam ad Hebreos.”
ROM
ROLPACH, in Geography, a town of Thibet, capital
of a diftri@ ; 150 miles N. of Fyzabad. N. lat. 29° 21!. E.
long. 82° 5!. :
ROLSHUGARDE, a town of Norway; 46 miles
§.S.E. of Drontheim.
ROM, an ifland in the North fea, near the coaft.of North
Jutland, about eight miles long and two wide. N,. lat.
Hho iE long. Slane ;
Rom, atown of France, in the department of the Vi-
enne; 10 miles S. of Lufignan.
ROMA, an ifland in the Haft Indian fea ; about 20 miles
long, and from 6 to 1z broad. 5, lat. 7° 12!. E. long.
1270112!
ROMAGNA, a late province of Italy, bounded on the
N. by the Ferrarefe, on the E. by the Adriatic, on the
S. by the duchy of Urbino and Tufcany, and on the W.
by Bologna; about 45 miles long and 30 broad. This
country, which was part of the ancient Flaminia, fell, in
the fifth century, under the dominion of the Oftrogoths ;
whofe king, Theodoric, after having taken the city of Ra-
venna, in the year 493, made it the place of his ulual refi-
dence. In the following century, the Goths, being driven
out by Belifarius and Narfes, generals of the emperors of
the Katt, Ravenna became the refidence of the emperor’s
exarch, till the Lombards made themfelves matters of it, and
difpofleffed the laft exarch. Inthe year 755, Pepin, king
of the Franks, having compelled Itulphus, king of the Lom-
bards, to cede the. whole exarchate, conferred it on the fee of
Rome. It now forms the departments of the Amone or La-
mone, and the Rubicon, in the kingdom of Italy, being fur-
rendered by the pepe in 1797.. See Exanrcu, and Ra-
VENNA,
ROMAGNANDO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Gogna, on the Sefia; 15 miles N.N.W. of Novara.
ROMAGNE, La, atown of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire; 6 miles W. of Chollet.
RomaGne fous les Cotes, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meufe; g miles N.W. of Eftain.
ROMAGNO, atown of Italy, in the Feltrin ; 6 miles
N.E. of Feltri.— Alfo, a town of the ifland of Sardinia
12 miles N.N.E. of Saflari.
ROMAHIE’, a town of the Arabian Irac, on the
Euphrates ; 100 miles S. of Bagdad. N. lat. 31° 4o!. E.
long. 44° 15!.
ROMAIN, in Hufbandry, the name of a plant, culti-
vated in the fields, in many parts of the world, partieularly
in France, and called, by our farmers, French vetches, or
French tares. It is an annual plant, but a very quick
grower, and is extremely good food for cattle, particularly
for horfes: they let thefe creatures feed on it all the former
part of the fummer, and then cut it for hay in Auguit or
September. Its fhort continuance in the ground makes it
lefs valuable than faint-foin and clover; but it has this ad-
vantage over them, that it will grow on poor ground.
Romain, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the fouth coaft
of Madagafcar. S. lat. 35° 38’. E. long. 49° 20/.
Romain, St, a town of France, in the department of
the Charente; 3 miles N.W. of Aubeterre.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, and chief
place of a canton, in the diitri@ of La Havre; 7 miles E.
of Montivilliers. The place contains 1200, and the canton
11,569 inhabitants, ona territory of 155 kiliometres, in 28
communes.
Romarn ad’ Alban, St., a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dréme ; 15 miles N.N.W. of Romans.
Romain ex Jareff, St, a town of France, in the depart-
9 ment
ROM
ment of the Rhone and Loire; 12 miles N.N.E. of St.
Etienne.
ROMAINE, Wrt1ay, in Biography, a very popular
divine of the church of England, was born at Durham in
1714, and educated at Hertford college, Oxford; from
whence he removed to Chrift-church, where he took his de-
grees in arts. On entering into holy orders, he became a
frequent preacher before the univerfity, and was noted for
his zeal in behalf of what were deemed the orthedox doc-
trines. He removed to London in 1749, and became lec-
turer at St. Dunftan’s church, Fleet-{treet. He was, for a
fhort time, morning preacher at St. George, Hanover-fquare,
and profeffor of aftronomy at Grefham college, which
fituation he foon refigned. In 1764 he was chofen rector
of St. Anne, Blackfriars, where, and at St. Dunftan’s, he
continued to preach to large and very crowded congrega-
tions almoft to his death, which happened in the year 1795.
Towards the clofe of life his voice was feeble, but his man-
ner was very impreffive. His works, which are theological,
and on the Calviniftical fcheme, have been colle&ted in
8 vols. 8vo. He was editor of Calafio’s Concordance to
the Hebrew Bible, in 4 vols. folio, in 17493; in which, it
is faid, he made fome unwarrantable alterations to ferve the
Hutchinfonian doGrine.
ROMAINMOTIER, in Geography, a town of Swit-
zerland, in the canton of Berne, from which a bailiwic de-
rives its name; 11 miles S.W. of Yverdun.
ROMAINVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Paris; 5 miles E. of Paris’
ROMALE, atown of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 35
milies W.S.W. of Skara.
ROMAN, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia,
on the Siret, the fee of a Greek bifhop; 145 miles W. of
Bender.
Roman, Cape, a cape on the weft coaft of Eaft Florida.
N. lat. 25° 4o!.. W. long. 82° 25’.—Alfo, a cape on the
coaft of Chili, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 48° 20/.
W. long. 76° 40'.—Alfo, a cape on the coaft of South Ca-
rolina. N. lat. 33° 5’. W. long. 79° 30!.—Alfo, a cape
on the coaft of Florida, 20} leagues N.W. by N. from Cape
Sable, the S.W. point of the peninfula of Florida.—Alfo,
a cape on the north coaft of Terra Firma, being the north
point of the peninfula, which is the eaft limit of the gulf of
Venezuela. Due north of it is the ifland of Orua, or Araba,
at eight or nine leagues diftance, belonging to the Dutch.
Roman County, a county of North Carolina, containing
21,543 inhabitants.
Roman, fomething belonging to the city of Rome.
Roman Monarchy. See Monarcuy, and Rome, infra.
Roman, or Romi/b Church, is that of which the pope is
head, fo called in oppofition to the reformed churches. See
Papists, and Popery. See alfo Cuurcu and RerorMa-
TION.
The Roman law is the civil law, or the written law, as
compiled by the emperor Juftinian.
Roman Ecclefiaftical Singing and Mujic, during the middle
ages. Thefe were in fuch general favour throughout Eu-
rope, that “it was the cuftom, during the times of the
ateft mufical and mental darknefs, when reafon and re-
e€tion were the leaft cultivated, for the priefts, of almoft
every part of Europe, to vifit Rome, in order to learn
canto fermo, and the manner of performing thofe rites of
the church, in which mufic had any concern. Even thofe
hiftorians who are the leaft friends to bigotry, and the moft
ready to combat fuperftition and papal ufurpations, allow
that it was only at the court of Rome that the arts of ele-
gance and refinement were at all cherifhed, during thefe
ROM
times. King Pepin, Charlemagne, and Alfred, had ap-
plied to the Roman pontiffs for finging-mafters to inftruét
their fubjeés.
The learned Jufquin went thither as a finger, during the
pontificate of Sixtus IV. And before the year 1600, the
names of near twenty Spanifh fingers and compofers are re-
corded, who were employed in the pontifical chapel. Yet
all this proves nothing more than that m=ficians of great
abilities, from whatever part of the world they came, were
certain of encouragement there. For more faéts to this
purpofe, fee Irary.
_ Roman Games, Ludi Romani, were folemn games, held
in ancient Rome, thus called by way of eminence, and on
pone of their antiquity, as having been inftituted by Ro-
mulus.
They were fometimes alfo called magni Judi, from the
great pomp and expence of them ; and fometimes con/ualia,
becaufe performed in honour of the god Neptune, who was
alfo called Con/us, in his quality of god of fecret counfels.
They alfo bore the denomination of Judi Circenfes, becaufe
held in the Circus.
_ This folemnity, Halicarnaffeus obferves, was originally
inftituted by Evander, in honour of Neptune, under the
name of ‘Irzios, whence the feftival itfelf was called ‘Irric-
xewhe ; and was afterwards renewed by Romulus, in honour
of the fame deity, only under another name.
For Romulus, needing the advice of a god to counfel him
in the defign he had to furnith his new citizens with wives,
applied to the god of fecret counfel himfelf, Confus ; pro-
claimed the Confualia; and invited his neighbours all
around to the firft celebration thereof. The confequence
was the rape of the Sabine women, who came to be {peta-
tors of it.
The great ceremony, in thefe games, confifted in a caval-
cade of horfes and afles, adorned with garlands ; Neptune
being reputed the firft author of riding on horfeback.
Their horfes here were of two kinds; viz. WOUTIXOly OF
fuch as were merely led up and down for ftate ; and deopesxoty
which were for race and exercife.
The other diverfions were fencing, and that till one of the
combatants was killed on the fpot; fighting with beafts,
and with the ceftus, or whirlbats; wreftling, running,
leaping, fea-fights, horfe-races, chariot-races, &c.
Thefe games, Livy tells us, were improved, and rendered
much more magnificent, by Tarquinius Prifeus. Manutius
fays, they were held on the eve of the nones of September ;
i. e. on the 14th day of the month.
Roman Operas. In treating of the progrefs of the
mufical drama, in that ancient and renowned capital, during
the former part of the 17th century, it does not appear
that any regular theatre was opened there for the perform.
ance of operas; nor, indeed, can we difcover that any fe-
cular mufical drama was exhibited there till the year 1632,
when “ [1] Ritorno di Angelica nell’ Indie, Drama Mu-
ficale,” is recorded by Leo Allacci, in his Drammaturgia,
to have been performed in that city ; but without informing
us where, or by whom fet to mufic or fung. Several mu-
fical dramas, however, were performed there at the palaces
of ambafladors, and other great perfonages, between 1632
and 1661, when « Clearco,”’ fet by Tenaglia, a Roman
ma{ter, was performed. This compofer, who had diftin-
guifhed himfelf by his produétions for the church, is cele-
cece by P. Della Valle among great Roman muficians in
1640.
The firft public theatre, opened for the exhibition of
mufical dramas at Rome, in modern times, was il Torre
di Nona, where “ Giafone’? was performed, 1671. No
3L.2 other
ROM
other theatre feems to have been ufed for this purpofe in
that city till 1679, when the opera of « Dov’ é Amore,
é Pieta,’’ fet by Bernardo Pafquini, the famous organift,
was reprefented Nella Sala de’ Signori Capranica. This,
theatre itill fubfilts.
Romans, King of the, in Modern Hiflory, is a prince
elected and defigned fucceflor to the German empire.
Roman Alum. See Roman Atum.
Roman Balance, Siatera Romana, the fteel-yard.
A Roman Charity, among Painters, is a picture of a
woman fuckling an old man.
Roman JndiGion. See INpICcTION.
Roman Knight, &c. See Knieut, &c-
Roman Language, &c. See Latin, &c.
Roman Order, in Architedure, is that'more ufually called
the Compolite.
Roman Purple now denotes the dignity of a cardinal.
Roman Roads. See Roap and Way.
Roman Year, Kc. See YEAR, &c.
ROMANCE, anciently Romaunt, and Komant, a Re
bulous relation of certain intrigues and adventures in the
way of love and gallantry, invented to entertain and inftruct
the readers.
M. Fontenelle calls romances poems in profe ; and Boflu
is not averfe to their being admitted as poetical. pieces,
though not written in verfe. = ;
Setting afide the verfification, it is certain an epic poem
and a romance are almoft the fame thing. The juit notion,
therefore, of a romance is, that it is a difcourfe invented
with art to pleafe and improve the mind, and to form or
mend the manners, by inftruétions, difguifed under the alle-
gory of an aétion, or feries of actions, related in profe, in a
delightful and probable, yet furprifing manner.
A juft romance confifts of two parts: viz. a moral, as
its foundation, and erid; and a fable, or action, as the fu-
perftru€ture and means.
It muft alfo have the manners; that is, the characters
mutt be diftinguifhed, and the manners mutt be neceflary ;
and it muit have all the other qualities of poetical manners.
The incidents muft be delightful, and, to that end, rightly
difpofed and furprifing. The fentiments fall under the fame
rules as in the drama.
But the digtion is allowed to be more lofty and figurative ;
as being a narration, and not having terror or pity, but ad-
miration for its end.
A romance of chivalry, according to the definition of a
late.writer, is any fabulous narration, in verfe or profe, in
which the principal chara¢ters are knighte, conducting them-
felves, in their feveral fituations and adventures, agreeably
to the inititutions and cuftoms of chivalry.
As compofitions of this kind have a long time been little
elfe but hiitories of amorous adventures, and feats of knight-
errantry, the origin of romances is referred to that of love-
hiftories ; and accordingly Dearchus, a difciple of Ariftotle,
who firft wrote of thofe matters, is ufually termed the ori-
ginal author of romances. Though Photius is of opinion,
that Antonius Diogenes’s book on the errors and amours of
Dinias and Dercyllis gave birth to moft of the works of this
kind. Be this as. it will, it is certain the ancients have had
their romances as well as we. Such are the amours of Rho-
danis and Simonides, defcribed in iambics; fuch is the ro-
mance of Leucippe and Clitophon, compofed by Achilles
Tatius, a Greek writer, afterwards a bifhop; fuch are the
Four Books of Incredible Things, written by Damafcius ;
fuch are the Ethiopics of Heliodorus, in which he relates
the amours of Theagenes and ‘Chariclea. Laftly, under the
fame clafs may be ranked the Fables of Parthenms Nicenus,
ROM
of Athenagoras, Theodorus Prodromus, Euftathius, and
Longus.
Indeed antiquity could f{carce be reconciled to fuch pieces,
and always looked on them as abufes. Photius, in his
Bibliotheca, cod. Ixxxvii. gives a frightful account of that
of Tatius; and the Ethiopics of Heliodorus, though one
of the moft modett and mott referved pieces of the kind, met
with a very fevere treatment. The author was bifhop of
Tricca, in Theflalia, in the fourth century. Nicephorus
tells us, that a fynod, confidering the danger which might
accrue to youth from reading his romance, authorifed as it
was by the dignity of its author, propofed it to him, either
to fupprefs his book, or renounce his bifhopric; and that
he chofe the latter. But this hiftory is a httle doubtful.
Be this as it will, Heliodorus has ferved as a model to all
the romances written fince ; and the marriage of Theagenes
and Chariclea has produced a very numerous iffue, even all
the romances now extant in the world.
Mr. T. Warton, in his ‘ Differtation on the Origin of
Romantic Fiction in Europe,’’ prefixed to the « Hiftory of
Englifh Poetry,”’ vol. i. is of opinion, that the peculiar and
arbitrary {pecies of fi€tion, which we call romantic, was en-
tirely unknown to the writers of Greece and Rome ; and it
appears to have been'imported into Europe by a people,
whofe modes of thinking, and habits of invention, are not
natural to that country. Whatever be their origin, which
will be a fubject of inquiry in the fequel of this article, it
mutt be allowed that the ancient metrical romances were
very early fuperfeded by profe works upon the fame fubjects.
Thefe lait, although far inferior, in intereft and merit, to
the poetical tales which preceded them, claimed and ob-
tained a fuperior degree of credit, founded upon the fi€tion
alleged to be infeparable from metre; upon the degraded
ftate of the minitrels, whofe province it was to recite thefe
difparaged rhyming legends; and, above all, upon a grave
pretext fet up by the author of each profe work, that he
had tranflated it verbatim et literatim from an ancient Greek
or Latin original. As no fuch Greek or Latin original for
a romance of chivalry has ever been produced, we may be
fafely allowed to doubt whether any fuch ever exifted. But
our anceftors received thefe accounts with unhefitating cre-
dulity, and gravely read the voluminous romances of Lan-
celot du Lac, and Palmerin of England, as tranflations from
ancient annals, while they rejected with fcorn the rhyming
legends of the minttrels on the fame fubjects. Thus the
metrical romances were obliged to give way to the profe
works, which were, in fact, borrowed from them; and fo
complete was the fubftitution of the one {pecies of fable for
the other, that the prefs, which was then invented about the
period of this revolution in public tafte, groaned under the
{plendid folios of the former, while the latter remained in
obfcure manufcripts, or were only printed in the meaneit
manner, and for the meaneft of the people. Thus the very
exiftence of the metrical romance, as a diltin@, feparate,
and more ancient kind of compofition, was unknown and
unnoticed till the publication of the works of fome modern
writers.
Bifhop Percy, the venerable editor of the ‘*-Reliques of
Ancient Poetry,’’ feems to have been the firlt perfon in our
country who direéted the public attention to this fubject,
by an ‘¢ Effay upon Metrical Romance,”’ prefixed to the
third volume of his work, in which the merits and qualities
of the poetry and chivalry are critically inveftigated, and a
lift given of fuch metrical romances as had come to his
knowledge, The learned prelate was followed by Mr. T.
Warton ; and not to mention the colleftors and publifhers
of fome of the fhorter and more.ancient of our metrical tales
of
ROMANCE.
of chivalry, both in London and Edinburgh, the firft com-
prehenfive and general work upon this es eeae fubjeé&
was undertaken by Mr. Ritfon, which was foon fucceeded
by the more popular and elegant performance of Mr.
George Ellis, entitled ‘* Specimens of early Englifh Me-
trical Romances, chiefly written during the early Part of
the 14th Century: to which is prefixed a hiltorical Intro-
duétion, intended to illuftrate the Rife and Progrefs of Ro-
mantic Compofition in France and England.’”? Mr. Ritfon’s
work is a fele&tion of “ Ancient Englifh Metrical Ro-
mances,” containing twelve metrical romances of chivalry ;
to which is prefixed a long and elaborate diflertation on
Romance and Minttrelfy. 2
In imitation of the archbifhop Turpinus, who pafled for
author of the romance of the Feafts of Charlemagne and
Orlando, a great number of hiftories, of the like kind, were
written in France, during the time of Philip the Fair; the
authors of which feemed to improve on each other, con-
tending who fhould go farthelt in the merveilleux. Thefe
books, being intended for polite people, were written in the
court language of that age, which was called the romans,
romant, or romantic; whence the books themfelves were
called by thofe names : and thus, by degrees, romans, &c.
became the general name of all books of this kind; whence,
at length, our romance. a ; ;
To this purpofe, Crefcimbeni, reciting the {everal opi-
nions refpe€ting the name romanza, derives it from the
word Roma, and tells us, that it means that vulgar idiom
which, with colonies of Romans, pafled into. Provence, and
elfewhere, and was elteemed, even by the barbarians who
inhabited thofe kingdoms, and called Romano and Ro-
manzo; and in this they wrote the aéts and achievements of
knights; which writings were, therefore, {tyled romanzi,
or romances.
Others derive the word from the Spanifh roman/ero, I in-
vent; as intimating romances to be mere fictions. And
hence it is that the ancient poets of Provence, who were
the firft great dealers in romances, are called ¢roubadours,
. d. finders, or inventors.
Crefcimbeni remarks, that the Italians derived from Pro-
vence, not only the origin and art of writing romances, but
alfo the very fubjeéts on which they were founded; and
though it is not precifely known who were the romance
writers of Provence, yet many of their romances are found
in the Italian libraries; and, indeed, from fuch a fource of
poetical fiétion as the country of Provence appears to have
been, nothing lefs could be expected than a vatt profufion
of romances, and other works of invention. See Pro-
VENGAL Poets, and alfo Mixstrers, with whofe hiitory
that of romances, of which they were the compofers, is
nearly connected. i Q
It has been a received opinion among{t modern critics,
that the fiGions of romance, borrowed from the Arabians,
were communicated to the Weftern world by means of the
Crufades. Mr. Warton (ubi fupra)~is of opinion, that al-
though thefe expeditions greatly contributed to propagate
this mode of fabling in Europe, they were introduced at a
much earlier period by the Saracens, or Arabians, who
came from the northern coa{fts of Africa, and fettled in
Spain, about the beginning of the eighth century. From
Spain, he imagines, they found an eafy paflage into France
and Italy; and the clofe connection which fubfifted for
many centuries between the Welfh and their colonifts, the
Armoricans, might have been the means of bringing them
from France into this ifland. (See Armorica.) A ftrié&
intimacy alfo fubfifted between Cornwall and Wales; and
hence we are able to account for Cornwall’s being made the
fcene and the fubjeét of fo many romantic adventures in the
French romances. Their language, cuftoms, and alliances
were the fame; and by Britifh writers, Cornwall, feparated
from Wales only by a ftrait of inconfiderable breadth, is
frequently ftyled Weft Wales. At the invafion of. the
Saxons, both countries became indifcriminately the re-
ceptacle of the fugitive Britons. We find the Welfh and
Cornifh, as one people, often uniting themfelves as in a na-
tional caufe againft the Saxons. They were frequently
fubject to the fame prince, who fometimes refided in Wales,
and fometimes in Cornwall; and the kings or dukes of
Cornwall were perpetually celebrated in fong by the Welfh
bards. Traditions about king Arthur are as popular in
Cornwall as in Wales; and moft of the romantic caitles,
rocks, rivers, and caves, of both nations are alike diftin-
guifhed at this day by fome noble achievements, at leaft by
the name of that celebrated champion.
Arthur and Charlemagne, according to Warton, are the
firft and original heroes of romance. And as Geoffroy’s
hiftory is the grand repofitory of the aéts of Arthur, fo a
fabulous hiftory, afcribed to Turpin above-mentioned, is
the ground-work of all the chimerical legends which have
been related concerning the conquetts of Charlemagne, and
his twelve peers. Its fubje& is the expulfion of the Sara-
cens from Spain: and it is filled with fitions evidently con-
genial with thofe which charaéterize Geoffroy’s hiftory.
Some have fuppofed this romance to have been written by
Turpin, a monk of the eighth century, who for his learning,
and fanétity, and gallant exploits againft the Saracens of
Spain, was preferred by Charlemagne to the archbifhopric
of Rheims. Others fuppofe it to have been forged under
archbifhop Turpin’s name, about that time; others, very
foon afterwards, in the reign of Charles the Bald, that is,
about the year 870. Hiftorical evidence concurs with nu-
merous internal arguments to prove, that it muft have been
compiled after the crufades, or about the year 1110. | In
the two fabulous chronicles now mentioned, the foundations
of romance feem, in Mr. Warton’s opinion, to be laid.
The principal charaéters, the leading fubjeGts, and the fun-
damental features, which have fupplied fuch ample matter
to this fingular {pecies. of compofition, are here firft dif-
played. And although the long continuance of the cru-
fades imported innumerable inventions of a fimilar com-
plexion, and fubftituted the achievements of new cham-
pions, and the wonders of other countries; yet the tales of
Arthur and Charlemagne, diverfified indeed, or enlarged
with additional embellifhments, {till continued to prevail,
and to be the favourite topics. Upon the whole Mr.
Warton concludes, that thefe volumes are the firft {fpecimens
extant in this mode of writing ; but he confiders the Sara-
cens, either at their immigration into Spain, about the ninth
century, or at the time of the crufades, as the firft authors
of romantic fiction among the Europeans.
In examining the hypothefis of Dr. Percy and Mr. Mal-
let, who derive thefe fiétions, in a lineal defcent, from
the ancient hiftorical fongs of the Gothic bards and
fcalds, he allows this opinion to be in fome meafure well
founded, and that fo far it is alfo reconcileable with his
own fyftem.
The fcaldic inventions, he fays, had undoubtedly taken
deep root in Europe, and prepared the way for the more eafy
admiffion of the Arabian fabling, about the ninth century,
by which they were, however, in a great meafure fuperfeded.
As a proof of which he obferves, that the enchantments of
the Runic poetry are very different from thofe in our ro-
mances of chivalry.. The former chiefly deals in fpells and
charms, fuch as would preferve from poifons, blunt the
weapons
ROMANCE.
weapons of an enemy, procure victory, allay a tempelt, cure
bodily difeafes, or call the dead from their tombs, in uttering
a form of myfterious words, or infcribing Runic chara¢ters.
The magicians of romance are chiefly employed in forming
and conduéting a train of deceptions. There is an air of
barbaric horror in the incantations of the f{caldic fablers :
the magicians of romance often prefent vifions of pleafure
and delight : and although, not without their alarming ter-
rors, fometimes lead us through flowery forelts, and raife
up palaces glittering with gold and precious ftones. The
Runic magic is more like that of Canidia in Horace, the
romantic refembles that of Armida in Taffo. The opera-
tions of the one are frequently but mere tricks, in compa-
rifon of that fublime folemnity of necromantic machinery
which the other fo awfully difplays.
He adds, it is alfo remarkable, that in the earlier fcaldic
odes we find but few dragons, giants, and fairies. Thefe
were introduced afterwards, and are the progeny of Arabian
fancy. Nor, indeed, do thefe imaginary beings often occur
in any of the compofitions which preceded the introduction
of that fpecies of fabling.
That the ideas of chivalry, the appendage and the fub-
ftance of romance, fubfifted among the Goths, our au-
thor readily allows, but not without certain limitations.
It was under the feudal eftablifhiaents, which were foon
afterwards erected in Europe, that it received new vi-
gour, and was invefted with the formalities of a regular
inftitution.
From the whole of his obfervations, the author deduces
the following general conclufion.
Amid the gloom of fuper‘tition, in an age of the grofleft
ignorance and credulity, a tafte for the wonders of oriental
fiction was introduced by the Arabians into Europe, many
countries of which were already feafoned to a reception of its
extravagancies by means of the poetry of the Gothic {calds,
who, perhaps, originally derived their ideas from the fame
fruitful region of invention. Thefe fictions, coinciding with
the reigning manners, and perpetually kept up and improved in
the tales of troubadours and minttrels, feemed to have centered,
about the eleventh century, in the ideal hiftories of Turpin
and Geoffrey of Monmouth, which record the fuppofititious
achievements of Charlemagne and king Arthur, where they
formed the ground-work of that f{pecies of fabulous narrative
called romance. And from thefe beginnings, or caufes,
afterwards enlarged and enriched by kindred fancies, fetched
from the crufades, that fingular aud .capricious mode of
imagination arofe, which at length compofed the marvellous
machineries of the more fublime Italian poets, and their
difciple Spenfer.
Hearne imagines, that the old metrical romance, called
6¢ Richarde cuer de Lyon,’? was written by Robert de
Brunne. It is probable, however, that the leifure of mo-
naftic life produced many rhymers, nor is it at all unlikely,
but that the monks often wrote for the minftrels, and that
many of our ancient tales in verfe, containing fi¢titious ad-
ventures, were written, although not invented, in the reli-
gious houfes. The romantic hiftory of “« Guy earl of
Warwick” is exprefsly faid, on good authority, to have
been written by Walter of Exeter, a Francifcan friar of
Carocus in Cornwall, about the year 1292. (Carew’s Survey
of Cornwall, p. 59.) The hbraries of the monafteries
were full of romances. Among the many French minttrels
invited into England by Richard [., it is natural to fuppofe
that fome of them made their magnificent and heroic patron
a principal fubjeét of their compofitions. We have a
romance now remaining in Englifh rhyme (which we have
jaft mentioned) that celebrates the achievements of this il-
luftrious monarch. It is called “* Richard, &c.?? and was
probably tranflated from the French about this period. That
this romance, either in French or Englifh, exifted before the
year 1300, is evident from its being cited by Robert of
Gloucefter, ‘in his relation of Richard’s reign, and alfo by
Robert de Brunne,. who wrote much about the fame time
with Robert of Gloucefter; and hence we may infer that
Here mutt be miftaken in fuppofing that he was the author
of it.
The French, above all other nations, have applied them-
felves to this kind of writing; whether it be owing to the
natural tafte and genius of the people, or to the freedom,
&c. with which they converfe with the women. They appear
to have written metrical romances before or about the year
1200. Some of thefe feem to have been formed from profe
hiftories, enlarged and improved with new adventures and em-
bellifhments from earlier and more fimple tales in verfe on
the fame fubject. They began chiefly with romances of
chivalry: hence their Amadis, in twenty-four volumes ;
Palmerin d’Oliva ; and of England, king Arthur, &c. of
which we have an agreeable critique in Don Quixote.
Chreftien of Troys wrote “ Le Romans du Graal,?? or
the adventures of Sangrale, which included the deeds of
king Arthur, fir Triftram, Lancelot du Lake, and the retft
of the knights of the round table, before 1191. Chrettien
alfo wrote the romance of ¢ Sir Percival,’’ and left unfinifhed
“ La Charette,’”? containing the adventures of Lanucelot.
The firft French writers of romance were the Troubadours ;
which fee.
The later romances are much more polite; the beft of
which are the Aftrea of d’Urfe; the Cyrus and Clelie of
Mademoifelle de Scuderi; the Caflandre and Cleopatre of
La Calprenede; Ariane, Francion; and the Adventures of
Telemachus, by the late archbifhop of Cambray, worth all!
the ref.
The Germans, too, have their romances ; efpecially Her-
cules and Herculifcus, the Aramena, Oétavia, Arminius,
Otbert, &c.
The Italians have their Eromena, by Biondi; the works
of Loredano, Marino, &c. The Spaniards, who, from
their temper and conttitution, were extravagantly fond of chi-
valrous exercifes, had their Amadis of Gaul, their Diana,
and Don Quixote. Some critics have even fuppofed, that
Spain, having learned the art of romance-writing from their
naturalized guefts the Arabians, communicated it at an early
period to the reft of Europe. The Englifh, their Arcadia,
&c. And in modern times, the number has been fo great,
that our circulating libraries are full of them. ,
The Argenis of Barclay is rather a {atire than a romance.
Although we owe to the Norman minftrels the greater
part of the romances now extant, which were avowedly tranf-
lated into Englifh, “as foon as that language fuperfeded the
French ; yet {ome few were moft probably originally com-
pofed in Englifh for the ufe of the Scottifh court, where
French was never exclufively {poken, and afterwards imitated
or tranflated by French minftrels. Hence it is curious to
obferve, that as the earlieft French romances were written
in England, fo the earlieft Englifh romances were compofed
in Scotland.
Mr. Ellis makes an arrangement of romances into claffes,
introducing each with appropriate remarks. The firft clafs
comprehends romances relating to king Arthur ; which were
probably the earlieft in order, and were moft popular and
numerous. The next clafs included what he has ventured
to call Saxon romances, that is, romances referring to Saxon
fubjeéts, and claiming, perhaps, fome foundation in the
hiftory of that people. Guy of Warwick and Bevis
of
ROM
of Hamptoun occupy this ftation entirely. Thefe two,
notwithftanding their demerits, equalled, or excelled in po-
pularity, almoit all the romances of the middle ages. ‘The
next is entitled an Anglo-Norman romance, and recites
the adventures of no lefs a perfon than Richard Coeur de
Lion. The next clafs of romances comprehend fuch as re-
late to Charlemagne and his Paladins. Under this head
Mr. Ellis has enumerated three, viz. Roland and Ferragus,
Sir Otuel, and Sir Ferumbras. The next romance is of ori-
ental origin, being the earlieft tradition of the Seven Wife
Matters, long known among the fchool-boys of this country.
To this he has added ten mifcellaneous romances, which we
muift content ourfelves to pafs over without mentioning their
names. ‘The importance of the ancient metrical romances in
an hiltorical point of view muft be acknowledged. They
hold out to us, like Shak{peare’s plays, the abftra&t and
brief chronicles of the time, and demand the confideration
of every hiftorian. Evenin a literary point of view, their
merit is not contemptible. It is true, the ftory is generally
rambling and defultory, utterly incapable confequently of
exciting the pleafure arifing from a well-conduéted plan, all
the parts of which depend upon each other, and tend, each
in due degree, to bring on the cataftrophe. So far is this
from being the cafe, that in along romance, the adventures
ufually are all feparated and infulated ; only connected with
each other, by their having happened to the fame hero;
juft as a necklace of beads is combined by the thread on
which they are ftrung. This arrangement, in faé, beit
fuited the reciters, whofe narration was to be proportioned
to the time and patience of their audience ; and whom this
loofe ftru€ture of {tory permitted to ufe freedom of com-
preffion or dilatation as beft {uited their purpofe, fince any
fingle adventure might be inferted without impropriety, or
left out without being miffed. The fame caufe accounts for
the loofe and often tedious ftyle in which the minttrels in-
dulged. It was of confequence that their ftanza fhould be
fo fimple, as to be eafily recolle&ted, and their di€tion fo co-
pious, as not to fuffer by any occafional deficiency of memory.
For thefe reafons, Robert de Brunne tells us, that the
common minftrels were unable to repeat tales written in a
concife ftyle and complicated ftanza, and that fuch became
naught in their imperfe recitation. To thefe faults, we have
often to add thofe of extreme awkwardnefs of contrivance and
improbability of incident; but which neither offended the
tafte, nor fhocked the faith of our plain and hardy anceftors.
On the other hand, there is a fort of £eeping in thefe ancient
tales, which did not depend upon the minitrel’s inclination,
and from which he could not have departed, if he had a
mind to do fo. ‘This arifes from his painting the manners of
his own time, as they pafled before his eyes, and thus giving
a truth and unity te the chivalrous events ke relates, which
the modern labourers in the vineyard of romance are utterly
unable to imitate. With all the pains thefe lait can ufe to
deck their champions in the antique tafte, they are perpe-
tually confounding the paft time with the prefent, and are
guilty of anachronifms almoft as grofs as his who introduced a
tea-table fcene into the-hiftory of John of Gaunt. Neither
is the language in which thefe legends are told altogether
unworthy of our applaufe. There often occur paffages,
which, from the fpirit of the poet rifing with the fituation,
may juftly claim a rank among the higher and more mafculine
orders of poetry. And although, as we have already
noticed, the general condu€& of the ftory is defultory and
flightly put tegether, yet many of the individual adven-
tures, of which each long romance is compofed, are happily
conceived and artfully executed. ‘The gloom of fuperttition
fikewife added a wild and difmal effeét to the wonders of
ROM
the minftrel; and occafionally his defeription of fuperna-
tural events amounts nearly to fublimity. See Warton,
Ritfon, Ellis, ubi fupra, and Edinb. Review, N° XIV.
ROMANCHE, La, in Geography, a river of France,
which runs into the Drac, a little above Grenoble.
ROMANENGO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Upper Po; 4 miles E. of Crema.
ROMANIA, a province of European Turkey, con-
taining the territory anciently denominated “ Thrace,” and
deriving its prefent name from New Rome, by which Con-
{tantinople was diftinguifhed. The Turks call it « Rume-
lia”’ or ** Rumili,”? and ¢ Icella ;?’ and it is alfo denominated
“ Romelia.”” This province is bounded on the N. by Bul-
garia, on the E. by the Black fea, on the S. by the fea of
Marmora and the Archipelago, and on the W. by Mace-
donia. It is upon the whole a level country, though
famous for fome of its mountains: fuch are mount Hemus,
which feparates it on the N. from Bulgaria ; Rhodope, cele-
brated among the ancients for the cataftrophe of Orpheus ;
and mount Pangeus, which divides this country from Mace-
donia. The two former are long ridges of mountains, that
extend from the frontiers of Macedonia to the Black fea.
The territories that lie among the mountains are cold and
barren ; but thofe near the fea are pleafant and fertile, pro-
ducing all kinds of grain, and particularly rice of good
quality. This country was anciently divided into feveral in-
dependent kingdoms: and the Thracian Cherfonefus was
alfo governed by its own kings. The prefent inhabitants
are Greeks, defcended from the ancient Thracians, inter-
fperfed with Turks. Thrace (which fee) was formerly dif-
tinguifhed by the cultivation of the fciences and fine arts:
but the prefent ftate of Romania is very different, being
wholly deftitute of perfons of literature. It is governed
by three Sangiaks, and divided into as many diftriéts under
the denomination Sangiacates. The capital is Conflantinople,
which fee.
Romania, Cape, a cape on the S.E. point of Malacca.
N. lat. 1° 18’, E. long. 104° 15!.
ROMANO, Givtio, in Biography, the cognomen of
Giulio Pippi, the moft renowned among the immediate fcho-
lars of Raphael d’Urbino, his heir, and the continuator
of his works. He was born at Rome in the year 1492.
While a pupil, he followed lefs his mafter’s delicacy than
energy of character, and chiefly fignalized himfelf in fub-
je&ts of war and battles, which he reprefented with equal
{pirit and erudition. Asa defigner, he commands the whole
mechanifm of the human body ; and, without fear of error,
turns and winds it about to ferve his purpofes, but fome-
times overfteps the modeity of nature. Vatari, who vifited
him at Mantua, prefers his drawings to his pictures, as
being more full of that original fire which diftinguifhes his
conception, and was apt to evaporate in the longer procefs
of finifh: fome have, with better evidence, objected to the
character of his phyfiognomies, as more fagacious than
enamoured, lefs fimple than vulgar, and often difmal and
horrid, without being terrible. In colour, whether frefco
or oil, his hand was as expeditious, and his touch, efpecially
in the former, as decided, as his eye and choice were con-
genial. Bricky lights, violet demi-teints, and black fhades,
compofe in general the raw, opaque tone of his oil pictures ;
far different from that charaGteriftic tone which fignalizes
the Battle of Conftantine, painted by him from the defign
and after the death of Raphael, and which was by Pouflin
admired as being moft happily adapted to the fubje@. The
ftyle of his draperies is claflic, but the arrangement of the
folds generally arbitrary and mannered; the hair and head-
dreffes of his women are always fanciful and luxurious, but
not
’
ROM
mot always arranged by tafte; whilft thofe of his men fre-
quently border on the grotefque. shen
After he had completed the Hall of Conftantine in the
Vatican from the defign of his mafter Raphael, he went to
Mantua, where the increafed praétice and authority, derived
from the fuperintendance of the great works he had juft com-
pleted, eftablifhed his reliance on himfelf ; and the patronage
of the Gonzaghi roufed that loftinefs of conception, and
ave birth to thofe magnificent plans, from which Mantua
and the palace de! T., as from enchantment, rofe. To the
ftores of antique treafures belonging to this great family, of
which the ftatues, bufts, and bailo-relievos at prefent in the
academy are but infignificant remains, he added his own ;
rich in defigns of Raphael, and in ftudies and plans from the
antique. No defigner ever poffefled fuch induttry with fo
much fire, fo much confideration with fuch fecundity, or
combined with equal rapidity fuch correétnefs, with great
recondite knowledge in mythology and hiftory, and that
popularity and care in treating it. 3
The palace de/T. furnifhes {pecimens in every clafs of pic-
turef{que imagery. Whatever be the dimenfion, the fubject,
or the {cenery, minute or coloffal, fimple or complex, ter-
rible or pleafing, we trace a mind bent to furprife or to
dazzle by poetic {plendour ; but fure to ftrike by the ori-
ginality of his conception, he often negleéts propriety in
conduéting his fubjeéts, confidered as a feries: and in the
arrangement or choice of the connecting parts, hurried into
extremes by the torrent of a fancy more lyric than epic, he
difdains to fill the intermediate chafms, and too often leaves
the taf of connection to the {pedtator.
In this palace, Giulio adopted the method of his matter.
He prepared the cartoons, and the pictures were executed
by his pupils; but he retouched, corrected, and gave the
lait finifh to them: unfortunately, his mafter-{trokes have
been covered again by modern pencils; and the fable of
Pfyche, the Allegories of Human Life, the Giants ftorming
Heaven, exhibit now indeed his compofition and defign,
but not his hand: this is better preferved in the paintings
of the old palace, or, as it is now called, the Corte of Man-
tua; which are in frefco, and relate chiefly the hiftories of
the Trojan war. They have the fame beauties and defects as
. thofe of the palace de/T.: each fingly confidered is a proof
of the poetic fpirit and the practical powers of the matter ;
as a cyclus they want conneétion and evidence. Helen
fleeping, Vulcan forging Arms for Achilles, are beautiful ;
and Minerva in the aét of flaying Ajax, the fon of Oileus,
{ublime. Nor is his verfatility lefs admirable in the Bacchic
or amorous fubjeéts; the capricci and grotefque conceits
with which he decorated the {mall cabinets of the fame
palace.
The altar-pieces of Giulio are not numerous. He did not
live to finifh thofe which he had begun for the cathedral of
Mantua. The moft remarkable of thofe which he finifhed
with his own hand, are the three frefcoes at St. Marco; and
in the church of St. Criftofero, the athletic figure of that
faint, groaning under the weight of the divine Infant on his
fhoulders. ‘They are, however, far inferior, for genuine
pathos and claflic execution, to the Martyrdom of St. Ste-
phen, on the head altar of the church of St. Stephen at
Genoa.
Of Guulio’s fcholars and affiltants, the moft celebrated
were F. Primaticcio, chiefly employed in the ftuccoes and
ornaments of the palace del T.; Benedetto Pagni of Pefcia,
who accompanied Giulio from Rome to Mantua; and Ri-
naldo Mantovano, the moft expert of the three, and in the
opinion of Vafari, who laments the fhortnefs of his life, the
greatelt painter that Mantua ever produced ; the altar-piece
ROM
of Sta. Agoftina alla Trinita has a grandeur of ftyle above
his age, and has by fome been fufpected to be the defign of
Giulio. |'To thefe may be added Fermo Guifoni, who co-
loured in the cathedral the Call of St. Peter and St. An-
drew, from the moft ftudied and moft beautiful cartoon of
the mafter; and Theodore Ghigi, or as he fub{cribes him-
felf, Theodore Mantovano, a great defigner, and {fo prac-
tifed in the ftyle of Giulio, that after his death he was fe-
leGted by the prince to finifh feveral of his works.
In addition to his powers as a painter, Giulio Romano
pofleffed a very confiderable knowledge of the principles of
archite€ture ; and was employed in plans for feveral of the
palaces at Rome and Mantua. His laft archite&tural exer-
tion was the ereétion of a fplendid manfion for himfelf at
Mantua. Vafari relates, that upon the death of San Gallo,
the architect of St. Peter’s, Guilio was feleéted by the pope
for his fucceflor, but was prevented leaving Mantua by the
intereft of the cardinal Duke, and the entreaties of his wife
and her immediate friends and relations; and whil{t he was
endeavouring to furmount thefe difficulties, and enjoy the
proffered honour and emolument, he was feized with illnefs,
and borne to the grave in the year 1546, and inthe 54th of
his age. He left a fon, called, after his re{pected inatter,
Raphael, of whom nothing remains, but the tradition that
he poffeffed talents worthy of his father. He died in 1560,
at the age of 30. Fufeli’s Pilkington.
Romano, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Adda and Oglio; 11 miles S.S.E. of
Bergamo. i
Romano, or Ramano Cayo, a {mall ifland off the N.
fhore of the ifland of Cuba ; it is long and narrow, and lies
at the E. extremity of the clufter of ifles called the King’s
Garden.
Romano, S#., a town of Italy, in the department of the
Panaro; 18 miles S.W. of Modena.
ROMANOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Jaroflavl, on the Volga; 16 miles W.N.W. of Jaroflavl. N.
lat. 57° 46’. E. long. 39° 40!
ROMANOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutfk, on the Angara; 60 miles W.S.W. of Ilimfk.
—Alfo, a town of Ruffa, in the government of Tambov,
on the Olonetz ; 16 miles S. of Lipetzk.
ROMANOVKA, a town of Ruffia, in the country of
the Coflacks, on the Don; 116 miles E.N.E. of Azoph.—
Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Upha; 64
miles N.E. of Orenburg.
ROMANOW, a town of Ruffian Poland, in the pala-
tinate of Kiev; S$ miles N.E. of Zytomiers.—Alfo, a town
of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia; 33 miles W. of Przemyl.
—Alfo, a town of Lithuania, called alfo Romanowo, in
the palatinate of Novogrodek ; 18 miles N. of Sluck.
ROMANS, atown of France, inthe department of the
Drome, and chief place of a canton, feated on the Ifere ;
two poits N.E. of Valence. The place contains 6173, and
the canton 15,180 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kilio-
metres, inti communes. N. lat. 45°2!. E. long. 5° 8!.
Romans, Romant, Romanic, or Romance, the polite lan-
guage formerly {poken at the court of France ; in contradif-
tinétion to the Waloon, or ancient Gaulifh, fpoken by the
common people.
The Romans having fubdued the Gauls, introduced part
of their language among them ; and a mixture of half Latin, —
half Gaulifh, or Celtic, conftituted the Romans; of which
the modern French is only an improvement.
Hence, to enromance was to write in romance, &c. See
RoMANCE. :
Covarruvias, a learned Spanifh writer, obferves, that the
4 name
ROM :
name romance is generical, and belongs alike to the Tufcan,
French, and Spanifh; inafmuch as all thefe were derived
from the purity of the Latin tongue, which the Romans,
being conquerors, introduced into thefe provinces, and
which, at firft, the nobles {poke and wrote. He further
fays, that the Latin tongue, being admitted into Spain, was
f{poken as in Rome, and that there were men well fkilled in
it, who {poke and wrote it with greater refinement than the
vulgar ; but upon the irruption of the Goths it was re-
markably corrupted: that which was before Roman was
converted into Romance, which is equivalent to its being
derived from the Romans. And it farther appears, that
the name Romance was given to the Spanifh language, to
diftinguifh it from the Gothic.
Mr. Planta, in his elaborate account of the Romanth lan-
guage (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvi. part i. p. 129, &c.), which is
now fpoken in the moit mountainous parts of the country
of the Grifons, near the fources of the Rhine and the En,
informs us, that this language confifts of two principal dia-
le&ts ; which, though partaking of the fame general name,
differ fo widely as to conititute in a manner two diltinét lan-
guages. One dialeét, he fays, which is fpoken in the En-
adine, a valley extending from the fource of the En to the
rr of the Tyrolefe, is by the inhabitants called Ladin.
And he obferves, that the Romanfh has never been ufed in
any regular compofition in writing, till the fixteenth cen-
tury, nor affeéted by any foreign invafion, or intimate con-
nection; but that it is at prefent the identical language that
was {poken two hundred years ago.
This learned writer obferves, that notwithftanding the
variety of conjeures and controverfies, which have oc-
curred with regard to the Gallic Romance, it is agreed on
all hands, that the vocabulary of the Roman, and the idiom
of the Celtic, have chiefly contributed to its formation ;
and, therefore, that it partakes of a common origin with
that of the Grifons. He adds, that there are incontettible
proofs that this language was once univerfal through France,
and that this, and not immediately the Latin, hath been the
parent of the Provencal, and afterwards of the modern
French, the Italian, and the Spanifh.
From a comparifon of the two Romances, as well as from
the fimilarity of their origin, M:. Planta infers, that they
are one and the fame language.
However, whilft the Grifons neglected to improve their
language, or had no opportunity for this purpofe, the tafte
and fertile genius of the troubadours, foftered by the coun-
tenance and elegance of the brilliant courts and {plendid no-
bility of Provence, did not leave theirs long in the rude
ftate in which we find it in the ninth century. But the
ehange being gradual, and almoft imperceptible, the French
hiftorians have fixed no epocha for the tranfition of the Ro-
mance into the Provencal. Neverthelefs, it appears, that
the former language had received no confiderable alteration
in the twelfth century, and it {till bore the fame name. But
after this era, though the name occurs, the language diftin-
guifhed by it is very different from the Romance of the
ninth century. Allowing, however, the univerfal ufe of
the Romance all over France till the twelfth century, and
that what the writers of thofe times fay of the Gallic, isto
be underftood of the Romance, of which there is fufficient
evidence, it follows, fays Mr. Planta, that the language in-
troduced into England under Alfred, and afterwards more
univerfally eftablithed by Edward the Confeffor, and Wil-
liam the Conqueror, muft have been an emanation of the
Romance, very near akin to that which is now fpoken in the
Alps.
According to Du-Cange, the Romance had alfo penetrated
Vout. XXX.
ROM
into Scotland before the twelfth century. ‘The fame cor-
ruption, or coalefcence, which gave rife to the Gallic Ro-
mance, and that of the Grifons, mutt alfo have produced, in
Italy, a language much refembling, if not perfe@tly fimilar,
to thofe two idioms. It appears alfo, from what has been
already faid, that the language of the Romans penetrated
very early into Spain, and that the Romance was very com-
mon in that kingdom. The univerfality of the Romance
in the French dominions, during the eleventh century, ac-
counts for its introduétion into Paleftine, and many other
parts of the Levant, by Godfrey de Bouillon, and other ad-
venturers, who engaged under him in the crufades.
This writer farther adds, that the heroic achievements and
gallantry of the knights of the Crofs gave rife to a {warm
of fabulous narrations, which, though not an invention of
thofe days, were yet, from the name of the language in
which they were written, ever after diftinguifhed by the ap-
pellation of Romances. And he prefumes, that the Ro-
mance hath been preferved fo near its primitive ftate, not
only in the country of the Grifons, but in feveral other re-
mote and unfrequented parts.
Mr. Berington, in his « Literary Hiftory of the Mid-
dle Ages,’’ recently publifhed, obferves, that the language
afterwards known by the name of French, was divided
into two dialeGis, beth of which bore the name of « Ro-
mane,’” or Romance, becaufe each was formed on the bafis
of the Roman : that to the north being adulterated by a
mixture of Frankifh and Norman words; whilft the diale@
of the fouth was vitiated by words transferred from the lan-
guage of the Oftrogoths, Vifigoths, and Alani. The river
Loire, not rigidly taken, was their common boundary. The
firft might be called the “ French Romane,” the Jatter the
«« Provencal,” becaufe it was fpoken by the fubjeéts of Rai-
mond, count of Provence, well known in the armies of the
crufaders. The characters of thefe dialeéts, however,
though owning a common fource, were marked by ftrong
lines of difference. The Provencal, from a milder climate,
from a more conftant intercourfe with ftrangers, and from a
clofer affinity to the mother tongue, was foft and harmonious :
the French more harfh, as retaining more of its northern
mixture. But if we mention the countries in which thefe
languages were current in the 13th century, it will be feen
that the Provencal was confined within the limits above
affigned it; while the French Romane, overflowing its na-
tural boundaries, became familiar to diftant nations. It
pafled with the conquerors into England, where it was pre-
vioufly fafhionable. The Norman {fettlers rendered it fami-
liar at Naples and in Sicily ; though here it was foon van-
quithed by the fuperior fafcination of the Italian diale&.
The crufaders carried it into the Eaft, and planted it in Sy-
ria, in Paleftine, in Cyprus, and at Conftantinople, where
it ne: at leaft as permanent as the conquefts which they had
made.
ROMANTRINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Novarefe ; 4 miles E.N.E. of Novara.
ROMANUS L., Lecapenvs, in Biography, emperor of
the Eaft, rofe from an obfcure origin to various employments
under Leo the philofopher, and was, at one time, poffefied
of the command of the naval armies. H aving rendered him-
felf all-powerful at court, he perfuaded the prince Conftan-
tine to marry his daughter, banifhed the emprefs-mother
Zoe to a monattery, and in g1g caufed himfelf to be
crowned emperor by the patriarch. He aflociated his threé
fons in the imperial authority, and ordered their names, with
his own, to be placed in all edi€@s before that of the lawful
emperor Conitantine. The adherents of the latter made
fome attempts to free him from this fervitude, but they
3M were
ROM
were fruftrated and punifhed. During thefe inteftine dif-
turbances, Simeon, king of Bulgaria, renewed his inroads on
the empire, and penetrated to the gates of Conftantinople.
Romanus brought him to accede to terms of peace, and the
Roman admiral, about this time, entirely deftroyed a Sara-
cen fleet in the harbour of Lemnos. Simeon dying in 927,
his fon Peter refumed hoftilities, and broke into the Con-
{tantinopolitan territory, but peace was concluded, and a
marriage entered into with the emperor’s grand-daughter to
the Bulgarian king. An invafion of the Roman dominions
in Afia by the Syrian Saracens was repulfed by the imperial
general; and the commanders of the armies of Romanus
had equal fuccefs againft the Ruffians, who had ravaged the
empire with a numerous fleet. In the mean time, Romanus
loft his eldeft fon Chriftopher, and the two remaining
brothers quarrelled with each other, and with their father.
The youngeit fon of Romanus formed a confpiracy for his
father’s dethronement, and ia December 944, his apartment
wasentered by night, and he was conveyed to an ifland of
the Propontis. He there aflumed the religious habit and
life, and died in 946 in this retreat, a true penitent for the
injuttice which he had inflited upon Conttantine. Previoufly
to his deceafe, his two fons were banifhed to the fame ifland,
whom he reproached, when he met them on the beach, for their
ingratitude and unkindnefs to him, neverthelefs he very rea-
dily allowed them to fhare of his water and vegetable diet.
Lecapenus does not appear, fays Gibbon, to have pofleffed
either the virtues or vices of a tyrant. The fpirit and aéti-
vity of his private life diflolyed away in the fun-fhine of the
throne ; and in his licentious pleafures, he forgot the fafety
both of the republic and of his family. Of a mild and re-
ligious character, he refpected the fanétity, the innocence of
youth, the memory of his parents, and the attachment of the
people. Univer Hift. Gibbon.
Romanus II., called the Young, fucceeded his father,
Conttantine Porphyrogenitus, in g5g. He had married
Theophano, a woman of mean origin, who was charged
with having been chiefly inftrumental in the alleged crime of
poifoning his father. Romanus was fuppofed to poflefs con-
fiderable talents, but he was habitually attached to frivolous
amufements and diffolute pleafures, and refigned all care of
the itate to his chief chamberlain. In the morning, this
luxurious emperor vifited the circus ; at noon he feafted the
fenators; the greatelt part of the afternoon he fpent in the
tennis-court, the only theatre of his vi€tories; from thence
he pafled over to the Afiatic fide of the Bofphorus,, hunted
and killed four wild boars of the largeit fize, and returned
to the palace, proudly content with the labours of the day.
He banifhed from court his mother Helena, and his two
fitters, who were reduced to a itate of great indigence.
During the fhort reign of this emperor, the two brothers,
Nicephorus Phocas and Leo, obtained great fuccefles againit
the Saracens in Crete and the Eaft, while the emperor was
waiting his time in indolence. According to fome hiftorians,
debauchery, but according to others, the evil practices of
Theophano, brought his life to a clofe in the year 963, at
the age of twenty-four, and in the fourth year of his reign.
Univer. Hift. Gibbon, vol. ix.
Romasus III., named Argyrus, a patrician of an ancient
family, was nearly related to Conitantine 1X. During the
lait illnefs of that emperor, he was offered his daughter Zoe
for a wife, with the title of Cefar. He would readily have
declined the high honour intended for him, but was told the
lofs of his eyes or his life mutt be the confequence of his
refufal. His wife, devoted to his welfare, as well as ardently
attuched to his perfon, made way for a new marriage, by
zetiring herfelf to aconvent, and in 1028 Romanus efpoufed
ROM
the princefs Zoe. On the death of Conftantine he fuce
ceeded to the imperial throne, and began his reign by eafing
the people of fome of their taxes, and performing other
popular aéts. IJmthe fecond year of his reign, the Saracens
having invaded Syria, the emperor refolved to march in per-
fon againft them, but he was defeated, with the lofs of his
baggage, and a great part of his army. After his return,
feveral public calamities in the empire followed, which occa-
fioned him entirely to apply his mind to works of piety. In
the mean time the emprefs Zoe, who, at an advanced age,
continued to follow a licentious courfe of life, attached
herfelf to a new lover of mean birth, whom fhe wifhed to raife
to the purple, and fhe juftified the Roman maxim, that every
adulterefs is capable of poifoning her hufband. To effe@
her purpofe, fne-caufed the deadly cup to be adminiftered
to her hufband; and finding it too flow in its operation, fhe
employed an affaffin, who fuffocated him in the bath. He
died in 1034, after areign of five years anda half. Gibbon.
Univer. Hitt.
Romanus IV., named Diogenes, a defcendant of Ro-
manus Argyrus, in the regency of Eudocia, widow of
Conitantine Ducas, engaged in a confpiracy for raifing him-
felfto the throne, for which he was tried and condemned to
death. This punifhment, on account of his fine perfon, was
commuted for a fhort exile, after which the imperial widow
nominated him to the command of her armies, and in 1067
fhe married him, and he was proclaimed emperor. He had
not occupied the throne more than two months, before he
put himfelf at the head of the few troops he could affemble,
and crofled the Hellefpont to attack the Turkifh fultan, who
had made incurfions into his territories. He came up with
the Turks, who were retiring loaded with rich fpoils. He
attacked and routed them with great flaughter, and purfuin
his blow, recovered Aleppo and Hierapolis. In the two fol-
lowing campaigns, Romanus difplayed his military talents to
great advantage, and finally drove the Turks acrofs the Eu-
phrates. In the fourth campaign he led a numerous army
to the deliverance of Armenia. After this he fhared in de-
feat, and was, in a general engagement, left alone, almoft in
the midift of his enemies, and was taken prifoner by the
Turkifh fultan, who obliged him to fign an humiliating
treaty, and then fet him at liberty. During his misfortunes,
a revolution was effected at Conftantinople: Eudocia had
been driven from the throne, and {hut up in a monattery ;
and her eldeft fon, Michael Ducas, had been proclaimed
emperor. Romanus was dethroned, and his eyes torn out with
circumitances of fo much cruelty that he foon died. This
happened in 1071, after a reign of three years and eight
months. Univer. Hitt.
ROMANUS, pope, was eleéted to that dignity in the year.
897, upon the expulfion of Stephen VI. and VII. Little
is recorded of him: he is faid by Platina to have annulled
the aéts of his predeceflor, and, in particular, to have de-
clared his proceedings againft the corpfe and memory of
pope Formofus unjutt and illegal. Romanus’ dignity was
of very fhort duration ; he died before he had been in pof-
feffion of it quite fourmonths. Bower.
ROMAON, Sr., in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Beira; 19 miles $.S.E. of Vifeu.
ROMBACH, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ;
2 miles N. of Hasfurt.
ROMBLON, or Romstino, one of the fmaller of the
Philippine iflands, about 30 miles in circumference. N. lat.
12° 40'. E. long. 121° 58!.
ROMBOUTS, Tueopore, in Biography, a native o
Antwerp, and born in 1597, was a painter of very confi-
derable merit. Att firit he &udied under Abraham Janfens 5
but
ROM
but in his zoth year he went to Italy, and there began his
career as an hiftorical painter. He was patronized by the
duke of Tufcany, and painted feveral large compofitions
for that prince, who honoured and rewarded him hand-
fomely. On his return to Antwerp he found Rubens in
pofleffion of full fame; and foon perceived how difficult it
was for him to meet with that degree of eftimation at
home which he had received abroad. A noble emulation,
however, ftimulated him to enter the litts with that great
matter ; and though he certainly was not adequate to the
combat, yet he exhibited confiderable prowefs, which even
Rubens acknowledged.
As he died at the age of 40, his works are not numerous.
The principal ones, among thofe executed after his return
from Italy, were painted for the court-houfe of Ghent.
He likewife painted pi€tures of low fubjects, fuch as
mountebanks and their attendants, foldiers playing at cards,
&c. &c.; which he did as paftime, or merely to acquire
money, but they are not among his beft performances. On
the hiftorical pitures he produced, his reputation refts for
fupport, and is upheld to a confiderable rank.
ROME, in Geography and Hiflory. The
Roman Empire, at ancient city of Rome, fituated on
the river Tiber, in eaft longitude 13°, and about 412°of north
latitude, though in its origin‘one of the moft humble of cities,
was deftined to become the capital of the largeft empire in the
ancient world. In modern hiftory it has been famous for being
the centre of an ecclefiaitical tyranny, under which, for many
centuries, the greater part of what may be denominated the
civilized world was held in fubjeétion. The city of Rome,
without difpute, was founded by Romulus; but we may
trace the origin of its inhabitants, that is, of the ancient
Romans, to Aéneas, the hero celebrated in Trojan ftory.
When the Greeks became matters of Troy, /Eneas, with
the forces under his command, retired into the fortrefs,
which, for fome time, they defended with great bravery ;
but being at length compelled to yield, he conveyed away
his gods, his father, wife, and children, and fled, with a
numerous crowd of Trojans attached to him, to the ftrong
places of mount Ida. Here, however, his enemies followed
him, and he was obliged to negociate a peace, the terms of
which forced him to quit the ‘Trojan territories altogether :
the Greeks, on their part, engaged not to moleit him ir his
retreat. /Eneas accordingly equipped a fleet, in order to feek
a fettlement in fome foreign land. The Trojan having crofled
the Hellefpont, arrived in the peninfula of Pallene, where he
built a city, calling it, from himfelf, AEneia, and left in it a
part of his followers. From thence he failed to Delos, and
thence to Cythera, where he ereéted a temple to Venus.
He built another, to the fame goddefs, in Zacynthus, and
in this ifland he inftituted games, named * the races of
Venus and Aineas.”? Wherever the Trojan hero went he
left memorials of himfelf, and in the time of Dionyfius
thefe were {till exilting in the places already mentioned, and
in many others, as at Leucas, Adium, Dodona, &c.
which were accordingly regarded as indifputable proofs of
the reality of AZneas’ voyage to Epirus: and ‘that he
came into Italy,’”’ fays Dionyfius, ** we have the concurrent
teftimony of all the Romans; the ceremonies they ob-
ferve in their facrifices and feftivals bear witnefs to it;
alfo the Sibylline books, the Pythian oracles, and many
other things that nobody can reafonably reje@ as fable.”
ZEneas tirft landed in Italy, after crofling the Ionian fea,
at Cape Minerva, in Japygia; from thence he went to
Drepanum in Sicily, to which place Elymus and Agyttus,
who had efcaped from Troy a little before him, had
brought a Trojan colony. /Eneas augmented this colony,
pious /Eneas.
ROM
by leaving a part of his own followers; and then croffing
the Tyrrhenian fea, he bent his courfe for Italy. He gave
the name of Palinurus to the cape at which he firft landed,
from one of his pilots, who died there. From this place he
failed to feveral other parts, till at length the Trojan prince,
and his faithful attendants, finifhed their long voyages on
the coaft of Latium, a {mall territory on the eaft fide of the
river Tiber, which now contains a part of the prefent Cam-
pagna di Roma. Latinus was the king of the country,
and the people of it were called Latins. Here /Eneas and
his followers undertook to raife a fecond Troy, hoping that
they had arrived at the end of their adventures.
When /Eneas arrived in Italy, Latinus was engaged in a
war with the Rutuli, but his fuccefs was very doubtful: he
accordingly afligned to /Zneas and his followers a track of
land for their fettlement, upon condition that they fhould
join their arms to his again the Rutuli, who were to be
confidered as their common enemy. AZneas accepted the
conditions offered, and complied with his engagement
fo faithfully, that Latinus repofed in him the moft un-
bounded confidence, and gave him in marriage his only
daughter, Lavinia, thus fecuring to him the fucceffion to
the throne of Latium ; hence Aineas changed the name of
his camp from Troy, and called it Lavinium, in honour of
his wife. The Trojans followed the example of their
leader, by making alliances with Latin families ; fo that in
a very fhort timethey became one nation, united by the
clofeft bonds.
There was, however, a caufe for confiderable ftrife ex-
cited by this union: Turnus, nearly related to the queen,
and who had been brought up by Latinus, had entertained
hopes of having Lavinia for his wife ; when, therefore, he
faw that princefs given to Aineas, he inftantly joined the
Rutuli; but in the firft battle after this confederacy, both
Turnus and Latinus were flain: the confequence of this
was, that Aineas came into quiet pofleffion of the kingdom
of Latium, which he governed with great wifdom, and
tranfmitted to poiterity. His reign was, however, fhort ;
but during that period he eftablifned the worfhip of the
gods of his own country, and to the religion of the Latins
he added that of Troy. The two palladiums, which had
been the protectors of that city, became the tutelary deities
of Lavinium, and, in after ages, of the whole Roman empire.
He introduced, likewife, the worfhip of Vefta, and ap-
pointed certain virgins, called, from her, Vettals, to keep a
fire burning in honour of the goddefs. Many other deities,
who had been reverenced in Troy, became probably known
to the Latins by means of Aineas, which might be the
occafion of his being defignated by the appellation of the
This hero was, at length, obliged to head
the united forces of the Latins and Trojans againft the
Rutuli, who had formed an alliance with Mezentius, king of
the Tyrrhenians. A battle enfued, which lafted till night,
when /Eneas, being pufhed to the banks of the Numicus,
which was a boundary of Lavinium, and being forced into
that river, was unfortunately drowned. The Trojans had,
however, addrefs enough not only to conceal his body,
but to pretend that, inftead of his having been drowned, he
was fuddenly taken up to heaven, where, in the charaéter
of a deity, he was overlooking the condu& of his fubjects :
who, in honour of the newly-formed god, ereéted to him
a temple, under the title of “« Jupiter Indiges,”?
Upon the death of Aineas, he was fucceeded by his fon
Euryleon, named alfo Afcanius and Lulus, who contended
with Mezentius, and in the end obliged Ve to fue for peace,
which was granted, upon condition that for the future
the river Tiber fhould be the boundary between the Latin
3M2 and
ROME.
and Etrurian territories. Afcanius was the fon of /Eneas
by his firft wife, and of him Lavinia, whe was left pregnant
by /&neas, began to be jealous, and retired to the woods,
where fhe was delivered of a fon, which, from the place of
his birth, fhe named Silvius. Afcanius after a time dif-
covered the place of Lavinia’s retreat, and perfuaded her
to return; from this time he treated Silvius not only as a
brother, but refigned to him the kingdom as his rightful
inheritance, and built for himfelf a capital to a new ftate,
which he called Alba Longa. After he had reigned twelve
years in his new kingdom, Afcanius died, leaving a fon,
named Julus, between whom and Silvius the right of fuc-
ceffion lay, the latter being the fon, and the former the
grandfon of /Eneas. At length the two kingdoms were
united under Silvius; and as a compenfation to Iulus, he
was appointed to fovereign power in matters relating to
religion, a power which thenceforward continued in his
family. Silvius was fucceeded by thirteen kings of the
fame race, who reigned, it is faid, though with no great
probability, during a fpace of 400 years. Of thefe little
certain can be known; one of them, it appears, was named
Tiberinus, who engaged ina war which proved fatal to him ;
for, ina battle which was fought on the banks of the Al-
bula, he was forced into that river and drowned, whence
the river was afterwards named the Tiber, which appellation it
has borne ever fince. Agrippa {ucceeded Tiberinus, and
after him Alladius reigned, who was followed by Aventinus,
who left his name to a certain hill, in which he was in-
terred. Procas, the fucceflor of Aventinus, was father of
Numitor and Amulius, and at his death he bequeathed the
throne to Numitor. This prince was driven from the go-
vernment by Amulius, who, to fecure it for himfelf, mur-
dered Egeitus, Numitor’s only fon, and forced his daughter,
Rhea Sylvia, to devote herfelf to the worfhip of Velta, by
which fhe was obliged to perpetual virginity. Her virtue,
it was feigned, was violated by the god Mars; the con-
fequence of which was, that fhe was delivered of two
fons, who were placed in a wooden trough, and fent
floating down the Tiber. From this dangerous fituation
they were refcued by Fauftulus, the king’s fhepherd, and
fuckled by his wife Acca Laurentia, who, for her want of
good conduct, was named Lupa, a circumftance that gave
rife to the fable of the twins having been fuckled by a the-
wolf.
Great care was taken of their education, and. as they
grew up they exhibited fomething in their appearance and
behaviour, that denoted them to. be above the common race
of fhepherds: and at length Fauttulus difclofed to them
their real defcent, which infpired them with the ambition of
doing fomething worthy of their high birth. They had
already obtained the names of Romulus and Remus, and
before they had arrived at the age of manhood they had
taken part in a quarrel between Amulius and Numitor, in
which the former was depofed and killed, and the latter
placed on the throne of Alba. Numitor, in gratitude for
their fervice, advifed them to undertake the founding of
a new colony; and to affift them in the project, he be-
ftowed upon them thofe lands near the Tiber where they
had been brought up, fupplied them with all kinds of in-
plements for breaking up the ground, and with flaves and
cattle, and granted full liberty to his fubjetts to join
them.
For the more {peedily carrying on their work, it was
thought proper. to divide thofe who were employed in it
into two companies, one under each brother; a circumttance
which, however well intended, gave birth to two rival fac-
tions, which openly manifefted themfelves when the choice
12
was to be made ofa place for the building of their new city,
the one being for the mount Aventine, and the other for
the Palatine mountain: difputes on the fubje came at
laft to open hoftilities, and Remus was killed. By what
means his death happened is not certain; but according
to Livy he was killed by the hand of his brother.
Regal State of Rome.—Romulus, being now at the head
of the colony, applied all.his talents to the rearing of the
new city, which he propofed to call after his own name.
He fixed upon mount Palatine for its fituation, and per-
formed all thofe ceremonies which were conneéted with the
{uperitition of the Etrurians. As to the exaét year of the
foundation of Rome, there is a confiderable difagreement
among chronologers, but it is generally referred to 153
before the birth of Chrift. When the city was finifhed,
which probably confilted of about a thoufand houfes, or
rude huts, the people, being aflembled to make choice of a
government mott agreeable to their wifhes, determined upon
a monarchy, and refolyed to take Romulus as their king.
Being, unqueftionably, a man of a vigorous mind; he imme-
diately applied himfelf to the eftablifhment of good order,
and to the formation of certain rules or laws by which his
fubjeéts were to be bound. He aflumed a habit of diftin@ion
for himfelf, appointed twelve li€tors to attend him as guards,
and. divided his fubjects into different ranks. The lands he
diftributed into three portions, one for the fupport of go-
vernment ; another for the maintenance of religion; and the
third he divided into equal portions of two acres to each
Roman citizen. After this he formed a fenate, confifting
of a hundred perfons, afterwards increafed to 200, chofen
from among the fuperior clafs of the people, and from
whom the Patrician families were defcended. This affembly
were not only to be judges in matters of {mall importance,
but to debate and refolve upon fuch public affairs as the king
propofed, and to determine them by a plurality of voices.
The people at large were allowed to create magilftrates,
enact laws, and refolve upon any war in which the kin
fhould propofe to engage. Romulus next proceeded to fettle
the religious affairs of his people, and he added many of the
Trojan deities to thofe whom the aborigines, or Italtan
natives, already worfhipped. He chofe priefts, inftituted
feltivals, and laid the foundation of a regular fyftem of
religion.
After all that has been attributed to the political fagacity
and talents of Romulus, it is probable that the great out-
lines of the firlt conttitution had a natural foundation in the
ufages of barbarous nations; though many of his infti-
tutions, it will be readily admitted, bear the traces of a
difcerning and active mind. ~
The Sabines were the moft formidable enemies of the
early Romans ; but after the death of Romulus, who reigned
37 years, Numa, a Sabine, was eleted king. He was, in
his own nature, formed for pacific meafures, and a wor
fhipper of the gods; he endeavoured to give his people the
fame charaGter. ‘To increafe his influence, and render his
government more powerful, he pretended to divine in{pira-
tion. As we have feen in fome preceding. articles, fee
Carrnpar, Numa, &c. he reformed the calendar, divided
the year into twelve months, following the courfe of the
moon ; and diftinguifhed the days into thofe in which civil
occupations might be carried on, ‘and thofe that were to be
devoted to religious purpofes. The bufinefs of agriculture
was lawful on the latter, as a religious duty. This wife
prince reigned forty-three years ; and was fucceeded by
Tullius Hoftilius, whofe reign commenced in the year
670 B.C. His difpofition was the reverfe of that of Numa.
He made frequent wars upon his neighbours ; and alienated
the
ROME.
the Sabines from the Romans, who became the moft powerful
of their enemies. Tullius reigned thirty-three years.
Ancus Martius, the fourth re of Rome, grandfon to
Numa, inherited his virtues, to which he joined the talents
of a warrior. He greatly increafed the population of
Rome, by naturalizing the conquered {tates ; and he built
the port of Oftia, at the mouth of the Tiber. His reign con-
tinued twenty-four years. See ANcus. —_ ee
The fifth king of Rome, Tarquinius Prifcus, a citizen
of Corinth, noted for his great hberality and vaft wealth,
was victorious in his wars, and he adorned the city with
works of utility and magnificence. + Such were the Circus,
the CapiroL; and the CLoac®, thofe immenfe common
fewers which led to the belief that Rome had been built on
the ruins of an ancient city of much greater magnitude.
This king was affaffinated in the 38th year of his reign ; and
was fucceeded by :
Servius Tullius, his fon-in-law, who very much improved
the city with ufeful edifices, and by extending its bound-
aries. He alfo made fome new arrangements in the divifion
of the citizens; of which we fhall have occafion to fay
more under the biographical article Servius Tullius. This
king was affaffinated, after a reign of forty-four years, by
his own daughter Tullia, who had married Tarquinius, the
grandfon of Prifcus, and who thus paved the way for her
hufband to afcend the vacant throne.
The government of this Tarquin was fyftematically
tyrannical, and from his haughtinefs he obtained the furname
of Proud. By his ill condué he at length roufed the ven-
eance of the people againft him, and they not only ex-
pelled the tyrant, but at one blow abolihed the regal govern-
ment at Rome. See TARQUINIUS. 4
The regal form of government fubfifted 244 years, during
which there were only feven kings, of whom two died
violent deaths, and one was depofed. Thefe circumftances
throw a confiderable degree of doubt on the authenticity of
the Roman hiltory, as the reigns of monarchs who die in
the common courfe of nature cannot be averaged fo high
as thirty years, whereas, notwithitanding the violent deaths
and depofition of three of the kings, the average length of
their reigns is more than thirty-four yearseach. Befides, it
is admitted that for the firft five centuries after the building of
Rome, there were no hiftorians, and, according to Livy,
almoft all the ancient records were deftroyed when Rome
was taken by the Gauls.
At the period of the abolition of the regal government,
the territory of the Romans was extremely limited. The
chief ufe which they made of their vi€tories was to natu-
ralize the inhabitants of fome of the conquered ftates, and
fo increafe their population ; thus their ftrength being always
fuperior to their enterprizes, they laid a folid foundation of
their empire.
Confular State of Rome.—W hen the regal government was
abolifhed, it was agreed to commit the fupreme authorit
to two magiltrates, who fhould be annually ele&ted by the
people from the Patrician order. ‘To thefe officers they
eave the title of confuls, a name, as it has been faid, that
was intended to defignate the counfellors of the republic,
rather than its fovereigns, though, in point of fact, their
authority differed fcarcely in any thing from that of kings.
They had the fupreme adminiftration of juttice, the difpofal
of the public money, the power of convoking the fenate
and affembling the people, raifing the armies, and the right
of making peace and war. Their authority was, how-
ever, limited to a year. The firft confuls were Brutus and
Collatinus, the hufband of that Lucretia whofe death had
occafioned the revolution which deitroyed the regal power.
Tarquin was, at this time, in Etruria, where he got two of
the moft powerful cities, Veii and Tarquinii, to efpoufe his
caufe. He had alfo numerous and powerful partizans at
Rome, and a plot was contrived to open the gates to admit
him. The confpiracy was difcovered, and Brutus had the
mortification to find his two fons in the number of con-
{pirators. He felt it his duty to forget the affeGtion of
the parent, and to confider their cafes as conful; he ac-
cordingly condemned them to be beheaded in his prefence.
This aét of fevere juftice ftruck fuch terror into the Romans,
that fcarcely any perfon ventured to oppofe the conful ; and
the efforts that were made to bring back monarchy, proved
unfuccefsful. To fecure themfelves againft the affaults af
every invader, the Romans formed an alliance with the
Carthaginians, which fubfifted 250 years. All precau-
tions, however, that were ufed for the prefervation of the
tranquillity of the ftate, could not guard the people againft
the oppreflion of the nobility. The former foon found that
they had only changed their mafters, and embraced the
mere fhadow of liberty. They made heavy complaints ;
thefe were followed by aéts of rebellion, which occurred
about the year B.C. 498. Peace was reftored by the créa-
tion of a ditator, a magiftrate who was eleéted for the
period of fix months, and who was invefted with abfolute
and unlimited authority. Liartius, nominated to this office,
armed the litors with axes, fummoned the whole people to
the public affemblies, and calling over the names, enrolled
all {uch as he judged moit fit for the fervice of his country,
inflicting, without hefitation, capital punifhment upon thofe
who dared to refift the order.
The {pirit of the people, though checked for a time, was
not fubdued ; they again complained, remonttrated, and even
rebelled ; and Rome, for fome years, was the fcene of anarchy
and fedition. At length the fenate, alarmed by the idea of
a general revolt, abated their former rigour, in fome mea-
fure eafed the burdens of the people, and fecured their
future interefts by the creation of five new magiltrates,
called tribunes, who were to be eleéted annually by the
people, whofe perfons were to be facred, whofe bufinefs it
was to defend the oppreffed, to pardon offences, to arraign
the enemies of the people; and, when they judged it ne-
ceflary, to ftop, by their fiat, the whole machine of govern-
ment.
The tribunes demanded, and obtained, two other ma-
giftrates to affift them, who were named Ediles, from the
charge of the public buildings of the city being committed
to them. From thisera, which was about 493 years before
the birth of Chrift, the commencement of the popular con-
{titution of the Roman republic may be dated.
The power of the tribunes foon rofe to an unexpeéted
height, and proved the fource of perpetual diflentions in
Rome. The nobles and patricians had ftill in view an
ariftocratical form of government, while the tribunes aimed
at nothing fhort of a complete democracy, hoping thereby
to increafe their own power and influence. The tribunes
prevailed, and Coriolanus, a patrician of inflexible virtue,
was, in the year 491 B.C., banifhed. Encouraged by the
fuccefs of the tribunes, Spurius Caffius Vifcellinus, an am-
bitious patrician, afpired to the fupreme power. To ac-
complifh his purpofe, he flattered the people by propofing
the Agrarian law, which caufed the moft violent commo-
tions in the ftate. His ambition was, in the end, punifhed
with death, and from this time perpetual contentions and
difcords fubfifted between the tribunes and patricians. The
number of the former was increafed to ten, and the people
procured the right of eleting them in an aflembly convened
by the tribes. From this period the fupreme authority =
the
ROME.
the Roman republic may be confidered as having pafled
completely from the higher order into the hands of the
people.
Hitherto the Remans had no written laws. So long as
the monarchy fubfitted, the will of their kings was to
them inftead of laws: while the ancient ufages, the de-
cifions of the confuls and of the fenate were founded, or
fuppofed to be founded, on the principles of natural equity.
To fupply this defe€t in the government, the tribunes pro-
pofed an eftablifhment of laws, to which, but with great
reluctance, the fenate aflented. Commiffioners were ac-
cordingly appointed to bring from Athens the laws of
Solon, that fuch of them might be adopted as were f{uited
to the exifting conftitution of the Roman republic. Ten
perfons were chofen out of the fenatorial order to com-
pofe a code of laws from thofe of Greece, and from the
ancient ufages of Rome. This fyftem was divided into
twelve tables, fragments of which are ftill to be found in
the hiftory of that early period, and which are the bafis
of the great ftru€ture of the Roman jurifprudence. An
acquaintance therefore with thefe ancient laws is deemed of
importance. Even in the moft flourifhing times of the re-
public, they continued to be of the higheit authority.
Cicero pafled upon them a very high encomium, and from
him we learn, that to commit thefe laws to memory was an
effential part of a liberal education. From the twelve
tables the jurifeonfulti compofed a fyftem of judicial forms
for the regulation of the different tribunals. ‘The Decem-
viri were invefted with all the powers of government ; each
decemvir prefided in his turn a fingle day, and was during
that period invefted with fovereign authority, with its in-
fignia the fafces. The other nine officiated folely as judges
in the determination of law-f{uits, and the correé¢tion of
abufes. An abufe, however, of the moft flagrant nature,
committed by Appius Craupius, (fee his article,) the
chief of their number, was dettined to bring their office
to anend. Prompted alfo by the ambition and artifices of
this man, the whole body confpired again{ft the public
liberty, and even bound themfelves by an oath to endea-
vour to make the government perpetual. The fenators,
the foldiers, and the people, roufed by the tyranny of thefe
ufurpers, inflicted the punifhment which their crimes fo
juitly merited, and at the fame time reftored the confular
and tribunitian power. This was in the year 449 B.C.
The fcale of the people was daily acquiring weight at
the expence of that of the higheft order. There were
however two barriers, which ftill feparated the patricians
and plebeians ; the one a law, which prevented their inter-
marriage, and the other, the limitation of all the higher
offices to the order of patricians. It was the obje@ of the
people to remove thefe reftraints, becaufe then the patri-
cians, and plebeians would be on an equality. The firit,
after along conteft, was agreed to by the fenate. This
conceffion {timulated the people to inflexible perfeverance
in their ftruggle for the latter. ‘The fenate fought a pallia-
tive by the creation of fix military tribunes inftead of con-
fuls, of whom three were to be patricians, and three ple-
beians, This meafure fatisfied the people for a fhort time:
the confuls were, however, foon reftored. The diforders of
the republic, and the frequent wars in which the country
was engaged, had interrupted the regular furvey of the
citizens, This was remedied by the creation of two officers,
under the title of Cenfors, 437 B.C. whofe bufinefs was
not only to make the cenfus every five years, but to infpect
the morals, and regulate the duties of the people. The
diffentions continued with but little variation, and the people
uniformly, as their laft refource, refufed to enrol themfelves,
till overawed by the fupreme authority of a dictator. To
obviate the frequent neceflity of this meafure, which en-
forced but an unwilling obedience, the fenate had recourfe
to the expedient of paying the foldiery, who before had
ferved without hire, as was ufual in other countries under
the feudal fyftem. To defray this expence, a tax was levied:
from every perfon in proportion to his means, and thus
a fund was eftablifhed for the maintenance of the army.
-The Roman fyltem of warfare now aflumed a new afpeét.
The fenate always found foldiers at command, and the army
was under its controul: the enterprizes of the republic
were more extenfive, and its fuccefles more fignal and im-
portant.
One of the early effets of the new fyftem was a war de-
clared again{ft the Veii, the proud rival of Rome, and its
equal in extent and population. After a fiege of feveral
years their capital was taken by Camillus, and the Veian
territory was added to the Roman empire, in the year
B.C. 396. Their dominions, till now confined to the
territory of a few leagues, was at this period rapidly extended,
arid the Romans were, from this circumftance, an overe
match for all their neighbours.
The glory, and other good effeé&ts of the conqueft over
the Veil, were more than overbalanced by the fubfequent
fatal cataftrophe ii a war with the Gauls, who, under the
command of Brennus, invaded Italy, plundered Rome, and
aCtually burnt it to the ground, B.C. 390. They then
retired to their own country loaded with fpoils. To the
burning of the city, on this occafion, as we have before
obferved, the Roman writers attribute the lofs of all the
records and monuments of their early hiftory. The city
was {peedily rebuilt, but the effects of this calamitous event
were long felt. The neighbouring ftates combined to pre-
vent the Romans fromrecovering their former power; ‘but,’?
fays the hiftorian, “* neither the united efforts of foreign
enemies, nor inteftine divifions, could ruin a city deftined to
be the miftrefs of the world.” The Gauls in 367 returned
to Italy, but they were no longer fuccefsful, and were
forced to retreat with the utmoft precipitation. About
the fame time a plebeian was raifed to the confulfhip, and -
the offices of Pretor and Edile were created ; the one to ad-
minifter juftice, and the other to infpe&t the temples and
public places. In the mean time hoftilities were carried on
by the Romans againit thofe provinces that refufed to fub-
mit to their power, or who made the leaft attempt at re-
volt. The war with the Samnites, a hardy nation, who
inhabited a large track of fouthern Italy, which began about
this period, was continued for half a century: but its fuc-
cefsful termination was f{peedily followed by the reduétion
of all the Italian ftates. In the courfe of this important
war, the Tarentines, allies of the Samnites, fought the aid
of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, one of the moit illuftrious
generals of his age. Pyrrhus landed in Italy with 30,000
men and a train of elephants, about the year 280 B.C.
For a few years he was fuccefsful, but fo foon as the
Romans under{tood his mode of warfare, they became more
than a match for him; and when he was making a lait effort
near Beneventuin, he was totally defeated with the lofs of
26,000 men. He then abandoned all further views to
Italy, and returned with precipitation to his own country,
274 B.C. The hoftile itates fubmitted to the viCtorious
power, and Rome, 480 years from its foundation, was now
fovereign of all Italy. It may be obferved, that the ex-
tent of their conquefts was as much the effet of wife
policy, as of power. They removed to Rome all the
leading men of the principal conquered cities, admitting
them into their tribes, and thus, in a meafure, foothed the
pride
ROME.
pride of the vanquifhed, by giving them an apparent fhare
in their own domettic government; while, in arranging the
conttitution of the cities themfelves, they filled their magi-
ftracies with illuftrious Romans, whofe abilities and in-
fluence were fitted to command allegiance, ref{peé, and at-
tachment to the Roman government.
The command of the continent did not fatisfy the Roman
ambition. The Carthaginian ftate excited their jealoufy,
and the aid which it had granted to the Tarentines was
the pretext for commencing hottilities. Sicily had long
been confidered as the granary of Italy, and in that ifland
the Carthaginians poffeffed confiderable fettlements, and they
were ambitious of acquiring its entire dominion. An ob-
vious policy led the Romans to difpute with them this im-
portant acquifition, which gave rife to the Punic wars.
Sicily was at firft the theatre of war between thefe two na-
tions, which was afterwards removed into Africa, and thence
into Spain and Italy. We have however, under the words
Carruace and CarTHuaAGiNiAns, entered fo much at large
into this fubjeét, as to preclude the neceflity of doing here
more than adding a few lines to render the Roman hiftory
connected. For fome time the event was doubtful, but in the
year 242 B.C. the Carthaginians were conftrained to fue
for peace, which they obtained on hard and ignominious
terms. Rankling under the difgrace, they foon repaired
their loffes, collected a numereus army, and entrulfted the
fupreme command to Hannipat; fee his article. In 218
the war was renewed and profecuted with vigour. The
Romans were defeated in feveral battles, and Rome itfelf
threatened with inftant deftruGtion. The prudent and cau-
tious Fabius, then appointed dictator, averted the impend-
ing blow. In the courfe of this fecond Punic war Mafli-
niffa declared in favour of the Romans; and Syphax,
king of Numidia, took up arms againit them. Scipio,
the celebrated Roman general, who carried the war into
Africa, defeated the combined forces of Afdrubal and
Syphax in feveral battles, and Carthage in its turn trembled
for its fafety. Hannibal was recalled from Italy, and. de-
feated with prodigious lofs in the year B.C. 202, and
peace was concluded between the Romans and Carthaginians
in the following year.
Elated with fuccefs the moft complete, the Roman am-
bition now exceeded all limits, and afpired at the domina-
tion of the whole world. War was proclaimed againtft
Philip of Macedon, who was defeated by Flaminius in
Theflaly in the year 197 B.C. and obtained peace by
agreeing to pay a tribute. The fubjection of Macedon
portended the ruin of all the Grecian itates.
Antiochus, king of Syria, furnamed the Great, by the
perfuaGion of Hannibal, declared war again{ft the Romans,
but after three years he was under the neceflity of implor-
ing peace, and to accept of terms the moft rigorous. -The
Afiatic war, however, in the event proved fatal to the
Romans, whofe habits and manners were corrupted by the
vices which accompanied the luxury of the Eaft. Pre-
vioufly to this, Perfeus, the Macedonian monarch, refufing
to fubmit to the conditions that had been impofed on his
father, was attacked and defeated by Paulus Aémilius, and
his kingdom, which had fubfitted feven centuries, was re-
duced to the form of a Roman province.
The molt frivolous pretexts were afligned as the caufes
of the third Punic war, in the year 149 B.C., which
ended in the deftru@ion of Carthage, long renowned
for arts, opulence, and extent of dominion. Confcious
of their utter inability to refilt this formidable power,
the Carthaginians, after a fhort conteft, offered every
fubmiffion to faye their city, but the Romans infifted that
9
Carthage fhould be razed to its very foundation. Dew
{pair infpired this miferable people with courage: they
determined to make one effort at leait, and then, if necef-
fary, to die in the defence of their altars and gods. The
effort was in vain, and Carthage, in 146, was taken by
{torm, its inhabitants cruelly maflacred, and the city burnt
to the ground. In the fame year, the ruin of Corinth, and
of the Grecian ftates, was effected. Greece became a Ro-
man province under the name of Achaia. Many other
kingdoms fhared the fame fate, among which were Numantia
and Lufitania. Thus, in the {pace of about a century, the
Romans extended their conquelts in Europe, Afia, and
Africa.
“This,” gfays Mr. Tytler, “ was the era of the dawn of
luxury and tafte at Rome, the natural fruit of foreign wealth,
and. an acquaintance with foreign manners. In the unequal
diftribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it
gave rife, the corruption and venality of which it became
the inftrument, we fee the remoter caufes of thofe fatal dif-
orders to which the republic owed its diffolution.””
All diffentions between the fenate and the people had been
fufpended during their viGtories and triumphs, but when
they had no foreign enemy to contend with, they turned their
weapons againft themfelves. Sentiments of honour and
virtue among the great mafs of the people were well nigh
extinguifhed ; and pride, luxury, and felf-intereft, fucceeded
to temperance, feverity of life, and public fpirit. Tiberius
and Caius Graccuus, (fee their articles) beheld, with con-
cern, the univerfal corruption of the ftate, and attempted
to introduce thofe reforms that might bring back the people
to the former habits of moral difcipline. They, however,
both fell viétims to their zeal for the public good. The tu-
mults which attended, or were fubfequent to the exertions of
thefe noble youths, were but the prelude to thofe civil dif-
orders which followed in quick fucceffion. The Numidian
war, which commenced in the year 111 B.C., and which
laited five years, afforded many inftances of the injuftice,
infolence, and venality of the Roman people. In this, Ju-
GoRTHA, (fee his article,) who fought to ufurp the crown
of Numidia by the moft cruel means, obtained the friend-
fhip and aid of the Roman fenate, who having been bribed
for the purpofe, declared him innocent of every crime
of which he was charged, and decreed to him the fovereignty
of half the kingdom.
About this time, ros B.C. an immenfe body of fierce
barbarians rufhed, like a mighty torrent, from the northern
regions of Europe, and threatened all before them with utter
ruin and defolation. Marius alone was able to avert the im-
pending deftruction. He defeated the barbarians with great
flaughter: but he fought and triumphed merely with a view
of furthering his own ambition, which was foon proved to be
unbounded. Sylla, an artful and afpiring patrician, jealous
of the glory and popularity which Marius had acquired,
boldly itood forward to oppofe him. Faétions were formed,
and preparations made for the doubtful conteft. The ef-
fects, however, of domeltic animofities were fufpended by
the Social war, which was occafioned by the anxiety of the
allied ftates of Italy to attain the rights of citizenthip ; but
the immediate caufe of the war was the murder of Drufius
the tribune. This war, which ended in the conceffion of
thofe rights to fuch of the confederates as fhould return
peaceably to their allegiance, was followed by the more
dreadful contelt between the oppofing factions of Sylla and
Marius. Sylla, commanding in a war again{t Mithridates,
the moit powerful monarch of the Eait, was fuperfeded, and
recalled from Afia. He refufed to fubmit to the order, and
having founded his army, found it well difpofed to fupport
him
ROME.
him in all his meafures. ¢ Let us march to Rome,’’ they
exclaimed with one voice ; ‘lead us on to avenge the caufe
of oppreffed liberty.”’ Sylla readily liftened to the cry, and
led his conquering army towards Rome : they entered the
city fword in hand ; Marius and his partifans fled with preci-
pitation, and Sylla ruled for a time triumphant. He fullied
the glory of his vi€tories by many acts of cruelty and bar-
barity ; aflumed the title and power of perpetual diétator
in the year 82; and after maflacring many thoufands in cold
blood, returned to the ftation of a private man. It fhould,
however, be obferved, that previoufly to this he had en-
gaged perfonally in the Mithridatic war, and that during his
abfence, Marius returned to Italy, and joining his forces to
thofe of Cinna, laid fiege to Rome, and compelled the city
to abfolute fubmiffion. After a tremendous and unfparing
maflacre of all whom they ae as their enemies, Marius
and Cinna proclaimed themielves confuls, without the for-
mality of an election, but Marius died within a very few
days after this had happened.
The death of thefe rivals did not give peace to Rome:
Lepidus afpired to fucceed Sylla in his power, and Pompey,
who was, by much, his fuperior in talents, cherifhed the
fame ambition. While Pompey was employed in the re-
duGion of the revolted provinces of Afia, the confpiracy
of Catiline threatened the entire deftruGtion of Rome. It
was, however, extinguifhed by the prudence, forefight, and
patriotic zeal of Cicero. The next confiderable candidate
for popularity and fovereign power was Julius Ceefar, who
in the reign of Sylla had been numbered among the pro-
{cribed. From the danger attached to his fituation he had
learned prudence ; and while Pompey and Craflus were con-
tending for the command of the republic, Cziar, who, by
attaching himfelf to either rival, would infallibly make the
other his enemy, fhewed his talents and wifdom by recon-
ciling them, and thus acquiring the fayour and friend-
fhip of both. They accordingly agreed to a partition of
power, and hence the firft triumvirate was formed. Czfar
was elected conful: and he had the command of four le-
gions, and the government of Tranfalpine Gaul and Illyria.
The death of Craffus, in an expedition againft the Parthians,
diffolved the triumvirate, and the others, Pompey and Ce-
far, afpired, as rivals, to an undivided dominion. Theterm
of Cxfar’s government was near expiring, but to fecure to
himfelf that power which was the obje¢t of his ambition, he
procured a propofal to be made in the fenate by one of his
friends, which had the appearance of moderation and
juttice, namely, that Cxfar and Pompey fhould either both
continue in their governments; or both be deprived of them,
as they were equally capable of endangering public libert
by an abufe of power. The motion pafled, and Czfar of-
fered to refign, but Pompey refufed, and refolved to main-
tain his right by force of arms ; a civil war was the necef-
fary confequence. The fenate were chiefly attached to
Pompey, but Czfar had on his fide a victorious army,
confilting of ten legions, and the great body of the Roman
éitizens, whom he had won to his intere{t by his liberality.
Mark Antony and Caffius, at that time tribunes of the peo-
ple, left Rome for Czefar’s camp. The fenate, apprehentfive
of his defigns, and dreading the effects of his power and po-
pularity, pafled a decree, branding with the crime of parri-
cide any commander who fhould dare to pafs the Rubicon, a
- river which was the boundary between Italy and the Gauls,
with a fingle cohort without their permiffion. Czlar fet at
defiance their decree, and marched direétto Rome. Pom-
pey, to whom the fenate had committed the defence of the
ftate, was without an army. He quitted Rome, followed
by the confuls and a part of the fenate, and endeavoured
haftily to levy troops over all Italy and Greece, while Cefar
had triumphantly entered the city, amidft the acclamations
of the people, feized the public treafury, and poflefled him-
felf of {upreme authority without any oppofition. Having
fecured the capital, he fet out to meet the lieutenants of
Pompey, who had poffeffion of Spain. He defeated them,
and fubdued the whole country in the {pace of forty days.
On his return, he found he had, during his abfence, been
nominated diétator ; and in the fucceeding election he was
chofen conful, and thus invefted by a double title, with the
right of a¢ting in the name of the republic. Pompey had
now raifed a uumerous army, and in the field of Pharfalia
the rival armies met : Cefar was victorious, leaving 15,000
of his enemies dead, while 24,c00 furrendered themfelves as
his prifoners. The battle of Pharfalia, for fo it has been
named, which happened in the year B.C. 48, decided the
fate of the rival chiefs, and that of the empire.
In the {pace of two years Cefar gave law to the known
world ; but his fuccefs accelerated his ruin. He took part
with Cleopatra againft Ptolemy: a war enfued, in which
Ptolemy was killed, and Egypt was fubdued by the Roman
arms. In this war the famous library at Alexandria was
burnt to afhes. A revolt of the Afiatic provinces, under
Pharnaces, the fon of Mithridates, was fignally chaftifed ;
and the report of the conqueror to the Roman fenate was
conveyed in three words, veni, vidi, vici. Cafar having
added Mauritania to the number of the Roman provinces,
returned to Rome abfolute mafter of the empire. It is,
however, much to his credit, that from this moment his at-
tention was dire¢ted folely to the profperity and happinefs of
the people. He remembered no longer that there had been
oppofite parties: he was beneficent alike to the friends of
Pompey as to thofe attached to himfelf. He laboured to re-
form every fpecies of abufe and grievance: and in return
he was hailed “ the father of his country’?—was created
conful for ten years, and perpetual dictator. His perfon
was declared facred, and he had the title of Jmperator be-
ftowed upon him. Thus the Roman republic finally, by
its own acts, refigned its liberties. A confpiracy was formed
againft him by fixty of the fenators, at the head of whom
were Brutus and Caffius, and the di€tator was ftabbed, in
the year 44, at the foot of Pompey’s ftatue. Mark An-
tony improved this favourable opportunity, and became maf-
ter of the commonwealth: he found, however, a formidable
competitor in Oétavius, the grand nephew and adopted heir
of Cefar, who, at this critical moment, arrived in Rome,
and who gained the fenate to his intereft. The conteft ter-
minated in a civil war, in the courfe of which O@avius and
Antony were reconciled, and they ftrengthened their hands
by admitting Lepidus into their affociation. Thus was
formed the fecond triumvirate, the effets of whofe union
were beyond meafure deitruGtive. They divided among
themfelves the provinces, and cemented their union by a de-
liberate facrifice, made by each, of his friends to the ven-
geance of his aflociates. Antony gave up his uncle Lucius
to death; Lepidus his brother Paulus; and O@avius his
guardian Toranius and his friend Cicero. Befides thefe il-
luftrious characters, 300 fenators and 3000 knights were put
to death. A contpiracy was excited againft the triumvirs.
Oétavius and Antony marched againift them ; an engagement
enfued at Philippi, which decided the fate of the empire :
the republican party was annihilated. Antony now fought
a recompence for his troops by the plunder of the Eatft.
He became the willing conqueft of Cleopatra, for whom he
abandoned, and even forgot, glory, ambition, and fame,
OGavius faw this phrenzy with delight, and contemplated
in it his rival’s ruin; and from Lepidus he had nothing to
dread,
“are {till read with pleafure.
ROME.
dread, whofe infignificant charaéter drew on him the con-
tempt of his own friends, and whofe folly, in attempting an
invafion of the province of his colleague, was punifhed by
his depofition and banifhment. Antony had lavifhed the
provinces of the empire, in gifts to his paramour and her
children. At thefe enormities the Roman people were jaty
indignant, and the divorce of his wife Octavia, the fitter of
his colleague, was the fignal of declared hottility between
them. An immenfe armament, chiefly naval, came toa de-
cifive confli& near Adtium, on the coaft of Epirus. For-
tune was favourable to O&avius, and the battle of A&ttum
gave him the empire of the world. ;
Thus have we traced the hiltory of Rome from its com-
mencement, through all its revolutions, till the final ex-
tinétion of the republic: before we come to an account of
the emperors, we fhali notice fome particulars relating to
the character of the ancient Romans, beginning with the
mode of their education, upon which almoit every thing
depends, with regard to character, in the largeit extent of
the word. LA ,
Roman Education and Literature.—A rigid feverity of
manners was the charaéteriftic of the Romans under their
kings, and in the firlt ages of the republic. The private
life of the citizens, which was frugal, temperate, and la-
borious, had its influence on their public character. The
head of every family had fovereign authority over all the
members that compofed it, and this power, there is every
reafon to believe, was feldom, if ever, abufed. The Roman
laws did not prefcribe a fyitem and rules for the education
of the young, but the manners of the people fupplied this
want, and the utmoit attention was beftowed on the early
formation of mind and character. The Roman matrons did
not abandon their infants to mercenary nurfes. They
eiteemed thofe duties conneéted with the nurture of their
offspring and the rudiments of their education as the higheft
points of female merit. A remarkable degree of attention
was paid to the language of children, and to the attainment
of correétnefs and purity of expreffion; thus, the Gracchi,
the fons of the virtuous and excellent Cornelia, were faid to
be educated “non tam in gremio, quam in fermone matris.””
This was the more neceflary, becaufe it was by eloquence
more than by the exercife of any other talent that the young
Roman could rife to the higheit offices and dignities of the
ftate. The exercifes of the body were likewife particularly
attended to, and whatever hada tendency to harden the tem-
perament, and to confer ftrength and agility, was regarded as
of prime importance. At feventeen a youth was configned
to the care of a matter in rhetoric, whom he attended con-
{tantly to the forum, or to the courts of juftice, for it was
neceflary to be an orator, to be regarded as an accomplifhed
gentleman. ; :
Before the intercourfe with Greece, which took place
after the Punic wars, the Roman people were rude and illi-
terate, and it was not till five hundred years had elapfed,
that the regular drama was introduced at Rome, and the
earlieft Roman plays were, no doubt, tranflations from the
Greek. Of the early Roman drama, Ennius was a great
ornament, and from his time the art made a rapid advance-
ment. The comedies of Plautus, the contemporary of
Ennius, difplay much knowledge of human nature, and
Cwcilius improved fo much on
the comedies of Plautus, that he is mentioned by Cicero as,
perhaps, the beit of the Roman comic writers, but none of
his compolitions remain. ‘The “ Andria” of Terence, the
firlt of his comedies, was performed in the year 587 from
the building of the city. The comedies of this writer are
chiefly borrowed from the Greek of Menander and Apollo-
VoL. XXX.
dorus, and their merit lies in that nature and fimplicity which
are obfervable in the ftru€ture of the fable ; in the delineation
of the characters, and in the delicacy and purity of the
fentiments. The Roman comedy was of four different
{pecies ; the fir/ admitted ferious {cenes and perfonages ; the
Jecond was a reprefentation of ordinary life and mauners ;
the third was where the dialogue was not committed to
writing, but the fubjeét of the feene was preferibed, and
the dialogue was filled up by the talents of the aétors; and
the /aff included pieces of comedy of the lowett fpecies ;
farces, or entertainments of buffoonery. The Roman
tragedy kept pace in its advancement with comedy ; of the
beft, namely, of Aédtius and Pacuvius, there are no rea
mains; thofe under the name of Seneca are probably the
work of different hands.
The mott perfeé& era of Roman literature was the age of
Cicero, comprehending all, of the preceding times, whom
Cicero might have feen, and all, of the fucceeding, who
might have feen him. Thefe will include, among others,
Salluit, Czfar, Livy, and Tacitus, as hiftorians. Among
the poets were Lucretius, Catullus, Virgil, Horace, Ovid,
Tibullus, and Martial. See the feveral articles in the
alphabetical arrangement of the New Cyclopedia.
State of Philofophy and the Arts among the Romans.—In
the earlier periods of the republic, the Romans had little
leifure to beftow on the cultivation of the fciences, and had
no conception of philofophical {peculation. It was not till
the interval between the war with Perfeus and the third
Punic war, that philofophy made its appearance at Rome.
Some learned Achaians, banifhed from their country, had
fettled in various parts of Italy, and applied themfelves to
the cultivation of literature, and the education of youth,
diffufing a tafte for thofe ftudies hitherto unknown to the
Romans. Jealous of the introdu@ion of foreign manners
with foreign ftudies, the fenate banifhed the Greek philo-
fophers from Rome. But Carneades and Critolaus came
afterwards in the train of an Athenian embafly, who revived
the tafte fer the Greek philofophy, and left behind them
many able difciples who publicly taught their do@rines.
As the Roman manners had {till a tin@ture of their ancient
feverity, the Stoical fyitem prevailed. The philofophy of
Ariftotle was little known in Rome till the age of Cicero,
and even then the great orator complains that Peripatetic
philofophy was but little underftood at Rome, and, on that
account, he fent his fon to ftudy its do&trines in the {chools
of Athens. Lwucullus, whofe refidence in Greece gave him
an opportunity of being acquainted with all the different
fects, diffeminated, on his return to Rome, a very general
taite for philofophy. The old and new academy had each
their partifans ; of the former, the mott illuftrious difciples
were Marcus Brutus and Terentius Varro. Cicero, who
mult be deemed the moft eminent of all the Roman philo-
fophers, is ufually clafled among the fupporters of the new
f{chool.
The cultivation of phyfics, or natural philofophy, feems
to have been but little attended to, either by the Greeks or
Romans. The natural hiftory of Pliny is the moft valuable
ftorehoufe of the knowledge of the ancients in phytics,
economics, and the arts and fciences. The Romans had no
natural taite in the fine arts. On the conquett of Greece,
an immenfe field opened at once to their eyes, and they
were almoft inftantly furrounded with the matter-pieces of
art ; but their minds were not fufficiently cultivated to ap-
preciate their excellencies.
The Romans feem to have invented or perfeéted no art,
but that of war. The reft they had from Egypt, Greece,
Sicily, and Etruria. Tnour articles, therefore, concerning
3N the
ROME.
the Mufic of the Ancients, and Mufical Inflruments of the
Greeks, (fee Music, and/INstRUMENT, in Muficy) thofe of
the Romans are generally included. They, indeed, imitated
and adopted. many cuftoms, religious rites and,ceremonies
of the Etrurians; and Plutarch (Vita Romuli)- men-
tions it as a prevailing opinion, that the Greek sanguage,
which was fpoken by the Romans in the timé,of, Ro-
mulus, was not corrupted by Italian words. From thefe
accounts it appears that the Romans had not only vocal and
inftrumental. mufic as well as other arts and fciences from
Greece, but’ even their alphabet, langnage, religion, and all
the learning of which they were poflefled during the time of
their kings, and the firft ages of their republic, thefe having
been originally Greek, though the Romans had them through
Etrufcan ftrainers.
The firft Roman triumph, according to Dionyfius (lib. i1.),
was that of Romulus over the Ceninenfes ; in which, clad
in a purple robe, he was drawn in a chariot by four horfes.
The reft of the army, both horfe and foot, followed, ranged
in three feveral divifions, hymning their gods in fongs of
their country, and celebrating their general with extem-
porary verfes: this account affords a very venerable origin
to the improvifatori of Italy ; as the event happened in
the fourth year of Rome, 749 years before Chrift, and
the fourth year of the feventh olympiad.
Indeed the Romans were later in cultivating arts and
fciences than any other great and powerful people ; and none
of them feem to have been the natural growth of the foil,
except the military art ; all others were brought in by con-
quett. §
During the reign of Auguftus, except Vitruvius, it does
not appear that the Romans had one architect, {culptor,
painter, or mufician; thofe who have been celebrated in the
arts at Rome, having been Afiatics, or European Greeks,
who came to exercife fuch arts among the Latins, as the
Latins had not among themfelves; this cuftom was con-
tinued under the fucceflors of Auguftus, and thofe Romans
who were prevented by more important concerns from going
into Greece, contrived in a manner to bring Greece to Rome,
by receiving into their fervice the moft able profeflors of
Greece and Afia, in all the arts. We find too,. not only
that each of the beft Roman writers was an imitator of
fome great Grecian model, but are certain that the fineft re-
mains in painting, fculpture, and architeéture, which ftill
fubfift in Italy, were either brought thither from Greece,
or were the works of Greek artilts, who‘had left their own
ruined and oppreffed country, to bafk in the warm fun-fhine
of power and affluence at Rome.
Vitruvius, in his Treatife on Architecture, has inferted a
chapter on mufic, in which he has given the harmonical
fyftem of Ariftoxenus; but he introduces it with a com-
plaint of the unavoidable obfcurity of mufical literature, on
account of the deficiency of terms in the Latin tongue, to
explain hisideas. The fcience of mufic, in itfelf ob{cure,”’
fays he, ‘is particularly fo to fuch as underftard not the
Greek language.”? This writer, therefore, who feems to
have been the firft that had treated of mufic in the Roman
language, confeffes the neceflity he was under of ufing
Greek appellatives, not only for the notes, but for other
parts of the art; which fhews, if not the low ftate of mufic
at Rome when he wrote, which was in the Auguttan age,
at leaft whence their mufic came ; and dorrowing implies in-
feriority. Indeed, the writings of Cicero fhew that philo-
fophy, and all the arts and {ciences, were wholly furnifhed to
the Romans from Greece, even in the moft enlightened times.
Mufic was, however, in great favour at Re during
the latter end of the republic, and the voluptuous times of
the emperors ; the ftage then flourifhed; the temples were
crowded; feftivals frequent; and banquets fplendid; fo
that we may fuppofe it to have been yery much ufed both
upon public and private occafions, in fo rich, populous, and
flourifhing a city as Rome, the miftrefs of the world. But
this mufic muft have differed as little from that of the
Greeks, as the defcriptions of it in Horace and Viryil differ
from thofe to be found in Homer, and the Greek lyrfc
oets.
. Notwithftanding the Romans had the Greeks, Etrurians,
and Sicilians to imitate in the polite arts, they never advanced
fo far in them as the modern Italians have done ; who, with-
out any foreign help, have greatly furpafled not only their
forefathers the ancient Romans, but even the Greeks them-
felves, in feveral of the arts, and in no one fo much as that
of mufic, in which every people of Europe have, at different _
times, confented to become their fcholars.
From the fuccefs which attended the arms of the Romans,
and that dominion which they acquired over the greateft
part of the known world, it is natural to conclude that they
mutt have carried the military art toa higher degree of per-
feétion than any other nation of that period. It is the
difcipline of an army that makes the multitude aét as one
man ; it moreover increafes the courage of troops, becaufe
each individual confides in the fteady co-operation of his
aflociates. _ From the conftant pra¢tice of athletic exercifes,
the Romans were inured from infancy to hardinefs and
fatigue, and bred to that {pecies of life which a foldier leads
in the moft active campaign.
Among the ancient nations there were ufually but two
different arrangements of the troops in order of battle.
The one the Phalanx, or clofe arrangement in parallelograms,
interfected only by great divifions ; the other the Quincunx,
confifting of 1mall companies or platoons, difpofed in three
ftraight lines, with alternate fpaces between them equal to
the {pace occupied by each company. ‘The military taétics
of the Romans are fuppofed to have been at their higheit
pitch of excellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal was
a matter in the {cience, and the Romans underftood how to
profit from the inftruétions of an enemy. The art of in-
trenchment was carried to great perfection by the Romans,
particularly by Julius Cefar. Their intrenchments confifted
of a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and width, fenced
on the infide by the mound of excavated earth, and on the
outfide by {trong ttakes with pointed branches.
In befieging a town, feveral camps were formed around
the place, joined to each other by lines of circumvallation and
countervallation. A mound of earth was raifed, gradually
rifling in elevation as it approached the city. The front,
where workmen were employed, was defended by a curtain
of hides. On this mound the engines of attack were ad-
vanced, till they played onthe very {pot which the befiegers
wifhed to aflail. ‘The fame machines were ufed by the
befieged for annoying the enemy. When the batteries
from the terrace had filenced thofe on the walls, the bat-
tering ram was brought up, and if it once reached the
walls, it was generally decifive of the fate of the town.
The great object, therefore, of the befieged, was te prevent
its approach by every power of annoyance.
The naval military art was utterly unknown among the
Romans till the firit Punic war. A Carthaginian galley
was the firft model; and in the {pace of two months they
equipped a fleet of 100 gallies of five banks of oars, and
zo with three banks. In the times of the empire, which
we are going, very briefly, to defcribe, the Romans main-
tained their different conqueits, not by their armics, but by
their fleets, which were moored in the large rivers and bays,
; and
-ROME.
_. © and generally preferved a fixed ftation, as well as the le-
ions.
ay “3 Rome under the Emperors.—The battle of Actium, as we
3 shave already obferved, decided the fate ef the common-
wealth, and Oavius, now having allumed the name of
Auguitus, was matter of the Roman empire. This em-
peror new-modelled the ftate, flattered the people, and
rendered monarchy fupportable to republicans. Auguftus
pofleffed the talent of difcerning what character was belt
fitted for gaining the affections of the people he governed,
and verfatility of temper and genius to aflume it. His
virtues, though the reiult of policy, not of nature, were
certainly favourable to the happinefs, and even the liberties,
of his fubjects. The fate of Cefar might, and prebably did,
warn him of the infecurity of an ufurped dominion; and,
therefore, while he ftudioufly imitated what was excellent
in his predeceffor, he affected a much higher degree of mode-
ration and refpect for the rights of the people. Long
peace, in which the temple of Janus was fhut, which had
been open nearly two centuries, fince the beginning of the
fecond Punic war; an uniform and temperate government,
and prevailing luxury, introduced a flow poifon into the
vitals of the empire. The national chara¢ter was changed.
The outward form remained ; but the animating fpirit and
vigour had vanifhed. The Romans thought themfelves
free, becaufe they had no longer to fight for their liberty.
The fovereign kept up the delufion, by maintaining the
ancient forms of the republican conititution, in the election
of magiltrates, &c. though they were nothing more than
mere feios. He even pretended to confider his own func-
tions as temporary, exerted for the benefits of the people,
and depending upon their will. Five times, in the courle of
his protracted reign, did he fubmit to a fort of eleétion.
The emperor repofed the moit unlimited contidence in
Mecenas, by whofe counfels all public affairs were con-
duéted, and the moit falutary laws:ena¢ted for the remedy
of public grievances, and even the correction of the morals
of the people. By his influence and wife initructions,
Auguttus aflumed thofe virtues to which his heart was a
itranger ; and which, in their tendency to the happinefs of
his fubjeéts, were equally effe€tual as if they had been the
genuine fruits of his nature. On the death of Marcellus,
the nephew and fon-in-law of the emperor, he beftowed his
chief favour on Marcus Agrippa, who married Julia, the
widow of Marcellus; and on his deceafe, Julia took Tiberius
for her third hufband, who became the emperor’s fon-in-law
by a double tie, for Auguitus had previoufly married his
mother, Livia. On the death of the emperor, in the 14th
year of the Chriftian era, and in the 44th of his reign,
Tiberius fucceeded to the throne.
The government eftablifhed by Augultus, founded, as it
unqueftionably was, on the power of the {word, not on the
confent of the fenate and people, degenerated in propor-
tion as the army became corrupted. This prince had re-
folved to confine the boundaries of the empire to the limits
which, he aflumed, Nature had pointed out, viz. on the
weft the Atlantic ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the
north ; the Euphrates on the eaft ; and towards the fouth,
the fandy deferts of Arabia and Africa. His immediate
fucceflors adopted this refolution. Britain and Dacia were
the fole acceflions to the empire during the firit century of
the Chriitian era. A military fpirit was, in fome degree,
preferved and cherifhed, when almott every virtue was ex-
tinguifhed; but the difcipline of the legions was greatly
corrupted by the ambition, or relaxed by the weaknels, of
the emperors, who confided in the army, and particularl
in the itrength and fidelity of the Pretorian guards, whic
had been formed by Auguitus, and were kept up for the
protection” of ‘the emperor’s perfon. The ; foldiers. were,
however, foon roufed to a fenfe of their own: power, ‘and
of the impotency of the civil authority.
Tiberius, the fecond emperor, was an unfeeling tyrant,
and he took for his counfellor Sejanus, prefeét of the Prz-
torian guards, a man {till more cruel and tyrannical than
himfelf. Sejanus conceived the projeét of placing himfelf
on the throne: for the furtherance of his plans, he caufed
Drufus, the fon of the emperor, to be poifoned, and re-
moved from the fight of the people the fons of Germanicus,
who were the natural heirs to the crown. He even per-
fuaded Tiberius himfelf, under the pretence of a difcovery of
plots for his affaflination, to retire from Rome to the ifle of
Caprez, and devolve the government upon himfelf. He had
but one {tep more to the attainment of the objeét of his am-
bition : he was on the point of aflaffinating his mafter when he
was deteGted, and inftantly executed. Tiberius now became
negligent of the cares of government, and the imperial
power was difplayed only in fcenes of cruelty and rapine.
At length he fell fick, and was ftrangled in his bed by
Macro, the prefe& of the Pretorian guards, in the 78th
year of his age, and the 23d of his reign.
Caligula, the fon of Germanicus, who was Tiberius’s
nephew, was the third emperor of Rome. The commence-
ment of his reign was fignalized by a few ats of clemency
and good policy. But tyrannical and cruel by nature, he
fubftituted military execution for legal punifhment. The
provinces were loaded with the moft oppreflive taxes, and
daily confifcations filled the imperial* coffers. He was
aflaffinated in the 4th year of his reign, and was fucceeded
by his uncle
Claudius, the fon of Oétavia, the fifter of Auguttus,
whofe fhort reign, though he was a man of weak intelleéts,
and of little education, was marked by an enterprife of im-
portance. He undertook the reduétion of Britain, and
after vifiting the ifland in perfon, left his generals, Plautius
and Vefpafian, to profecute a war, which was carried on
for feveral years with various fuccefs. The inhabitants of
Wales, then denominated the Silures, under their kin
Cara€tacus, made a noble refiftance, but were finally de-
feated, and Caraé¢tacus was led captive to Rome. The
civil adminiftration of Claudius was weak and contemptible ;
he was the flave even of his domeftics, and the dupe of his
abandoned wives Meffalina and Agrippina. Claudius was
put to death in the 15th year of his reign. :
Nero, the fcourge of mankind,~fucceeded his father
Claudius, and for the firft five years he reigned with great
applaufe, whence Trajan, faid cunétos principes longeé
abefle a Neronis quinquennio ;’’ but when his chara¢ter
began to unfold itfelf, he was found to be a compound of
every thing that was bafe and inhuman. (See his article.) He
perifhed in the 3oth year of his age, and the 14th of his reign.
The two fucceeding emperors, Galba and Otho, did not
reign a year between them; the former was murdered by
the foldiers, and the latter died by his own hand.
The reign of Vitellius, the next emperor, was of eight
months’ duration. He is faid to have propofed Nero for
his model, and it was juft that he fhould refemble him in
his fate. Vefpafian, who had obtained from Nero the
charge of the war againft the Jews, which he had conduéted
with ability and fuccefs, was proclaimed emperor by liis
troops in the Eait, and a great part of Italy {ubmitting to
his generals, Vitellius capitulated to fave his life; but as
foor as Rome was taken, the depofed emperor was feized.
maflacred, and his body thrown into the Tiber.
Vefpafian reigned Renn popularity for ten years.
3N 2 ' He
ROME.
the Mufic of the Ancients, and Mufical Inflruments of the
Greeks, (fee Music, and! INsrRUMENT, in Mu/ic;). thofe of
the Romans are generally included. They, indeed, imitated
and adopted many cuftoms, religious rites and,ceremonies
of the Etrurians; and Plutarch (Vita Romuli)- men-
tions it as a prevailing opinion, that the Greek sianguage,
which was fpoken by the Romans in the time,of, Ro-
mulus, was.not corrupted by Italian words. From thefe
accounts it appears that the Romans had not only vocal and
inftrumental. mufic as well as other arts aud fciences from
Greece, but even their alphabet, language, religion, and all
the learning of which they were poffefled during the time of
their kings, and the firit ages of their republic, thefe having
been originally Greek, though the Romans had them through
Etrufcan ftrainers.
The firft Roman triumph, according to Dionyfius (ib. i1.),
was that of Romulus over the Ceninenfes ; in which, clad
in a purple robe, he was drawn in a chariot by four horfes.
The reft of the army, both horfe and foot, followed, ranged
in three feveral divifions, hymning their gods in fongs of
their country, and celebrating their general with extem-
porary verfes: this account affords a very venerable origin
to the improvifatori of Italy ; as the event happened in
the fourth year of Rome, 749 years before Chrift, and
the fourth year of the feventh olympiad.
Indeed the Romans were later in cultivating arts and
fciences than any other great and powerful people ; and none
of them feem to have been the natural growth of the foil,
except the military art ; all others were brought in by con-
quett. - E
During the reign of Auguftus, except Vitruvius, it does
not appear that the Romans had one architect, {culptor,
painter, or mufician ; thofe who have been cclebrated in the
arts at Rome, having been Afiatics, or European Greeks,
who came to exercife fuch arts among the Latins, as the
Latins had not among themfelves; this cuftom was con-
tinued under the fucceffors of Auguftus, and thofe Romans
who were prevented by more important concerns from going
into Greece, contrived in a manner to bring Greece to Rome,
by receiving into their fervice the moft able profeflors of
Greece and Afia, in all the arts. We find too,.not only
that each of the beft Roman writers was an imitator of
fome great Grecian model, but are certain that the fineft re-
mains in painting, {culpture, and archite¢ture, which {till
fubfift in Italy, were either brought thither from Greece,
or were the works of Greek artilts, who’had left their own
ruined and opprefled country, to bafk in the warm fun-fhine
of power and affluence at Rome.
Vitruvius, in his Treatife on ArchiteGiure, has inferted a
chapter on mufic, in which he has given the harmonical
fyftem of Ariftoxenus; but he introduces it with a com-
plaint of the unavoidable obfcurity of mufical literature, on
account of the deficiency of terms in the Latin tongue, to
explain hisideas. The fcience of mufic, in itfelf obfcure,”
fays he, “‘is particularly fo to fuch as underftand not the
Greek language.’”? This writer, therefore, who feems to
have been the firft that had treated of mufic in the Roman
language, confeffes the neceflity he was under of ufing
Greek appellatives, not only for the notes, but for other
parts of the art; which fhews, if not the low ftate of mufic
at Rome when he wrote, which was in the Auguttan age,
at leaft whence their mufic came ; and dorrowing implies in-
feriority. Indeed, the writings of Cicero fhew that philo-
fophy, and all the arts and {ciences, were wholly furnifhed to
the Romans from Greece, even in the mott enlightened times.
Mufic was, however, in great favour at ‘Rome during
the latter end of the republic, and the voluptuous times of
the emperors; the ftage then flourifhed ; the teniples were
crowded; feftivals frequent; and banquets fplendid; fo
that we may fuppofe it to have been very much ufed both
upon public and private occafions, in fo rich, populous, and
flourifhing a city as Rome, the miftrefs of the world. But
this mufic muft have differed as little from that of the
Greeks, as the defcriptions of it in Horace and Virgil differ
from thofe to be found in Homer, and the Greek lyric
ets.
2 Notwithftanding the Romans had the Greeks, Etrurians,
and Sicilians to imitate in the polite arts, they never advanced
fo far in themas the modern Italians have done; who, with-
out any foreign help, have greatly furpalfed not only their
forefathers the ancient Romans, but even the Greeks them-
felves, in feveral of the arts, and in no one fo much as that
of mufic, in which every people of Europe have, at different _
times, confented to become their {cholars.
From the fuccefs which attended the arms of the Romans,
and that dominion which they acquired over the greateft
part of the known world, it is natural to conclude that they
mutt have carried the military art toa higher degree of per-
fection than any other nation of that period. It is the
difcipline of an army that makes the multitude act as one
man ; it moreover increafes the courage of troops, becaufe
each individual confides in the fteady co-operation of his
aflociates. . From the conftant practice of athletic excrcifes,
the Romans were inured from infancy to hardinefs and
fatigue, and bred to that fpecies of life which a foldier leads
inthe moft active campaign.
Among the ancient nations there were ufually but two
different arrangements of the troops in order of battle.
The one the Phalanx, or clofe arrangement in parallelograms,
interfected only by great divifions ; the other the Quincunx,
confifting of 1mall companies or platoons, difpofed in three
ftraight lines, with alternate {paces between them equal to
the {pace occupied by each company. ‘The military taCtics
of the Romans are {uppofed to have been at their higheit
pitch of excellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal was
a mafter in the fcience, and the Romans underftood how to
profit from the inftruétions of an enemy. The art of in-
trenchment was carried to great perfection by the Romans,
particularly by Julius Cefar. Their intrenchments confifted
of a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and width, fenced
on the infide by the mound of excavated earth, and on the
outfide by {trong {takes with pointed branches.
In befieging a town, feveral camps were formed around
the place, joined to each other by lines of circumyallation and
countervallation. A mound of earth was raifed, gradually
rifling in elevation as it approached the city. The front,
where workmen were employed, was defended by a curtain
of hides. On this mound the engines of attack were ad-
vanced, till they played on the very {pot which the befiegers
wifhed to aflail. ‘The fame machines were ufed by the
befieged for annoying the enemy. When the batteries
from the terrace had filenced thofe on the walls, the bat-
tering ram was brought up, and if it once reached the
walls, it was generally decifive of the fate of the town.
The great object, therefore, of the befieged, was to prevent
its approach by every power of annoyance.
The naval military art was utterly unknown among the
Romans till the firit Punic war. A Carthaginian galley
was the firft model; and in the {pace of two months they
equipped a fleet of 100 gallies of five banks of oars, and
20 with three banks. In the times of the empire, which
we are going, very briefly, to defcribe, the Romans main-
tained their different conqueils, not by their armies, but by
their fleets, which were moored in the large rivers and bays,
, and
CO
-ROME.
aad generally preferved a fixed ftation, as well as the le-
‘gions. 5
“ Rome under the Emperors.—The battle of AGtium, as we
have already obferved, decided the fate of the common-
wealth, and Oétavius, now having allumed the name of
Auguttus, was matter of the Roman empire. This em-
peror new-modelled the ftate, flattered the people, and
rendered monarchy fupportable to republicans, Auguftus
poffefled the talent of difcerning what character was belt
fitted for gaining the affections of the people he governed,
and verfatility of temper and genius to aifume it. His
virtues, though the refult of policy, not of nature, were
certainly favourable to the happinefs, and even the liberties,
of his fubjects. The fate of Cefar might, and prebably did,
warn him of the infecurity of an ufurped dominion; and,
therefore, while he {tudioufly imitated what was excellent
in his predeceffor, he affected a much higher degree of mode-
ration and refpect for the rights of the people. Long
peace, in which the temple of Janus was fhut, which had
been open nearly two centuries, fince the beginning of the
fecond Punic war; an uniform and temperate government,
and prevailing luxury, introduced a flow poifon into the
vitals of the empire. The national chara¢ter was changed.
The outward form remained ; but the animating f{pirit and
vigour had vanifhed. The Romans thought themfelves
free, becaufe they had no longer to fight for their liberty.
The foyereign kept up the delufion, by maintaining the
ancient forms of the republican conititution, in the election
of magiltrates, &c. though they were nothing more than
mere forms. He even pretended to confider his own func-
tions as temporary, exerted for the benefits of the people,
and depending upon their will. Five times, in the courle of
his protracted reign, did he fubmit to a fort of eleétion.
The emperor repofed the moit unlimited confidence in
Mecenas, by whofe counfels all public affairs were con-
duéted, and the moit falutary laws enatted for the remedy
of public grievances, and even the correction of the morals
of the people, By his influence and wife initructions,
Auguttus aflumed thofe virtues to which his heart was a
itranger ; and which, in their tendency to the happinefs of
his fubjects, were equally effetual as if they had been the
genuine fruits of lus nature. On the death of Marcellus,
the nephew and fon-in-law of the emperor, he beftowed his
chief favour on Marcus Agrippa, who married Julia, the
widow of Marcellus; and on his deceafe, Julia took Tiberius
for her third hufband, who became the emperor’s fon-in-law
by a double tie, for Auguitus had previoufly married his
mother, Livia. On the death of the emperor, in the 14th
year of the Chriftian era, and in the 44th of his reign,
Tiberius fucceeded to the throne.
The government eitablifhed by Auguitus, founded, as it
inqueftionably was, on the power of the fword, not on the
confent of the fenate and people, degenerated in propor-
tion as the army became corrupted. This prince had re-
folved to confine the boundaries of the empire to the limits
which, he aflumed, Nature had pointed out, viz. on the
weft the Atlantic ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the
north ; the Euphrates on the eaft ; and towards the fouth,
the fandy deferts of Arabia and Africa. His immediate
fucceflors adopted this refolution. Britain and Dacia were
the fole acceflions to the empire during the firit century of
the Chriitian era. A military fpirit was, in fome degree,
preferved and cherifhed, when almott every virtue was ex-
tinguifhed ; but the difcipline of the legions was greatly
corrupted by the ambition, or relaxed by the weaknefs, of
the emperors, who confided in the army, and particularly
in the itrength and fidelity of the Pretorian guards, which
had been formed by’ Auguitus, and were kept wp for the
protection” of ‘the emperor’s perfon. The ; foldiers. were,
however, foon roufed to a fenfe of their own: power, ‘and
of the impotency of the civil authority.
Tiberius, the fecond emperor, was an unfeeling tyrant,
and he took for his counfellor Sejanus, prefe& of the Pra-
torian guards, a man {till more cruel and tyrannical than
himfelf. Sejanus conceived the projeét of placing himfelf
on the throne: for the furtherance of his plans, he caufed
Drufus, the fon of the emperor, to be poifoned, and re-
moved from the fight of the people the fons of Germanicus,
who were the natural heirs to the crown. He even per-
fuaded Tiberius himfelf, under the pretence of a difcovery of
plots for his affaflination, to retire from Rome to the ifle of
Caprez, and devolve the government upon himfelf. He had
but one ftep more to the attainment of the objeét of his am-
bition ; he was on the point of affaflinating his mafter when he
was detected, and inftantly executed. Tiberius now became
negligent of the cares of government, and the imperial
power was difplayed only in fcenes of cruelty and rapine.
At length he fell fick, and was ftrangled in his bed by
Macro, the prefe& of the Pretorian guards, in the 78th
year of his age, and the 23d of his reign.
Caligula, the fon of Germanicus, who was Tiberius’s
nephew, was the third emperor of Rome. The commence-
ment of his reign was fignalized by a few aéts of clemency
and good policy. But tyrannical and cruel by nature, he
fubftituted military execution for legal punifhment. The
provinces were loaded with the moft oppreflive taxes, and
daily confifcations filled the imperial* coffers. He was
aflaffinated in the 4th year of his reign, and was fucceeded
by his uncle
Claudius, the fon of Oétavia, the fifter of Auguttus,
whofe fhort reign, though he was a man of weak intelleés,
and of little education, was marked by an enterprife of im-
portance. He undertook the reduétion of Britain, and
after vifiting the ifland in perfon, left his generals, Plautius
and Vefpafian, to profecute a war, which was carried on
for feveral years with various fuccefs. The inhabitants of
Wales, then denominated the Silures, under their king
Caraétacus, made a noble refiftance, but were finally de-
feated, and Cara¢tacus was led captive to Rome. The
civil adminiftration of Claudius was weak and contemptible ;
he was the flave even of his domettics, and the dupe of his
abandoned wives Meflalina and Agrippina. Claudius was
put to death in the rsth year of his reign.
Nero, the fcourge of mankind,~fucceeded his father
Claudius, and for the firft five years he reigned with great
applaufe, whence Trajan, faid ‘ cunétos principes longe
abeffe a Neronis quinquennio ;”? but when his charaéter
began to unfold itfelf, he was found to be a compound of
every thing that was bafe and inhuman. (See his article.) He
perifhed in the 3oth year of his age, and the 14th of his reign.
The two fucceeding emperors, Galba and Otho, did not
reign a year between them; the former was murdered by
the foldiers, and the latter died by his own hand.
The reign of Vitellius, the next emperor, was of eight
months’ duration. He is faid to have propofed Nero for
his model, and it was juft that he fhould refemble him in
his fate. Vefpafian, who had obtained from Nero the
charge of the war againft the Jews, which he had conduéted
with ability and fuccefs, was proclaimed emperor by lie
troops in the Eaft, and a great part of Italy {ubmitting to
his generals, Vitellius capitulated to fave his life; but as
foom as Rome was taken, the depofed emperor was feized,
mailacred, and his body thrown into the Tiber.
Vefpafian reigned with great popularity for ten years.
3N 2 ~ He
ROME.
the Mufic of the Ancients, and Mufical Inflruments of the
Greeks, (fee Music, and/INsTRUMENT, in Mu/icy). thofe of
the Romans are generally included. They, indeed, imitated
-and adopted. many cuftoms, religious rites and,ceremonies
of the Etrurians; and Plutarch (Vita Romuli) men-
tions it as a prevailing opinion, that the Greek sianguage,
which was fpoken by the Romans in the time, of, Ro-
mulus, was. not corrupted by Italian words. From thefe
accounts it appears that the Romans had not only vocal and
inftrumental mufic as well as other arts and fciences from
Greece, but even their alphabet, language, religion, and all
the learning of which they were poflefled during the time of
their kings, and the firit ages of their republic, thefe having
been originally Greek, though the Romans had them through
Etrufcan {trainers.
The firft Roman triumph, according to Dionyfius (lb. i1.),
was that of Romulus over the Ceninenfes; in which, clad
in a purple robe, he was drawn in a chariot by four horfes.
The reft of the army, both horfe and foot, followed, ranged
in three feveral divifions, hymning their gods in fongs of
their country, and celebrating their general with extem-
porary verfes: this account affords a very venerable origin
to the improvifatori of Italy ; as the event happened in
the fourth year of Rome, 749 years before Chrift, and
the fourth year of the feventh olympiad.
Indeed the Romans were later in cultivating arts and
fciences than any other great and powerful people ; and none
of them feem to have been the natural growth of the foil,
except the military art ; all others were brought in by con-
quett. f f
During the reign of Auguftus, except Vitruvius, it does
not appear that the Romans had one architect, fculptor,
painter, or mufician; thofe who have been celebrated in the
arts at Rome, having been Afiatics, or European Greeks,
who came to exercife fuch arts among the Latins, as the
Latins had not among themfelves; this cuftom was con-
tinued under the fucceflors of Auguftus, and thofe Romans
who were prevented by more important concerns from going
into Greece, contrived in a manner to bring Greece to Rome,
by receiving into their fervice the moft able profeflors of
Greece and Afia, in all the arts. We find too,.not only
that each of the beft Roman writers was an imitator of
fome great Grecian model, but are certain that the fineit re-
mains in painting, {culpture, and architeéture, which ftill
fubfift in Italy, were either brought thither from Greece,
or were the works of Greek artiits, who had left their own
ruined and opprefled country, to bafk in the warm fun-fhine
of power and affluence at Rome.
Vitruvius, in his Treatife on ArchiteGiure, has inferted a
chapter on mufic, in which he has given the harmonical
fyftem of Ariftoxenus; but he introduces it with a com-
plaint of the unavoidable obfcurity of mufical literature, on
account of the deficiency of terms in the Latin tongue, to
explain hisideas. ‘The fcience of mufic, in itfelf obfcure,”’
fays he, ‘‘is particularly fo to fuch as underftand not the
Greek language.’ This writer, therefore, who feems to
have been the firft that had treated of mufic in the Roman
language, confeffes the neceflity he was under of ufing
Greek appellatives, not only for the notes, but for other
parts of the art; which fhews, if not the low itate of mufic
at Rome when he wrote, which was in the Augutftan age,
at leaft whence their mufic came ; and dorrowing implies in-
feriority. Indeed, the writings of Cicero fhew that philo-
fophy, and all the arts and fciences, were wholly furnifhed to
the Romans from Greece, even in the mott enlightened times.
Mufic was, however, in great favour at ‘Rome during
the latter end of the republic, and the voluptuous times of
the emperors; the ftage then flourifhed ; the teniples were
crowded; feftivals frequent; and banquets fplendid; fo
that we may fuppofe it to have been very much ufed both
upon public and private occafions, in fo rich, populous, and
flourifhing a city as Rome, the miftrefs of the world. But
this mufic muft have differed as little from that of the
Greeks, as the defcriptions of it in Horace and Virgil differ
from thofe to be found in Homer, and the Greek lyric
poets.
. Notwithttanding the Romans had the Greeks, Etrurians,
and Sicilians to imitate in the polite arts, they never advanced
fo far in themas the modern Italians have done; who, with-
out any foreign help, have greatly furpaffed not only their
forefathers the ancient Romans, but even the Greeks them-
felves, in feveral of the arts, and in no one fo much as that
of mufic, in which every people of Europe have, at different _
times, confented to become their fcholars.
From the fuccefs which attended the arms of the Romans,
and that dominion which they acquired over the greateft
part of the known world, it is natural to conclude that they
mutt have carried the military art toa higher degree of per-
feétion than any other nation of that period. It is the
difcipline of an army that makes the multitude act as one
man ; it moreover increafes the courage of troops, becaufe
each individual confides in the fteady co-operation of his
aflociates. . From the conftant pra¢tice of athletic exercifes,
the Romans were inured from infancy to hardinefs and
fatigue, and bred to that fpecies of life which a foldier leads
in the moft ative campaign.
Among the ancient nations there were ufually but two
different arrangements of the troops in order of battle.
The one the Phalanx, or clofe arrangement in parallelograms,
interfected only by great divifions ; the other the Quincunx,
confifting of imall companies or platoons, difpofed in three
ftraight lines, with alternate {paces between them equal to
the {pace occupied by each company. ‘The military taétics
of the Romans are fuppofed to have been at their higheit
pitch of excellence during the Punic wars. Hannibal was
a mafter in the {cience, and the Romans underftood how to
profit from the inftru€tions of an enemy. The art of in-
trenchment was carried to great perfection by the Romans,
particularly by Julius Cefar. Their intrenchments confifted
of a ditch from nine to fifteen feet in depth and width, fenced
on the infide by the mound of excavated earth, and on the
outfide by ftrong itakes with pointed branches.
In befieging a town, feveral camps were formed around
the place, joined to each other by lines of circumyallation and
countervallation. A mound of earth was raifed, gradually
rifling in elevation as it approached the city. The front,
where workmen were employed, was defended by a curtain
of hides. On this mound the engines of attack were ad-
vanced, till they played onthe very {pot which the befiegers
wifhed to aflail. The fame machines were ufed by the
befieged for annoying the enemy. When the batteries
from the terrace had filenced thofe on the walls, the bat-
tering ram was brought up, and if it once reached the
walls, it was generally decifive of the fate of the town.
The great object, therefore, of the befieged, was te prevent
its approach by every power of annoyance.
The naval military art was utterly unknown among the
Romans till the firit Punic war. A Carthaginian galley
was the firft model; and in the fpace of two months they
equipped a fleet of 100 gallies of five banks of oars, and
zo with three banks. In the times of the empire, which
we are going, very briefly, to defcribe, the Romans main-
tained their different conqueils, not by their armies, but by
their fleets, which were moored in the large rivers and bays,
: and
-ROME.
’ and generally preferved a fixed itation, as well as the le-
‘gions. 1
: Rome under the Emperors.—The battle of Actium, as we
have already obferved, decided the fate of the common-
wealth, and Oétavius, now having aflumed the name of
Auguitus, was matter of the Roman empire. This em-
peror new-modelled the ftate, flattered the people, and
rendered monarchy fupportable to republicans, Auguftus
poflefled the talent of difcerning what character was belt
fitted for gaining the affections of the people he governed,
and verfatility of temper and genius to aflume it. His
virtues, though the refult of policy, not of nature, were
certainly fayourable to the happinefs, and even the liberties,
of his fubjects. The fate of Cefar might, and prebably did,
warn him of the infecurity of an ufurped dominion; and,
therefore, while he {tudioufly imitated what was excellent
in his predeceffor, he affected a much higher degree of mode-
ration and refpect for the rights of the people. Long
peace, in which the temple of Janus was fhut, which had
been open nearly two centuries, fince the beginning of the
fecond Punic war; an uniform and temperate government,
and prevailing luxury, introduced a flow poifon into the
vitals of the empire. The national chara¢ter was changed.
The outward form remained ; but the animating f{pirit and
vigour had vanifhed. The Romans thought themfelves
free, becaufe they had no longer to fight for their liberty.
The foyereign kept up the delufion, by maintaining the
ancient forms of the republican conititution, in the election
of magiltrates, &c. though they were nothing more than
mere fan He even pretended to confider his own func-
tions as temporary, exerted for the benefits of the people,
and depending upon their will. Five times, in the courle of
his protracted reign, did he fubmit to a fort of ele¢tion.
The emperor repofed the moit unlimited confidence in
Mecznas, by whofe counfels all public affairs were con-
duéted, and the mott falutary laws ena¢ted for the remedy
of public grievances, and even the correction of the morals
of the people. By his influence and wife initruétions,
Auguttus aflumed thofe virtues to which his heart was a
itranger ; and which, in their tendency to the happinefs of
his fubjeéts, were equally effectual as if they had been the
genuine fruits of lis nature. On the death of Marcellus,
the nephew and fon-in-law of the emperor, he beftowed his
chief favour on Marcus Agrippa, who married Julia, the
widow of Marcellus; and on his deceafe, Julia took Tiberius
for her third hufband, who became the emperor’s fon-in-law
by a double tie, for Auguitus had previoufly married his
mother, Livia. On the death of the emperor, in the 14th
year of the Chriftian era, and in the 44th of his reign,
Tiberius fucceeded to the throne.
The government eftablifhed by Auguitus, founded, as it
inqueftionably was, on the power of the {word, not on the
confent of the fenate and people, degenerated in propor-
tion as the army became corrupted. ‘This prince had re-
folved to confine the boundaries of the empire to the limits
which, he aflumed, Nature had pointed out, viz. on the
weit the Atlantic ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the
north ; the Euphrates on the eaft ; and towards the fouth,
the fandy deferts of Arabia and Africa. His immediate
fucceflors adopted this refolution. Britain and Dacia were
the fole acceflions to the empire during the firit century of
the Chriilian era. A military fpirit was, in fome degree,
preferved and cherifhed, when almott every virtue was ex-
tinguifhed ; but the difcipline of the legions was greatly
corrupted by the ambition, or relaxed by the weaknefs, of
the emperors, who confided in the army, and _particularl
in the itrength and fidelity of the Pretorian guards, ics
had been formed by Auguitus, and were kept wp for the
protection™ of ‘the emperor’s perfon. The ; foldiers- were,
however; foon roufed to a fenfe of their own: power, ‘and
of the impotency of the civil authority.
Tiberius, the fecond emperor, was an unfeeling tyrant,
and he took for his counfellor Sejanus, prefeét of the Prx-
torian guards, a man {till more cruel and tyrannical than
himfelf. Sejanus conceived the project of placing himfelf
on the throne: for the furtherance of his plans, he caufed
Drufus, the fon of the emperor, to be poifoned, and re-
moved from the fight of the people the fons of Germanicus,
who were the natural heirs to the crown. He even per-
fuaded Tiberius himfelf, under the pretence of a difcovery of
plots for his affaflination, to retire from Rome to the ifle of
Caprex, and devolve the government upon himfelf. He had
but one {tep more to the attainment of the objeét of his am-
bition ; he was on the point of affaffinating his mafter when he
was detected, and inftantly executed. ‘Tiberius now became
negligent of the cares of government, and the imperial
power was difplayed only in fcenes of cruelty and rapine.
At length he fell fick, and was {trangled in his bed by
Macro, the prefe& of the Pretorian guards, in the 78th
year of his age, and the 23d of his reign.
Caligula, the fon of Germanicus, who was Tiberius’s
nephew, was the third emperor of Rome. The commence-
ment of his reign was fignalized by a few aéts of clemency
and good policy. But tyrannical and cruel by nature, he
fubftituted military execution for legal punifhment. The
provinces were loaded with the moft oppreffive taxes, and
daily confifcations filled the imperial* coffers. He was
allaffinated in the 4th year of his reign, and was fucceeded
by his uncle
Claudius, the fon of O@tavia, the filter of Auguttus,
whofe fhort reign, though he was a man of weak intelleéts,
and of little education, was marked by an enterprife of im-
portance. He undertook the reduétion of Britain, and
after vifiting the ifland in perfon, left his generals, Plautius
and Vefpafian, to profecute a war, which was carried on
for feveral years with various fuccefs. The inhabitants of
Wales, then denominated the Silures, under their king
Caraétacus, made a noble refiftance, but were finally de-
feated, and Cara¢tacus was led captive to Rome. The
civil adminiftration of Claudius was weak and contemptible ;
he was the flave even of his domettics, and the dupe of his
abandoned wives Meffalina and Agrippina. Claudius was
put to death in the rth year of his reign.
Nero, the fcourge of mankind, fucceeded his father
Claudius, and for the firft five years he reigned with great
applaufe, whence Trajan, faid “« cunétos principes longe
abeffe a Neronis quinquennio ;”? but when his chara¢ter
began to unfold itfelf, he was found to be a compound of
every thing that was bafe and inhuman, (See his article.) He
perithed in the 3oth year of his age, and the 14th of his reign.
The two fucceeding emperors, Galba and Otho, did not
reign a year between them; the former was murdered by
the foldiers, and the latter died by his own hand.
The reign of Vitellius, the next emperor, was of eight
months’ duration. He is faid to have propofed Nero for
his model, and it was juft that he fhould refemble him in
his fate. Vefpafian, who had obtained from Nero the
charge of the war againft the Jews, which he had conduéted
with ability and fuccefs, was proclaimed emperor by lie
troops in the Eaft, aud a great part of Italy {ubmitting to
his generals, Vitellius capitulated to fave his life; but as
{oom as Rome was taken, the depofed emperor was feized.
maflacred, and his body thrown into the Tiber.
Vefpafian reigned ts ai popularity for ten years.
ZN 2 He
ROME.
He refpefted the ancient forms of the conttitution, reitored
the fenate to its deliberative rights, and acted by its authority
in the adminiftration of all public affairs. Under his reign,
and by the arms of his fon Titus, was terminated the war
againit the Jews. They had been brought under the yoke
of Rome by Pompey, who took Jerufalem. Under Au-
guitus, they were governed for fome time by Herod as
viceroy ; but the tyranny of his fon Archelaus was the
eaufe of his banifhment, and alfo of the reduction of Judea
into the ordinary condition of a Roman prevince. Tn the
reign of Vefpalian, Jerufalem was befieged, and after a
blockade of fix months, taken by ftorm, the temple burnt
to athes, and the city buried in ruins. Vefpafian aflociated
Titus in the imperial dignity, and foon after died, at the
age of 69, in the year 79 of the Chriftian era. Pt
In eleétive monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a
moment big with danger and mifchief. The Roman em-
perors, defirous to {pare the legions that interval of fuf-
pence, and the temptation of an irregular choice, invelted
their defigned fucceflor with fo large a fhare of prefent
power, as fhould enable him, after their deceafe, to aflume
the remainder, without fuffering, as it were, the empire to
perceive the change of maiters. Thus Auguftus, after all
his fair profpects had been {natched from him by untimely
deaths, refted his laft hopes on Tiberius, and obtained a law,
by which the future prince was invefted with. an authority
equal to his own over the provinces and the armies. Thus,
alfo, Vefpafian fubdued the generous mind of his eldeft fon.
Titus was adored by the eaftern legions ; his power was
dreaded; but as his virtues were clouded by the intempe-
rance of youth, his defigns were liable to be fufpected. | In-
itead of liftening to fuch unworthy fufpicions, the prudent
monarch affociated, as we have feen, Titus to the full
powers of the imperial dignity : and the grateful fon ever
approved himfelf the humble and faithful minilter of fo
indulgent a father. :
Velpafian had embraced every meafure that might con-
firm his recent and precarious elevation. The military oath,
and the fidelity of troops, had been confecrated by the
habits of an hundred years to the name and family of the
Ceefars; and although that family had been continued only
by the fictitious rite of adoption, the Romans ftill revered,
in the perfon of Nero, the grandfon of Germanicus, and
the lineal fucceflor of Auguitus. It was not without re-
lu@tance and remorfe that the Pratorian guards were per-
fuaded to abandon the caufe of the tyrant. The rapid
downfall of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, taught the armies
to confider the emperors as the creatures of their will, and
“the inftruments of their licence. The birth of Vefpatian
was very mean: his own merit had raifed him, in an ad-
vanced age, to the empire. ‘ Such a prince,’’ then, fays
Gibbon, * confulted his true intereft by the aflociation of
a fon, whofe more {plendid and amiable character might
turn the public attention from the obfcure origin, to the
future glories, of the Flavian houfe. Under the mild ad-
miniftration of Titus, the Roman world enjoyed a tranfient
felicity. His character was humane, munificent, dignified,
and f{plendid. In his reign happened that dreadful eruption
of Vefuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii; and the public lofles from thefe calamities he
repaired by the facrifice of his fortune and revenues. He
died in the third year of his reign, and obtained the moft
exalted epithet, * Delicie humani generis.’”’
Domitian, the brother of Titus, and fufpeGted of mur-
dering him by poifon, fucceeded to the empire A.D. 61.
He was amolt cruel tyrant. A rebellion in Germany gave
him an opportunity to fignalize the barbarity of his difpofi-
tion ; and its confequences were long felt in the fanguinary
punifhments infli€ted under the pretence of juftice. In this
reign, the fuccefles of Agricola in Britain threw a luitre on
the Roman arms; neverthelefs Domitian treated this brave
commander with the bafeft ingratitude. The emperor was
affaflinated in the fixteenth year of his reign.
It may not be amifs, before we proceed, to notice, in a
geographical fenfe, the different divifions of the empire
under Auguitus, and which continued during the reigns of
the twelve Czfars, to that of Adrian. When Augutftus
made himfelf mafter of the Roman empire, its pofleflions ex-
tended almott to all the then known world. He did not, as
we have feen, make any attempts to extend the limits of the
empire, but took every means, that-his great talents could
fuggeft, to preferve his own authority, without rendering
the fenate and people his enemies. He appeared to fur-
render to them their ancient authority and rights, and only
to attend to thofe parts of the government which were molt
laborious and difficult. He even féemed to divide the pro-
vinces of the empire between himfelf and the nation, which
provinces he arranged into twenty-fix diocefes or depart-
ments. Of thefe he granted twelve to the fenate and people,
referving to. himfelf the other fourteen. He had taken care,
in this divifion of the empire, that not only the moft con-
fiderable provinces‘ fhould fall to his own fhare, but that
they fhould be fo fituated, as to give him a decided pze-
eminence over the others. With refpeét to the departments
under the controul of the fenate and people, two were
governed by proconfuls, and ten by pretors.
I. The two departments governed by proconfuls com-
prehended Africa, including Africa proper, Numidia, and
part of Libya.
II. The ten departments under the government of
pretors comprehended that part of Spain denominated
Beetica; Gallia Narbonentis; Sicily; Sardinia, and Corfica;
Illyria, and part of Epirus; Macedonia, and part of
Greece; Achaia; Beeotia, Acarnania, and part of Epirus ;
the ifland of Crete; Cyrenaica, an ancient kingdom of
Africa, including the prefent kingdom and defart of Barca
and Tripoli; the ifland of Cyprus; Bithynia; Paphla- .
gonia; the countries about the Propontis and Pontus.
III. The fourteen diocefes or departments under the
immediate authority of the emperor were as follow: Hif-
pania; Lufitania; Celtiberia; Aquitania; the moft im-
portant parts of Gallia and Belgica; Nerica, Vindelicia,
and Rhetia; Mcfia, comprehending Dardania, Dacia, and
Thrace; Dalmatia, and part of Illyria; the Maritime
Alps ; Cilicia, [fauria, and Lycaonia ; Galatia, Pamphylia,
and Pifidia; Syria, Little Armenia, Mefopotamia, and all
the eaftern parts of the empire; Egypt, and part of
Arabia; Italy, from the ifland of Sicily to the Alps.
Nerva, who fucceeded Domitian, had fcarcely accepted
the fovereign power from the murderers of that emperor,
before he difcovered that he was too aged and infirm to {tem
the torrent of public diforders, which had multiplied to an
alarming degree under the long tyranny of his predeceffor.
His mild difpofition was highly refpetted by the virtuous,
but was treated with great contempt by tke guilty. ‘Though
he had relations of his own, yet he adopted for his fuccetlor
a ftranger, Trajan, who had commanded with wifdom and
fuccefs a powerful army in Lower Germany, and immedi-
ately, by a decree of the fenate, declared him his colleague
and fucceffor in the empire. Nerva died in fixteen months
after his elevation to the throne.
Trajan poflefled every talent and every virtue that can
adorn a fovereign. As a warrior, he raifed the Roman
arms to their ancient {plendour, and greatly-enlarged the
boundaries
ROME.
boundaries of the empire. He fubdued the Dacians, con-
quered the Parthians, and brought under fubjeétion A flyria,
Mefopotamia, and Arabia Felix. Nor was he lefs eminent
in promoting-the happinefs of his fubjeéts, and the internal
profperity of the empire. He was illuftrious in every con-
ne¢tion, and in every {tation of life, and obtained the epithet
Optimus. He died after a glorious reign of nineteen years.
Of this emperor Gibbon remarks, “ It is fincerely to be la-
mented, that while we are fatigued with the difguftful rela-
tion of Nero’s crimes and follies, we are reduced to collect
the actions of Trajan from the glimmering of an abridgment,
or the doubtful light of a panegyric. Above two hundred
and fifty years after the death of Trajan, the fenate, in
pouring out the cuftomary acclamations on the acceffion of
a new emperor, wiflied that he might furpafs the felicity of
Auguttus and the virtue of Trajan.”
Adrian, the nephew of Trajan, was nominated to the
throne, in the lalt moments of his predeceffor, and his title
was peaceably acknowledged. Under his reign the empire
flourifhed: he encouraged the arts, reformed the laws,
afferted ftri€&t military cifcipline, and vifited all his pro.
vinces in perfon. He adopted a policy very different from
that of his predeceffor, and judging the limits of the empire
too extenfive, abandoned all the conqueits of Trajan,
bounding the eaftern provinces by the Euphrates. To his
talents as an able politician, he joimed an excellent tafte in
the liberal arts.
declared for his immediate fucceflor, Titus Aurelius An-
toninus, and fubftituting Annius Verus, the fon of A®lius
Verus, in cafe of the other’s death. Adrian died A.D.
138, at the age of 62.
The emperor Adrian fuppreffled the departments efta-
blifhed by Auguitus, and divided the whole empire into
eleven parts, as Bites
I. Italy, including two provinces, of which the firft com-
prehends all the country from Picenum to Sicily ; and the
fecond from Picenum to the Alps, with the two Rhetias.
II. Africa, comprehending the proconfular part of that
country ; Numidia, and Mauritania.
III. Hifpania, including Hifpania Tarraconenfis; Beetica,
and Lufitania.
IV. Gallia, comprehending Gallia Belgica; Gallia
Lugdunenfis ; Gallia Aquitanica, and Gallia Narbonerfis.
VY. Britanny, comprehending the upper and lower coun-
tries of that name.
VI. Illyria, containing feventeen provinces, viz. the
two Noricas ; the Upper and Lower Pannonia, and their
appendages ; Dalmatia; Mcefia Prima; the Superior and
Inferior Dacia; Macedonia; Theflaly ; Achaia; the two
Epiri, and the ifland of Crete.
VII. Egypt, includisg Egypt Proper; Thebais; Libya,
and Pentapolis.
VIII. The eaftern part of the empire comprehended
Palettine ; Phenicia; Ceelo-Syria; Syria; the two Cici-
lias; Ifauria; Mefopotamia; Arabia, and the ifland of
Cyprus,
IX. Thrace comprehended Thrace Proper; thé Lower
Meefia; Scythia, and the adjoining countries.
X. Pontus included Pontus Proper ; Galatia; Bithynia ;
the two Cappadocias ; Paphlagonia, and Armenia.
XI. The Afiatic divifion comprehended the proconfular
part of Afia; Pamphylia; the countries about the Hellef-
pont; Lydia; Pifidia; Lycaonia; the two Phrygias;
Lycia; Caria; and feveral iflands, of which Rhodes was
the chief.
The Age of the Antonines.—This has by hiftorians been
regarded as an era inthe Romanempire. Adrian, fays the
I
In the laft year of his life he adopted, and -
hiftorian, was refolved to deferve the thanks of potterity,
by placing the moit exalted merit on the Roman throne.
His difcerning eye eafily difcovered a fenator about 50 years
of age, blamelefs in all the offices of life; and a youth
of about 17, whofe riper years opened the fair profpeé of
every virtue. The elder of thefe, as we have feen, was de-
clared the fon and fuccefior of Adrian, on condition that he
himfelf fhould immediately adopt the younger. The two
Antonines, for fo they have been denominated, governed
the Roman world 42 years, with the invariable {pirit of
wifdom and virtue. The former has, on account of -his
many excellent qualities, been furnamed Pius; the latter,
Annius Verus, on his acceflion, aflumed the name of
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Titus Antoninus Pius has
been denominated a fecond Numa. The fame love of juf-
tice and peace was the diftinguifhing charaGteriftic of both
princes: but the fituation of the latter opened a much wider
field for the exercife of thoie virtues. The wifdom of the
former could benefit but a few villages ; but Antoninus
diffufed order and tranquillity over the greateft part of the
earth. “ His reign,” fays Gibbon, “is marked by the
rare advantage of furnifhing very few materials for hiftory ;
which is, indeed, little more than the regifter of the crimes,
follies, and misfortunes of mankind.”” In private life, he
was an amiable as well as a good man; and he enjoyed with
moderation the advantages of his good fortune. He died
after a reign of 22 years.
The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninns was of a fe-
verer and more laborious kind. At the age of twelve he
embraced, from a convidtion of its utility, the rigid fy {tem
of the Stoics, which taught him to fubjeé his body to his
mind, his paffions to his reafon; to confider virtue as the
only good, and vice as the only evil. His «* Meditations,?
compofed in the midft of a camp, are not only extant, but
{till read with delight and advantage ; and he even gave lef-
fons of philofophy to the Roman people, as he had before
done in feveral cities of Greece and Afia. War he de-
tefted, as the difgrace and calamity of human nature; but
when the neceffity of a jult defence called upon him to take
up arms, he readily expofed his perfon to eight winter cam-
paigns on the frozen banks of the Danube, the feverity of
which was at laft fatal to the weaknefs of his conftitution.
Having appeared like a benevolent deity, diffufing around
him peace and happinefs, he died in Pannonia, in the rgth
year of his sie A.D. 180. His memory was revered by
a grateful poiterity ; and above a century after his death,
many perfons preferved the image of Marcus Antoninus
among thofe of their houfehold gods,
“ If a man,” fays the hiftorian of thefe times, « were
called on to fix the period in the hiftory of the world, during
which the condition of the human race was moft happy and
profperous, he would, without hefitation, name that which
elapfed from the death of Domitian to the acceflion of
Commodus. The vaft extent of the Roman empire was
governed by abfolute power, under the guidance of virtue
and wifdom. The armies were re{trained by the firm and
gentle hand of five fucceffive emperors, whole characters
and authority commanded an involuntary refpect. The
forms of the civil adminittration were carefully preferved by
Nerva, Trajan, Adzian, and the Antonines, who delighted
in the image of liberty, and were pleafed with confidering
themfelves as accountable minifters of the laws. Such
princes deferved the honour of reitoring the republic, had
the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a ra-
tional freedom. The labours of thefe monarchs were over-
paid by the immenfe reward that infeparably waited on their
fuccefs; by the honeft pride of virtue, and by the exquifite
delight
ROME.
delight of beholding the general happinefs, of which they
were the authors.’”
Commodus fucceeded to the empire on the death of his
father. ‘The meafures of this reign were a3 unimportant as
the charaéter of the fovereign was contemptible. Com-
modus had an averfion from every rational and liberal pur-
fuit, and was in many refpeéts very like Nero. To his
other crimes, which he had in common with preceding ty-
rants, may be added, that he entered the lifts as a public
gladiator, and aétually received a flipend for the flaughter
of his helplefs antagonifts. ‘The concubine and fome of the
chief officers of this emperor prevented their own deftruétion,
by aflaffinating him in the thirteenth year of his reign,
A.D. 193.
Publius Helvius Pertinax was the next emperor, a man
of mean birth, but who_had rifen to efteem by his virtues
and military talents. He difappointed the army of a pro-
mifed reward for his elevation, and, after a reign of 86 days,
was murdered in the imperial palace by the fame hands
which had raifed him to the throne. The empire was
now put up to auétion by the Pretorians, and was pur-
chafed by Didius Julianus; but not paying the ftipu-
lated price for his elevation, he was depofed and put to
death.
Septimius Severus fucceeded, whofe intention was to erect
the fabric of abfolute monarchy, and all his inftitutions
operated to thatend. He poflefled eminent military talents,
and it was his boaft, that, having received the empire op-
preffed with foreign and domettic wars, he left it in profound,
univerfal, and honourable peace. He carried with him into
Britain his two fons, Caracalla and Geta; and died at York,
in the 66th year of his age, after a reign of eighteen
years, A.D. 211. He was fucceeded by the two fons juft
named, whofe former mutual hatred of each other was in-
creafed by their aflociation in the empire ; and Caracalla,
with brutal inhumanity, caufed his brother to be openly
murdered in the arms of his mother. His reign, which was
of fix years’ duration, and full of atrocities, was at length
terminated by aflaffination, A.D. 217.
As it would not be confiftent with the limits afligned to
this article, neither is it at all neceflary, to advance {tep by
ftep through the fucceeding reign it will be fufficient to
tran{cribe, with very trifling additions, the names of feveral
of the emperors who followed Caracalla.
The diforders in the Roman empire, which began with
Commodus, continued nearly a century, till the acceffion of
Diocletian; and this interval was filled by the reigns of
Macrinus and Heliogabalus, who were both flain by the
foldiers. Alexander Severus was a juit prince and a lover
of learning ; he was fuccefsfulin his war againft Artaxerxes,
the new king of Perfia, and after that, was flain by fome of
his foldiers in an expedition into Germany.
Maximin, Maximus and Balbinus, Gordian, and Philip the
Arabian, with his fon, in whofe reign were initituted the
fecular games, were all raifed to the throne by the pretorian
bands, and by them killed. Decius, a fevere perfecutor of
the Chriftians, was drowned while fighting againit the bar-
barians. After this Gallus was flain by the army, at the end
of a reign of two years. The life of Valerianus was de-
voted to the reformation of the manners of his people ; but
in a war with Sapor, king of Perfia, he was captured and
flead alive. Gallienus, the fon of Valerianus, was loft in
luxury and debauchery, and fuffered the empire to be torn
from him on all fides by barbarians and tyrants. Hence the
3c tyrants, as they are called, though hiftory records the
names of 19 only, rofe up againit him. Among thefe was
Zenobia, wife to Odenatus, prince of Palmyra, a woman of
martial fpirit, who fpread her conquering arms far over the:
Eattern world. :
After Gallienus were Claudius II., who died of the
plague: Aurelian, who carried Zenobia a captive in tri-
umph, and who was murdered by his foldiers: Claudius
Tacitus, Probus, and Carus followed in fucceflion. Probus
was killed by the foldiers, and Carus was {truck dead with
lightning.
Diocletian began his reign A.D. 284, and introduced.a
new fyftem of adminiftration, dividing the empire iato four
governments, under as many princes. Maximian fhared with
him the title of Auguftus, and Galerius and Conftantius were
declared Czefars, or their fucceflors. Each had his feparate
department or province, ali nominally fupreme, but in
reality under the dire¢tion of the fuperior talents and au-
thority of Diocletian. The two emperors, trulting to a
continuance of that order in the empire which their vigour
had eftablifhed, retired from fovereignty, and left the go-
yernment in the hands of the Cefars ; but Conftaritius died
foon after in Britain, and he was fucceeded by his fon Con-
{tantine, who was proclaimed emperor at York, though Ga-
lerius, at firft, refufed to acknowledge his title. Maximian,
however, haying once more refumed the purple, beftowed on
Conftantine his daughter in marriage, and thus he invelted
him. with a donble ‘title to the empire. On the death of
Maximian and Galerius, Conftantine had no other com-
petitor than Maxentius, the fon of Maximian, and the con-
teft between them was decided by the fword. - Maxentius
fell in battle, and Conftantine remained fole mafter of the
empire : this was the time in which the crofs is faid to have
appeared in the heavens, in vifion, to the emperor, with this
infcription, ‘ in hoc figno vinces.”’
Conftantine made a confiderable change in the diftribu-
tion of the provinces which had not fuffered much altera-
tion fince the arrangement of Adrian. He fubje¢ted the
whole empire to the dominion of four prefeéts of the pa-
lace ; of whom one was placed over Gallia, one over Italia,
one over Illyria, and the other over the Eaftern provinces.
Thefe prefects “had under them frocon/uls in fome of the
provinces ; in others, magiffrates, called con/uls, prefidents,
and correfors; and a certain number of provinces over
which thefe were placed being united, formed a vicariat.
The prefed of the palace, under Auguitus, was a military
officer, in the order of knights. Tiberius increafed the
importance of the office ; but Antoninus was the firft who
made ufe of that officer to promulgate, in his name, the
laws of the empire. Hence the prefect of the palace be-
came chief judge, who had authority over all other tri-
bunals. In him were united the feveral offices of conftable,
chancellor, and fuperintendant of the finances. Conftantine
fuppreffed this office, as held by an individual, and created
four prefeéts of the palace, who had under them vicars,
whofe power extended over a certain number of countries,
forming a diocefe or department. Thefe officers had the
moft confiderable influence in their departments, and when
they quitted the capital, they left their children with the
emperor, as pledges of their fidelity.
Under Auguftus, and after him, the proconfuls were
magiftrates fent by the fenate to correct the exifting abufes
of the departments: but they had neither the command of
troops, nor the adminiftration of the provinces.
The conful, called alfo rector of the province, had only
the name and the enfigns of that office, not the power.
Auguftus governed the departments of the empire, which
he had referved to himfelf, by means of his pretors and confuls,
The correéfors were officers who were charged to reform
the abufes which had crept into the provinces. :
The
ROME.
The prefidents were cloathed with a much greater power
than that pofleffed by the proconfuls. They were military
officers, and had the power of life and death over the
army. It was to one of thefe officers that the provinces of
the empire were fubjeéted in each of the great prefectures :
thus,
The prefeéture of the Gauls, copprehending twenty-nine
provinces, was divided into three vicariats, viz. Hifpania,
Gallia, and Britanny.
I. The vicariat of Hifpania included feven provinces, of
which three were under contuls, and four under prefidents.
II. The vicariat of the Gauls included feventeen pro-
vinces ; fix under confuls, and eleven under prefidents.
III. The vicariat of Britanny comprifed five provinces ;
two under confuls, and three under prefidents.
The prefeéture of Italy included likewife twenty-nine
provinces, divided into the proconfulfhip of Africa, and
the vicariats of Rome, Italy, Africa, and Illyria. The
vicariat of Rome was under confuls, correctors, and
prefidents; that of Iraty was under confuls and prefidents ;
that of Arrica was under confuls and prefidents; and
that of Ittyrra under one conful, one corrector, and four
prefidents.
The prefecture of Illyria included eleven provinces; one
under the proconful of Achaia ; the vicariat of Macedonia
comprehended five provinces, two under confuls, and
three under prefidents ; the vicariat of Dacia was under
one conful, and four prefidents.
The prefe&ture of the Eaft included forty-eight pro-
vinces; wiz. three under the proconful of Afia; fifteen
under the count of the Eaft, a companion to the emperor ;
fix under the prefe&t of Egypt; feven under the vicariat of
Afia; eleven under the vicariat of Pontus; and fix under
the vicariat of Thrace.
We are now arrived to that ftate of the Roman empire
in which it was governed by Chriftian emperors, and which
may be divided into three diftin@ periods. The ff will
contain the whole time that the Roman world was governed
by one emperor only. The /econd commences with the di-
vifion of the empire, after the death of Theodofius the Great,
and goes down to the extinétion of the Weltern empire
under Auguftulus. The third reaches from the fall of the
Weftern empire to the capture of Conftantinople, and the
deftruGtion of the whole empire.
Of the Chriflian Roman Emperors before the Divifion of the
Empire.—The adminiftration of Conftantine was, in the early
part of his reign, mild, equitable, and politic. ‘Though
itrongly attached to the Chriftian faith, he made no great
innovations on the religion of the ftate. He introduced
order and economy into the civil government, and reprefled
every {pecies of oppreffion and corruption. But his natural
temper was fevere and cruel, and the latter part of his reign
was deformed by rancour and a moft fanguinary rigour.
From this unfavourable change of chara¢ter he lott the
affections of his fubjects; and from a feeling, probably of
reciprocal difguift, he removed the feat of the Roman empire
to Byzantium, where a new city was raifed; from his name
it was called ConsranrixopLe; fee the article. The
court followed the fovereign : the opulent proprietors were
attended by their flaves and retainers. Rome was in a few
years depopulated, and the new capital {welled almoft at
once to an enormous magnitude. In an expedition againtt
the Perfians, Conftantine died at Nicomedia, in the 3oth
year of his reign, A.D. 337. During this reign the Goths
had made feveral irruptions on the empire, and though
repulfed and weakened, they began gradually to encroach
on the provinces.
Before we proceed with the monarchs, we may juft notice
fome particulars relating to the {tate of the Roman empire
at this period; for which we fhall be chiefly indebted to
Mr. Tytler’s Elements, already quoted and referred to.
Inftead of the ancient republican diftin@tions, which were
founded chiefly on perfonal merit, a rigid fubordination of
rank and office now went through all the orders of the ftate.
The magiftrates were divided into three claffes, diftinguifhed
by the unmeaning titles of, 1, the Illuftrious; 2, the Re-
{peétable ; and 3, the Clariffimi. The epithet of [/uftrious
was conferred on, 1, the confuls and patricians ; 2, the pre-
torian prefeéts of Rome and Conftantinople ; 3, the maf-
ters-general of the cavalry and infantry; and 4, the feven
minitters of the palace. ;
The confuls were created by the fole authority of the
emperor ; their dignity was inefficient, and their names ferved
only to give the legal date of the year. The dignity of
patrician was not hereditary, but was beftowed as a title of
honour by the emperor on his favourites. The pretorian
prefeéts were the civil governors of the four departments of
the empire. Thefe were the Eaft, Illyria, Italy, and the
Gauls ; to them was committed the fupreme adminiftration
of juitice, and of the finances.
The Re/pe@ables were the proconfuls of Afia, Achaia, and
Africa; and the military comites and duces, generals of the
imperial armies. The Clarifimi included the inferior go-
vernors and magiftrates of the provinces, refponfible to the
prefeéts and their deputies.
The intercourfe between the court and the provinces was
maintained by the conftruction of roads, and the inftitution
of regular potts or couriers ; under which denomination were
ranked the numberlefs {pies of government, whofe duty was
to convey all kinds of intelligence to the feat of empire.
Taxes were levied by the fole authority of the emperor, and
fubfidies were exacted from all the cities, under the name of
free gifts, on various occafions of public concern, as the
acceffion of an emperor, the birth of a prince, &c.
An impolitic diftin&tion was made between the troops
ftationed in diftant provinces, and thofe in the heart of the
empire. The latter, denominated Pa/atines, enjoyed a higher
pay, and more particular favour, and having lefs employ-
ment, fpent their time in idlenefs and luxury ; while the
former, called Borderers, who, in truth, had the care of the
empire, and were expofed to perpetual hard fervice, had,
with an inferior reward, the mortification of feeling them-
felves regarded as of a meaner rank than their fellow-foldiers.
Conftantine alfo debafed the body of the army by the inter-
mixture of Scythians, Goths, and Germans. This mafs of
heterogeneous parts, which internally laboured with the feeds
of diffolution and corruption, was kept together for fome
time by the vigorous exercife of defpotic authority.
Conftantine had divided the empire among five princes,
three of them his fons, and two nephews ; but Conitantius,
the youngeft of the fons, finally freed himfelf from all his
competitors, and ruled the empire alone. During his reign,
the Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians, laid waite
all the fine countries on the banks of the Rhine, and the
Perfians made the moit deftruétive incurfions on the pro-
vinces of the Eaft. Conftantius waited his time in theologi-
cal controverfies; but before his death, he appointed his
coufin Juhan to the dignity of Cafar. He died A.D.
61.
; Julian poffeffed many heroic qualities, and his mind was
formed by nature for the fovereignty of a great people ; but
having been educated under the philofophers at Athens, he
had unfortunately conceived a rooted antipathy to the doc-
trines of Chriftianity. The reformation of civil abufes
2 formed
ROME.
delight of beholding the general happinefs, of which they
were the authors.’
Commodus fucceeded to the empire on the death of his
father. The meafures of this reign were as unimportant as
the charaéter of the fovereign was contemptible. Com-
modus had an averfion from every rational and liberal pur-
fuit, and was in many refpects very like Nero. To his
other crimes, which he had in common with preceding ty-
rants, may be added, that he entered the lifts as a public
gladiator, and actually received a flipend for the flaughter
of his helplefs antagonifts. ‘The concubine and fome of the
chief officers of this emperor prevented their own deftruéction,
by aflaffinating him in the thirteenth year of his reign,
A.D. 193.
Publius Helvius Pertinax was the next emperor, a man
of mean birth, but who. had rifen to efteem by his virtues
and military talents. He difappointed the army of a pro-
mifed reward for his elevation, and, after a reign of 86 days,
was murdered in the imperial palace by the fame hands
which had raifed him to the throne. The empire was
now put up to auétion by the Pretorians, and was pur-
chafed by Didius Julianus; but not paying the {tipu-
lated price for his elevation, he was depofed and put to
death.
Septimius Severus fucceeded, whofe intention was to erect
the fabric of abfolute monarchy, and all his inftitutions
operated to thatend. He poflefled eminent military talents,
and it was his boaft, that, having received the empire op-
preffed with foreign and domettic wars, he left it in profound,
univerfal, and honourable peace. He carried with him into
Britain his two fons, Caracalla and Geta; and died at York,
in the 66th year of his age, after a reign of eighteen
years, A.D. 211. He was fucceeded by the two fons juft
named, whofe former mutual hatred of each other was in-
ereafed by their aflociation in the empire ; and Caracalla,
with brutal inhumanity, caufed his brother to be openly
murdered in the arms of his mother. His reign, which was
of fix years’ duration, and full of atrocities, was at length
terminated by aflaflination, A.D. 217.
As it would not be confiftent with the limits afligned to
this article, neither is it at all neceflary, to advance {tep by
ftep through the fucceeding roan it will be fufficient to
tranf{cribe, with very trifling additions, the names of feveral
of the emperors who followed Caracalla.
The diforders in the Roman. empire, which began with
Commodus, continued nearly a century, till the acceffion of
Diocletian: and this interval was filled by the reigns of
Macrinus and Heliogabalus, who were both flain by the
foldiers. Alexander Severus was a juit prince and a lover
of learning ; he was fuccefsful in his war againit Artaxerxes,
the new king of Perfia, and after that, was flain by fome of
his foldiers in an expedition into Germany.
Maximin, Maximus and Balbinus, Gordian, and Philip the
Arabian, with his fon, in whofe reign were initituted the
fecular games, were all raifed to the throne by the pretorian
bands, and by them killed. Decius, a fevere perfecutor of
the Chriftians, was drowned while fighting againit the bar-
barians. After this Gallus was flain by the army, at the end
of a reign of two years. The hfe of Valerianus was de-
voted to the reformation of the manners of his people ; but
in a war with Sapor, king of Perfia, he was captured and
flead alive. Gallienus, the fon of Valerianus, was loft in
luxury and debauchery, and fuffered the empire to be torn
from him on all fides by barbarians and tyrants. Hence the
3c tyrants, as they are called, though hiftory records the
names of 19 only, rofe up againit him. Among thefe was
Zenobia, wife to Odenatus, prince of Palmyra, a woman of
martial fpirit, who {pread her conquering arms far over the)
Eattern world. !
After Gallienus were Claudius II., who died of the
plague: Aurelian, who carried Zenobia a captive in tri-
umph, and who was murdered by his foldiers: Claudius
Tacitus, Probus, and Carus followed in fucceflion. Probus
was killed by the foldiers, and Carus was {truck dead with
lightning. ;
Diocletian began his reign A.D. 284, and introduced.a
new fyftem of adminiftration, dividing the empire into four
governments, under as many princes. Maximian fhared with
him the title of Auguftus, and Galerius and Conftantius were
declared Czefars, or their fucceflors. Each had his feparate
department or province, ali nominally fupreme, but in
reality under the dire€tion of the fuperior talents and au-
thority of Diocletian. The two emperors, trulting to a
continuance of that order in the empire which their vigour
had eftablifhed, retired from fovereignty, and left the go-
yernment in the hands of the Cefars ; but Conftaritius died
foon after in Britain, and he was fucceeded by his fon Con-
{tantine, who was proclaimed emperor at York, though Ga-
lerius, at firft, refufed to acknowledge his title. Maximian,
however, haying once more refumed the purple, beftowed on
Conftantine his daughter in marriage, and thus he invelted
him-with a donble title to the empire. On the death of
Maximian and Galerius, Conftantine had no other com-
petitor than Maxentius, the fon of Maximian, and the con-
teft between them was decided by the fword. - Maxentius
fell in battle, and Conftantine remained fole mafter of the
empire: this was the time in which the crofs is faid to have
appeared in the heavens, in vifion, to the emperor, with this
infcription, ‘ in hoc figno vinces.”’
Conftantine made a confiderable change in the diftribu-
tion of the provinces which had not fuffered much altera-
tion fince the arrangement of Adrian. He fubjetted the
whole empire to the dominion of four prefeéts of the pa-
lace ; of whom one was placed over Gallia, one over Italia,
one over Illyria, and the other over the Eaftern provinces.
Thefe prefeéts “had under them procon/uls in fome of the
provinces ; in others, magiffrates, called con/uls, prefidents,
and correfors; and a certain number of provinces over
which thefe were placed being united, formed a vicariat.
The prefed of the palace, under Auguttus, was a military
officer, in the order of knights. Tiberius increafed the
importance of the office ; but Antoninus was the firft who
made ufe of that officer to promulgate, in his name, the
laws of the empire. Hence the prefect of the palace be-
came chief judge, who had authority over all other tri-
bunals. In him were united the feveral offices of conftable,
chancellor, and fuperintendant of the finances. Conftantine
fuppreffed this office, as held by an individual, and created
four prefeéts of the palace, who had under them vicars,
whofe power extended over a certain number of countries,
forming a diocefe or department. Thefe officers had the
moft confiderable influence in their departments, and when
they quitted the capital, they left their children with the
emperor, as pledges of their fidelity.
Under Auguttus, and after him, the proconfuls were
magiftrates fent by the fenate to corre&t the exifting abufes
of the departments: but they had neither the command of
troops, nor the adminittration of the provinces.
The conful, called alfo rector of the province, had only
the name and the enfigns of that office, not the power.
Auguftus governed the departments of the empire, which
he had referved to himfelf, by means of his pretors and confuls,
The correcfors were officers who were charged to reform
the abufes which had crept into the provinces. an
©
ROME,
The prefidents were cloathed with a much greater power
than that poflefled by the proconfuls. They were military
officers, and had the power of life and death over the
army. It was to one of thefe officers that the provinces of
the empire were fubje¢ted in each of the great prefectures :
thus,
The prefeéture of the Gauls, comprehending twenty-nine
provinces, was divided into three vicariats, viz. Hifpania,
Gallia, and Britanny.
I. The vicariat of Hifpania included feven provinces, of
which three were under contuls, and four under prefidents.
II. The vicariat of the Gauls included feventeen pro-
vinces ; fix under confuls, and eleven under prefidents.
IIL. The vicariat of Britanny comprifed five provinces ;
two under confuls, and three under prefidents.
The prefecture of Italy included likewife twenty-nine
provinces, divided into the proconfulfhip of Africa, and
the vicariats of Rome, Italy, Africa, and Illyria. The
vicariat of Rome was under confuls, correctors, and
prefidents ; that of Irary was under confuls and prefidents ;
that of Arrica was under confuls and prefidents; and
that of Intyria under one conful, one corrector, and four
prefidents.
The prefeéture of Illyria included eleven provinces; one
under the proconful of Achaia ; the vicariat of Macedonia
comprehended five provinces, two under confuls, and
three under prefidents ; the vicariat of Dacia was under
one conful, and four prefidents.
The prefe€ture of the Eaft included forty-eight pro-
vinces; wiz. three under the proconful of Afia; fifteen
under the count of the Eaft, a companion to the emperor ;
fix under the prefe&t of Egypt ; feven under the vicariat of
Afia; eleven under the vicariat of Pontus; and fix under
the vicariat of Thrace.
We are now arrived to that ftate of the Roman empire
in which it was governed by Chriftian emperors, and which
may be divided into three diftin@ periods. The fr/ will
contain the whole time that the Roman world was governed
by one emperor only. The /econd commences with the di-
vifion of the empire, after the death of Theodofius the Great,
and goes down to the extinétion of the Weltern empire
under Auguftulus. The third reaches from the fall of the
Weitern empire to the capture of Conftantinople, and the
deftruGtion of the whole empire.
Of the Chrifiian Roman Emperors before the Divifion of the
Empire.—The adminiftration of Conftantine was, in the early
part of his reign, mild, equitable, and politic. Though
itrongly attached to the Chriftian faith, he made no great
innovations on the religion of the ftate. He introduced
order and economy into the civil government, and reprefled
every f{pecies of oppreffion and corruption. But his natural
temper was fevere and cruel, and the latter part of his reign
was deformed by rancour and a moft fanguinary rigour.
From this unfavourable change of charatter he loft the
affections of his fubjects; and from a feeling, probably of
reciprocal difguift, he removed the feat of the Roman empire
to Byzantium, where a new city was raifed; from his name
it was called ConsTaNnTINOPLE; fee the article. The
court followed the fovereign : the opulent proprietors were
attended by their flaves and retainers. Rome was in a few
years depopulated, and the new capital {welled almoft at
once to an enormous magnitude. In an expedition againtt
the Perfians, Conftantine died at Nicomedia, in the 3oth
year of his reign, A.D. 337. During this reign the Goths
had made feveral irruptions on the empire, and though
repulfed and weakened, they began gradually to encroach
en the provinces.
Before we proceed with the monarchs, we may juft notice
fome particulars relating to the {tate of the Roman empire
at this period; for which we fhall be chiefly indebted:to
Mr. Tytler’s Elements, already quoted and referred to.
In{tead of the ancient republican diftin@tions, which were
founded chiefly on perfonal merit, a rigid fubordination of
rank and office now went through all the orders of the ftate.
The magiftrates were divided into three claffes, diftinguifhed
by the unmeaning titles of, 1, the Illuftrious; 2, the Re-
{peétable ; and 3, the Clariffimi. The epithet of //ufrious
was conferred on, 1, the confuls and patricians ; 2, the pra-
torian prefeéts of Rome and Conftantinople ; 3, the maf-
ters-general of the cavalry and infantry; and 4, the feven
minitters of the palace.
The confuls were created by the fole authority of the
emperor ; their dignity was inefficient, and their names ferved
only to give the legal date of the year. The dignity of
patrician was not hereditary, but was beftowed as a title of
honour by the emperor on his favourites. The pretorian
prefeéts were the civil governors of the four departments of
the empire. Thefe were the Eaft, Illyria, Italy, and the
Gauls ; to them was committed the fupreme adminiftration
of juitice, and of the finances.
The Re/pedables were the proconfuls of Afia, Achaia, and
Africa; and the military comites and duces, generals of the
imperial armies. The Clariffimi included the inferior go-
vernors and magiftrates of the provinces, refponfible to the
prefeéts and their deputies.
The intercourfe between the court and the provinces was
maintained by the conftruétion of roads, and the inftitution
of regular poits or couriers ; under which denomination were
ranked the numberlefs {pies of government, whofe duty was
to convey all kinds of intelligence to the feat of empire.
Taxes were levied by the fole authority of the emperor, and
fubfidies were exacted from all the cities, under the name of
free gifts, on various occafions of public concern, as the
acceflion of an emperor, the birth of a prince, &c.
An impolitic diftinétion was made between the troops
{tationed in diftant provinces, and thofe in the heart of the
empire. The latter, denominated Pa/atines, enjoyeda higher
pay, and more particular favour, and having lefs employ-
ment, fpent their time in idlenefs and luxury ; while the
former, called Borderers, who, in truth, had the care of the
empire, and were expofed to perpetual hard fervice, had,
with an inferior reward, the mortification of feeling them-
felves regarded as of a meaner rank than their fellow-foldiers.
Conftantine alfo debafed the body of the army by the inter-
mixture of Scythians, Goths, and Germans. This mafs of
heterogeneous parts, which internally laboured with the feeds
of diffolution and corruption, was kept together for fome
time by the vigorous exercife of defpotic authority.
Conftantine had divided the empire among five princes,
three of them his fons, and two nephews ; but Conitantius,
the youngeft of the fons, finally freed himfelf from all his
competitors, and ruled the empire alone. During his reign,
the Franks, Saxons, Alemanni, and Sarmatians, laid waite
all the fine countries on the banks of the Rhine, and the
Perfians made the moit deftruétive incurfions on the pro-
vinces of the Eaft. Conftantius wafted his time in theologi-
cal controverfies ; but before his death, he appointed his
coufin Juhan to the dignity of Cafar. He died A.D.
Or.
: Julian poffeffed many heroic qualities, and his mind was
formed by nature for the fovereignty of a great people ; but
having been educated under the philofophers at Athens, he
had unfortunately conceived a rooted antipathy to the doc-
trines of Chriftianity. The reformation of civil abufes
2 formed
: Si ROME:
formed the firft obje€&t of his attention, after which he en-
deavoured, but without perfecution, to undermine and ex-
tinguifh the Chriitian religion. To avenge the injuries which
the empire had fuftained from the Perfians, Julian marched
into the heart of Afia, and in an engagement, though
crowned with victory, he was flain at the age of thirty-one,
after a reign of three years.
Jovian, a captain of the guards, was chofen to fucceed
Julian, who purchafed his fafe retreat by the ignominious
furrender of five provinces. His reign, of {even months only,
was mild and equitable, and he reftored the Chriltians to all
their privileges as fubjects. |
Valentinian was chofen emperor by the army on the death
of Jovian,. who affociated with himfelf in the empire his
brother Walens, to whom he gave the dominion of the
Eaftern provinces, referving to himfelf the Wettern. Valen-
tinian favoured the Chriftian faith, but did not perfecute its
adverfaries, which was very unlike the conduct of Valens,
who, intemperately fupporting the Arian doétrine, fet whole
provinces in a flame, and drew upon the empire a {warm of
invaders, in the difguife of friends and allies, but who, in the
end, entirely fubverted it. Thefe were the Goths, who,
migrating from Scandinavia, had, in the fecond century,
fettled on the banks of the Palus Mzotis, and thence gra-
dually extended their territory. In the reign of Valens they
poffeffed themfelves of Dacia, and were known by the dif-
tin@ appellation of Ottrogoths and Viligoths, or Eattern
and Weltern Goths. Valentinian died on an expedition
againft the Alemanni, and was fucceeded in the empire of
the Welt by Gratian, his eldeit fon, a youth of fixteen years
of age. Valens was the fcourge of his people. ‘The Huns,
of Tartar or Siberian origin, now poured down on the pro-
vinces both of the Eaft and Wett. The Goths fled before
them. The Vifigoths were allowed by Valens to fettle in
Thrace ; the Oftrogoths afked the like liberty, and, being
refufed, forced their way into the fame province. Valens
gave them battle at Adrianople ; his army was defeated, and
he himfelf flain in the engagement. The Goths, unrefifted,
ravaged Achaia and Pannonia, and were feveral times within
fight of the walls of Conttantinople.
Gratian took Theodofius as his colleague, who, on the
early death of his aifociate, and minority of his fon Valen-
tinian II., governed with great ability both the Eaftern and
Weitern empire. Theodofius obtained the furname of Great,
and having reigned till A.D. 395, he died, leaving two
fons, Arcadius and Honorius, affigning to them feparate
fovereignties. Arcadius was proclaimed emperor of the
Eaift, and Honorius emperor of the Weft. The Eattern em-
- pire comprehended Afia Minor, Arabia, Syria, Egypt,
Libya, and the ieveral regions on the Danube. The Weiltern
empire included Italy, Spain, France, Britain, Germany,
Pannonia, and Africa. The Eaftern empire fubfifted many
ages, but the Weitern foon became the prey of barbarians.
Tt may be obferved, that the reign of Theodofius was
fignalifed by the downfall of Paganifm, and the full eftablifh-
ment of the Chriltian religion in the Roman empire: for,
from the time of Numa to that of Gratian, the Romans pre-
ferved the regular fucceflion of the feveral facerdstal col-
leges, the pontifts, augurs, veltals, flamens, &c. whofe au-
thority, though weakened in the latter ages, was ftill pro-
tected by the laws. Even the Chriftian emperors held, like
their Pagan predeceifors, the office of pontifex maximus.
Gratian was the firit who refufed that ancient dignity as a
profanation. In the time of Theodofius, the caufe of Chrif-
tianity and Paganifm was folemnly debated in the Roman
fenate; Chriftianity was triumphant, and the fenate iffued a
decree for the abolition of Paganifm, the deftruction of
which in the capital was foon followed by its extintion in
the provinces.
_ Of the Weftern Empire.—Io the reigns of Arcadius and
Houorius, the fons and fucceffors of Theodofius, the bar-
barian nations eftablifhed themfelves in the frontier provinces
both of the Eaft and Welt. Theodofius had committed the
government to Rufinus and Stilicho during the minority of
his fons : of their fatal diffentions the enemies of the empire
took every advantage. he Huns overfpread Armenia,
Cappadocia, and Syria. The Goths, under Alaric, ravaged
the borders of Italy, and laid wafte Achaia to the Pelopon-
nefus. Arcadius purchafed an ignominious peace, by ceding
to Alaric the whole of Greece. This prince, now ityled
king of the Vifigoths, prepared to add Italy to his new do-
minions. He paffed the Alps, and was carrying all before
him, when he was defeated by Stilicho, then at the head of
the armies of Honorius. In the courfe of a few months, a
torrent of Goths breaking down upon Germany, forced the
nations whom they difpoileiled, wiz. the Suevi, Alani, and
Vandals, to haften out of Italy. They joined their arms to
thofe of Alaric, who, being thus fuddenly reinforced, de-
termined to overwhelm Rome. Stilcho to ward off the
threatened danger, promifed him, if he would retire, 4oo0o
pounds weight of gold, which engagement Honorius would
not ratify. Alaric was net to be trifled with, and he took
ample revenge by the fack and plunder of the city. He
was anxious to {pare the lives of the vanquifhed, and to pre-
ferve the ancient edifice from deftruction, This event hap-
penedin Auguit 410. Alaric had, as we have feen, ravaged
Greece, fome time before ; and Arcadius, more wife than his
brother, was contented to purchafe his friendfhip, by inveit-
ing him with the matter-generalfhip of the Eattern lyricum.
He died within a week of the capture of Rome, and was fuc-
ceeded by Ataulfus, or Adolphus, to whom Honorius gave
his fifter Placidia in marriage, and, with her, ceded to his
brother-in-law a large portion of Spain. With thefe con-
ceflions Adolphus was contented, and, having concluded a
peace, he retired into Gaul, A.D.412. A great part of
what remained of Spain had before been occupied by thé
Vandals. Honorivs allowed, foon after, to the Burgun-
dians a juft title to their conquefts in Gaul. Thus the
Weltern empire was by degrees mouldering from under the
dominioi-of its ancient matters.
In the Eaft, Arcadius died in 408, leaving that empire
to his infant fon, Theodofius II., whofe fifter, Pulcheria,
{wayed the {ceptre with prudence and talent during a go-
vernment of 40 years. Honorms died A.D. 423. The
laws of Arcadius and Honorius are, with very tew excep-
tions, remarkable for their wifdom and equity; a fingular
circumttance, confidering the perfonal character of thofe
princes, and evincing at leait that they employed able
minifters.
In the reign of Valentinian III., the hordes from the
north of Europe again abandoned their own foreits and
mountains, in queit of new fettlements. Under the com-
mand of Artixa (fee his article), they defeated the Ro-
man armies, A.D. 452, and threatened total deitruction to
the empire. He was for a time ably oppofed by /&tius,
Valentinian’s general; the emperor himfelf being fhut up
in Rome by the armies of the barbarian, and at length com-
pelled to purchafe a peace. On the death of Attila, his
dominions were diimembered by his fons, whofe diflentions
gave a temporary relief to the declining empire. Valen-
tinian was put to death by the guards of his general ARtius,
A.D. 455. He was fucceeded by Maximus, who had ex-
cited the death of Valentinian, and who now married his
widow Eudoxia. Within three months of this event he
was -
ROME.
was deprived of his kingdom by Genferic, king of the
Vandals, who was invited by Eudoxia to revenge the mur-
der of her firft hufband, and deliver her from the power of
the tyrant. Maximus fled, but being taken, he was killed,
and his body thrown into the Tiber. Genferic carried
Eudoxia and her two daughters into Italy, one of whom
he married to his fon Hunneric, the other he fent back to
Conltantinople, and married the mother himfelf.
After Maximus, we have a fucceffion of feven or eight
princes, but the events of their feveral reigns merit no de-
tail. In the reign of Romulus, furnamed Auguftulus, the
empire of the Weit came to a final period. Odoacer, prince
of the Heruli, fubdued Italy, but {pared the life of Au-
guitulus, on the condition of his refigning the throne.
This occurred A.D. 476. Odoacer retained the poffeffion
of Italy during 14 years. In this period, the eltates of
the Roman fenators were divided among his countrymen
and foldiers. At the extin@ion of the Roman empire in
the Weit, Rome and Italy came into the pofleffion of the
Oftrogoths. Africa was feized by the Vandals; Pannonia
by the Huns; Spain by the Goths, Alans, and Suevi;
Gaul by the Franks; and Great Britain by the Saxons.
Hence we fee the origin of thofe nations, many of which
have proved fo illuitrious in hiftory.
We cannot clofe this portion of the hiftory, without
fome refleCtions relating to the rife and fall of Rome. The
foundations of the greatnefs of this vaft empire have been
enumerated as follow. The fidelity of the citizens to each
other, and to the ftate, was confirmed by the habits of edu-
cation, and the prejudices of religion. Honour, as well as
virtue, was the principle of the republic. The ambitious
citizens laboured to deferve the folemn glories of a tri-
umph; and the ardour of the Roman youth was kindled
into a¢tive emulation, as often as they beheld the dometlic
images of their anceftors. The temperate ftruggles of the
patricians and plebeians had finally eftablifhed the firm and
equal balance of the conftitution ; which united the popular
allemblies with the authority and wifdom of the fenate, and
the executive powers of a regal magiftrate. When the
conful difplayed the ftandard of the republic, each citizen
bound himfelf by the obligation of an oath, to draw his
iword in the caufe of his country, till he had difcharged the
facred duty by a military fervice of ten years. This wife
inftitution continually poured into the field the rifing gene-
ration of freemen and foldiers; and their numbers were re-
inforced by the warlike and populous ftates of Italy, who
had yielded to the valour, and embraced the alliance of the
Romans. From their inftitutions of peace and war, Po-
lybius had deduced the fpirit and fuccefs of a people, in-
capable of fear, and impatient of repofe. The ambitious
defign of conqueft was attempted and achieved, and the
perpetual violation of juttice was maintained by the political
virtues of prudence and courage. The arms of the re-
public, fometimes vanquifhed in battle, always victorious in
war, advanced with rapid fteps to the Euphrates, the Da-
nube, the Rhine, and the ocean; “ and the images of gold,
or filyer, or brafs, that might ferve to reprefent the various
nations, and their kings, were fucceflively broken by the
iron monarchy of Rome.”
The rife of a city, which {welled to an empire, may de-
ferve, as a fingular prodigy, the reflection of a philofophic
mind; but the decline of Rome was from the natural and
inevitable effect of immoderate greatnefs. Profperity
ripened the principles of decay ; the caufes of dettruétion
multiplied with the extent of conqueft ; and as foon as time
er accident had removed the artificial fupports, the ftu-
Vor. XXX.
pendous fabric yielded to the preffure of its own weight-
“The ftory of its ruin,” fays Gibbon, “ is fimple and ob-
vious ; and inftead of inquiring why the Roman empire was
deftroyed, we fhould rather be furprifed that it fubfifted fo
long. The viétorious legions, who, in diftant wars, ac-
quired the vices of {trangers and mercenaries, firlt opprefled
the freedom of the republic, and afterwards violated the ma-
jefty of the purple. The emperors, anxious for their per-
fonal fafety, and the public peace, were reduced to the bafe
expedient of corrupting the difcipline, which rendered them
alike formidable to their fovereicn and to the enemy. The
rigour of the military government was relaxed, and finally
diffolved, by the partial inftitutions of Conttantine ;_ and
the Roman world was overwhelmed by a deluge of bar-
barians.’’
The decay of Rome has often been afcribed to the tranf-
lation of the feat of empire ; but the powers of government
were divided, rather than removed. The court of Con-
{tantinople was ereéted in the Eaft ; while the Weft was ftill
poflefled by a feries of emperors, who held their refidence
in Italy, and claimed an equal inheritance of the legions and
provinces. This impaired the ftrength, and fomented the
vices of a double reign ; the inftruments of an oppreflive and
arbitrary fyftem were multiplied ; and a vain emulation of
luxury was introduced and fupported between the fucceffors
of Theodofius. Extreme diftrefs, which unites the virtue
of a free people, embitters the fa€tions of a declining mo-
narchy. The hottile favourites of Arcadius and Honorius
betrayed the republic to its common enemies; and the By-
zantine court beheld with indifference, or pleafure, the dif-
grace of Rome, the misfortunes of Italy, and the lofs of
the Weft. Under the fucceeding reigns, the alliance of the
two empires was reftored ; but the aid of the Oriental Ro.
mans was tardy, doubtful, and ineffeGtual; and the national
{chifm of the Greeks and Latins was enlarged by the per-
petual difference of language and manners, of intereft, and
even of religion. Yet the event juttified and did credit to
the decifion of Conftantine. During a long period, as we
fhall fee, his impregnable city repelled the viGorious arms
of barbarians, protected the wealth of Afia, and coms
manded, both in peace and war, the important {treights
which conneét the Euxine and Mediterranean feas. The
foundation, therefore, of Conitantinople feems to have more
effentially contributed to the prefervation of the Eaft, than
to the ruin of the Welt.
On the decline or ruin of the Roman empire, great ig-
norayce and darknefs, as to letters and the afer arts of
life, began to overfhadow the Weltern world. A bar-
barous people, untaught in letters, poured themfelves into
the Weltern provinces of the Roman empire, and gave the
firlt blow to learning. Academies were ruined, libraries
burnt, and the learned compelled to fhut up their fchools and
books too. Nor were thofe, who in that age were deno-
minated Chriitian priefts, lefs concerned in the deftru@tion
of letters: for as they had been loaded with contempt and
injuries, when Paganifm prevailed, by the philofophers,
they not only armed themfelves againft thofe teachers, but
endeavoured to forbid their writings, as containing tenets
the moft dangerous and pernicious to young perfons. Both
haitened the deftruétion of letters: neverthelefs the age was
not deftitute of learned men, of whom the following have,
among others, been enumerated. Thofe profefling Chrif-
tianity are Sulpicius Severus, Cyril of Alexandria, So-
crates, Sozomen, Theodoret, Ifidore, Sidonius Apolli-
narius ; and among the Pagans, Zofimus and Olympiodorus
were of the greate{t note.
390 For
ROME.
For the Roman fenate, their magiltracy, confuls, fol-
diery, tribes, courts, names, weights, meafures, coins, and
other matters relating to the antiquities of that people,
their policy, religion, law, cuftoms, &c. fee the re{pective
articles in this work.
Of the Eaftern Empire.—The emperors who reigned in
the Eaft, previoufly to the ruin of the Weftern empire,
were Arcadius, Theodofius II., of whom we have fpoken,
Marcian, who married Pulcheria, the fifter of Theodofius,
and Leo the Thracian, who reigned 17 years, and died in
474. He was fucceeded by his grandfon, Leo, the boy
who died in his cradle. His father, Zeno, followed, who,
in 475, was driven from the throne by Bafilifcus, an
ufurper ; but in the following year he recovered it.
The period in which the emperors reigned fingly, after
the deftru€tion of the Weftern empire, includes almoft a
thoufand years, extending, from 476 to the year 14533 in
which year Conftantinople was taken by Mohammed II.
We fhall only notice fome of the moft celebrated, beginning
with Zeno, who, as we have juft obferved, had been, after
a fhort rebellion, reftored to the throne.
Auguttulus, at the command of Odoacer, fignified his
refignation to the ftill exifting ailembly of the Weftern em-
pire; and that affembly, in their lait act of obedience to
the Roman prince, ftill affected the {pirit of freedom, and
the forms of the conititution. An epiltle was addrefled to
Zeno, in which they folemnly difclaim the neceflity, or even
wifh, of continuing any longer the imperial fucceffion of
Italy ; fince, they fay, that it is their opinion, the majefty
of a fole monarch is fufficient to pervade and protect the
Eaft and the Weft. They, therefore, in their own name,
and in the name of the people, confent that the feat of uni-
verfal empire fhall be transferred from Rome to Conftan-
tinople: they renounce the right of choofing their matter,
the only veftige that yet remained of the authority which
had given laws to the world; and they add, that the re-
public might fafely be confided in the civil and military
virtues of Odoacer, and humbly requeit that the emperor
Zeno would inveft him with the title of patrician, and the
adminiftration of the diocefe of Italy. The deputies of the
fenate were received at Conftantinople with fome marks of
difpleafure and indignation ; and when they were admitted
to the audience of Zeno, he at firft reproached them with
the ill ufage of fome of their emperors, particularly of An-
themius and Nepos. The firft, faid he, you have mur-
dered, and the fecond you have expelled; but while he lives,
he is your lawful fovereign. Zeno, notwithftanding his
harangue, very foon abandoned the caufe of his abdicated
colleague. His vanity was gratified by the title of fole
emperor, and by the ftatues erected to his honour in the
feveral quarters of Rome. He entertained a friendly cor-
refpondence with Odoacer ; and he gratefully accepted the
imperial enfigns, the facred ornaments of the throne and
palace; which the barbarian monarch was not unwilling to
remove from the fight of the people. Zeno died in the
year 495, and was faid to have been entombed while he was
in one of his drunken fits, and before he was dead. He
was fucceeded by
Anattafius I. who married Adriadne, Zeno’s widow, and
by her influence was raifed to the throne. See ANASTASIUS.
Juftin, of whom we have, in the alphabetical order, given
a full account, followed Anattafius, and after a reign of
nine years he died, leaving his power to JusTin1an, fee his
article, who deftroyed the kingdom of the Vandals in
Africa by means of his general Belifarius, and that of the
Oftrogeths by Narfes. He is particularly famous in having
built the church of St. Sophia, and in having abolifhed the
confulfhip, long fince only a name without power. He
died A.D. 565, and was fucceeded by Juftin II., who
eftablifhed the exarchate of Italy, and who died mad in the
year 578. He was followed by Tiberius, one of the cap-
tains in Juftin’s guards, who died in about four years, having
firit appointed his own great captain Mauritius as a fuc-
ceflor. Mauritius, and all his family, were murdered by
Phocas, who exercifed the fame cruelty in his government,
as he had in his way to it. He was dethroned by Hera-
clius in 611, who fucceeded him. During the reign of
Heraclius, the Perfians made very deftruétive ravages in the
empire; this was the period, alfo, in which Mohammed,
prince of the Arabians, founded the Mohammedan religion
and power. This new power quickly weakened the empire,
by depriving it of almoft all its provinces in Afia and
Africa, Heraclius died of a dropfy, after a reign of about
30 years. Inthe courfe of a few months, Conttantine, He-
racleonas, and Conftans, all afcended the throne ; the two
firft were cut off in a few months. The latter attempted
to fix the feat of empire at Rome, but changing his plans,
he went to Sicily, where he was killed, leaving three fons
to fucceed him, who held the government during the
remainder of the feventh century. In the eighth, we have
Leo Ifauricus, or Iconomachus, fo called from the perfe-
cutions which he inttituted again{t the worfhippers of images ;
alfo the emprefs Irene, who reftored image worfhip, and
who cruelly put out the eyes of her own fon Conftantine,
for prefuming to take the government into his own hands
when he was of age.
In the ninth century, the chief among the Eaftern em-
perors were Nicephorus, who dethroned Irene, and who ac-
knowledged Charles the Great, king of Franee, to be the
emperor of the Weft. Alfo, Leo VI., furnamed Philo-
fophus, the author of the conftitutions that bear his name.
In the tenth century flourifhed, among many other em-
perors, Conitantine IX., fon of Leo VI., who took pof-
feffion of the kingdom of Naples, after driving out the
Saracens; and Romanus, the fon of Conftantine [X., who
was likewife fuccefsful againft the Saracens, but he died of
debauchery. Nicephorus Phocas, a general of Romanus,
married his widow, and aflumed the government in prejudice
to the fons of his late mafter. Nicephorus conquered the
Saracens, and took Antioch ; but he loft Apulia and Ca-
labria, which were taken by Otho the Great, the emperor
of Germany. Nicephorus was at length affaffinated by his
fucceffor, John Zimifces, who aflociated with himfelf on the
throne Bafilius and Conttantine, the two fons of Romanus.
Zimifces was poifoned by his chamberlain; Bafilius and
Conftantine recovered Apulia and Calabria, and they reigned
together fifty years.
In the 12th century, Apulia was loft by Romanus Ar-
gyropulus, and in the fame period we have Alexius Comne-
nus, under whom the Crufades took their rife; and John Com-
nenus, the fon of Alexius, whofe extellent difpofition obtained
for him the name of Colojoannes. In his wars with the
Turks he was mortally wounded, and was fucceeded by his
fecond fon, Manuel Comnenus, who has been chara¢terized
for his great perfidy. He has been charged with poifoning
the provifions which he had engaged to furnifh for the army
of the emperor Conrad, and at the fame time betrayed his
defigns to the Turks, againft whom he was marching. He
was fucceeded by Alexius II., his fon, whofe eyes were
torn out, and himfelf depofed and murdered by his coutin
Andronicus, who had previoufly to this affaffinated the em-
prefs mother. Andronicus ordered a general maffacre of all
the
ROME.
the Latins at Conitantinople, and his cruelties not being
confined to them, he was at length torn to pieces by his own
people. The territories of his fucceffor, Ifaac Angelus
Comnenus, were ravaged by the emperor Barbarofla ; the
emperor himfelf dethroned, and his eyes put out by his
brother Alexius the tyrant, who feized-on the reins of go-
vernment, but was himfelf foon detefted, as well on account
of his condu& towards Angelus, as for the debaucheries and
cruelties of which he was guilty. The crufaders, wifhing to
free the people from this tyrant, laid fiege to the city, and
tookit. Alexius was glad to efcape with his life, and young
Alexius, the fon of If{aac, was placed on the throne. This
young prince, with the affiftance of the Latins, reitored his
father. His coadjutors, in this at of piety, not receiving
the price {tipulated for their fervices,: plundered Conitanti-
nople, and fet it on fire. Upon this the Greeks revolted,
and chofe Alexius Ducas for their leader, who having caufed
the young Alexius to be ftrangled, was himfelf declared
emperor. He was, however, depofed by the Latins, in the
year 1204, and this was the commencement of what has
been called the
Latin Empire.—Baldwin, earl of Flanders, was the firft
monarch of this dynaity. This prince was killed in a war
with the Bulgarians. About the year 1206, David Com-
nenus, grandion of Andronicus, made himfelf malter of
Trebifond, a city of Afiatic Turkey, on the Black fea,
which was afterwards confidered as the capital of the Greek
empire, and continued {fo till 1462, when it was taken by
Mohammed I1., and the reigning emperor, with his family,
were carried prifoners to Conftantinople, where they were
mottly put to death.
Baldwin was fucceeded, in the Latin empire, by Henry,
at the fame time that Theodore Lafcaris was acknowledged
emperor of the Greeks. Thefe two princes made peace.
But Henry was afterwards poifoned at Theilalonica, and
was fucceeded by Peter de Courtenay, a grandfon of
Lewis le Gros, who was hailed emperor while he was at
Auxerre, of which he was the count. He was murdered
by Theodore Angelus Comnenus, and was fucceeded, in
1220, by Robert, the fecond fon of Peter, the eldeft
having refufled the crown. This Latin emperor made peace
with Theodore Lafcaris, in order that he might revenge the
death of his father, by turning his arms againft Theodore
Angelus; but Lafcaris dying, and being fucceeded, in
1222, by John Ducas, Robert found employment in de-
fending himfelf and his own rights. Under John Ducas the
Latin empire was reitrained within very narrow limits, and
on the death of its emperor, Robert, in 1228, Baldwin II.
Robert’s brother, was raifed to the throne. Baldwin was
but eleven years old when he came to the crown. During
his reign the Bulgarians laid fiege to Conitantinople, but
were obliged, by the efforts of the Genoefe and Venetians,
to raife it. Baldwin went into the Welt to feek fuccours
againtt his enemies ; in the mean time John Ducas died, and
was fucceeded, in 1255, by Theodore Lafcaris II., whofe
reign was fhort; and he was fucceeded, on the Greek
throne, by Michael Paleologus in the year 1260, who, in
the following year, attacked and took Conttantinople, and
thus put an end to the Latin empire, after it had fubfifted
about fifty-feven years.
New Empire of the Greeks.—Michael Paleologus having
obtained the fovereignty of both empires, endeavoured by
all the means in his power to unite the Greek and Latin
churches, but without effe&t. His whole reign, which laited
almoft twenty-four years, was greatly agitated by diflentions
from within his kingdom, as rol pi by external enemies. He
was fucceeded by
Andronicus Paleologus in 1283, who, during a long
reign of 46 years, conduéted himfelf extremely ill, fuffering
himfelf to be led into every fault by ambitious and defigning
perfons; of thefe the chief actors were the clergy, te whom
he was ever fubfervient. During his government the Turks
made dreadful ravages on the empire. He was at lait de-
throned by his grandfon,
Andronicus II. who had been affociated in the govern-
ment with the late emperor. In this reign alfo the Turks
made great progrefs, notwithitanding the efforts of An-
dronicus to oppofe them. Aftera reign of about 17 years
he was fucceeded by his fon,
John Paleologus, who was very young when he came to
the throne, and during his minority the government was
committed to Jchn Cantacuzenus, who, for fome time,
performed all the duties connected with his high ftation on
principles of wifdom, united to great moderation. But in
1345 he aflumed the imperial title in ‘Thrace, and in 1347
took Conitantinople, compelling the lawful prince, John,
who had married his daughter, to retire to Salonica. But
the exiled emperor, with the aid of the Genoefe, obtained
his rights, and compelled the ufurper to quit the throne and
capital; fee his article. During the reign of Jonn, the
Turks were continually making inroads on the empire, and
were often at the very gates of Conitantinople. ‘The eldeft
fon of the emperor confpired again{t his father, but was
defeated in his rebellions. During this reign the Genoefe
made themfelves mafters of Lefbos, and Amurath I. took
the city of Adrianople. John died in 1391, and was
fucceeded by his fecond fon,
Manuel, who, on the death of his father, was at the
court of Bajazet: he made his efcape, and came to Conitanti-
nople, where he was crowned. He was fuccefsful in his
wars upon the Turks, took Bajazet prifoner, and after-
wards defeated the fon, fo that the Turks were driven entirely
from Conftantinople. He was embroiled in a conteit with
the fultan Amurath: this prince laid fiege to Conitantinople,
on which occafion cannon were, for the firit time, employed
in the armies of the Eait. At length the Turks and the
Greeks made peace, and in a very thort time after Manuel
died, and was fucceeded by
John II. in the year 1425, who made a moft difgraceful
peace with Amurath. In a fhort time ke perceived his
error, and fought on all fides for afliftance. Te obtain
the requifite aid from the princes in the Weit, who had re-
fufed him fuccours on account of the fchifm of the Greeks,
he laboured hard to reunite the two churches. While he
was lofing his time at the council of Ferrara, the Turks
were making great progrefs. After this, Amurath was de-
feated by the celebrated Huniades, king of Hungary. At
length John made peace with Amurath, and ended his days
in peace. His brother,
Conitantine Dragafes, fucceeded him in 1448, and upon
the death of fultan Amurath, the empire of the Turks fell
to Mohammed II. With this high-minded prince Conitan-
tine had the temerity to embroil himfelf, of which he had
ample occafion to repent, for Mohammed laid liege to Con-
ftantinople, which he took, after the moft extraordinary
efforts of courage, as well on the part of the befieged, as
on that of the befiegers. This event took place on the
29th of May, 1453. Conftantine, not being able to fave
his capital, refufed to furvive its hard fate, and was killed
in attempting to defend it. Mohammed did every thing in
his power to ftop the carnage, and afterwards caufed the
city to be the capital of his empire. Such was the end
of the Greek empire, which had fucceeded to the Latin
empire.
302 Thus
ROME.
Thus have we traced the progrefs of the Eaftern empire,
till it no longer exifted; yet for fome ages, as we have feen,
it not only firmly but proudly lifted up its head, confcious
of its vaft fuperiority over the other exilting governments
of the world, particulariy in the reign of Jultinian, who
overturned the Vandals in Africa, and the Goths in Italy ;
but in procefs of time, as has been fhewn, it declined in its
power, and was difmembered of its parts one after another.
As in almolt all other cafes, the mifcondu€t of the emperors
not only haftened the ruin of the empire, but was the pri-
mary and leading caufe of it. ‘The Bulgarians claimed and
obtained a part of the empire; as did the Saracens, who
poffeffed themfelves of Syria, Palettine, Egypt, Cilicia,
and all the adjacent regions; and after that, overruning
the reft of the Roman world, laid fiege to Conttantinople.
Thefe were the followers of the prophet Mohammed, who,
believing the whole world was deftined for them as an in-
heritance, attacked the neighbouring nations with a fury,
that, in many cafes, was abfolutely irrefiftible. It was in
this ftate of things, when the empire could f{carcely defend
icfelf againft thefe Saracens, that Conftantinople, as we
have feen, was taken by Baldwin, earl of Flanders. It
was at this period that another emperor took his ftation
at Trebifond, that city and the regions round it being torn
from the reft of the Roman empire. At lait the Turks
totally deftroyed that empire. They firft, in the reign of
Heraclius, pafling through the Cafpian, traits, wandered
over divers countries in the Eaft, embraced the Moham-
medan religion, and were divided into feveral principalities.
But the other tribes becoming extinét, the pofterity of
Othomai alone took the lead, and ever fince the Turkifh
fovereigns have affumed the name and title of Othomans, or
Ottomans. Thefe, having fubdued the greatett part of the
eronccs which had been poflefled by the Saracens, {wal-
owed up the reft of the Roman empire. Conftantinople,
fince its capture in 1453, has been the feat of the Turkish
emperors; of courfe it claims no longer our notice in this
article.
Affairs of Rome after the Ruin of the Weftern Empire.—
We have already obferved, that Italy was fubdued by the
Heruli, whofe prince, Odoacer, out of contempt to Rome,
fixed his feat at Ravenna. Thefe Heruli were, however,
foon driven out of Italy by the Oltrogoths, whofe king,
Theodoric, erected a new kingdom in Italy, and chofe
Verona to be the royal feat for him and his pofterity.
This kingdom latted from the year 493 to 5533 but in 541
Totila fucceeded to the throne of the Goths, who in the
courfe of his reign captured the city of Rome, and aban-
doned it to his foldiers, intending in the end to have razed
it to the ground, but was prevented from executing his
plan by Belifarius. Tia, the fucceffor of Totila, and the
laft king of the Oftrogoths, was defeated and flain by
Narfes, who fucceeded Belifarius as general of the armies
of Juftinian. By this general the kingdom of the Goths
in Italy was totally deftroyed. Soon aiter the Longobards
ereéted another kingdom in Italy, and claimed, under their
king Alboin, that part of Italy which is {ull called Lom-
_bardy. Their royal feat was Ticinum or Pavia, and their
kingdom flourifhed from 568 to 774, when Charlemagne
having taken their capital, carried their laft prince, Defide-
rius, with his family, into France. While the Lombards
ruled in Italy, the other parts of that country were in fub-
jection to exarchs or prefeéts, who were ufually fent by the
emperor to Conftantinople. Thefe, in fome meafure, refift-
ing the Lombards, defended the remains of the empire there,
and fixed their feat at Ravenna. This exarchate latted 185
years, viz. from 568 to 752, in which year Ailtulphus,
king of the Lombards, took Ravenna by force. The
kingdom of the Lombards being extiné, all Italy, which
had been comprehended under the exarchate and kingdom
of the Lombards, fell to the kings of France. Charle-
magne was firlt proclaimed patrician, and foon after em-
peror, of the Roman people. As the people were prompted
to this aét by the bifhop of Rome, Charles gave a large
part of the exarchate and other lands to the bifhops of
Rome, who became the temporal as well as the fpiritual
fathers of the people. They contrived at this period a pecu-
liar kind of dominion, which received great ftrength and ad-
vantage from the general ignorance that then prevailed in
the Weft. The bifhops of Rome claimed to be the vicars
of Chrift, and fucceflors to Peter, chief of the apoftles,
and had therefore a right to prefcribe laws to all the Chrif-
tian world. Formerly, on account of the pre-eminence of
the city of Rome, only the bifhops of that city claimed a
fuperiority in matters of religion. But when they faw that
the bifhops of Conftantinople aflumed to themfelves, be-
caufe the feat of empire had been transferred to that city,
the title of oecumenical or univerfal patriarchs, then the bifhops
of Rome pretended they had a right to the primacy as fuc-
ceflors to the apoftle Peter; and at length they were not
fatisfied with their. fupremacy in matters of religion, but
arrogated to themfelves the power of difpoflefling princes
of their kingdoms. Gregory VII. laid the foundation of
this claim, a man, whofe ambition, it has been well faid,
was fcarcely to be fatisfied by the pofleflion of a world.
The other bifhops were not all equal in power, but he who
dwelt in the metropolis took the lead of the other bifhops
in that province. At firft he was called metropolitan, and
in the eighth century he took the name of archbifhop. The
moft eminent of thefe metropolitans were thofe of Rome,
Conttantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, becaufe thefe
were the principal cities of the Roman empire. And next
to thefe, on account of the fuppofed fanétity of his city,
was the bifhop of Jerufalem. The others vigoroufly de-
fended their privileges againft the bifhop of Rome, and the
controverfies that arofe thereupon, gave occafion at length
te the f{chifm between the Greek and Roman churches,
to which we have had occafion to refer.
The fee of Rome maintained its authority without
much interruption till the 14th century, when it began to
totter, on account of the {chifms that arofe among the
Roman pontiffs, which lafted nearly half a century, there
being two popes at a time, the one at Rome, the other at
Avignon. But this fchifm being terminated the popes re-
covered their former ftrength. It was about this fame
period that Nicholas Gabrini di Rienzi, (fee GAprint,)
without rank, without money, without friends, alliances or
military force, led on by ambition, and fupported by his
eloquence alone, obtained for a fhort time the fovereignty
of Rome; and though he could not, as he propofed, make
her the miftrefs of the world, he, however, protected fome,
and awed other fovereigns, and was admitted an arbiter of
kingdoms.
In the fifteenth century the pontiff’s authority was again
fhaken, as well by difputes between the emperor and
the popes, three of whom were depofed by the council of
Conitans, two others by the council of Pifa, and one
by the council of Bafil, as by the intrepidity of a fecond
Gabrini, in the charaéter of Stephen Porcaro, of whom,
his name having efcaped us in the alphabetical order, we
fhall fay a few words. He was of noble birth; his reputa-
tion was {potlefs ; his tongue was armed with eloquence ; his
mind was enlightened with learning ; and he afpired to free
his country and immortalize his name by the glory of his
deeds.
ROME.
deeds, ‘The dominion of priefts,’? fays Gibbon, « is
molt odious to a liberal fpirit.”? Petrarch was now the
oracle of the Italians, and as often as Porcaro revolved the
ode, which defcribes the patriot and hero of Rome, he
applied to himfelf the vifions of the prophetic bard. His
firlt trial of the people’s feelings was at the funeral of
Eugenius{V. Inan elaborate fpeech he called the Romans
to liberty and arms. For this act he had, by the exilting
laws of the ftate, forfeited his life ; but the benevolence of
the new pontiff, who viewed his charaéter with pity and
elteem, attempted by an honourable office to convert the
patriot into a friend. He was again guilty of the fame
offence, and was a fecond time pardoned. The humane
pontiff now removed him from the {cene of temptation to
Bologna, with a liberal allowance for his fupport, and the
eafy obligation of prefenting himfelf each day before the
governor of the city. But he formed a party at Rome,
and a new confpiracy was excited. His nephew, a daring
youth, aflembled a band of volunteers, and on the appointed
evening a feaft was prepared at his houfe for the friends of
the republic. Their leader, who had efcaped from Bologna,
appeared. among them in a robe of purple and gold: his
voice, his countenance, his geitures, befpoke the man who
had devoted his life to the glorious caufe. Ina ftudied
oration, he expatiated on the motives and the means of
their enterprize; the name and liberties of Rome; the
floth and pride of their ecclefiaftical tyrant ; the aCtive or
paflive confent of their fellow citizens; three hundred fol-
diers and four hundred exiles, long exercifed in arms or
in brooding over their wrongs; the licence of revenge to
edge their fwords, and a million of ducats to reward their
victory. ‘¢ It would be eafy,” he faid, ** on the next day,
the feltival of Epiphany, to feize the pope and the cardinals
before the doors, or at the altar, of St. Peter ; to lead them
in chains under the walls of St. Angelo ; to extort, by the
threat of inftant death, a furrender of the caftle ; to afcend
the vacant Capitol ; to ring the alarm-bell, and to reftore in
a popular ailembly the ancient republic of Rome. While he
was triumphing in his own mind, he was already betrayed.
The fenate, with a ftrong guard, invelted the houfe; the
nephew of Porcaro cut his way through the crowd, but the
- unfortunate Stephen was drawn from a chett, lamenting that
his enemies had anticipated by three hours the execution of
his delign. After fuch manifeft and repeated guilt, the pope,
though fill inclined rather to pity than punifhment, could
fay nothing in his favour. Porcaro, and nine of his accom-
plices, were hanged; and amidft the fears and inveCtives of
the papal court, the Romans pitied, and almott applauded,
thefe martyrs of their country. ‘* But,’’ fays the eloquent
hiftorian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,
« their applaufe was mute, their pity ineffectual, their liberty
for ever extinét; and, if they have fince rifen in a vacancy of
the throne or a f{earcity of bread, fuch accidental tumults
may be found in the bofom o: the moit abject fervitude.”’
Of the ftruggles of the people of Rome we have, there-
fore, nothing more to record.
But the independence of the nobles, which was fomented
by difcord, furvived the freedom of the commons, which
mutt be foundedin union. Rapine and oppreffion were long
maintained by the barons of Rome ; their houfes were a
fortrefs and a fanétuary: and the criminals whom they pro-
teéted from the law, repaid the hofpitality with the fervice
of their {words and daggers. The private interefts of the
pontiffs, or their nephews, fometimes involved them in thefe
domeftic feuds. Under the reign of Sixtus 1V. Rome was
diftraGted by the battles and fieges of the rival houfes; after
the conflagration of his palace, the prothonotary Colonna was
tortured and beheaded ; and Savelli, his captive friend, was
murdered on the {pot, for refufing to join in the acclamations
of the victorious Urfini. But the popes no longer trem-
bled on their throne : they had ftrength to command, if they
had refolution to claim, the obedience of their fubje&ts ; and
the ftrangers who obferved thefe partial diforders, admired
the eafy taxes and wife adminiftration of the ecclefiaftical
itate.
The fpiritual thunders of the Vatican depend on the force
of opinion; and if that opinion be fupplanted by reafon or
paffion, the found may idly watfte itfelf in the air, and the
helplefs prieft will be expofed to the brutal violence of
a noble or plebeian adverfary. But after their return from
Avignon, the keys of St. Peter were guarded by the {word
of St. Paul. Rome was commanded by an impregnable
citadel ; the ufe of cannon is a powerful engine againit po-
pular feditions ; a regular force of cavalry and AB eres. was
enlifted under the banners of the pope; his ample revenues
fupplied the refources of the war; and, from the extent of
his domain, he could bring down upon a rebellious city an
army of hoftile neighbours and loyal fubjeéts. Since the
union of the duchies of Ferraro and Urbino, the ecclefiafti-
cal power extends from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic,
and from the confines of Naples to the banks of the Po; and
as early as the fixteenth century, the greater part of that {pa-
cious and fruitful country acknowledged the lawful claims
and temporary fovereignty of the Roman pontiffs. For the
fucceflive changes that have occurred in Italy from that
time to the year 1811, we refer our readers to the article
Iraxy, in the New Cyclopedia; and we fhall, probably,
by the time we come to the article Stare, Holy Roman, be
able to givea farther account of the fubjeét, to the general
peace, we earneftly hope, of 1815.
In the mean time, we fhall lay before our readers an ac-
count of Rome as it appeared in the fifteenth century to an
accurate and feeling mind, and then conclude the article with
{ome account of the prefent ftate of the city.
View of Rome in the Fifteenth Century.—In the laft days
of pope Eugenius IV. two of his attendants, the learned
Poggio anda friend, afcended the Capitoline ; repofed them-
felves among the ruins of columns and temples; and from
that commanding fpot, they viewed the wide and various
proipect of defolation. The place and the obje& gave
ample {cope for moralizing on the viciffitudes of fortune,
which {pares neither man nor the proudeft of his works,
which buries empires and cities in a common grave ; and it
would naturally be inferred, that in proportion to her
former greatnefs, the fall of Rome was the more awful
and deplorable. ‘The defcription of Poggio, who was
one of the firft that raifed his eyes from the monuments of
legendary, to thofe of claffic fuperftition, is as follows :
1. Beiides a bridge, an arch, afepulchre, and the pyra-
mid of Ceftius, he could difcern, of the age of the republic,
a double row of vaults in the falt-office of the Capitol, which
were infcribed with the name and munificence of Catullus.
2. Eleven temples were vifible in fome degree, from the
perfect form of the Pantheon, to the three arches, and a
marble column of the temple of Peace, which Vefpafian
erected after the civil wars of the Jewifh triumph. 3. OF
the number, which he rafhly defines, of feven therm or
public baths, none were fufficiently entire to reprefent the
ufe and diftribution of the feveral parts but thofe of
Diocletian and Antoninus Caracalla {lill retained the titles
of the founders, and aftonifhed the curious {pectator, who,
in obferving their folidity and extent, the variety of marbles,
the fize and multitude of the columas, compared the labour
and expence with the ufe and importance. Of the baths
of
ROME.
of Conftantine, of Alexander, of Domitian, or rather of
Titus, fome veftige might yet be found. 4. The tri-
umphal arches of Titus, Severus, and Conftantine, were
entire, both the ftru€ture and the infcriptions; a falling
fragment was honoured with the name of Trajan; and two
arches then extant, in the Flaminian way, have been afcribed
to the bafer memory of Fauttina and Gallienus. 5. After
the wonder of the Colifeum, Poggius might have overlooked
a {mall amphitheatre of brick, moft probably for the ufe
of the Pretorian camp: the theatres of Marcellus and
Pompey were occupied in a great meafure by public and
private buildings; and in the circus Agonalis and Maximus,
little more than the fituation and the form could be invetti-
gated. 6. The columns of Trajan and Antonine were ftill
ere& ; but the Egyptian obelifks were broken, or buried.
A profile of gods and heroes, the workmanfhip of art,
was reduced to one equeftrian figure of gilt brafs, and to
five marble ftatues, of which the motft con{picuous were the
two horfes of Phidias and Praxiteles. 7. The two maufo-
leums or fepulchres of Auguftus and Adrian could not
totally be loit ; but the former was only vifible as a mound
of earth; and the latter, the caftle of St. Angelo, had ac-
quired the name and appearance of a modern fortrefs. With
the addition of fome feparate and namelefs columns, fuch
were the remains of the ancient city: for the marks of a
more recent ftru€ture might be dete¢ted in the walls, which
formed a circumference of ten miles, included three hundred
and feventy-nine turrets, and opened into the ccuntry by
thirteen gates.
Of the Government of Rome under the Popes.—For this part
of our article we fhall be chiefly indebted to the juftly de-
nominated ‘ Claflical Tour through Italy,’ by the Rev.
I. C. Euftace, whofe partiality for whatever is papal, may
render him, perhaps, fomewhat partial as an hiftorian. In
{peaking of this government, as it exifted previoufly to the
ravages of the French at the clofe of the laft century, he
fays, though defpotic above all controul, it is exercifed by
the pontiff with mildnefs, and fubmitted to by the people
with refpect. The facred charaéter of the bifhop influences
both the fovereign and the fubje&. The government is
eleGtive ; promotion depends in a great degree upon talents
and virtues; and, confequently, there is a ftimulus to exertion
and a {cope for honourable ambition. As for the origin of
the temporal fovereignty of the popes, it may be molt ho-
nourably and firmly eftablifhed on the confent of the people.
After the expulfion of the Goths, when the arms of the
Eaftern emperors had re-conquered, but were incapable of
protecting Italy ; when the incurfions and menaces of the
Lombards kept the city in conttant alarm, and pettilence
and famine had preyed upon it; the Romans naturally turned
their eyes to their bifhops, and found in them the fupport
which they had vainly folicited from their fovercigns. The
pontiffs had till that period been as eminent for their virtues
as for their {tation, and when forced by public diftrefs to
take a confiderable fhare in the adminiftration of the ftate,
. they difplayed a prudence equal to their fanétity, and a be-
nevolence as extenfive as the pofleflions of the Roman
church. ‘ We fee them,” fays Mr. Euttace, “in the feventh,
eighth, and ninth centuries, protecting Rome on one fide
again{t the attacks of the Lombards, and fecuring it on the
other from the rapacity and treachery of the exarchs, re-
pairing its walls, feeding its inhabitants, engaging diftant
princes in.its interefts, and finally reftoring the majelty of
its name in the new empire. Rome, indeed, feems to owe her
exiftence to her pontiffs ; and had not the chair of St. Peter
replaced the throne of the Czfars, and the feat of empire
become the fanctuary of religion, Rome would probably
4
have funk into a heap of uninhabited ruins, and left to
poiterity nothing more than the whiflling of a mighty
name.””
From the re-eftablifhment of the Weftern empire to the
tenth century, the popes employed their influence in op-
pofing the growing power of the Saracens, and in proteét-
ing the coatts of Italy, and the capital itfelf, again{t the pre-
datory incurfions of thofe barbarians. Shortly after com-
menced their contefts with the German Cefars: but how-
ever much the popes may be cenfured, as ecclefiattics, in
thofe deftructive quarrels; as princes and as Romans they
may claim indulgence, as they {truggled againit foreign in-
fluence, and finally fucceeded in freeing Italy from the yoke
of a German, a barbarian, and an abfentee ruler. The dif-
putes of the popes with the barons and the Roman people
were founded on the jutt oppofition of a firm government,
to the arrogance and tyranny of an ariftocratic body on the
one fide, and to the licentioufnefs of a turbulent populace
on the other. But Rome has juft caufe to deplore and con-
demn the folly and the perverfity of her paltors, when they
forfook her venerable walls, and fubmitted to voluntary
exile, alternately the inftruments and victims of French in-
trigue and ambition. Of all the difatters that befel Rome
in the long feries of her eventful hiftory, this, perhaps, was
the moft pernicious both in its immediate effects and diftant
confequences, and to it may be afcribed the degradation of
the nobleft monuments, the depopulation of the capital and
its neighbourhood, and the evils that anarchy and tyranny
never fail to bring in their train. Thefe evils continued to
operate long after their efficient caufes had ceafed to exift,
and the popes, during many ages after their re-eftablifhment
in Rome, had to ftruggle with the reftlefs and unbridled
paflions excited by the guilt or the folly of their abfentee
predeceflors. Sixtus Quintus fucceeded in breaking the
{pirit of the barons, and having brought the people to fub-
miffion, he reftored order, peace, and induftry, ta the Ro-
man ftates.
From this period Rome rapidly increafed in profperity,
riches, and population, and became the feat of the arts and
fciences, the centre of political negociation, and not unfre-
quently of courtly intrigue. Moit of the fucceeding popes
took an aétive part in the public tranfaCtions of the times,
fometimes as mediators, but too frequently as parties con-
cerned, with a view to national interefts, or to family ag-
grandizement. Their conduét, in this refpeét, though little
conformable to the principles of their profeflion, was advan-
tageous to their territories, as it brought wealth to the in-
habitants, and refleGted luftre on a city, at the fame time the
metropolis of the Chriftian world, and the capital of an ex-
tenfive and flourifhing country.
The reformation produced at the time little or no dimi-
nution of the temporal greatnefs and confideration of the
popes: fo little indeed, that in the century following that
event, Rome feems to have enjoyed a fplendour and pro-
fperity not witneffed within her walls fince the fall of the
empire. Hence it has been obferved, “ that if Pyrrhus’s
ambaflador could with propriety call the Roman fenate im
his time a congrefs of kings, a fimilar appellation might
with equal veracity be applied to the modern fenate of Rome,
the college of cardinals, during the feventeenth century.
That aflembly was, ftrictly fpeaking, compofed of princes,
the fons, nephews, brothers, or uncles of the firlt fove-
reigns in Europe; men who not unfrequently, as ftatefmen
and minifters, had held the reins of empire at home, or as
ambafladors, reprefented their royal relatives abroad. ‘They
either generally refided or frequently aflembled at Rome, not
only to difcharge their duties about the perfon of the ie
tiff,
ROME.
tiff, but to fupport the interefts of their refpeétive courts ;
and in order to attain this objeét the more effectually, they
difplayed a {plendour and a magnificence nearly royal. The
officers of their houfehold were often nobles of high rank ;
their fecretaries and chaplains were men of talents and bufi-
nefs ; a long train of guards, fervants, and retainers, at-
tended their perfons when they appeared in public, and the
- blaze of the purple, in itfelf fo dazzling, was heightened by
. all the adventitious circumitances of birth, power, and opu-
lence. The union of fo many illuftrious perfonages, vyeing
with each other in talents and magnificence, gave Rome the
appearance of an univerfal court, where all the fovereigns
of Europe were aflembled to difcufs the general interefts of
Chriftendom, and to difplay their rival glories in peace and
fecurity.”’
From this epoch the charaéter of the pontiffs became
more epifcopal and pacific, and they have chiefly been
occupied with the government of the Catholic church over
which they prefide, and with the civil adminiftration of their
own territories, which, as we have feen, are fufficiently
extenfive to engrofs their utmoit attention. The arts and
fciences have at all times, but particularly in the latter cen-
turies, met with fpecial encouragement from the popes ;
and Rome, enlivened by their conttant prefence, embellifhed
by their munificence, and fed by the produce of feveral ex-
tenfive, populous, and well-cultivated provinces, had gra-
dually refumed her robes of glory, and began to promife
herfelf once more the return of her former dignity and pro-
f{perity. ‘ She had,” fays Mr. Euttace, ‘* been great even
in ber fall, and venerable in her difafters. She had ceafed
to be the miftrefs of the world in arms, but fhe {till remained
the miftrefs of the world in arts; fhe was no longer the
capital, but fhe was the metropolis of Europe; not the re-
fidence of the firft fovereign, but the fee of the firft paftor.
She had not been fubjeéted to flavery as Athens; fhe had
not been reduced to a heap of ruins, as Babylos. She ftill
reigned widowed, but independent; and {till claimed and
enjoyed the veneration of kings and of nations. Without
fleets or armies fhe repofed in fearlefs tranquillity: public
reverence, more mighty than military power, covered her
head with an invifible egis, guarded her frontiers, and fe-
cured her repofe. Even the nations which had forfaken her
communion, and in days of irritation had defied the thunders
of her fulminating pontiffs, now looked towards her with
refpeét, and beheld with affeGtion and reverence the benevo-
lence, the fanétity, and the humility of her paitors. Such
was the ftate of Rome during the eighteenth century; a
ftate happy in the enjoyment of peace, plenty, and increaf-
ing improvement, and big with the hopes of future and ac-
cumulating profperity. The French invafion clofed the
fcene. See ITaAty. .
Of the Prefent State of Rome.—The modern city poflefles
many features of ancient Rome. The fame roads lead to
her gates—the fame aqueduéts pour the fame ftreams into
her fountains—the fame great churches that received the
matters of the world under the emperors, are {till open to
their defcendants—the fame venerable walls that inclofed fo
many temples and palaces in the reign of Aurelian, {till
exift. Modern Rome lies extended principally on the plain,
and is feattered thinly over the hills, bordered by villas,
gardens, and vineyards. Its population is fuppofed to
amount to 200,000 fouls. The ftreets are well built and
paved, narrower, in general, than thofe in London, and
wider than thofe in Paris: the houfes being low, the {treets
are light and airy: they are many of them very long and
ftraight, and not unfrequently terminated by an obelifk, a
fountain, or a church. The houfes are of itone, but plaf-
tered or ftuccoed, as at Vienna, Berlin, &c. This city con-
tains 46 fquares, 5 monumental pillars, 10 obelifks, 13
fountains, 22 maufoleums, 150 palaces, and 346 churches.
Of the fquares, the molt remarkable is the Piazza Na-
yona, which gradually rofe on the ruins of the Circus Ago-
nalis. It is adorned by the handfome church of St. Agnes,
and refrefhed by three fountains decorated with {tatues.
One of thefe fountains is an objet of great admiration, and
is thus defcribed. Four figures, reprefenting four rivers,
recline on a craggy rock: on its top ftands an Egyptian
obelifk ; from its hollow fides rufhes a perpetual ftream.
Thefe three fountains are fo managed during the heats of
Auguit, as to inundate the whole fquare on Saturdays and
Sundays, and afford a very refrefhing exhibition to the
Roman gentry, who parade along in their carriages, and to
the common people, who always colleé in crowds to behold
the enlivening fcene. Modern Rome is ten miles in circum-
ference, but this extent comprehends gardens and uninha-
bited places, and it is defended by the caitle of St. Angelo.
In the Rione di Monte is the church of St. Giovanni in La-
terano, dedicated to St. John in the feventh century, and
raifed on the ruins of a palace built by Conftantine, in the
year 324. Near this church is the baptiftery of Conitan-
tine, celebrated for its ornaments, its antiquities, paintings,
columns, and ftatues. Before the church is an obelifk, con-
ftructed at Thebes, in Upper Egypt, and brought down
the Nile to Alexandria, from whence, by order of Conftan-
tius, it was conveyed to Rome. » The church of St. Ste-
phen, found alfo in this part of Rome, called the round,
from its form, is an ancient temple of Faunus; it is fup-
ported by fixty pillars of granite or marble of the ifland of
Paros. The church of the holy crofs of Jerufalem was
built by Conftantine, and is celebrated for its relics, its co-
lumns, and its paintings. The ruins of a temple, dedicated
to Venus and Cupid: the monattery of St. Eufebius, built
on the ruins of the baths and palace of Gordianus: Tra-
jan’s pillar, one of the moft beautiful monuments of ancient
Rome: the remains of the baths of Titus, of temples de-
dicated to Concord, to Peace, to Jupiter Tonans, to Jupi-
ter Stator, with many other churches, palaces, and monu-
ments of antiquity, are to be found in this quarter of
Rome.
In the Rione di Trevi is found the church of the Twelve
Apottles, firft built in the reign of Conftantine, and rebuilt
by Clement XI. This ward likewife contains a church, de-
dicated to our Lady of Loretto, adorned with Corinthian
pillars and the moft beautiful ftatues ; the church of St.
Mary in Trivio, built or repaired by Belifarius ; the churches
of St. Vincent, of Anaitafius, and many fuperb palaces,
The Rione di Colonna contains, befides churches, the Piazza
di Colonna, of which the buildings are handfome: in this
{quare is a fountain, and a marble column of Antoninus,
conitruéted in the time of Commodus, and all of marble:
in this ward is the great hall of Juftice; the houfe of the
miffionaries, whither all ecclefiaftics of Rome retire for ten
days before they receive holy orders, with feveral palaces
and monuments of antiquity. The Rione di Campo di
Marzo contains the ancient Campus Martius; in this are
found feveral beautiful churches and magnificent palaces ;
among other buildings is the Clementine college, founded by
pope Clement VIII. The Rione di Ponte takes its name
trom the bridge of St. Angelo; in it are found a college
for one hundred ftudents, Hungarians and Germans. The
Rione della Regola, near the Tiber, contains the Farnefe
palace, in which is feen the celebrated coloffal ftatue of Her-
cules, and many others: this palace was built by Michael
Angelo, with the ftone taken from Vefpafian’s amphi-
theatre ;
ROM
theatre; the gallery was painted by Hannibal Caracci; and
the Monte della Pieta, eftablifhed in the year 1539, for the
purpofe of lending money on pledges without intereft. The
Rione di St. Euttachio contains the beautiful church of St.
Charles aux Catinari, in which, among many others, is a
beautiful pifture reprefenting the death of St. Anne; the
church of St. Andre de la Valle, which contains fome ex-
eellent paintings; the college de Sapienza is, perhaps, the
moft celebrated in the univerfe; this magnificent building
was begun under Leo X. from the defign of Michael An-
gelo; the palace of Juftiniani, adorned with a great num-
ber of bas reliefs, and’ antique flatues; many of them
found on the {pot on which were the baths of Nero,
and the palace is now ereéted: the Theatre d’ Argentina,
and many other palaces, antiquities, and churches. The
Rione della Pigna contains the Piazza della Rotondo, in
which is a beautiful fountain of white marble, ornamented
with an obelifk and dolphins, which {pout out the water.
The Roman college is a vaft and fuperb edifice, built in the
time of Gregory XIV. for the fludy of the languages and
fciences ; here is kept the mufeum of father Kircher, and
the library is well furnifhed: the church of St. Maria della
Sopra Minerva, fo called from a temple of Minerva which
anciently ftood there. "Che ward of the Rione di Campitelli,
or Du Capitole, contains the Capitolinus mountain, the
Palatine, and part of mount Ceelius; the church of St.
Mary in Campitelli, rebuilt in the year 1656, by the people
of Rome. Here are found many beautiful ftatues and pic-
tures, by the moft celebrated malters ; the Tarpeian rock, now
called Monte Caprino ; the remains of the temple of Jupiter
Tonans; and the church of St. Peter in Carcere 3 part of
the prifon conftru€ted by Ancus Martius; the ruins of a
temple of Concord; the church of our Lady of Confo-
lation; the church of St. Sebaftian, built in the ancient
Hippodrome. In this ward is found likewife the Colifeum,
afuperb building, conltrugted at the command of Vefpafian,
by the Jews brought from Jerufalem, and deftined for the
combats of gladiators and public {peétacles. In the Rione di
St. Angelo is the church of St. Angelo, which gives name
tothe ward, was built in the eighth century ; near it is the
theatre of Marcellus, built by Auguftus, and capable of
holding 30,000 fpeCtators ; the palace of Savelli, and the
palace of Mattei, celebrated for the pictures and itatues which
they contain; and many others. The ward of the Rione
di Ripa, on the fide of the river, includes the Aventine
mountain, and the ifland of St. Bartholomew, inhabited at
the time of the expulfion of the Tarquins, and then called
Tiberina and Lycania; the church of St. Bartholomew was
founded on the ruins of an ancient temple of Efculapius.
This ifland is joined to the reft of the city by two bridges.
The church of St. Nicholas in Carcere is built near the com-
mon prifon; St. George in Valebro ; the arches of Septimius
Severus and Janus; St. Mary in Cofmedin, built by the
earlieft Chriftians, on the ruins of a temple of Modetty ;
St. Paul without the walls is a patriarchal church, and,
next to St. Peter, one of the largelt in Rome, built by
Conftantine; the immenfe ruins of the baths of Caracalla,
in which it is faid 3090 perfons might bathe at one time ;
the grand circus; the tomb of Celtius; the catacombs or
vaults dug in the ftone or folid earth, and ufed for depo-
fiting of the dead in this ward. ‘I'he Rione di Tranftevere
is on the other fide of the Tiber, and includes the mountain
Janiculus; in the church of St, Peter in Montorio is the
celebrated picture of the Transfiguration, by Raphael, by
fome thought to be the molt perfeét painting that exifts; the
baths of Severus; the Naumachium of Auguftus; and the
temple of Fortune. The Rione di Borgo, or Rione del
5
ROM
Vatican; this, too, is beyond the Tiber, and is joined to
the re{t of the city by means of the bridge of St. Angelo,
anciently Pons C&lius; in it is the caftle of St. Angelo,
anciently called Moles Adriani, from its founder ; it is cir-
cular, and exceedingly trong ; here the papal crown is kept,
and prifoners of ftate are confined; it communicates with
the Vatican by a long covered gallery. The church of St.
Peter is the chéf-d’ceuvre of Italy, the largeft and moft
beautiful church in the world. It was projeéied by Ni-
cholas V.; Julius II. laid the firft ftone in the year 1506;
but the whole building was not finifhed till the next cen-
tury; it isfaid to cover 2oacres, and to have coft upwards
of one million fterlmg. The original artift was Bramante,
but the greater part was from the plan of Michael Angelo,
who raifed the cupola ; Maderni finifhed it inthe year 1621.
The pavilion of the great altar of this church, and the four
wreathed pillars of Corinthian brafs which fupport it, were
formed out of the fpoils of the Pantheon. ‘I’he Pantheon,
originally dedicated to the honour of all the gods, is now a
Chrittian temple, and is ftill the moft perfect of the Roman
temples that now remain, and notwithftanding the depre-
dations it has fuftained from Goths, Vandals, and Popes, is
fill a beautiful monument of Roman tafte.
The pope has three fine palaces, of which the principal is
the Vatican, which fee. The library of this palace is the
Jargett and moft complete in the world, rich, efpecially in
manufcripts, in all languages, and all ages. In Rome, the
lover of the fine arts will, after all the depredations of the
French, meet with innumerable paintings by the moft cele-
brated matters in the world, and with the fineft works of
{culpture. Befides the univerfity, which confifts of feveral
noble colleges, there are numerous academies and literary
focieties.
The relative fituation of Rome, with regard to other
European capitals, is as follows : itis 380 miles from Vienna,
560 from Paris, 740 from Amfterdam, 810 from London,
and goo from Madrid. It ftands within 10 miles of the
Tufcan fea. Univerfal Hiftory. Holberg’s Introduétion.
Tytler’s Elements of General Hiftory. Playfair’s Chro-
nology. Gibbon’s Hittory of the Rife, &c. Encyclopédie
Méthodique. Euftace’s Claffical Tour, 2d edition.
Rome, Citizen of, at firft, was only a citizen of Rome:
at length, the right of citizenfhip was given to other cities
and people, both in Italy and the provinces. It was thus
St. Paul was a Roman citizen, Adts, xvi. 21. 37, 38. XXil.
25, 26, 27. xxiil. 26; the city of Tarfus, in Cilicia, a
native of which he was, having the right of Roman citizens.
See Municipat Cities, and Paut.
Rome pe w’Istz, Joun Barrist Louts, in Biography,
was born, in 1736, at Gray, in Franche-Comté. He ap-
plied himfelf, from a very early period, with earneftnels to
the {tudy of natural hiftory and mineralogy ; and by his dif-
coveries and writings he acquired a confiderable reputation.
In 1766 he publifhed «« A Letter to M. Bertrand on Frefh-
Water Polypes.”? He drew up defcriptive catalogues of
many rich colle¢tions of minerals and madrepores, of which
the moft diftinguifhed was that of Davila, in 3 vols. 8vo.
1767. In 1779 and .1781 he publifhed a work, entitled
«s L’A@iof de Feu central banni de la Surface du Globe,
et le Soleil retabli dans fes Droits.”? In 1783 he publifhed
that work by which he is beft known, entitled ‘ Chriftal-
lographie ou Defcription des Formes propres a tous les
Corps du Regne minerale,”? 4 vols. In this elaborate per-
formance, the author gives a defcription of the forms proper
to every fubftance of the mineral kingdom, in a faline,
ftony, and metallic combination; with figures of all the
known cryttals, arranged according to the number and dif.
pofition
ROM
pofition of their angles. He aflerts, which is generally ad-
mitted, that every {pecies in the mineral kingdom always
takes a polyhedral form, which is regular, conftant, and
peculiar to itfelf Befides the works already mentioned,
he publifhed ‘* Caraéteres exterieurs des Mineraux,’’ 8vo.
1784; and “ Metrologie ou Tables pour fervir a I’ Intelli-
gence des Poids et des Méfures des Anciens d’apres leur
Rapport avec les Poids et les Méfures dela France,’’ 8vo.
1789. This philofopher died at Paris, in 1790.
Romé, in Geography, a town of Brafil, in the govern-
ment of Goyas; 85 miles E. of Villa Boa.
Rome, a poft-town of America, in the county of Oneida,
and ftate of New York, fituated on the Mohawk river ;
8 miles W. of Whiteftown. This town was taken from
Stauban, and incorporated in 1796. N. lat. 43° 12’. W.
long. 75° 30!.
Rome du Tarn, St., atown of France, in the department
of the Aveiron, on the Tarn; 4 miles N. of St. Afrique.
ous et See Perer-Pence.
ROMELIA, in Geography. See Romanta-
ROMELSO, a clutter of {mall iflands on the welt fide
of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 64°55’. E. long. 21°.
ROMENAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Saone and Loire; 15 miles N.N.E. of Macon.
ROMENO, a town of the county of Tyrol; 13 miles
S.W. of Bolzano.
ROMERSBERG, a mountain of Bavaria, in the princi-
pality of Aichitatt; 5 miles W. of Aichftatt.
ROMERSGEHAG, a town of Germany, in the bi-
fhopric of Fulda; 14 miles S. of Fulda.
ROMERSTADT, or Romarow, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Olmutz, near which are fome iron mines;
20 miles E.N.E. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 50!. E. long.
172.9!
ROMESCAMPS, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife; 6 miles N.W. of Grand Villiers.
ROMETTA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona; 5 miles N.W. of Meffina.
ROMFORD, a market-town and parifh in the liberty
of Havering-atté-Bower, county of Effex, England, is
fituated at the diftance of 17 miles S.W. from the county
town of Chelmsford, and 12 miles E.N.E. from London.
This town is fuppofed by Stukeley to occupy the {cite of
the Roman ftation Durolitum. The fame author conjec-
tures that its prefent name is a contraétion for Romanford ;
and in this opinion he is fupported by Mr. Lethieullier.
Lyfons, however, derives it from the Saxon words Rom
and Ford, which fignify the Broad-Ford, in allufion to an
ancient paffage through a rivulet which flows paft the
weftera extremity of the town. Romford is firft mentioned
in record in the Red Book of the Exchequer; where it is
{aid that, in 1166, Roger Bigod, duke of Norfolk, held
*¢ the wood of Remford by ferjeancy, and payment of five
fhillings a-year.”” It is next noticed in 1277, at which time
the manor formed part of the poffeffions of Adam de Cre-
tinge. It afterwards pafled to Thomas de Brotherton, earl
of Norfolk, from whom it defcended by marriage to the
Mowbrays, dukes of Norfolk ; but on the death of John,
the fourth duke, without male iffue, in 1477, it became
vetted in James, lord Berkeley. Since that period it has
belonged to different families, and is now the property of a
gentleman named Newman.
Romford is governed by a bailiff and wardens, who,
though forming no corporation, are empowered by letters
patent to hold a weekly court, for the trial of all caufes,
whether civil or criminal, high treafon not excepted. In
Vou. XXX.
ROM
ecclefiaftical jurifdiction, however, it is fubordinate to
Hornchurch, except fo far as concerns the maintenance of
the poor; in which particular it was recognifed as a fepa-
rate parifh, in the year 1786. ‘The privilege of holding a
weekly market was firft granted to the inhabitants by king
Henry III.; but at prefent here are three: one on Mon-
day, for the fale of calves; another on Tuefday, for hogs ;
and a third on Wednefday, for corn and cattle. There is
likewife an annual fair on the 24th of June. The church
or chapel of Romford is an ancient ftruciure, and was pro-
bably erected about the commencement of the 15th century,
when the inhabitants obtained a bull from the pope, autho-
rifing them to confecrate a cemetery adjoining the town, for
the burial of their dead, who had, previoufly to that time,
been carried tu Hornchurch burying-ground. In this
chapel were, in Catholic times, a guild and a chantry ; the
former of which was valued at 4/. 10s. 2d., and the latter
at 13/. annual revenue, at the era of the diflolution. The
principal monuments here are thofe of fir George Hervey,
knight, lieutenant of the ower, who died in 1605, and
his lady, both of whom are reprefented kneeling ; and of
fir Anthony Cook of Gidea-Hall, and his iady, whofe ef-
figies are exhibited in fimilar pofitions. On the latter
tomb are feveral infcriptions in Latin, faid to have been
written by the daughters of the deceafed, who were the
mott learned females of the age. Not far from the church
is a charity-{chool for forty boys, and another for twenty
girls, which were founded and endowed in 1728; and at a
fhort diftance from the weftern end of the town are bar-
racks for the accommodation of a regiment of cavalry,
erected in 1795. According to the population cenfus of
1811, the parifh of Romford, including the Town ward,
Collier-row ward, Harold’s-wood ward, and Noah-hill
ward, contains 620 houfes, and 3244 inhabitants.
The diftri& called Havering-atté ward, which compre-
hends the three adjacent parifhes of Hornchurch, Romford,
and Havering, anciently conftituted part of the demefnes
of Saxon kings; and even to this day it poflefles peculiar
privileges, both as prefcriptive rights, and by charter,
granted by Henry IV., and fince confirmed by feveral of
his fucceflors. Near the village of Havering-att¢-Bower
was formerly a palace, which tradition afcribes to king Ed-
ward the Confeflor, and which fubfequently became the occa-
fional refidence of more than one monarch of the Norman line.
The fituation of this palace is very fine, and commands ex-
tenfive views over parts of Effex, Hertfordfhire, Kent,
Middlefex, and Surrey, as well as of the river Thames.
The furrounding park, now the property of the crown,
but let on leafe, exceeds a thoufand acres in extent. To
the weflward of this park, about two miles, lies Hainault-
Forett, in which is a very remarkable tree, called Fair-
lop-oak, which Gilpin informs us, in his ‘* Remarks on
Foreft Scenery,’’ is traced by tradition ‘+ half way up the
Chriftian era.’’ It is generally faid to be the largett tree in
this kingdom, meafuring 36 feet in girt near the bafe or
root, and f{preading its branches over a circumference of
300 feet. At Hempftead, in Effex, is a tree of much
larger dimenfions. Round the Fairlop-oak, on the firlt
Friday in July, is held an annual fair, which appears to
have originated from a gentleman, named Day, who com-
menced the pragtice of dining with his friends annually
under its fhade.
About a mile to the eaftward of Romford is Gidea-Hall,
an ancient feat of the Cook family; and near it ftands
Hare-Hall, a manfion formerly belonging to John Arnold
Wallenger, efq. The houfe was built under the direétion
of Mr. Payne, in 1769, and is conftruéted of Portland
a5 {tone ¢
ROM
Stone; it confifts of a centre, with two wings, conneéted
by colonnades. A fmall villa in this neighbourhood, at
Hare-ftreet, is the refidence of Humphrey Repton, efq.,
diftinguihed for his tafte and talents as a landfcape-gardener.
He is alfo author of two or three elegant volumes on pic-
turefque fcenery, and the principles of tafte, as difplayed
in the embellifhment of parks and gentlemen’s manfions.
His fon, John Adey Repton, is alfo juftly celebrated for
his intimate knowledge of the principles and hiltory of the
ancient archite€ture of England. Four miles to the eaft-
ward is the village of Brentwood, or Burnt-wood, which
was anciently a market-town ; but this privilege is now loft.
Its former importance, however, may be conjectured from
the fat of the county aflizes having been held here for
many years. The remains of the town-hall and prifon are
ftill difcernible in the main ftreet, which ftretches itfelf
along the Harwich road, and abounds with inns and
public houfes for the accommodation of travellers. Here
is a grammar-fchool, founded in 1537 by fir Anthony
Brown. Camden fuppofed the Roman {tation of Czfaro-
magus to have been fituated at or near Brentwood; but
this opinion is not fupported by any fa¢ts, or even pro-
bability.
Five miles weftward from Romford is Wanftead-Houfe,
the feat of William Pole Tilney Long Wellefley, efq., M.P.,
who acquired it by marriage with Mifs Tilney Long, eldeft
daughter and co-heirefs of the late fir James Tilney Long.
It is a very fpacious and magnificent building, meafuring
260 feet in front, and nearly So feet in depth. In the
centre of the principal front is a grand portico, fupported
on fix Corinthian columns, and having on each fide a flight
of fteps, and in the tympanum the arms of the Tilney
family, finely fculptured. The houfe is divided into two
itories, the uppermoft of which contains the ball-room and
principal apartments. Several of the rooms contain a col-
leétion of fine paintings by eminent artifls. The gardens
and pleafure-grounds were laid out by Richard Child, pre-
vioufly to the erection of the houfe; but latterly great al-
teraticns and improvements have been made in the former,
under the dire€tion of Mr. Repton, who has very properly
revived part of an old and almoft exploded fafhion, in de-
corating the lawn immediately adjoining the houfe with
flowers, beautiful fhrubs, &c. to regale and « delight the
fenfes of feeing and {melling.’? At the {plendid manfion of
Longleat, Wiltfhire, this has been adopted on a large {cale,
and with fingular beauty. (See WarminsteR.) Oppo-
fite the back front is an eafy afcent, through an agreeable
vilta, to the river Roding, which is formed into canals, and
. has near it a curious grotto, conftruéted by the fecond earl
Tilney, at an expence of 2000/., exclufive of its coftly ma-
terials. Within the park, on its fouthern fide, a'teffellated
Roman pavement was difcovered in the year 1735. It was
about 20 feet long, and was conjetured by Mr. Lethicullier
to have been the pavement of a banquetting-room. In the
centre was the figure of a man, and around him a great va-
riety of ornaments. The Hiftory and Antiquities of the
County of Effex, by Philip Morant, M.A., 2 vols. folio,
Lond. 1767. Lyfons’s Environs of London, 4to. 1796.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. by John Britton
and E. W. Brayley, 8vo. Lond. 1803.
ROMHILD, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; eight miles S.E. of Meinungen. N. lat. 50°
26’. E. long. 10° 42!.
ROMI, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Diarbekir ; 45 miles S. of Kerkifieh.
ROMIEU, M. of Montpellier, in Biography, publifhed
in 1743 and 1751, what he called **A New Difcovery of
ROM
the grave Harmonics,” meaning the third found, refulting
from the coincident, vibrations of two acute fimultaneous
founds ; a phenomenon which Tartini had difcovered in
1714, and upon which he afterwards built his fyftem, or
« Trattato di Mufica,’? publifhed in 1754.
This difcovery of Tartini excited the envy, not only of
Romieu, but of d’Alembert, Serre of Geneva, the abbé
Rouflier, Laborde, &c. The firft attempt was to rob him
of the honour of the di/covery, and then to depreciate his
explanations, and the con/equences which he derived from the
phenomenon. But it appears to us, on the moft careful
and minute enquiry, that they have egregioufly failed in
both. With refpect to his di/covery, Tartini himfelf, and
his zealous difciple count Taxis, of Venice, have clearly
authenticated his title to it. (Rifpofta di Tartini alla
critica del di lui Tratt. di Muf. Ven. 1767—et Ruifpofta
di un Anonimo al Sig’. Rouffeau circa al fuo fentimento
in propofito d’ahcune propof. del Giuf. Tartini, Ven.
1769. ,
ae the long extraéts given from Romieu’s laboured me-
moir on the fubje&t of his difcovery of the terzo fuono, by
Laborde, in his “ Effai fur la Mufique,’? have fo much
puzzled the caufe, that he may be truly faid to “ explain
the thing till ali men doubt it,’” &c.
Tartini himfelf,.by his notation of each third found, pro-
duced, as is fuppofed, by the coincident vibrations of any
two fimultaneous intervals, is clear and evident. Stilling-
fleet’s commentary of Tartini’s «Trattato di Mufica,”? and
Rouffeau’s analyfis of his fyftem, do juilice to his ingenuity
and profound harmonical knowledge, without concealing
his defects.
Perhaps we have no right to imagine ourfelves unpre-
judiced in this difcuffion; having been fo long accuftomed
to regard Tartini as a great pra€tical mufician, and an ex-
quifite compofer, we may have been infenfibly inclined to
re{pect his theory, and, indeed, whatever he has produced ;
for what more can fcience do for any mufician in the practice
of his art, than it has done for Tartini? Has it taught his
mathematical opponents, of the old French fchool, to com-
pofe elegant, graceful, fpirited, or fanciful mufic? or
even informed them in what good mufic confilts? See Tar-
Tint and TERzo Suono.
Romigevu, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gers; five miles E. of Condom.
ROMILLY, a town of France, in the department of
the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Nogent fur Seine; nine miles E.N.E. of it. The
place contains 2175, and the canton 6888 inhabitants, ona
territory of 2674 kiliometres, in 15 communes.
ROMISHORN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Zurich ; nine miles E.S.E. of Conftance.
ROMKALA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the go-
vernment of Marafch, on the right bank of the Euphrates,
where the river Simeren joins it. This town has a caftle,
much ruined, which was the work of the Greek emperors,
and which is fituated at the N. end of a chain of moun-
tains over the river. It ftands on a path, feparated from
the mountains, to the fouth, by a deep foflée cut in the rock,
and originally intended, as it is faid, to be made fo deep that
it might be fupplied with water by the river Simeren, and
thus the place be infulated. On the W. fide is the afcent,
having four terraces cut in the rock, and fituated above one
another, each having a gate-way, and conneéted by tteps.
In the caftle are two churches; 50 miles N. of Aleppo.
N. Tat. 36° 35!. E. long. 37° 45!
ROMKERA, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ;
28 miles N.E. of Poonah.
ROMKINT;,
ROM
ROMKINT, a town of Afia, in the country of Karalm ;
230 miles N.W. of Samareand. x
ROMMEN, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; eight miles S.E. of Lautenburg.
ROMMENDAL, a town of Norway; 24 miles N. of
Berga.
ROMNA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tchernigov ; 88 miles N.E. of Tchernigov. N. lat. 50°
36'. E. long. 33° 24!.
ROMNEY, Geores, in Biography, was born at Dalton,
in Lancafhire, in December 1734. His father was a native
of the fame place, where, upon a {mall patrimonial eftate,
he followed the threefold occupation of merchant, builder,
and farmer ; but as his family was large, the joint profits of
his triple concerns barely afforded the means for its mainte-
nance. At the age of 12, George was taken from the
village fchool, where he had imbibed the rudiments” of
learning, and engaged by his father to fuperintend the
workmen. He employed his leifure hours in carving, and
being fond of mufic, made a violin for himfelf, which he
preferved till his death.
He was firit tempted to draw, from feeing fome ordinary
prints in a periodical magazine, which he imitated with con-
iiderable fuccefs ; and his firlt attempt at drawing a por-
trait was from memory, when endeavouring to deicribe the
features of a ftranger whom he had feen at church. When
he was about 15, mind was led aftray from the occu-
pations in which his father had engaged him, by the fociety
and converfation of a peculiar, but ingenious man, named
Wilkinfon, who refided at Dalton. He was afterwards
placed under the eare of a Mr. Wright, a cabinet-maker at
Lancatter; but he, foon perceiving the turn of Romney’s
mind for drawing, advifed his father to leave him at liberty
to indulge his propenfity, and become a painter. At the
fame time he recommended an artift of the name of Steele,
as a preceptor for the youth; and with him he continued to
itudy and praGtife for a fhort time only, in which, however,
he acquired, to a certain extent, the knowledge and ufe of
the materials of the art.
When he left Steele, and had begun to practife portrait
painting as a means of fubfiftence, he became anxious to
vifit, and tempt his fate in the metropolis. He laboured
therefore very hard, painting portraits at low prices, and
occafionally producing pictures of hiftorical fubje@s, which
he difpofed of by way of raffle at Lancafter. By thefe
means he acquired a fum of nearly a hundred guineas; of
which taking thirty pounds to pay his travelling expences,
and leaving the remainder with his wife, he fet out to
put his long intended project into execution, in the year
1762.
He firft refided in the city, where he painted portraits at
five guineas a head, and acquired confiderable praétice
through the friendly affiftance of Mr. Braithwaite, then of
the pott-office. In 1764 he vifited France, in company with
Mr. Greene, of Gray’s Inn. There he was introduced to
Vernet, and, by his friendly affiftance, obtained admittance
to the gallery of the duke of Orleans, the Luxembourg,
and other repofitories of art. On his return, he took up
arefidence in Gray’s Inn, to be near his travelling com-
panion ; and, by a picture of judge Yates, obtained favour
among gentlemen of the robe, and afterwards produced
many excellent pictures of perfons eminent in that pro-
feffion. In 1765 he obtained a prize from the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts and Sciences, for an hiftorical
picture, the fubject of which was the death of king Edmund.
In 1768 he quitted Gray’s Inn, and went to live in Great
Newport-ftreet, where he continued to advance in reputa-
k OM
tion and practice ; exhibiting with the incorporated fociety
of artifts in Pall Mall, and in Spring Gardens.
Though thus rapidly gaining public refpeé as an artit,
Romney was himfelf fo confcious of his want of ftyle, and
the neceflity of cultivating his tafte by feeing the great
models of antiquity, that he nobly refolved upon relin-
quifhing, for a time, the pecuniary advantages his talents
acquired him, (which now amounted to 1200/. a-year,)
and vifit Italy, where alone he could, at that time, attain
the obje& of his defire. He accordingly arranged a plan of
travel with Mr. Ozias Humphrey, a miniature painter of
celebrity, and on the 2oth March 1773, they fet forward on
their journey, through France, to Rome. There, and at
other places, where the beft works of art were to be found,
he remained two years; leading a life reclufe and itudious,
and making fome few copies.
On his return, in July 1775, he took the houfe in Ca-
vendith-{quare, where he refided till he retired, in 1798, from
public practice, to live at Hampftead, ina houfe he had
built ; and where he hoped to recruit a weakened confti-
tution by tranquil enjoyment, and the beneficial effeéts of
purer air. During the preceding 20 years, Romney had
enjoyed uninterrupted fuccefs in the pra€tice of his pro-
feffion, to which he was fo ardently attached, that his whole
delight was in it. His talents, in return, were highly
efteemed, and encouraged by an immenfe influx of employ-
ment. He, in meafure, divided the attentiod’of the town
with Reynolds, and indeed by numbers was preferred before
him; but he wanted the fuavity of mind and manners
which his accomplifhed rival enjoyed. Timid and referved,
and, at the fame time, ardent and enterprifing, his ima-
gination was tremblingly alive to thofe irritating circum-
ftances, by which vulgarity and ignorance conitantly wound
the mind of the portrait painter, and fubje& him to mortifi-
cation and difguit. The flighteft appearance of coldnefs in
a friend, or of hoftility in a critic, was often fufficient to ob-
ftru& the exertions of his faculties. This timidity and re-
ferve were the reafons that, amidit the immenfe crowd of
perfons to whom, of courfe, by his profeffional pratice, he
was known, there were few with whom he lived in friendly
intercourfe. His mind dwelt conftantly on the art he de-
lighted and excelled in, and among thofe only who fympa-
thized with his peculiarities, was he happy to aflociate.
Romney was fubje& to occafional depreffion of {pirits,
which the kind attentions of his friend Hayley, and the in-
vigorating air of the Suffex Downs, among which that friend
refided, and where our painter ufually fpent his fummer
months, often partially removed. On the approach of age,
he was lefs able to cope effe€tually with attacks of that
nature, and they gained ftrength upon him to an alarming
degree. In 1797 he felt a flight paralytic ftroke, which
affected his eye and his hand, and prevented him from con-
tinuing his profeffional labours. He then retired, as we have
faid, to Hampittead, but finding his health ftill decline, he,
in 1799, revilited his native country ; and at Kendal re-
ceived from a wife, whom, though deferted for fo long a
{pace of time, he had fupported, and protected from po-
verty, a kind and affeCtionate attention till his death, (which
occurred in Noy. 1802,) having unhappily furvived the lofs
of that faculty which is the diftinguifhing glory of man, and
relapfed to the helplefs {tate of infancy.
Of Romney, as an artift, it is by no means eafy to appre-
ciate the juft charaGter. That he poflefled genius and talents
in an eminent degree, no one can deny. The learned editor
of Pilkington’s Dictionary has faid, ** that he was made for
the times, and the times for him.”? It had perhaps been
more juft to have obferved, that Romney was made for bet-
3 P 2 ter
"ROMNEY.
ter times than thofe in which he lived. His perception of art
was far purer than mott of his contemporaries, at leaft in this
sountry, were capable of enjoying ; and it muft be remem-
bered, that no one ever fet forth in the career of an artilt
under greater difadvantages than he did. The tafle he
imbibed for fimplicity and grandeur, on feeing, at an ad-
vanced period of his life, the works of the ancient artifts,
prove what might have been fairly expected of him, had he
happily been born under more favourable circumitances ;
and early initiated, under good inftructors, in the myfteries
of the art he cultivated with fe much fuccefs without thofe
aids. Till the'time he was twenty-two he had feen no better
painting than the fign of a public honfe, in the place where
he was born ; but to his active, enterprifing fpirit, all nature
was afchool; and at an age when others are employed in
laying by ftores of ideas from books, and thence forming
regulations to guide their future progrefs in art, he was in-
duftrioufly obferving and reflecting upon the grand fcenery
around him, and the various chara¢ters of the objets among
which he lived. Thus, the little learning he had imbibed
from the few literary works he had feen was called into
immediate a¢tion, and his progrefs in real knowledge be-
came equal to what is ufually obtained in the ordinary way,
with greater affiftance from books and matters.
The purfuit of painting, however, requires a knowledge
of certain rules in the arrangement of lines; of the beauty
and power of contraft in light and fhade, and in form and
colour ; as well as of the fpeedieit and moit efficient modes
of execution.. This fcience, being the refult of repeated
obfervations upon the principles by which Nature produces
her moft agreeable and fublime effe&ts, is moft readily ob-
tained, by a careful infpe€tion of good works of art where-
in it is exemplified. ' Such advantage was not Romney’s.
He had to feparate for himfelf the partial, from the general
effe&ts of nature ; and the inequality with which he, in this
point, met the rivalry of more fortunate artilts, is too
evident in moft of his produ€tions. Frequently, his chiaro-
4curo is ill conduéted, and his harmony of forms and colours
imperfe& ; even in pictures produced when enjoying the
herght of his intellectual power, and at the happieit period
of his executive fkill: at the fame time they exhibit great
fertility of invention, with f{weetnefs and delicacy of fen-
timent.
He was happily endowed with an inquifitive mind, that
delighted in fcience, and purfued it warmly, with the beit
means he had: and he poflefled a verfatility of genius,
which is exemplified by the variety of fubjects he chofe for
reprefentation. Both the comic and ferious impreflions of
the mind had charms for him. Early in life he painted two
pictures from Trijtram Shandy; one, of the arrival of Dr.
Slop at Shandy-hall, after the unlucky cataftrophe ke met
with on the road; which afforded fcope for fentimental
comic humour; the other from the affeGting ftory of the
death of Le Fevre: both of them were highly approved
for truth and propriety of feeling and expreffion, though
differing fo widely in their effets upon the mind. His
journey to Italy expanded his view of art: new fcenes,
and new fources of information, were prefented to him, of
which he did not negle& to avail himfelf. The works of
fancy he produced after his return home exemplify the ufe
he made of the two years he fpent among the unrivalled
productions of art he there met with. The purity and
perfeftion of ancient .feulpture appear to have made the
deepeit impreffion upon his mind: and he afterwards affi-
duoufly cherifhed the taite he then imbibed, by procur-
ang a collection of caits from the beft models of ancient
“atues, groups, baffo-relievos, &c. whieh he would fit by
9
the hour to contemplate; examining their appeararices
under all changes’of fun-fhine, and common day-light ; and
with.lamps, prepared on purpofe, he would try their effects
in various modes of illumination, with rapturous delight.
Hence, grandeur and fimplicity became the principal objeéts
of his ambition ; he perceived thefe qualities diftin@ly, and
employed them judicioufly ; even whilit imitating nature in
his moit ufual occupation,—portrait painting. To prefent
his figure, or tell his ftory, with fimple undifturbed effea,
rejecting all unneceflary minutiz, was the point he aimed at
and obtained.
On his return from the continent, his zeal for hiftorical
painting revived, or rather became ftrengthened. In feveral
epiltles to Mr. Hayley, he laments his confinement to
portraits: in one he fays, ‘*this curfed portrait painting,
how I am fhackled with it! I am determined to live fru-
gally, and cut it fhort as foon as I can.”? In another, he
mentions his “ wifh to be retired, in order to compofe with
more effect and propriety.’”? And whenever he returned to
London from Eaitham, the hofpitable retreat of his admiring
correfpondent and friend, whofe playfulnefs of fancy was a
conftant and ufeful {timulusto Romney’s dejected and defpond-
ing mind, he felt it a weight of drudgery again to fall into the
trammels of portraiture: yet from the enjoyment he by na-
ture found in the practice of his profeflion, a fhort time
inured him afrefh to it, and ftill he felt pleafure in tracing
the features of each new face that prefented itfelf; till again
his exhautted frame required the exhilaration of retirement,
and the refrefhment afforded by pure uncontaminated air,
free from the grofs vapours that hover in the region of a
great and populous city. It is not a little furprifing, that
amidft his continual labours in that branch of the art he
more immediately profefled, he fhould have found time to
produce fo great anumber of fancy pictures as he left behind
him. He alfo frequently fpent his evenings in making large
cartoons in charcoal, of fubjeéts which fuited his fancy ;—
generally ef a fublime cait. Amongft thefe, was one of
the dream of Attofla, from the Perfian of /E{chylus, which
was conducted with the tafte and feeling of the ancient
Greek artifts.
He was in general fortunate in the choice of his hiftorical
fubjeéts; and certainly, in this refpe&t, had far the advan-
tage of his great rival, fir Jofhua Reynolds: and no lefs fo
in the power of expreffion, which he fcarcely ever failed to
obtain: whilft the latter, in his hiftorical pi€tures, has rarely
been fo happy. Reynolds gave beauty and grace to his
figures: Romney imparted foul. he former delights the
eye with the harmony and richnefs of colour, and beauty of
effet; the latter thrills and gratifies the heart with truth
and force of expreffion, in aétion and countenance ; wrought
with more fimplicity, but with lefs art. His picture of
Ophelia feated upon a branch of a tree, the breaking of
which threatens her deftruGtion in the ftream below, whilit
the melancholy diftraGtion vifible in her lovely face accounts
for her apparent infenfibility to danger, isa fufficient proof
of this aflertion. His compofition alfo of ‘¢ Titania and her
Indian Votarefs,”? in the poffeffion of Mr. Beckford;
«Titania, Puck, and the Changeling,’’at fir John Leicefter’s,
and others of his works of the like playful and interefting
kind, might be brought forward to fupport it. In portrai-
ture, however, the juftly exalted prefident of the Royal
Academy ftood alone, and Romney was not able to cope with
him. In the compofition of his figures,. our artift exhibited
the tafte he had acquired by the ftudy of the antique; and
he admirably varied the charaters of his heads. The arrange-
ment of drapery which he adopted, partook largely of the
fame ftyle ; and being well underitood, was painted with great
dexterity ;
ROMNEY.
dexterity ; thoughit mutt be confeffed, that in form, it was
not unfrequently better adapted to fculpture than to paint-
ing. His ftyle of colouring was fimple and broad. In
that of his flefh he was very fuccefsful ; exhibiting a great
variety of complexion, with much warmth and richnefs.
It was not always, however, that his pi€tures were comp! --
in the general tone ; but crude difcordant colours were forme-
times introduced inthe back-grounds, which not being blended
or broken into unifon with the hue of the principal figures,
interrupted the harmony of the whole. ‘The executive part
of his works was free, learned, and precife, without being
trifling or minute, poffefling great fimplicity, and exhibit-
ing a purity of feeling confonant with the ftyle of his com-
pofitions. He aimed at the beft of all principles in the
imitation of nature, viz. to generalize its effeéts ; he even
carried it fo far as to fubje¢t himfelf to the charge of neg-
ligence in the completion of his forms: but the truth of his
imitation is fufficiently perfect to fatisfy the minds of thofe
who regard nature fyftematically, and not individually, or
too minutely. Ina word, every lover of art who knows how
to appreciate truly what is moft valuable in painting, will
hold the name of Romney in increafing eftimation, the more
frequently and impartially he examines his productions.
Romyry, New, in Geography, one of the Cinque-ports,
locally fituated, partly within the liberty of Romney
Marth, partly within the level of Walland Marfh, and partly
in the lower half hundred of St. Martin’s Pountney, lathe
of Shepway, county of Kent, England. It is diftant
37 miles S.E. from Maiditone, and 71 miles S.E. by E.
from London. This town is defcribed as having rifen trom
the ruins of Old Romney, at leaft a century previous to
the Norman congqneit. Subfequent tu that event, it was
beftowed by king William I. on Odo, bifhop of Baieux,
and earl of Kent, and was declared to be privileged as one
of the Cinque-ports, having Old Romney, Lydd, Denge-
marfh, and Ofwardeitone, and part of Promhill parith, an-
nexed to it as members, which were to fend out jointly five
veflels of war, with twenty-one men and one boy to each
of them. At this period, and for many years afterwards,
New Romney was a very flourifhing place. It was divided
into twelve wards, and contained within its liberty five
parifh churches, a priory, and an hofpital for the fick. In
the reign of Edward I., however, a great part of it was
deftroyed by a dreadful tempeft and convulfion of nature,
which likewife choaxéd up its haven, and thereby prevented
its revival as a commercial and fhipping town. When
Henry VIII. afcended the throne, the fea had retired from
it nearly two miles, and all its churches were demolifhed,
except that of St. Nicholas, which is {till ftanding. Henry
therefore united the whole liberty into one parifh, asit con-
tinues at the prefent day.
In very early times the Cinque-ports were enfranchifed
with various privileges and cuitoms, though of what anti-
quity they are, or when fo enfranchifed, has not been de-
termined with any certainty; they are held therefore to
enjoy their privileges by prefcription, though thefe were
confirmed by Magna Charta, and fince by a charter of
king Edward I. New Romney, as one of thefe ports, is
are a corporation by prefcription; but in Ed-
ward III.’s time it was incorporated by charter, firft by
the ftyle of “* barons of the town and port of New Rom-
ney,’’ and afterwards by that of ‘ jurats and commonaltie
of the town and port of New Romney.’ Queen Elizabeth
again incorporated this town, and under her charter the
corporation now confifts of a mayor, twelve jurats, a cham-
herlain, recorder, town-clerk, and twenty-fix common
council-men. The mayor, who is coroner by virtue of his
office, is chofen on Lady-day, yearly ; and together with
the jurats, who are the exclufive juftices within the liberty,
hold a court of general feflions of the peace and gaol de-
livery, and alfo a court of record. Romney returns two
members to parliament, who are ufually ftyled barons, and
are eleéted by the mayor, jurats, and freemen. The firft
return mentioned on record, is in the forty-fecond year of
Edward III. foon after its feparate incorporation.
The town of Romney tlands on elevated ground in the
centre of a marfhy country. It confilts principally of one
broad well-payed ftreet, interfeGted by a fecond, in which
the hall or brotherhood houfe is fituated, where the mayors,
jurats, and commens of the Cinque-ports, and of the two an-
cient towns of Rye and Winchelfea, ufually keep their court,
called the brotherhood ; but as it is too fmall for the pur-
pofe, the court called the Gueftling, or Gefling, is held in
the church. The market-houfe ftands in the main ftreet,
and is a modern ftruéture. The day on which the market
is held is Saturday, weekly ; befides which there is an an-
nual fair on the 22d of Auguft. The church of St.
Nicholas is an ancient ftructure, and confifts of three aifles
and three chancels, with a fquare tower at its weftern ex-
tremity. The columns feparating the aifles are maffive, and
fupport circular arches with zigzag and billeted mouldings.
The weft door-way under the tower is likewife formed by
a circular arch, fimilarly ornamented. Within this edifice
is a great variety of monumental ereétions, chiefly in
memory of perfons who have been mayors and jurats of
the town. Anciently the church of New Romney be-
longed to the abbot and convent of Pontiniac, in France,
who had a cell or priory here, which was fuppreffed by
king Henry V. Here was alfo an hofpital for lepers,
founded and endowed by Adam de Cherryng in the time
of king Henry II. There was likewife a houfe called St.
John’s houfe in this tewn previous to the reign of Ed-
ward IV. The only charitable inftitution now in the parifh
is an hofpital and fchool-houfe for the refidence of a fchool-
matter and four poor perfons. According to the popula-
tion cenfus of 1811, New Romney parifh contained 159
houfes, and 841 inhabitants.
Old Romney is fituated two miles to the weftward of
New Romney, of which it is a member. This place is
faid to have been anciently of much importance, and to
have conftituted one of the original Cinque-ports. Here,
in the times of the Romans and of the Saxons, was a commo-
dious haven for fhipping, but the fea deferting it occafioned
the decay of thetown. Somner conjectures, that the Portus
Lemanis of Antoninus was fituated either at Old or at
New Romney; but this opinion is contradicted by later
antiquaries, who fix that {tation near Stutfal caftle, at the
bafe of Limne hill. Old Romney now confifts only of
about twenty houfes, with a church, which is an ancient
building in the maffive circular ftyle. In the north chancel
is a very old tomb, with a vault underneath, but there is
no infcription to identify its pofleflor, The font is rudely
{culptured, and is fupported on four ftone pillars.
Romney Marfh is an extenfive level of the richeft paf-
ture land in England, fituated between the upland hills
and the fea-fhore. This diftriێt meafures about ten miles
in length and five in breadth. It comprehends four divi-
fions, all under different jurifdiGions and conftitutions, viz.
Romney Marhh, ftriétly fo called ; Walland Marth ; Denge-
marfh, with Southbrooks; and Guildford Marfh, part of
which is within Suflex. WVaft flocks of fheep and herds of
black cattle are paitured here. The bullocks of this Marth
are reckoned the largeft in England, and the fheep equal
to tholfe of Leicefterfhire and Lincolnfhire. So careful
were
ROM
were our ancient monarchs of this fertile diftriG, that they
granted to the inhabitants various important privileges.
Edward IV. incorporated the towns of Lydd and Romney,
with nineteen parifhes, by the title of the bailiff, twenty-
four jurats, and the commonalty of Romney Marth; but
the inhabitants exercifed many privileges for, feveral cen-
turies anterior to that era. Under the above charter the
bailiff, jurats, and commonalty, are empowered to hold a
court every three weeks, and to decide on all pleas of aétion
real and perfonal, civil and criminal. They are likewife
empowered to choofe four juftices of the peace of their own,
yearly, befides the bailiff, who poffefles fimilar authority
ex officio. They have nothing, however, to do with the
fuperintendence or management of the embankments and
drainage, which by ancient cuftom is vefted in the lords of
twenty-three neighbouring manors, who appoint a bailiff
as chief fupervifor of the works, who is commonly, though
not always, the fame perfon with the bailiff under king
Edward’s charter. The courts are held in a new hall, in
Dimchurch ; and at a general one holden on Whit-Thurf-
day, all {cots and levies, which on an average of years
amount to two fhillings annually, are paid. Romney Marth
is protected from encroachments of the fea by a wall of
great ftrength, called Dimchurch wall, which extends fome-
what more than three miles in length. This wall forms the
only highway for carriages along its whole extent, on the
road between Hithe and Romney. It meafures from twelve
to twenty feet in height above the level of the Marth ; and
from fifteen to thirty feet in breadth at itsfummit. “ The
drainage,’ fays Marfhall, in his Rural Economy of the
Southern Counties, ‘is effe¢ted by arched fluices pafling
under the bank; each having two pair of flood-gates, one
onthe outfide, the other on the infide, to provide againft
accidents to the outer pair. Thefe gates permit the in-
terior waters to pafs off when the tide is low ; and prevent
thofe of the fea from entering at high tide.”” The Hiftory
and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent, by
Edward Hafted, efq. F.R.S. and S.A. 8vo. edit. Can-
terbury, vol. viii. A New Topographical, Hiftorical, and
Commercial Survey of the Cities, &c. of Kent, by Charles
Seymour, 8vo. Canterbury, 1776. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. viii. by E. W. Brayley, 1807.
Romney, a poft-town of America, the capital of Hamp-
fhire county, in Virginia, fituated on the W. bank of the
S.W. branch of the river Patowmac; 50 miles W. by N.
from Winchelter. It contains about 30 houfes, a brick
court-houfe, and a ftone gaol.
ROMONT, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Friburg, and capital of an extenfive bailiwick, which was
formerly a county ; nine miles N.W. of Friburg.
ROMOPOCK, a town, or rather village, of Bergen
county, in New Jerfey, on a river of the fame name, 15 or
20 miles N. of Patterfon.
ROMORANTIN, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftri€, in the department of the Loire and
Cher; feven miles S.S.E. of Blois. The town contains
5750, and the canton 10,276 inhabitants, on a territory
of 330 kiliometres, in 10 communes. Its manufactures
confill of fine cloths and ferges. N. lat. 47° 22'. E. long.
1° gol.
ROMORSWALDE, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Ermeland; five miles N.N.W. of Heilfberg.
ROMPEE, or Rompv, in Heraldry, is applied to ordi-
naries that are reprefented as broken; and to chevrons
whofe upper points are cut off. He beareth a chevron
rompee, between three mullets, argent, by the name of
Sault.
ROM
ROMPION, or Rampion, in Botany. See CAMPANULA
Rapunculus.
ROMPNEY, in Geography. See Rumney.
ROMPONESCO, a town of Italy, on the Po; 20
miles S. of Mantua.
ROMRA, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Lombock. 5S. lat. 8° 15/.. E. long. 115° 54’.
ROMROD, or Rumrorn, a town, with a cattle, of
Weltphalia, in the principality of Helle; 16 miles E. of
Marburg.
ROMSDAL, a town of Norway, and capital of a dif-
trict or provoltfhip, in the diocefe of Drontheim; 100
miles 5.S.W. of Drontheim. N. lat. 62° 28’. E. lone.
7° 54!.
RomspaL Bay, a bay or river of the North fea, on
the coaft of Norway, 20 miles long, with feveral branches.
N. lat. 62° go’. E. long. 7° 45/.
ROMSEY, or Rumsey, a market-town and parifh in the
lower half hundred of King’s Sombourne, Andover divifion
of the county of Southampton, England, is feated in a flat
diftrift, watered by the river Teft, or Anton, at the dif-
tance of 8 miles S,W. from the town of Southampton, and
73 miles S.W. by W. from London. The town is of con-
fiderable antiquity, and probably derived its origin, as it
certainly did its early importance, from an abbey founded
here by Edward the Elder, and afterwards filled with Bene-
dictine nuns by his fucceffor, king Edgar. The firft abbefs
of this monaltery was Elfleda, the daughter of a Saxon
nobleman, named Ethelwold, who had greatly contributed
to its original eftablifhment, and whom fome authors, there-
fore, defignate as its founder. This lady was afterwards
canonized, and conftituted one of the patron faints of the
abbey. She was fucceeded in her office by feveral females
of royal birth, and diftinguifhed for the fanétity of their
lives. In the year 992, Romfey and its monaftery were
plundered by the Danes; but the nuns and moft of their
valuables had been previoufly removed to Winchelter, by
order of the abbefs Elwina. The buildings were foon re-
ftored, and the nuns replaced. In 1085, Chriftina, coufin
to king Edward the Confeflor, took the veil here, and was
fubfequently entrufted with the education of Matilda,
daughter of Malcolm, king of Scotlaud, afterwards confort
to Henry I. Mary, daughter to king Stephen, likewife
became a nun in this abbey; but afterwards renounced the
veil, and married Matthew, younger fon of Theodoric, earl
of Flanders ; an event which called forth all the thunders of
the Vatican againft herfelf and her hufband. The bene-
fa€tors to this monaftery were numerous; and previoufly to
the diffolution, its revenues were eftimated, according to
Dugdale, at the annual value of 339/. 10s. 1odd.; but
Speed ftates their amount at 528/. 8s. tozd. Of the build-
ings which belonged to it fcarcely a veftige remains, except
the church, which is ftill ufed for divine fervice.
Romfey is governed by a corporation, confifting of a
mayor, recorder, fix aldermen, and twelve burgefles, be-
fides inferior officers. The petty feffions for Romfey divi-
fion of the hundred are held here. The market-day is Sa-
turday, weekly; and there are fairs on Eafter Monday,
every Tuefday fortnight after 311 July until Chriftmas,
26th Auguft, and 8th November. Formerly this town
pofleffed a confiderable woollen trade, but that is now
greatly diminifhed, and is in part fupplied by paper-works,
and afacking manufaGtory. The chief public buildings here
are the audit-houfe, which isa large fquare building, ftanding
on piers, near the centre of the town; a town-hall; the
parifh church ; and a large meeting-houfe for Prefbyterians,
built about ten years ago, The church, which cee de-
erves
ROM
ferves particular notice, was formerly annexed to the abbey.
The whole prefents a feries of interefting ftudies and details
to the architeCtural antiquary. It confifts of a nave, with
aifles, a north and fouth tranfept, a choir, or chancel, with
aifles, three {mall chapels or oratorios at the eaft end, where
is alfo an aifle, two {mall femicircular chapels at the angles
of the tranfepts with the choir, and a low tower rifing on
four lofty arches, at the interfection of the tranfepts with
the nave and choir. The eaftern part of the church is cer-
tainly the moit ancient, and is faid by Dr. Latham to have
been erefted anterior to the Norman conqueit. At the
weit end are fome arches of a later age, probably about the
era of king Stephen. In the fouth tranfept is an ancient
{tatue of a female, probably one of the nuns. Near the
fouth door is a crucifixion in bold baflo relievo, clofe to
which is a {quare niche, or cupboard, in the wall. At the eait
end of the north and fouth aifles of this church are two pil-
lars, the fculptures on the capitals of which form the fub-
je&t of fome papers in the 14th and 15th volumes of the
“ Archeologia.” That in the north aifle exhibits four
human figures, befides two birds, a horfe, and feveral mu-
tilated bodies, &c. ; the whole reprefenting a field of battle.
Two of the human figures are crowned, and one of them
holds the other by the beard. Both have {words in their
right hands, and feem in the a& of itriking with them; but
each is reftrained by a winged figure feizing his {word. To
the right, at bottom, is a horfe faddled ; and in each cor-
ner, above, a bird of prey, loaded with mangled limbs,
many of which are likewife difperfed in various places.
The oppofite pillar to this reprefents a more peaceable
fcene. In the centre ftands a crowned perfonage in a loofe
robe. On the left is another crowned man, fitting bare-
legged, and fupporting one fide of an angular label, the
other fide of which is held by a winged figure; and on the
right is a fimilar label, held by two fitting figures habited
in mantles. The legend on the firft label is “ Robert-me-
fec' ;’? and that on the fecond, “* Robert tute confule + D.S.”’
Dr. Latham makes the former refer to the battle and con-
fequent peace between king Alfred and Guthrum, the
Danifh chief, who oppofed him; and the latter to the
foundation of the monaftery. The figures of the two kings
he fuppofes to reprefent Edward and Edgar; and the le-
gend to mark the name of the confularius, or mafter mafon
of the buildings. Other capitals in this church are alfo or-
namented with feulptured figures, &c. (See Carter’s
«¢ Ancient Sculpture and Painting,’’ folio.) Some ancient
tomb-ftones commemorate the names of abbefles buried be-
neath ; and there is alfo a flat dtone in remembrance of the
celebrated fir William Petty, author of “ A Treatife on
Taxes and Contributions,” « A Survey of Ireland,’? and
feveral other works, whé died in 1687. He was the fon of
a clothier at Romfey, and ancefter to the prefent marquis
of Landfdown. Another eminent native of this town was
Mr. Giles Jacob, author of Jacob’s Law Didtionary, and of
a work, entitled «* Lives and CharaGters of Englifh Dra-
matic Poets.’’ According to the parliamentary returns of
1811, Romfey parith, including Romfey Infra et Extra,
contained 933 houfes, and 4297 inhabitants.
About half a mile to the fouth-weft of Romfey is Broad-
lands, the feat of lord vifcount Palmeriton, whofe father,
the late lord, purchafed it from the family of St. Barbe,
which had poffeffed it for more than two centuries. The
houfe is embellifhed with a fine colleétion of paintings, by
the moft eminent matters. _ Paultons, a feat of lord vifcount
Mendip, is fituated about three miles to the fouth-eait.
The houfe is not remarkable, but the grounds, which ex-
tend five miles in circumference, difplay the tafte and {kill
of the celebrated Brown. Near this manfion is Tatchbury
7
RON
Mount, which tradition reports to have been the {cite of a
royal hunting feat ; but it appears more probable that it has
been an ancient military itation. The vallations are itill
clearly difcermible on the declivity of the hill. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. vi. 8vo., by John Britton and
E. W. Brayley. Archzologia, vols. xiv. xv.
ROMSOE, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the Great
Belt, near the coaft of Funen. N. lat. 55° 30!._ E. long.
10° 48'.
ROMULEA, in Botany, a name given by Maratti, ig
honour of the founder of Rome, to the Linnzan Jxia
Bulbocodium; which Mr. Ker, in feparating with other
{pecies, from /xia, has thought proper to call Trichonema ;
nor fhall we, by any means, contend for the above, though
the original appellation of this genus. See TricHoNEMA.
ROMULUS, in Biography, founder and firft king of
Rome. See Rome. >
Romutus, in Geography, a military townfhip in the ftate
of New York, in Cayoga county, between Seneca and
Cayoga lakes. Its northern part is crofled by the road to
the ferry at Cayogalake. The townfhip was incorporated
in 1794, and comprehends, within its jurifdiction, the
townfhips of Janus and Galen, and that part of the lands
referved to the Cayoga nation of Indians, W. of Cayoga
lake. Its number of inhabitants is 1025.
ROMUNDA, a mountain of Carinthia; 6 miles S. of
Mautten.
RON, a {mall rocky ifland of Denmark, in the Little Belt.
Nalat..55°7!5 » ESlong..9° 55!-
Ron, Lynder, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Categat ;
12 miles S. from the ifland of Lefoe.
RONA, one of the weftern iflands of Scotland, is fituated
about fixteen leagues N.W. from the Butt of Lewis, and
is fuppofed to lie fartheft to the N.W. of any land in
Europe. It is about a mile in length, and half a mile in
breadth ; and is included in the parifh of Barvas, in the ifle
of Lewis. In this ifland is an ancient chapel, which is
fenced round with a ftone wall, and is kept clean and in
good repair by the inhabitants. On the altar lies a large
plank of wood about ten feet long, having as many holes
in it, each pegged with a itone, to which the natives
afcribe many virtues, particularly the promotion of {fpeedy
delivery to a woman in travail. The produéts of Rona are
a few cows and fheep, and a fmall quantity of barley and
oats. The cultom of walking round a perfon funways, to
whom it is intended to exprefs high efteem, is yet praétifed
by the natives of Rona, all of whom are employed as
fervants by the tackfman of the ifland, which was let on
leafe about fifteen years ago for the annual rent of four
pounds. A Defcription of the Weftern Iflands of Scot-
land, by M. Martin, 1716, 8vo. Carlifle’s Topographi-
cal Dictionary of Scotland, gto. 1813. The Statiitical
Account of Scotland, &c. by fir John Sinclair, bart.
vol. xix. Edin. 8vo. 1797.
RONABEA, in Botany, an unexplained name, Aubl.
Guian. v. 1. 154. t. 59. Juff. 205. Lamarck Iliuftr.
t. 166. This fuppofed genus appears, as Juflieu points out,
fo very near Papert, fee that article, that we cannot-con-
fider them as diftin€&t. Stiil, without examination of f{peci-
mens, we durit not pofitively treat of it under that head.
Aublet defcribes two {pecies, R. /atifolia and ere@a ; fhrubby
plants of Guiana, of no remarkable properties, the firlt
with a twining fem, the other erect. The flowers are
{mall and axillary.
RONALDSAY, Norru, in Geography, the moft
northerly of the Orkney iflands, Scotland, is fo called to
diftinguifh it from South Ronaldfay, the fubject of the next
article, to which, however, it bears no fort of esoebione:
t
RON
It is feparated from the ifle of Sanday by a rapid and dan-
gerous frith, two miles in breadth, and contains an area of
four fquare miles in extent, which fupports about 500 in-
habitants. The whole ifland is flat, and little raifed above
the level of the ocean, which rendered-it peculiarly dan-
gerous to navigators, previous to the ere¢tion of a light-
houfe on its north-eaftern extremity. It is neverthelefs
dry and healthy, and produces both corn and grafs of ex-
cellent quality, and fufficient to fupply the home confump-
tion. ‘The inhabitants are fober, honeft, and induftrious,
beyond the generality of the Orkney iflanders. In winter,
their chief occupation is the care of their cattle and crops, and
fifhing, when the weather will permit their venturing to fea.
In {pring they are employed on the land, as in other places ;
_and when fummer arrives, almoft every individual is actively
engaged in the manufacture of kelp, of which they make
about 120 tons every year. Near the centre of the ifland
is a fingle {tone monument, ten feet high, and four broad,
round which it is cuftomary for the inhabitants to aflemble
annually, on the firft day of January, to ufher in the new
year with the fong and the dance. Tumuli are numerous,
one of which, on being opened, “ was found to contain a
building of nine feet in diameter, circular on the outfide,
and {quare and hollow within, in the bottom of which was
a well, and in the upper part the fkeleton of a man in nearly
an upright attitude.”? Hiftory of the Orkney Iflands, by
the Rev. Dr. Barry; fecond edition, by the Rev. James
Headrick, 4to. Lond. 1808.
Ronatpsay, South, one of the Orkney iflands, Scot-
land, is fituated to the fouthward of the Mainland of Ork-
ney, at the diftance of feven miles from Duncanfby Head, in
Caithnefs. In fuperficial extent it contains about eighteen
{quare miles ; and its inhabitants amounted te 1631 in the
year 1811. The greater part of this ifland is very well cul-
tivated ; and is equally fit for corn and pafture. Of the
former, a larger quantity is raifed than can be confumed at
home, and hence a confiderable exportation takes place to
the Mainland. The bowels of the earth contain lead ore,
of which a very promifing vein has been difcovered at Grim-
nefs Head, and another at Widewall. The fhores abound
with kelp, which is a fource of great wealth to the in-
habitants; and the fea affords fifh in vaft numbers, and of
the beit quality. An Englifh company employs about
twenty veflels in carrying cod-fifh and lob{ters to the Lon-
don market. This ifland is excellently furnifhed with har-
bours: for, befides feveral places where {hips may anchor for
atime, it has the fafe and commodious road of St. Mar-
garet’s Hope on the north, and the bay of Widewall on the
fouth. Here are alfo fome interefting objects of antiquity.
On the fummit of a hill, near Stow’s Head, are the remains
of a monument compofed of three upright ftones, placed in
atriangular form, but only one of them is now ftanding.
Another {tone monument is fituated in the beautiful vale of
Paplay. It confifts of a fingle block of ftone,. fixteen feet
hich, and deftitute of all marks of human art, by which to
difcriminate its ufe. Similar {tones of fmaller dimenfions
may be feen in other parts of the ifland, which likewife
affords a number of tumul, and feveral of thofe buildings
ufually called Pi&s-houfes ; alfo the ruins of fome Catholic
chapels and chantries. Hiftory of the Orkney Iflands.
RKONAY, one of the weftern ifles of Scotland, is fitu-
ated between the Mainland and the Ifle of Skye. It is
about four miles in length, and two in breadth; and has a
more level furface, and greater fertility of foil, than moft
iflands of the Hebrides; but its cultivation is much ne-
gleGted. On the weftern fide of the ifland is an excellent
harbour for fhipping ; and round the coaft the fea has hol-
towed out feveral caves, fome of which afford fine fpecimens
RON
of ftalaGtites. Carlifle’s Topographical Ditionary of Scot-
land, 4to. 1813. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scot-
land, vol. xvi. 8vo.
RONCA. de Scaglia, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Panaro; zo miles S. of Modena.
RONCADOR, aniflandin the Caribbean fea.
13°45'. W.long. 79° 30!.
Roncapor, or Rum Key, one of the fmzller Bahama
iflands. N. lat. 23° 26'. W. long. 75° 3).
RONCAGLIA, Francesco, in Biography, an Italian
opera finger, with a foprano voice, who arrived in England
in 1777 as firft man in our lyric theatre, when Sacchini was
here, and the Danzi, afterwards madame Le Brun, was firft
woman.
Roncaglia had a beautiful face, and elegant figure; a
fweet-toned voice ; a chafte and well-difciplined ftyle of fing-
ing ; hazarded nething, and was always in tune. The beit
part of his voice, which was a foprano, was from D to A ;
he fometimes went to C, but not eafily. Both his voice
and fhake were feeble ; and of the three great requifites of
a complete ftage finger, pathos, grace, and execution,
which the Italians call cantabile, graziofa, and bravura, he
was in perfeét pofleffion of only the fecond. As his voice,
though of an exquifite quality, was by no means power-
ful, and little more than a woce di camera (more fuited toa
room than a {pacious theatre), his finging at concerts, when
confined to the grazio/a ftyle, left nothing for an audience to
with. He was of the Bologna fchool, tormed by Piitocco
and Bernacchi, and reminded his hearers of one of their
beft {cholars, Guarducci.
Roncaglia remained here two feafons, and was fucceeded
by Pacchierotti.
Roncaciia, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Piacenza; 8 miles E. of Piacenza.—Alfo, a
town of the county of Tyrol ; 14 miles N.E. of Trent.
RONCARUOLO, a town in the duchy of Piacenza ;
4miles E.N.E. of Piacenza.
RONCAU, a town of the ifland of Dominica.
RONCEVALLOS, a town of Spain, in Navarre,
fituated in a valley of the fame name, between Pamplona
and St. Jean Pie de Porte. This valley has been celebrated
in romance for the defeat of the emperor Charlemagne, and
the death of Roland; 14 miles N.N.E. of Pamplona.
RONCHAMBS, a town of France, in the department
_of the Upper Saone; 5 miles E. of Eure.
RONCHAUX, a town of France, in the department of
the Doubs ; 3 miles S. of Quingey.
RONCIGLIONE, a town of Italy, and capital of a
county, to which it gives name, in the Patrimonio ; 10 miles
S. of Viterbo. N. lat. 42°. E. long. 12° 8/.
RONCINA, a town of Auttria, in the county of Goritz ;
5 miles N. of Goritz.
RONCO, a town of the Ligurian republic; 15 miles
N. of Genoa.
RONCOFERRATO, a town of Italy, in the depart-
ment of the Mincio; 7 miles E. of Mantua. ;
RONCOFREDDO, a town of Italy, inthe department
of the Rubicon; g miles W. of Rimini.
RONDA, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada,
fituated on afertile fpot, which fupplies Cadiz with all kinds
of fruit and vegetables. The foil, which is of a reddifh co-
lour, abounds with pebbles, and refifts the action of fire; and
it is therefore ufed in furnaces for fufing iron. The adja-
cent country is famous among other curiofities for that {pe-
cies of Viverra, called Genette (fee Viverra) ; and alfo
for wild bulls, wolves, and other ferocious animals: its
rocks ferve alfo as a retreat for eagles, ofpreys, and kites;
miles W. of Malaga. N. lat. 36° 45’. W. long. 5° 15'.
35 4 30° 45 RON DE,
N. lat.
RON
RONDE, or Ruonps, a {mall ifland of the Welt Indies,
near the north coaft of the ifland of Grenada. It has
about 500 acres of excellent land, employed in patturage,
and the cultivation of cotton. «
Ronpe Haye, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Channel; 6 miles N. of Coutances.
Ronpkg, Fr., in Mujfic, afemibreve. See TiME-TABLE,
. and Mufical CHARACTERS.
Ronpe de Table, Fr. a kind of chan/on a boire, or drinking
fong, with a refrain, or burden to it, and generally mixed
with fentiments of gallantry, compofed of different ftanzas,
which are fung by turns at table, and in which all the guefts
join chorus in the refrain.
RONDEAU, Fr., an air of two or more: ftrains, al-
ways returning to, and finifhing with the firft. In order to
do this in an artful, pleafing manner, the modulation fhould
pafs into fome key relative to that of the firft ftrain.
Rouffeau has very juitly cenfured the writing and fetting
vocal rondeaus, in which the thought is begun in one ftrain,
and continued or ended in another; or begins with a fimile,
of which the application is made in the fecond ftrain.
The term rondeau, derived from rondel, is of great anti-
quity in France. In old Englifh it was called a roundelay.
But Roufleau, after pointing out poetical and mufical de-
feéts in the compofition of rondeaux, indicates the means of
avoiding both. ‘* Whenever a fentiment, exprefled in the
firft ftrain, fuggeitS a reflexion which confirms and enforces
it in the fecond ; whenever a defcription of the finger’s ftate
of mind is the fubjeét of the firft ftrain, and illuftrates a
fimile in the fecond; whenever an affirmation in the firit
ftrain, contains its proof and confirmation in the fecond ;
every time, in fhort, that the firft {train contains a propofi-
tion to perform fome ation, and a reafon for it is given in
the fecond ; in thefe, and fimilar cafes, a rondeau will be al-
ways well placed.’’
RONDEL, in Fortification, a round tower, fometimes
erected at the foot of a baition.
RONDELETIA, in Botany, was fo named by Plumier,
in memory of William Rondelet, a phyfician of Montpel-
lier, who died chancellor of that univerfity in 1566, aged
fifty-nine. He is moft celebrated for his work on Fithes ;
but his ftudies were much direéted to Botany, fo far as con-
cerned the Materia Medica ; and he is faid to have deeply
inveftigated the writings of Diofcorides. —Plum. Gen. 15.
t. 12. Linn. Gen. go. Schreb. 120. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1.930. Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1.
366. Swartz Obf. 66. t. 10. f. 2. Juff. 201. Lamarck
Tiluitr. t. 162. (Lightfootia; Schreb. 122.)—Clafs and
order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellate, Linn.
Rubiaceae, Tull.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, fuperior, in five deep,
“acute, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-
fhaped; tube cylindrical, longer than the calyx, very
flightly inflated at the fummit; limb flat, fomewhat re-
flexed, in five deep roundifh fegments. Nectary a crenate
ring in the orifice. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, in-
ferted into the middle of the tube; anthers fimple. Pi/.
Germen roundifh, inferior; ftyle thread-fhaped, as long as
the corolla; ftigma cloven. eric. Capfule roundifh,
crowned with the calyx, of two cells. Seeds two or more
in each cell, rarely folitary.
Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, neétariferous at the mouth.
Capfule of two cells, with feveral feeds, roundifh, inferior,
crowned with the calyx.
A genus of Weft Indian, fimple and entire-leaved, fhrubs,
to which the difcoveries of Swartz have added feveral {pe-
cies. Three only are mentioned in the Hortus Kewenfis,
Vou. XXX.
RON
or are any of themin general cultivation; though fome pof..
fefs fragrance as well as elegance. ‘Two have Faun clefe te-
trandrous flowers. Juffieu terms the fruit a berry, which
feems incorrect. Rondeletia afiatica, Linn. Sp. Pl. 244, is
perhaps an /xora, or Pavetta. ‘
1. R. americana. Corymbofe Rondeletia. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 243. Willd. vn. 1, Ait. n. 1. (R. arborefcens, tini
facie; Plum. ic. 237. t. 242. f. 1.)——Leaves elliptic-lan-
ceolate, acute. Panicles repeatedly forked, on long ftalks,
rifing above the ftem.—Native of the Welt Indies. Cul-
tivated by Miller, before the year1752. Mr. Aiton fays it
flowers in the ftove in Anguft. We have feen no {pecimen,
neither had Linneus. His defcription is taken from Plu-
mier’s figure, 2s follows. “ A /brub, with oppofite, feffile,
lanceolate /eaves. Common flower-flalks folitary, very long,
naked, forming. at the top a forked corymbus, in each of
whofe fubdivilions is a feflile fower, with a two-leaved in-
volucrum ;”? more properly a pair of bradeas. The flowers
are very numerous, about an inch long. Leaves not quite
feffile, fomewhat deflexed, entire, two or three inches long,
and one or one and a half broad.
2. R. odorata. Fragrant Rondeletia. Jacq. Amer. 59.
t. 42. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1671. Willd. n. 2. Swartz Obf.
67. (R. obovata, by an error of tranfcription ; Linn.
Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v, 2. 163.)—Leaves ovate, bluntith,
rough ; fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe ; on fhort {talks.
Flower-ftalks cymofe, three-cleft, terminal. Native of the
Welt Indies, but rare. Swartz. Jacquin found it in rocky
places, near the fea, at the Havannah, bearing flowers, as
well as ripe feeds, in January. The habit of this /brub is
inelegant and ftraggling ; its height fix feet; the young
Jeoots villous. Flowers in terminal tufts, each tuft about
two inches broad ; their fmell very fweet, refembling vie-
lets. The corolla has often fix fegments, though the /a-
mens are never more than five ; its colour is vermilion, with
an orange ne¢tariferous ring.
3. R. Airta. Hairy Rondeletia. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1.
v. I. 227. ed. 2. n. 3. Willd. n. 13. Swartz Ind. Occ.
v. I. 373-—Leaves oblong, pointed, hairy, rigid ; ribbed
beneath. Flower-{talks axillary, three-forked, ere&t.—Na-
tive of Jamaica, from whence it was imported about the
year 1776, by John Blackburne, efq. of Orford, Lanca-
fhire. It blooms in the ftove in fummer. This is faid in
Hort. Kew. to be very nearly akin to R. odorata, differing
merely in its axillary inflorefcence ; larger, more acute, /eaves,
not rough on their upper furface, nor fcarcely heart-fhaped
at the bafe ; and longer footfalks. "The tube of the corolla
is but twice the length of the calyx. Style prominent be-
yond the mouth. Stigmas ere€t, converging. Corolla red-
difh-yellow. Swartz fays there are only two feeds perfe&ted,
of a hemifpherical figure, and that the foot/a/ks are fhort
and hairy. His defcription agrees in other refpeéts with
Mr. Aiton’s.
4. R. levigata. Smooth-leaved Rondeletia. Ait. n. 2.
—Leaves ftalked, elliptical, acute, very {mooth, except the
rib underneath. Stipulas elliptical, membranous, fmooth,
Panicles three-forked, axillary, fomewhat hairy.—Native of
the Welt Indies, flowering in our ftoves in {pring or fummer.
It was introduced, in 1790, by Mr. William Anderfon.
The femis fhrubby, {preading, with forked round branches,
flightly hairy when young. Leaves two or three inches
long, acute at eachend, rather flefhy ; very {mooth above ;
paler beneath, with a reddifh, fometimes hairy, rib and
veins. Stipulas very large, elliptical, obtufe, reddifh.
Flowers reddifh, fmall, their tube fcarcely longer than the
limb. Bafe of the calyx clothed with long hairs,
5. R. ¢rifoliata. Three-leaved Ronddletin Linn. +
3Q lL
RONDELETIA.
PL 1671. Willd. n. 3. (R. trifolia; Jacq. Amer. 60.
t. 43. ‘R. arborefcens, tini facie ; Ehret Pitt. t. 15.”?)—
Leaves on long hairy ftalks, whorled, lanceolate, acute ;
fomewhat downy beneath. Stipulas pointed. Panicles
axillary, compound, hairy.—Native of Jamaica, flowering
in February.x—An upright tree, twelve feet high. Young
branches -obtufely triangular, hairy. Leaves three in a
whorl, lanceolate, acute, entire, three inches long ; fmooth
above; flightly downy beneath; with hairy foot/alks.
Stipulas roundifh, pointed, ternate, alternate with the leaves.
Clufters axillary, one inch and a half or more in length,
hairy, unequal, branched. lowers odorous, fmall, red-
dith, feffile or ftalked. Fruit not examined. Jacquin.—On
comparing Browne’s fpecimen of his Petéfia, t. 2. f. 3,
with Jacquin’s plate and defcription of this Rondeletia, we
are perfuaded they mutt be the fame thing. Confequently
the Jxora americana of Linneus, an ambiguous and obfcure
plant, ought to be expunged, and referred hither. (See
dxora, n. 13.) Swartz quotes this fynonym of Browne
for his racemofa, (fee the following) ; but a comparifon of
fpecimens fhews them to be dittinét, though very nearly
akin.
6. R. racemofa. Smooth Racemofe Rondeletia. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. 1. 360. Willd. n. 7, excluding Browne’s
fynonym.—Leaves on long {mooth ftalks, ovato-lanceolate,
pointed, fmooth on both fides. Stipulas abrupt, pointed.
Clufters axillary, three-forked, fpreading, {mooth.—Native
of uncultivated hills in Jamaica. Like the laft in habit,
but the /eaves are oppofite, more coriaceous, and quite
fmooth, as well as the footfalks and flower-/lalks. ‘The
Aipulas ave fringed, like the éradeas and calyx. Corolla ex-
ternally finely downy, as in Browne’s fpecimen juft alluded
to under R. trifoliata.
7. R. virgata. Long-branched Rondeletia. Swartz Ind.
Oce. 354. Willd. n. 4.—* Leaves heart-fhaped, roundifh.
Branches fpreading, thread-fhaped. Flower-{talks three-
cleft. Flowers three together, crowded. Stamens four.’?—
Gathered by Swartz in bufhy places, near the fea, in the
northern part of Hifpaniola, flowering and fruiting in
December.—A. /brub about fix feet high, with very long,
fpreading, alternate, rough-barked twigs. Leaves half
an inch long, on fhort /lalks, fomewhat reflexed, very
fmooth. Stipulas minute, acute. Flower-flalks axillary and
terminal, oppofite, elongated and ere¢t, refembling branches,
and often bearing a pair or two of leaves, three-cleft ; the
terminal ones leaflefs, and bearing but three flowers. Flowers
terminal, brownifh-purple, filky at the outfide; four-cleft,
with four very fhort /famens. Seeds feveral, minute, com-
prefled.
8. R. pilofa. Hoary Rondeletia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
v. 1. 356. Willd. n. 5. (R. triflora; Vahl. Symb. v. 3.
34. t..54.)—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, hairy on both fides.
Flower-{talks axillary, fhorter than the leaves, three-flowered.
ftamens four.—Native of the Weit India iflands, of Santa
Cruz, and Montferrat. A /brub, whofe young branches,
leaves, flalks, calyx, and outlide of the corolla, are clothed
with fine, foft, hoary pubefcence. Leaves on {till more
hairy footfalks, elliptic-lanceolate, with a {mall acute point,
two or three inches long, ribbed; paler, or glaucous, beneath.
Flower-flalks oppofite, axillary, rather fhorter than the
leaves, hairy, each bearing three fowers, of which the middle-
molt has the fhorteft partial ftalk. Bradeas, and fegments
of the calyx, long, awl-fhaped. Corolla four-cleft ; fome-
what downy within, but moft without. We have no ac-
eount of the colour, as Swartz feems not to have gathered
this fpecies himfelf. The dried flowers are brown, with
fome indication of a tawny hue.
9. R. thyrfoidea. Tufted Rondeletia, Swartz Ind. Occ.
v. 1. 358. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves oblong, acute, membra-
nous; downy beneath. Stipulas ovate, acute, fmooth. Cluf-
ters axillary, denfe, many-flowered.—Native of dry barren
hills, in the wettern part of Jamaica, flowering in May. A
{mooth, branching /brul, fix feet high, with long, {preading,
bluntly quadrangular twigs. Leaves three inches long, acute
at each end, ribbed, veiny ; {mooth above. Footftalks an
inch long, ftriated. Stipulas clofe-prefled, broad, ovate, acute,
fmooth, rigid. Cluffers denfe, oblong, fhorter than the
leaves, on {mooth ftalks, their branches oppofite, crofling
each other, fubdivided; the laft ufually three-flowered.
Flowers {mall, yellowifh-white, or rufty-coloured, highly
fragrant at night. Bradeas minute, awl-fhaped. Calya:
very minute, five-toothed. Corolla five-cleft, with five
framens. Seeds two in each cell, rounded, fomewhat angular,
ftriated.
10. R. Jaurifolia. Laurel-leaved Rondeletia. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. 1. 363. Willd. n. 8, excluding Browne’s
fynonym.—* Leaves lanceolate-oblong, acute, {mooth on
both fides. Stipulas deltoid. Clutters axillary, compound,
ere&t. Tube of the corolla very fhort.’’—Grows in bufhy
places in Jamaica.— Branches round, {mooth. Leaves laurel.
like, three or four inches long, ribbed, veiny; paler be-
neath. Foot/falks an inch long, {mooth, flat on the upper
fide. Stipulas broad, combined, deltoid, poimted, fpreading,
rigid, downy at the edge. Cluflers often as long as the
leaves, compound, their ultimate divifions moftly three-
flowered. Braéieas very minute. Flowers {mall, brownifh-
yellow, five-cleft. Seeds in an early ftate numerous, mem-
branous, but two only arrive at maturity, which are hemi-
{pherical.—We cannct but diflent from our learned friend
profeflor Swartz, in his citation of Browne’s t. 2. f. 2,
and confequent remarks. ‘That plate certainly reprefents
the Petefia flipularis of Linneus, which was defcribed from
Browne’s own {pecimen, and the /aves are, on both fides,
finely downy, though no fuch charaéter is exprefled in the
engraving. Lhe inflorefcence is thyrfoid, and not half fo
long as the leaves. See the next fpecies.
11. R. tomentofa. Downy-leaved Rondeletia. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. 1. 365. Willd. n. 9. (Petefia ftipularis ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 160. P. fruticofa, foliis ovatis oppofitis,
&c.; Browne Jam. 143. t. 2. f. 2.)—Leaves elliptic-lan-
ceolate, pointed, downy. Flower-ftalks three-forked, axil-
lary, much fhorter than the leaves.—Native of ftony hills
in Jamaica, near the fhady road called Sixteen-mile walk,
not far from Spanifhtown. Swartz. A fpecimen from
the author fhews this to be precifely the above plant of
Linnzus and Browne, as Swartz fufpeéted. We refer the
reader to Prresia for its defcription, and for remarks on
the uncertainty of that genus, which perhaps muit here-
after be funk in Rondeletia.
12. R. wmbellulata. Umbellate Rondeletia. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. 1. 367. Willd. n. 10.—Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, acute, fomewhat hairy. Stipulas ovate,. pointed,
membranous, hairy. Flower-italks axillary, three-forked.
Flowers fomewhat umbellate.—Native of rocky banks of
rivers in Jamaica, flowering in April. Swartz. That
author fufpe@s his plant may be the fame with Browne’s
third Petefia, which we have adopted by the name of villo/a,
n. 4. This may poflibly be the cafe; but having no
f{pecimen of what Browne intended, we cannot determine the
point. Swartz’s plant, communicated by himfelf, is a
branching upright fhrub, two feet or more in height ; the
branches {mooth, fomewhat comprefled ; hairy and leafy at
the fummit. Leaves about three inches long, clothed with
fhort fcattered hairs, and {upported by hairy /fa/és, halt
aim
RON
an inch in length. Svipulas large, concave, moft hairy
within, with a taper reflexed point. Flower-flalks not half
the length of the leaves. Flowers colleéted into a fort of
roundhead. Bra&eas, and fegments of the calyx, lanceolate,
hairy. Corolla larger than in fome of the foregoing,
brownith-yellow. ‘Two /eeds are perfected in each cell.
13. R. incana. Silvery-cupped Rondeletia. Swartz Ind.
Occ. v. 1. 369. Willd. n. 11.—Leaves ovato-lanceolate ;
rough and hoary beneath. Stalks axillary, fimple, three-
flowered. Segments of the calyx ovate, filky on both
fides.—Found by profeffor Swartz, from whom we have a
fpecimen, on calcareous rocky mountains of Jamaica, but
rarely. A /hrub, two or three feet high, with round, rigid,
rough branches. Leaves about the extremities of the branches,
three inches long, fomewhat coriaceous ; {mooth and fhining
above; palifh and hairy or downy beneath, with a pro-
minent hairy rib and veins. Footfta/és ftout, filky, three-
quarters of an inch long. Stipulas very fhort, fringed.
Llower-flalks axillary, oppofite, twice the length of the
footitalks, filky, each bearing three large, nearly feflile,
flowers, whofe globular germen, and large ovate fegments
of the calyx, are entirely clothed with long, denfe, filky
hairs ; as are alfo the lanceolate draéeas.
14. R. hirfuta. Rough Rondeletia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
v. 1.371. Willd. n. 12.— Leaves oblong, acute, hairy.
Stalks axillary, three-forked, lax. Flowers hairy.’?—Na-
tive of bufhy hills, in the fouth part of Jamaica, bloffom-
ing in January. A /brud fix feet high, with a fmooth
Jfem, and rough, lax, flightly comprefled branches. Leaves
on fhort, hairy, reddifh ftelks, oblong, broadifh in the
middle, ribbed, veiny, hairy on both fides, pale beneath.
Stipulas broad, ovato-lanceolate, long and hairy. Flower-
ftalks oppolite, flender, about the length of the leaves, twice
three-cleft, lax, hairy. Flowers ftalked, yellowifh, exter-
nally hairy. Braéeas minute, linear, acute, hairy. Differs
from hirta, n. 3, in having lefs rigid /eaves, with lax, not
tiff, branches and flower-/lalks. Swartz. We have feen no
authentic {pecimen ; for one marked hir/futa, by the younger
Linnezus in his herbarium, feems rather to be Swartz’s
hirta. The defcriptions of thefe two {pecies are not at all
well contrafted.
The divifion of this genus into two feétions, by the
number of the feeds, is better omitted, as it feparates {pecies
moit nearly akin, and is befides very uncertain. All have
the rudiments of feveral feeds in each cell of the germen,
though a greater or lefs number is perfeéted in fome than
in others, or rather perhaps, according to circumttances, in
the fame.
RonDELETIA, in Gardening, contains plants of the woody,
exotic, ftove kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the
American rondeletia (R. americana). ;
Method of Culture—TYhis plant may be increafed by
fowing the feeds on a moderate hot-bed in the early f{pring,
and when the plants have attained a little growth they
fhould be removed into feparate pots, being plunged in the
bark-bed of the ftove, where they are to remain and be
managed as other tender exotic plants of a fimilar kind.
They afford variety in ftove colleétions.
RONDENCHE, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Riga; 28 miles S.W. of Narva.
RONDERO Bay, a bay on the N.E. coat of Antigua.
N. lat. 17° 15’. W. long. 61° 26'.
RONDINE, in Jchthyology, a name by which fome
authors have called the mi/vus, or flying-fifh.
Ronpine Pefce, a name by which fome have called
i hirundo pifcts, or {wallow-fith, called by others mugil
aus.
RON
RONE, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of
Scotland. N. lat. 58° 26’. W. long. 4° 55'.
RONEBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ble-
kingen; 10 miles W. of Carlfcrona.
RONES, acape on the W. coaft of the ifland of Jerfey ;
6 miles N.N.W. of St. Helice.
RONGOS, or Poncos, trumpets, or rather French
horns, of the kingdom of Loango, in Africa. Thefe in-
{truments are made of ivory, and refemble hunting-horns of
the ancients: their wideft diameter at the mouth is an inch
and a half, or two inches; they are of various kinds, and
probably ferre for treble and bafe to each other. It
is pretended, that many rongos united produce a very har-
monious effe&t. (Supplement to the folio Encyclopédie.)
The editor of the article forgot that, out of Europe, treble
and bafe performing together, except in o€taves, is unknown,
and that harmonious effects can be no otherwife produced.
RONNE, in Geography, a river of France, which rifes
about a league N. of Leuze, and runs into the Scheldt, be-
tween Tournay and Oudenarde.
Ronne, or Ronde, a fea-port town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Bornholm, the refidence of the governor. The
harbour is not deep, but well fortified.
RONNEBURG, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Altenburg ; 12 miles S.W. of Altenburg. N. lat. 50°
48!. E. long. 12° 5!.
RONNEBY. See Rornesy.
RONNEN, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the N.W.
coaft of the ifland of Laland. N. lat. 56° 5’. E. long.
> TI tr
RONNSKAR, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 3'. E. long. 18° 24'.—Alfo,
a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the fame gulf. N. lat. 63°
29'. E. long. 22° 2!.
RONO, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 5’. E. long. 18° 24!.
RONOBO, a river of the ifland ef Celebes, which runs
into Sewa bay, N. lat. 1° 33’. E. long. 120° 46’.
RONOUMENA, a river of Madagafcar, which runs
into the fea at Port St. James.
RONSARD, Perer pe, in Biography, a French poet of
confiderable celebrity, was born in the year 1524, of a
noble family, in the Vendomois. He was educated at the
college of Navarre in Paris; but he quitted his ftudies at
an early age, and entered into the fervice of the duke of
Orleans. From the fervice of this prince he was transferred
to that of James V. of Scotland, who had married Mag-
dalen of France. With this fovereign he paffed two years,
partly in Scotland, and partly in England; and then return-
ing to France, was again taken into the employment of the
duke of Orleans. He accompanied Lazare du Baif to
the diet of Spire, who infpired him with fuch a tafte for
the belles Iettres, that he applied himfelf with affiduity to
the Greek language. He at length entirely devoted him-
felf to poetry, by which he obtained the title of the prince
of the poets of his time. He obtained the firft prize at the
floral games of Touloufe, and the ordinary recompence
being thought unequal to his merit, he was prefented by the
city with a Minerva of maily filver. He was patronized
by five fucceflive kings of France, efpecially Charles 1X.,
who maintained a poetical correfpondence with him. Mary,
queen of Scots, who greatly efteemed him, made him a
rich prefent. He had fome benefices conferred upon him,
though he was not in prieft’s orders ; and he difplayed great
zeal in oppofing thofe of the reformed religion, againft
whom he fought, in 1562, at the head of the Vendomois.
-Like many religious zealots, he made his faith ftand in-
3Q2 flead
ROO
ftead of morals, being deeply addifted to licentious plea-
fures, by which he brought on a premature old age. In
the latter years of his life he was a penitent, and felt deep
contrition for the licentioufnefs of his mufe at an earlier
period, and refolved for the future to confine himfelf to
facred fubjects. He died in 1585, at the age of 61, and
his memory was honoured by eulogies from many of the
literary charaéters of the time. The compofitions of Ron-
fard were odes, eclogues, epigrams, fonnets, hymns, and a
poem, entitled “ La Franciade.’? Ronfard had a very
bad tafte, which rendered him pedantic, and often obfcure ;
but he poffefled many excellent qualities as a poet, having
warmth of temper, a vivid imagination, and great quick-
nefs of invention. Very few of his works remain; but
three of the beft have frequently been reprinted, wiz. “ La
Promeffe,”? «* Hymne a 1|’Eternité,’? and “ Les Quatre
Saifons de ’ Année.’
Ronfard was praifed by all the poets of his time, and
fill merits a part of their encomiums. Scaliger dedicated
to him a work, as the firft poet in France. He was hand-
fome in perfon, well made, loved mufic paffionately, fung
agreeably, and was very liberal He had a public and
magnificent funeral ; the fervice was fet in florid or figurative
counterpoint, animated by all kinds of inftruments : it was
fung by the children of the chapel-royal by order of the
king, who regretted extremely the death of fo eminent a
perfonage, the ornament of his kingdom. After his inter-
ment, Duperon pronounced his funeral oration. All that
were great and illuftrious at court and in the city attended ;
and the crowd was fo ereat, that cardinal Bourbon, and
many other princes and nobles, were obliged to return
without being able to gain admiflion into the chapel of the
college of Boncourt at Paris.
RONSBERG, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Pilfen ; 8 miles W. of Teinitz.
RONSDORYF, or Ruernsporr, a town of the duchy
of Berg ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Dufleldorf.
RONSE. See Renay.
RONSEL, a town of Germany, in fhe county of
Mentz; 7 miles S.W. of Lunfchede.
RONSENAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Charente; 18 miles E. of Angoulefme.
ROO, in Agriculture, a provincial term fignifying rough
or coarfe, in the way of paftures, or the crops on other forts
of land.
ROOAC, in Rural Economy, a provincial word ufed to
fignify a fog or mift. See Roax.
ROOAH, in Geography. See Rewau.
ROOAHOAGA. See Riov’s J/land.
ROOD, a quantity of land, equal to the fourth part of
an acre; and containing 40 fquare perches, or poles.
This is the ftatute rood by which land is ufually at pre-
fent meafured; but there are local meafures in many dif-
tris, in which both the rood and acre are confiderably
larger. See Measures.
In Scotland, the rood contains 40 fquare falls. See
Fate.
ROODAUN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude; 22 miles N.W. of Allahabad.
ROODE, or WaAveEREN, an extenfive tranfmontane di-
vifion of the diftri€&t of Stellenbofch and Drakenttein, in
Southern Africa, in the Cape diftri&, lying behind the
mountains of Drakenftein, and producing abundance of
grain, pulfe, fruits, and wine. The pafs of Roode Sand
is the only waggon-road in this divifion, and is diftant from
Cape town about 70 miles. In this divifion there is a {mall
‘seat church, anda very comfortable parfonage-houfe, with
ROO
extenfive vineyards, orchards, garden, and arable land; and
contiguous to the church is a row of houfes, the number of
which has lately increafed.
ROODLOFT, the gallery over the entrance into the
choir, in our ancient cathedral and abbey churches; in the
front of which, looking towards the weft window, a large
rood, or crucifix, was ufually placed.
ROOE, Lirrrs, in Geography, a {mall ifland among
the Shetlands. N. lat. 60° 43’. W. long. 1° 35/.
ROOF, in Architedure, is that part of a building gene-
rally confifting of two floping fides, which proteéts its con-
tents or inhabitants from inclement feafons or weather.
The flope of the roof mutt be direéted by the nature of
the climate. The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Per-
fians, as well as other Eaftern nations, made their roofs
quite flat. The Greeks, it would appear, were the firft
people who made roofs with a declination each way from the
middle to the edges; and this was very gentle, the height
from the ridge to the level of the walls not exceeding one-
ninth or one-eighth part of the fpan, as may be feen by
many ancient temples now remaining. But in northern cli-
mates, fubjeét to rain and fnow, the height of the ridge
muft be very confiderable. In moft old buildings in Bri-
tain, the equilateral triangle feems to have been confidered
as the ftandard, both in private and public edifices; and
this pitch feems to have continued for feveral centuries,
until the extinétion of Gothic archite&ture. At the com-
mencement of this period, the ridge was made fomewhat
lower, and the rafters were three-fourths of the breadth of
the building. ‘This was called the true pitch, and fubfe-
quently the fquare feems to have been confidered as the true
pitch. The heights of roofs were gradually depreffed from
the fquare to one-third of the width, and from that to a
fourth, which now feems to be a very general ftandard.
They have even been executed much lower. There are
fome advantages in high pitched roofs: they difcharge the
rain with greater rapidity, the {now continues to le a much
fhorter time on the furface, and they are lefs liable to be
flripped by heavy winds. Low roofs require large flates,
and the utmott care in execution; but they have this ad-
vautage, that they are much cheaper, fince they require
fhorter timbers, and of a much {maller fcantling. ‘The
roof is one of the principal ties to a building, when exe-
cuted with judgment: it binds the exterior walls to the in-
terior, and to the partitions, which act like ftrong counter-
forts againft them.
Roofs are of various forms, which depend on the nature
of the plan, the law of the horizontal and vertical fe¢tions.
The moft fimple form of a reof is that which has only one
row of timbers, arranged in an inclined plane, which throws
the rain entirely to one fide. This form is called a fhed-roof,
or lean-too. But the moft elegant roof for a reétangular
building is that which confifts of two retangular planes, of
equal breadth, equally inclined to, and terminating in a line
parallel to, the horizon; and confequently the form of the
roof is that of a triangular prifm, each fide being equally
inclined to the plane of the wall-head. This form of roof
is fometimes called a pent-roof.
When the form of the plan is that of a trapezium, and
the wall-heads properly levelled, the roof cannot be exe-
cuted on planes, fo as to terminate ina level ridge. In this
cafe, the fides, inftead of being planes, are made to wind, ©
in order to have the fummit parallel to the horizon; but the
mott eligible method is to make the fides-of the roof re€tan-
gular planes, inclofing a level fpace, or flat, in the form of
a triangle or trapezium, at the fummit of the roof.
Roots, which are flat on the top, are faid to be truncated.
7 Truncated
ROOF.
Truncated roofs are chiefly employed in order to diminifh
the height, fo as not to predominate over that of the
walls.
When all the four fides of the roof are formed by inclined
planes, the roof is faid to be hiped, and is, therefore, called
a hiped roof: the inclined ridges, which {pring from the
angles of the walls, are called the hips. Roofs of this de-
{cription are frequently truncated ; and when the plan of
the walls is in the form of a trapezium, the truncation of
the roof becomes neceflary.
» Roofs which ftand upon circular bafes, and which have
all their horizontal feGtions circular, and the centres of the
circles in a ftraight line drawn from the centre of the bafe
perpendicular to the horizon, are called revolved roofs.
When the plan of the roof is a regular polygon, or a
circle, or an ellipfe, and the horizontal fe&tions are all
fimilar to the bafe, and a vertical fe€tion a portion of any
curve convex on the outfide, the roof is called a dome.
In order to fave the expence of lead in re€tangular roofs,
inftead of the flat, a valley is fometimes ufed, which makes
the vertical fetion in the form of the letter M, or rather an
inverted W ; and thus it is that this form of roof has ob-
tained the name of an M roof.
‘Before we proceed to the conftru€tion of roofing, it will
be neceflary to fhew upon what principles a body or piece
of timber may be fupported in various pofitions.
Theory and PraGice of Roofs.
Prop. I.
If a heavy body ABCD (Plate XLII. fg. 3. Archi-
tedure,) be fufpended by any two inclined flrings, D E and
CF, in avertical plane, a right line drawn through the in-
terfection, perpendicular to the horizon, will pafs through
the centre of gravity of the body.
It is fhewn by the writers on mechanics, that if any three
forces at upon a point, or a body, their direCtions will tend
to the fame point, or be parallel to each other. It is well
known that every body aéts with its full force in one point
only, viz. in its centre of gravity, and in a direétion per-
pendicular to the horizon: therefore, if a body is fuftained
at E and F, it will revolve round thefe points, until the
line GH, pafling through the interfeGion, H, of the two
firings, D E and C F, and the centre of gravity G, become
perpendicular to the horizon.
Cor. 1.—Hence if any body be fupported by two itrings,
it may alfo be fupported by two planes perpendicular to
thefe itrings, provided that the two points of the body fup-
ported are in the direétion of the ftrings; for every body,
‘ating upon a plane, ads in a line perpendicular to that
lane.
Cor. 2.—Hence, alfo, a body may be fupported by two
props in any two direGions that may be fupported by
itrings, provided that the furface of the body, at the points
of contact, or the ends of the props, be planes at right angles
to the ftrings.
Cor. 3.—Hence all the properties that have been demon-
ftrated agree forces a€ting upon a body, fuppofed void of
weight, will equally flow fom a heavy body tupported by
two ftrings, by fubitituting the weight of the body for the
middle force ; and hence, if the diretion of any force fup-
pets a heavy body be given, the other may eafily be
und.
Prop. II.
Given the pofition in which a body fhould be placed,
and the pofition of a plane fupporting the body at one end,
to find the pofition of another plane to fupport it at another
given point, and to find the preffure on the planes, the
weight of the body being given.
Through the centre of gravity of the body draw a ver-
tical line, and through any point on which the body refts
on the given plane draw a line perpendicular to that plane,
meeting tke vertical line; from the interfeGtion draw a line
to the other point which is to be fupported; from that
point draw a plane at right angles to this line, which will
be the direétion of the plane required. And to find the. in-
tenfity of the forces, take any diftance on the vertical line
to reprefent the weight of the beam from the interfeGtion;
then on that line, as a diagonal, complete a parallelogram,
whofe fides are in the direétions of the lines, perpendicular
to the fupporting planes ; and the fide of the parallelogram,
perpendicular to either plane, will reprefent the force on
that plane.
Example 1. Plate XLII. fig. 2.
Let the body ABCD lie upon the top of the walf
KC, at C, fo as to touch the lower edge, BC, of the
body, at that point C ; it is required to find the dire@tion
of a plane that will fupport the lower end at B, and to find
the preflure of the body on the wall and on the plane.
Through the centre of gravity, G, of the body draw
the vertical line GF; draw C F perpendicular to CB,
join FB, and draw BI perpendicular to F B, and BI is
the direction of the plane required. On the vertical line
GF, make FM to reprefent the weight of the body, and
complete the parallelogram LMNF; then FN reprefents
the force on the wall-head, in the direG@tion FC; and FL
the force acting perpendicular to the plane, or in the direc-
tion BF. But if the vertical and horizontal thruits on the
wall at C are required, draw NP perpendicular to FG,
meeting it in P; then the force FN is refolved into two
forces, F P and PN. PN reprefents the horizontal part
of the force, viz. that which pufhes the wall in a direétion
parallel to the horizon; and FP the other part, which
tends to prefs it downwards in a diretion perpendicular to
the horizon.
Example 2. Fig. 1.
Let the floping body, A BCD, be fupported by a wall
at its lower end, D, which coincides with the furface of the
body, and let G be the centre of gravity ; it is required to
cut anotch out of the body, at the upper end C, fo that it
may re{t upen the top of a wall, which is made to fit the
notch, and to find the preffure on the walls.
Draw the vertical line GE, from D draw DE per-
pendicular to DC, join EC, and make CF at right
angles to it; then the notch, HC F, being cut, the body,
ABCD, will be at reft. Then to find the preflure on
the walls, complete the parallelogram EI KL, having a
given angle D EC, and its diagonal on the given line EG.
Then if KE reprefent the weight of the body, IE will
reprefent the preffure in the direction D E, upon the wall
at D, and LD the preffure in the dire@tion CE. 'The
horizontal and perpendicular preflures upon each wall may
be found, as in the preceding example, by refolving each
of the forces, IE and LE, into two; one of which is
perpendicular to the horizon, and the other parallel to it.
Scholium.—It muft be obferved in this example, that the
notch, which is cut out at C, will remove the centre of
gravity nearer to the lower end D, and coafequently alter
the flope CI’; but as this can only be in a very fimall de-
gree, the equilibrium will hardly be affeéted by it, when
the notch is very {mall
Example
ROOF.
Example 3. Fig. 6.
Let one of the corners of a floping body, ABCD, reft
upon the top of a wall at D, which is quite level; it is re-
quired to find the pofition of anotch, cut out of the upper
end C, fo that the body may reft upon a wall made to fit
the notch.
Let the {mall part, FC H, be fo cut, that CH may
be parallel to the horizon, then the body will be fup-
ported by the two walls at C and D. For draw DJ,
GK, and CL, perpendicular to the horizon, then thefe
lines being produced, they may be fuppofed to meet at
an infinite diftance. To find the preffure on the walls:
join DC, and produce the vertical line KG to meet it
in E; then if G be fuppofed to be the weight of the body,
the preflure on D will be = & and the preffure
one, DE x G 2
Dery
Example 4. Fig. 5.
Let the body ABCD lie with its upper end againit
the vertical face of a wall at C; it is required to find the
pofition of a plane fupporting the lower end D, fo that the
body may be at rett.
Draw the vertical line GE, and CE, perpendicular to
the face of the wall CL; join ED, and draw DF per-
pendicular to ED, then D F is the pofition of the plane
required. Complete the parallelogram E HI K; then the
prefflure on D, and on C, and the weight of the body, are
to one another as EH, EK, ETI.
Example 5. Fig. 4.
To fupport a body ABCD by two props at two
given points, E and I, the dire€tion of one of the props,
EF, being given.
Draw the vertical line GK, produce FE to K, and
draw K IH; and IH is the prop required. On the ver-
tical line G K, take KM to reprefent the weight of the
body ; and on KM, asa diagonal, defcribe the parallelo-
gram K LMN;; then K L is the compreffion of the prop
EF, and KN the compreffion of the prop I H.
In order to be underftood by the reader, it will be necef-
fary to explain fuch terms as are ufed in the fubfequent part
of the article, by way of definitions.
Wall-plates are pieces of timber laid on the wall, in order
to diftribute the preflure of the roof equally, and to bind
the walls together. Thefe are fometimes called raifing-
plates.
Truffés are trong frames of carpentry, generally of a tri-
angular form, fupporting the covering, They are difpofed
at equal diftances, and are ufed when the expantion of the
walls is too great to admit of common rafters alone, which
would be in danger of being bent or broken by the weight
of the covering, for the want of fome intermediate fupport.
They are varioufly conftruéted, according to the width of
the building, the contour of the roof, and the circumftances
of walling below, &c.
Tie is any piece of timber conneted at its extremities to
two others, acted upon by oppofite prefures, which have
a tendency from each other; or to extend the tie, as rope
or chain,
Straining-piece is any piece of timber, connected at its ex-
fremities to two others, aéted upon by oppolite prefiures,
which have a tendency towards each other.
Hence a tie aéts contrary to a ttraining-piece. A chain,
rope, or {mall bar of iron, may be ufed for the former; but
the latter muft always be inflexible, being in a ftate of com-
preffion.
Principal rafters are two pieces of timber in the fides of
a trufs, fupporting a grated frame of timber-werk over
them, on which the flating or covering refts. ;
Purlins ave horizontal pieces of timber, fixed upon the
principal rafters.
Tie-beam is a horizontal piece of timber, conne&ted to two
oppofite principal rafters ; it anfwers a twofold purpofe,
viz. that of preventing the walls from being pufhed out-
wards by the weight of the covering, and of fupporting the
ceiling of the rooms below.—N.B. The tie-beam, when
placed above the bottom of the rafters, is called a collar-
beam.
Common rafters are pieces of timber of a {mall feGtion,
placed equidiftantly upon the purlins, and parallel to the
principal rafters: they fupport the boarding to which the
flating is fixed.
Pcle-plates are pieces of timber refting on the ends of the
tie-beams, and fupporting the lower ends of the common
rafters.
Kinz-poft is an upright piece of timber in the middle of a
trufs, framed at the upper end into the principal rafters,
and at the lower end into the tie-beam: this prevents the
tie-beam from finking in the middle.
Qucen-pofls, two upright pieces of timber framed below
into the tle-beam, and above into the principal rafters,
placed equidiftantly from the middle of the trufs, or its
extremities.
Strutts are oblique ftraining-pieces, framed below into the
king-pofts or queen-pofts, and above into the principal
rafters, which are fupported by them ; or fometimes they
have their upper ends framed into beams, which are too long
to fupport themfelves without bending.—N.B. Strutts are
often called braces.
Puncheons are {hort tran{verfe pieces of timber, fixed be-
_ tween two others for fupporting them equally, fo that when
any force is on the one, the other refifts that force equally,
and if one break, the other will alfo break. Thefe are fome-
times called ftuds.
Straining-beam is a piece of timber placed between two
queen-poits at their upper ends, in order to withftand the
thruft of the principal rafters.
Straining-fill is a piece of timber placed at the bottom of
two queen-pofts, upon the tie-beam, in order to withftand
the force of the braces, which are aéted upon by the weight
of the covering.
Camber-beams are horizontal pieces of timber, made on
the upper edge floping from the middle towards each end,
in an obtufe angle, for difcharging the water. They are
placed above the itraining-beam in a truncated roof, for
fixing the boarding on which the load is laid; their ends
run three or four inches above the floping plane of the com-
mon rafters, in order to form a roll for fixing the lead.
Auxiliary rafters are pieces of timber framed in the fame
vertical plane with the principal rafters, under and parallel to
them, for giving additional fupport, when the extent of the
building requires their introduction. Thefe are fometimes
called principal braces, and fometimes cushion rafters.
Joggles are the joints at the meeting of ftrutts with king-
potts, queen-poits, or principal rafters ; or, at the meeting
of principal rafters with king and queen-poits: the beit
form is that which is at right angles to the ftrutts.
Cocking, or cogging, is the particular manner of fixing the
tie-beams to the wall-plates: one method is by dovetailing,
and the other is by notching the under fide of the tie-beam,
5 and
ROOF.
and cutting the wall-plate in a reverfe form to fit it. This
method is far preferable to the other, as it is not liable
to be drawn, which the other is very fubje@t to, when the
timber fhrinks.
Ridge-tree is a piece of timber fixed in the vertex of a roof,
where the common rafters meet on each fide of it ; the upper
edge of it is higher than the rafters, for the purpofe of fixing
. the lead which goes over it to cover the ends of the flates
in the upper courfe.
Straps are thin pieces of iron ene acrofs the junction
of two or more parts of a trufs or frame of carpentry,
branching out from the interfection in the direétion of the
feveral pieces, fur the purpofe of fecuring them to each
other. They ought always to be double, viz. one ftrap
on each fide ; and their ends ftrongly bolted to each of the
Pieces. ~
The ufes of the various parts are illuftrated as follows ; and
here it may be proper to obferve, that though every one of
the parts above defined may be found in the fame roof, it
is not neceflary that a complete roof fhould have all thefe
parts; the introduction of many of them depends on the dif-
ftance of the walls, the contour of the roof, the partitions
below, the quantity of head-room wanted in the garret-
rooms, &c.
Of common roofs, the fimpleft conftru€tion is that which
confifts of two rafters, AB and BC, Plate XLII. fg. 8;
D and E are wall-plates, on which the feet A and C of the
rafters reft; the bottom of the rafters is cut in the form of
a right age (called by workmen a bird’s mouth), reverfed
to the wall-plate, and is fixed to it with nails ; but this
form can only be applied to buildings that have their walls
at no great diltance from each other.
The next form is that of having two rafters, A B, BC,
Plate XLII. fg. 7, a collar-beam D E, with two wall-plates,
Fand G, below. This form will admit of a greater diftance
between the walis than the other: the beam is placed in the
fituation DE, in order to give head-room within; but
when the fpan, F G, of the walls is confiderable, the parts
AD and CE being confidered as levers, and acted upon by
the re-action of the walls, the rafters are either liable to
be broken at the points D and E, or curved with acon-
cavity on the upper edges.
The third form of common roofs confifts of two rafters,
AB, BC, Plate XLII. jig. 10, a tie-beam AC, for pre-
venting the rafters from pufhing out the walls, a collar or
ftraining-beam D E, and two puncheons, or ftuds, FG and
HI, for keeping the rafters itraight : this conftruction is
ufed for cheapnefs, and may be executed with fafety in
houfes not exceeding forty-five feet wide ; but it is neceflary
to have partitions immediately below, or at no great diftance
from the ftuds. Initead of fupporting every oppofite pair
of rafters, as in this example, in many roofs of this con-
ftruétion, the ra‘ters take the place of principals, and are
fixed at 7, 8, 9, or 10 feet from each other, and purlins run
over the heads of the puncheons at K and L; and at the
ends of the collar-beams at M and N, between every two
rafters, {mall rafters are fixed to the purlins, the wall-plates
at bottom, and the ridge-tree at the top.
The moft fimple conttruétion of a trufs is that confifting
of the following parts, Plate XLII. fig. 9. AB the tie-beam,
cocked upon the wall-plates C and D; E K the king-poft;
AG and BH principal rafters, fixed to the king-polt at the
joggles, Gand H; LM and N O ftrutts, mortifed into the
rafters at L and N, and joggled to the king-poft at M and O.
Other names of timbers will be fully illuftrated by the de-
fcriptions of other roofs in due order of fucceffion. What
bas been faid may fuffice for the prefent,
Prop. III.
The pofition of feveral rafters, A B, BC, CD, DE, &e.
Plate XLIII. fig. 1, being given in a vertical plane, joined
together and moveable about the angular points B, C, D, E,
&c. while the points A and G remain ftationary ; it is re-
quired to find the proportion of the forces at the angles, fo
that the rafters may be kept in equilibrio.
Through the points B, C, D, E, &c. draw the vertical lines
Bi, Cm, Dp, Es, &c. being the direétion of the forces. Make
Bi: of any indefinite length, aud complete the parallelogram
Bhik. Make C/ equal to Bé, and complete the parallelo-
gram C/mn. Proceed in this manner with all the remaining
parallelograms, making the two oppofite forces in the
dire€tion of each rafter equal to each other, and the diagonals,
Bi, Cm, Dp, Es, &c. will reprefent the forces required, as
is evident from the conftru€tion. Then, to find the propor-
tion of the weights upon any two angles, the fine of any
angle is the fame with the fine of its fupplement, therefore
the fine of the angle A BC is the fame as the fine of K 44, or
Bi; andthe fine of BC D the fame as the fine of Crm;
likewife the fine of the angle C m/ is equal to the fine of the
alternate angle mC n, and the fine of the angle D pois equal
to the fine of the angle Dg}; moreover, the fine of the
angle 7B & is equal to the fine of the angle mC /, and the fine
of the angle m C x is equal to the fine of the angle p D o, and
fo on: then, becaufe the fides of triangles are as the fines
their oppofite angles, it will be by trigonometry,
Bi: B,orC/J::S-BkiiorABC:S.Bik,ori Bh
Cl: ImorDo::S.CmiormCn:S.mCiloriBk
Do: op, orEr:: -Dpo,or pDg:5S.pDo,or mCn
Er: sr,orFu:: Esr, or vFu:S.sEr,orpDg
Fa: Fu::S:Fouz,or vFw:S.vuF,orEFG
ThereforeBi:Fu::S.ABCx S.vFux S.vFw
:S.2BhxS.iBkxS.EFG
SHARC! fos hots SRG
S.iB4xS.iBk S.vFexS.oFw
That is, the weights on any two angles are as the fines
of thefe angles direétly, and reciprocally as the produ& of
the fines of the two parts of thefe angles, divided by the ver-
tical lines. ?
Cor. 1.—Hence the weights on any two angles are as
the fines of the angles directly, and as the produét of the
cofines of the two parts of thefe angles reciprocally. For
draw B H perpendicular to B i, and produce i B and AB
to I and K ; then will the angle K B I, equal to the angle
4 B i, be the cofine of the angle H B K; viz. the cofine of
the angle of elevation of the rafter A B above the horizon ;
and becaufe C B I is the fupplement of i B C, the angles C BI
and C Bz have the fame fine, andthe angle C BI is the co-
fine of the angle H BC; wiz. the angle of elevation of
the rafter B C.
Cor. 2.—Hence alfo, the weights on any two angles are
as the fines of the angles dire¢tly, and as the produéts of
the fecants of elevation jointly, becaufe the fecants of any
two angles are reciprocally as the cofines of thefe angles.
Cor. 3.-—The force which any rafter makes in its own di-
rection is as the fecant of itselevation. For make A P equal
to B4; draw the lines PN, 4 H,2L, &c. parallel to the
vertical lines Bi, Cm, &c. and draw AN, BH, CL,
&c. parallel to the horizon ; then becaufe the angles N A P,
HBé, LCn, &e. are the angles of elevation, and A N,
BH,CL, &c. are all equal, if AN, BH, CL, &c. be
confidered as radii, A P, B&, Cn, &c. are the fecants
of elevation, which alfo reprefert the forces on the rafters.
Cor. 4.—Hence the horizontal preflures at A and G are
equal ;
ANnnNnNN
Therefore Bi: Fv::
ROOF.
equal ; for allthe perpendiculars drawn from the oppofite an-
gles of each parallelogram to meet the vertical diagonal, are
all equal.
Cor. 5.—Hence, if the pofition of any two rafters, and
the proportion of the weights, be given, the pofition of the
remaining rafters may be determined.
Cor. 6.—If the vertical line SD V be drawn, the hori-
zontal line A V G, and the lines AS, AR, AQ, AT, &c.
be drawn parallel to the rafters A B, BC, CD, DE, &c.
meeting the vertical line in S, R, Q, T; then will A S,
AR, AQ, AT, reprefent the forces, and SR, RQ,
Q T, the forces upon the angles; for AS, AR, AQ, AT,
&c. are the fecants of the elevation, and the triangles A'S R,
ARQ, A QT, are all fimilar to the triangles 4 Bi, 7 C m,
oD, &e.
Cor. 7.—In every roof kept in equilibrio by the weights
of the rafters, if U, V, W, &c. be the centres of gravity
of the rafters, and alfo reprefent their weights; then the
weight prefling vertically on B, will be & a a ao
VC x V ie VBxV WDxwW
aE » and the weight on C = hCa e De
ig aon AU x Ue VC x. V VB XV
an Oo on; CACe SSarpiet Pek apie
WED exw S.ABC : S.BCD
7 CD. SteBixS.2Be S.lCmxiSinCn
Cor. 8.—Hence, if the rafters be prifmatic figures, the
weights on the angles B, C, D, &c. will be refpectively as
AB+BC BC+CDCD+DE
WS Tee Mee poe
Prop. IV.
Given the vertical angle of aroof, and the proportion of
the rafters on each fide, to defcribe the roof to a given width,
fo that it fhall be in equilibrio.
Let the proportion of the rafters from the top down-
wards be as 2, 3, 4, that is, as 4, 6, 8; then the weight
4+4
2
> and fo on.
on the vertical angle is
= 4; on thenext fucceeding
2
angle = 5; and on the bottom angle v7
(Plate XLII. fig. 2.) Now let A BC be the given angle.
Make B A equal to BC; join AC, and draw D B E per-
pendicular to A C; then make DB to reprefent half the
weight of the vertical rafter : let B D be divided into two
equal parts; make BM five of thefe parts, and M E feven;
jon MA,MC, EA,EC; then from any fcale of equal
parts, make B F and BG each two parts; draw F H and
GI parallel to M A and MC, and make FH and GI
each equal to three equal parts of the fame fcale. Liaitly,
draw H K and I L parallel to E A and EC, and make.
HK, I L, each equal to four equal parts ; then K H, H F,
FB, BG, GI, IL, are the rafters, in the proportion re-
quired.
How to reduce this proportion of figure to a given
width is obvious ; it is only drawing a figure, having a given
fide in the fame proportion as another.
Pror. V.
The angular points at the meeting of every two rafters of
a roof in equilibrio, by equal weights hung at the angles in
vertical direCtions, equidiftant from each other, are in the
curve of a parabola.
Let ABC DE, &c. (Plate XLIII. fg. 3.) be kept
in equilibrio by equal weights, fufpended at the angular
points B, C, D, E, &c. in the equidiftant-directions B F,
C G,D H, EI, &c. the points A, B, C, D, E, &c. are in
the curve of a parabola.
For let BF meet AN at F. Draw A K parallel to
DE, AL parallel to CD, and AM parallel to B C,
cutting F Bat K,L,M. Draw BQ, CP, DO, parallel
to A N, cutting the middle line I Eat Q, P, O.
Then, becaufe the weights on the angles are equal, F K,
KL, LM, MB, are alfo equal, the firft excepted, being
half, or as the numbers 1, 2, 2, 23 therefore F K, F L,
FM, FB, are as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7: but be-
caufe of the equidiftant lines B F, CG, DH, EI, &c. and
the parallels DO, CP, BQ, AI, thetriangles A F K,
AFL, AF M, are refpectively equal and fimilar to the
triangles DOE, CS D, BRC; therefore K F is equal
to EO, L F equalto DS, and DS equal to O P, M F equalto
CR, and CR equal to PQ: and laftly, B F is equalto QI;
therefore E O, OP, PQ, QI, are to one another as the num-
bers.1, 3, 5, 73 and EO, EP, EQ, El, are as the
f{quare numbers 1, 4, 9, 16; but the lines O D, PC, QB,
are to one another as 1, 2, 3, 43 therefore the abfcifles E O,
EP, EQ, EI, are as the {quares of the ordinates O D,
PC, QB, IA, and the points A, B, C, D, E, are placed
in the curve of a parabola. In the fame manner it may be
fhewn, that this is the cafe, whatever be the number of or-
dinates. :
Corol.—Hence a roof of this conftruction may be defcribed
to any given height and vertical angle, or to a given width
and height, with any number of rafters on each fide.
Example.—To defcribe a roof with any given number of
rafters on each fide to a given width and height, fo that
all the vertical lines pafling through the angular points of
the rafters fhall be equidiftant, and the rafters in equi-
librio.
Let there be four rafters on each fide, (Plate XLIII.
Sz Let IN be half the width, and IE the
height. Draw N TandE T paralleltoI E and IN; di-
vide N T into four equal parts Nf, fe, ed, dT, and draw
dg E, eh E,fiE; likewife divide IN into four equal
parts Ic, c 6, 6a,a N, and drawc g, 54, ai, parallelto I E.
Join Eg, gh, hi,i N, and thefe lines will be the rafters of
half the roof required.
For let C B (Plate XLIII. fg. 4.) be the ‘height,
and A B half the bafe. Draw CD parallel to A B, and
AD parallel to B C. InA B take any point a, and divide
AD, fo thats D may be to AD asBatoBA. Join
&C, draw ac parallel to B C, meeting 6 C at c; and cd and
be parallel to A B, cutting BC at e and d, then the tri-
angles C dc and Ce dare fimilar.
Therefore Cd: Ce::¢d:eb,0r AB
And by conftruétion, Ce: C B::2 Bored: A Borde
Therefore CadAGBiscd SVAYB*
Therefore the point Cis in the curve of a parabola.
Another method may be as follows: Let BE (Plate
XLIILI. fg. 4.) be half the width, BC the height. Pro-
duce B Cto F, making C F equaltoC B. Divide C F into
four equalparts, Cf, fg, gh, 4 F, and join fE,¢ E,4E.
Divide B E into four equal parts, Bi,ié, &/, / E, and draw
the lines im, kn, Jo, parallel to BC, cutting the former
lines fE, g E, AE, at m,n, 03; the points m, 2, 0, arein the
curve of a parabola. For the principles of this conftruction,
the reader may confult Theorem VII. p. 123. vol. ii. Hut-
ton’s Mathematics.
Prop. VI.
To defcribe a roof with four equal rafters, that fhall be
22
ROOF.
in equilibrio by the weight of the rafters; of a given
width AE, Plate XLII. fg. 5, and height FC.
Join EC, and bife& it in H, by a perpendicular D H G,
meeting A E in G; on G, as a centre, with the diftance
GE or GC, defcribe the circle CEO. Draw KHI
parallelto F E, meeting the vertical line O C in K, and the
circle in I. Draw IDC, and join DE; then make the
fide CBA fimilarto CDE, and AB, BC, CD, DE,
will be the rafters of the roof required.
For complete the parallelogram C D Q B, and join B D,
IF, and draw CL perpendicular to C F, and equal to
FG. On L, with the diftance GE, defcribe the circle
NIF, meeting the vertical line at N and F; produce ED
to meet it alfo in M, and BC to P.
‘Then becaufe K F is equal to KC, and RC equal to
RQ, the triangles CIF and CDQ are fimilar ; there-
fore I F is parallel to D Q: and becaufe the two fegments
NIF and CEO are equal to one another, the angle NI F
is equal to the angle C E O, equal to twice the tight CEF,
or twice the alternate angle E C L equalto ECD + DCL,
but ECD is equal to half the external angle MDC, and
DCL is half the angle DCP equal to CDQ. There-
fore the angle N I F is equal to the angles MDC + CDQ
equal to the angle MD Q, and CF: CN::CQ:CM;
but C F and CN are equal, therefore CQ and CM are
equal; but CQ isto CM as the weight on C is to the
weight on B; therefore the weights on C and B are equal,
and the rafters A B, BC, CD, D E, are in equilibrio.
Prop. VII.
Suppofe it were required to conftrué a curb roof, the
bottom rafter being in proportion to the upper rafter, as
2 to 3, and to a given vertical angle at the top, and to be
of a given width AB, Plate XLIII. jg. 6.
Now the weight on the upper angle is to the weight on
Hi+iI1A
> oe
that is, as
the lower angle, as a is to
= 3 is to
343 3 _ Ba 24; this is in the proportion
of 6 to 5, or the half weight at H is to the bottom weight
at I, as 3 is to 5.
Bife&t AB by the perpendicular CD, and make the
angle A EC equal to half the vertical angle, or the angle
EAC equal to its complement. Make ED to EC as
5 to3. Jom DAand DB. Take AG of any length;
draw F G parallel to AE, and make AG to GF as
z to 3. Draw AFH, meeting CD at H; and HI
parallel to FG or EA, cutting AD at I; make BK
equal to AT, and join KH; then ATH KB is the con-
tour of the roof required. This is fo evident from its con-
{truction, that it does not require demonftration.
Prop. VIII.
In any roof conftruéted with two equal rafters only ; as
the height of the roof is to half the breadth of the building,
fo is half the weight of the roof to the horizontal thruft, or
lateral preflure.
Let ABC, Plate XLIV. fig. 1, be a roof, having the
two equal rafters AB, BC; join the bottom. oF the
rafters AC; draw BD perpendicular to it ; complete the
parallelogram B E F G, and draw EG, cutting BD in H.
Then, becaufe the triangles BH E and BDA are fimilar,
BD:DA::BH:HE.
Cor. 1.—Hence, in a roof with two rafters and a tie-
Vou. XXX.
beam at the bottom, the tenfion, H E, of the tie-beam is
_ DAxX' BH
= BD j
Cor. 2.—Hence, allo, BD: BA:: BH: BE, that
is, as the height of the roof is to the length of the rafter,
fo is half the weight, reprefented by BH, of the roof to
BAx BH
Bp
Cor. 3.—Half the weight of the roof, the tenfion of the
tie-beam, and the compreflion of the rafters, are to one
another as the height of the roof, half the breadth of the
fpan, and the length of the rafters; for the triangle BH E
is fimilar to the triangle BD A.
the compreffion of the rafters =
Prop. IX.
If a rafter bear any weight, or haye a weight uniformly
diffufed over it, the force tending to break it is equal to the
cofine of elevation, multiplied into the weight, divided by
radius.
Let A B, BC, jig. 2, be two equal rafter$; join AC,
draw B G perpendicular to it, meeting it in G; and let the
weight W be fufpended by the ftring DE. Draw DF
perpendicular to A B, and E F parallel to it; then if DE
reprefent the weight, D F will reprefent the force tendin
to break the rafter; F E its tendency to pufh it from
towards A.
Now, becaufe EF is parallel to AB, the alternate
angles A D E and D E F are equal, and the angles DFE
and AGB are right angles; the triangles E DF and
BAG are fimilar; therefoe AB: AG::DE:DF
= ee that is, as radius is to the cofine of ele-
vation, fo is the force employed to its tendency to break the
cof.elevation x DE
R
Cor. 1.—Hence the weight employed, the preffure in a
direction of the length of the rafter at A, the tendency to
break it, are as radius, the fine, and cofine of elevation.
cof, elevation x DE
R
caufe the ftrefs is as the length when the weight is given,
the ftrefs is as the cofine of elevation multiplied into the
weight, and this produ multiplied into the length of the
rafter, the radius being a conftant quantity.
rafter, that is, as R:cof.::DE:DF=
Cor. 2.—Becaufe D F = » and be-
Prop. X.
To prevent the rafters of a roof, with a tie-beam, from
bending in the middle, and to remove lateral preflure from
the walls, when there is no beam.
A variety of methods may be ufed for this purpofe; but
the beft are thofe where the fhorteft and leaft quantity of
timber are employed without producing a traniverfe ftrain
upon any part. When a roof confifts of two rafters only,
no part of the rafters can be loaded between their extre-
mities, nor indeed will they bear their own weight without
producing a concavity on the upper fide, which will be
greater as the length of the rafter and weight applied to it
are greater. Now becaufe the fhorter the rafters are at the
fame elevation, the greater the weight they will bear, and
be more able to {upport their own weight ; the thing to be
done is to fupport them by a fufficient number of fixed
3R points
ROOF.
points either from the roof itfelf, or other inmoveable places.
There are three points for this purpofe; if the rafters have a
tie-beam below, that is, at the vertex, and at the two ex-
tremities of the rafters, the triangle being immoveable at '
the angles, every force applied there tends either to com-
prefs or extend the fides of the frame without tranfverfe
ltrain.
Examples. —Let it be required to divide each of the rafters
into three equal lengths, in order to fupport two purlins on
each fide; this may be done, as in fig. 3, by pieces, C E,
CD, AG, AF, reaching from the two lower angles Cand A,
and to the oppofite fides of the rafters A B and B C, inter-
fe&ting each other at H and I, and halved upon each other
at fete interfe€tions: this mode prevents the rafters from fag-
ging, but does not afford any fupport to the tie-beam. The
meeting of fo many braces at the fame point, too, gives little
opportunity of making the ends entirely fecure, even though
affifted by iron ftraps. Another mode may be by intro-
ducing a king-poft, B K, fg. 4, to which the ftrutts D H,
EI, FM, GL, may be firmly joggled at H, 1, M, L,
and mortifed to the rafter at D, E, F, G: this method keeps
up the middle of the beam, but when the roof is low, and
the fpan great, the ftrutts, D H and FM, require them-
felves to be fupported, and are much too oblique to prevent
a change of figure.
Another method may be as in fg. 5, with the king-poft
in the middle, as before, two queen-pofts under the rafters
at E and F, two ftrutts, HE and IF, joggled to the
bottom of the king-poft at H and I, and to the top of the
queen-pofts at E and F3; and in order to fecure the points
N and P, two other braces, N Q, P R, are joggled to the
bottom of the queen-pofts at Q and R, and mortifed into
the rafters at the upper end. This conftruction fupports
the tie-beam in three different points, and each of the rafters
in two. The timbers are much fhorter than thofe of the
preceding ; but fo many joggles are certainly an objeétion to
this method, as the fhrinking of the timber mutt be very
confiderable in three breadths, which would allow the roof
to defcend. When the fpan is great, and the points to be
fupported many, an excellent method may be as in fg. 6,
where there are two arches of caft-iron or good Englifh oak
introduced, which abutt on the king-poft, and at the other
‘extremity at the ends of the beam. The rafters and the beam
by this mode may be fupported by as many equidiftant
points as we pleafe.
When the tie-beam is removed from the bottom, as in
jig. 7) and no fixed points are to be found from below, a lon-
gitudinal trufs may be conftruéted, the end of which is
fhewn at AB, and the manner of framing it in fg. g, the
two ends being fuppofed to be firmly fixed into the gables ;
but where the length is great, the form of fg. 10, witha
parabolic arch, would be much better: by this method, the
rafters will be kept nearly in the fame plane, and all lateral
preffure from the walls will be removed; for it is evident
that if the ridge-tree is f{upported, there can be no motion
downwards in the dire€tion of the rafters, the whole roof
being hung to this longitudinal frame.
Prop. XI.
If a roof be conftruéted with two equal rafters, A M,
CM, (fg. 8.) and if a tie extend from the bottom of each
rafter to an intermediate point in the oppofite rafter, and the
ties halved together at their interfection B, forming with
the rafters 2 quadrilateral MD BE at the vertex, and two
triangles A D B and CEB; thenif MD is equal to M E,
and if C P reprefent the direGtion and quantity of force
on the wall at C, the force tending to break the rafters at
DandE is 5: PCK x S.DMExLKxDM
S.LCKxR f
For complete the parallelogram P C L K; make M N equal
to C L, and draw N O parallel, and M O perpendicular to
AM. Nowthetriangles.C B E and A BD may be looked
upon as folid levers, (at leaft with regard to forces applied
to the angles, ) moveable round B. ‘Then the force C P will
communicate the force CL to the rafter, and C L is the
power acting obliquely at M, upon the rafter A M: then
becaufe NO is parallel, and O M perpendicular to A M,
© Mis the force tending to break the rafter at D; ON
that pufhing it towards A: let M N be confidered radius,
then O M will be the fine of the angle DMN, or DME;
for produce A M to Q, and the angle N M Q will be the
fupplement of the vertical angle D M E, therefore the fine
of NMQ, equal to the fine of the angle M N O, is the
fame with the fine of NM A; then by trigonometry,
LK:LC::S8.LCK:S.CKLorS.PCK
NMor LC:MO::R:S.DME=S.MNO
Therefore LK:MO::$.LCKx R:S.PCK x
S.DME.
S.PCKxS.DMExLK
Hence Mol S.LCKxR
force ating perpendicular to A M at M, but the force tend-
ing to break the rafter at D, is as the lever D M multiplied
S.PCKxS.DMExLKxDM
S.LCKxR 7
Corol. 1.—Hence, if the angleyD M E is a right angle,
the force tending to break the rafter at D will be
S.PCKxLKxDM
S.LCK i
Corol. 2.—Hence the rafters of every roof of this con-
ftruGtion muft fag in a greater or lefs degree, by the action
of the rafters againft each other at the point M, that is,
they will be bent into curves concave on the upper edges ;
but ifa diagonal conne& the two vertical points M and B,
this change of figure will be prevented.
Prop. XII.
To remove the lateral preflure of a roof without any in-
termediate beam, brace, or ftrutt.
Let AB, BC, (Plate XLV. fig. 1. N° 2.) be two
rafters, and let there be conftruéted a flrong wall-plate
DEFG, N° 1, firmly bolted together at the angles; then
if the roof is to be gable-ended, after having fixed the
rafters to a common ridge-tree, let two curves be made
of caft-iron, or good Englifh oak, of a parabolic form,
and let into the rafters, either on the upper or under furface,
and firmly fecured to them by bolts or nails, and at their
lower extremities to the angles of the wall-plates, the vertex
of each curve meeting the ridge-piece on each fide of it, or
nearly, as may be found convenient. One half of the plan
N° 1. exhibits the form for the execution of a gable-ended
roof, and the other for a hiped roof. ‘The two fides, laid
in plano for each form, are fhewn in N°3 and 43 at
HIKLand MNOP, HL and D G reprefent the fame
wall-plate; DG,NO, and EF another wall-plate, 1K
and M P meeting the ridge on each fide of it: but it mutt
be obferved, when the roof is to be hipt, that the ridge-tree
mult be very ftrong, as the compreflure will be very great,
the hip-rafters a€ting like powerful braces at the extremities
of it. Hence it isevident that the wall-plates act as the tie-
beams
= the
into this force ; that is =
‘
ROOF.
beams of a common roof, and the curves as the rafters, or
more naturally like an arch of a bridge in equilibrium. It
has already been fhewn that equal weights, acting in equi-
diftant lines, require an arch of a parabolic form to keep
them inequilibrio. _ In this it is to be confidered, that as the
arches are placed with their crown upwards, they are in a
ftate of compreffion, and may be got out very conveniently
in feveral lengths; but if the arches were inverted they would
be in a {tate of tenfion: each arch muft then be in one
piece ; the ridge would be comprefled by the tenfion of the
two curves. This inverted difpofition of equilibration is not
fo fecure as when the crown of the arches either meets the
ridge or lies towards it. Though the above conitruction
will prevent lateral preffure, it will not hinder the rafters
from fagging; but the addition of acollar-beam willeffectu-
ally an{wer this purpofe in all moderate fpans.
Prop. XIII.
Given the conftru€tion of a roof, of which not more
than three timbers meet at the fame junétion, and a force in
the direétion of any one of the timbers; to find the forces
communicated to the other timbers, fo that the roof fhall
be in equilibrio.
Begin with the given force, and take a part of the line of
its direCtion from the junétion to reprefent it ; then with
the other two dire€tions complete a parallelogram, and
apply them from the next junctions on the fame ftraight
line from which they were taken, and complete paral-
lelograms as before. Proceed in this manner from one
junGtion to another, until parallelograms have been made
at every junCtion. Then the parts of thefe parallelograms
in the direGtions of the timbers are the forces in thefe
direGtions; then to know the ftate of tenfion or com-
preflion of any timber, obferve that when two of the
angles formed by three diretions are lefs than two right
angles, the middle force aéts always contrary to the two
extreme ones, as has already been explained ; and that when
any two of the angles of direétion are greater than two
right angles, thea the forces will a€t towards or from the
fame point.
Example 1.—Let ABCD A (fig. 2.) bea roof, confifting
of two rafters, A B, BC, two beams, C D, DA, anda king-
poit, D B, fupported by the walls AO andCE. Let CE
reprefent half the weight of the roof, or the re-a€tion of the
wall C E; complete the parallelogram CE F G; make D L
equal to F C, and complete the parallelogramL M N D, then
C F or D L is the force in the direG@ticn of the beam C D
or AD, andDM the force in the direétion of the poft
DB; then becaufe the angles EC F and FCG are lefs
than two right angles, and becaufe the point C is prefled by
the re-aétion of the wall EC, it will alfo be preffed by the
force GC, and drawn by the force CF; therefore the
beam C D is in a ftate of tenfion, and the rafter BC ina
ftate of compreffion. Again, becaufe CD B and BD A are
greater than the two right angles, and becaufe C D is in
a ftate of tenfion, BD and DA are alfo in a ftate of
tenfion.
If BH be made equal to GC, and the parallelogram
BHIK completed, and if BP be made equalto DM,
oe will PI be equal to twice C E, the preflure on the
walls.
Example 2—Let ABCDEA (fg. 3.) be aroof fup-
ported by walls in the direGtion P A and QC, and let there
be two pieces of timber, B D and B E, connesting the an-
gular points D and E to the ridge at B.
Take C F to reprefent half the weight of the roof, or
the re-aGion of the wall QC: complete the parallelogram
CF GH, produce C D to K, make D K equal to GC,
and complete the parallelogram DIK L; then GC or
D K is the force in the direGtion of the timber C D or A E,
and is in a ftate of tenfion, becaufe the angles F C G and
GC H are lefs than two right angles, and becaufe CF is
in a {tate of compreffion ; CH, the force in a direGtion of
the rafter BC, is alfo in a ftate of compreflion; and
becaufe any two of the three angles GDB, GDE,
ED B, are greater than two right angles, and DC is ina
itate of tenfion, the two pieces, DB and DE, are alfo
in a ftate of tenfion: thatis, EA, EB, ED, DB, DC,
are all ties. The force in DB or EB is DL, that in
DE jis DI.
If B R and BS be made equal to CH, and the paral-
lelogram B RWS completed; and if BT and BU be
’ made equal to LD, and the parallelogram BT V U com-
pleted, then will V W be equal to twice C F, that is, by
reducing the force in the dire€tion of the pieces B E and
B D to an equivalent one.
Prop. XIV.
Given the lengths A B, BC, CD, DE, (Plate XLVI.
gg. 1.) of therafters of a roof and their angles of pofition,
to find thofe angles that require ties, and thofe which require
ftrutts. :
Let AB be to BC as 3 is to 4, thatis, as 6 to 8, the
proportion of the weight of the rafters; then if 8 be taken
8
HS. ng
for the weight of each of the upper rafters,
is the weight on the vertical angle C, and Ee = 7,will
be the weight on each of the vertical angles B and D, fo
that the weight on the vertical angle is to the weight on
each of the lower angles, as 8 isto 7. Draw the vertical
line BG F, and draw AG, AF, parallel to the rafters
BC, CD; then if FG be to GB as 8 to 7, the rafters
are inequilibrio, and require no ties. But fuppofe it fhould
be found that F G isto GB as 1to 2; now as that will
keep it in equilibrio, jt would then require a very confi-
derable addition laid on the angle B to keep it from {pring-
ing outwards, fo that if two braces, FG and KL, N°2,
were fixed to the rafters A B, BC, CD, DE, thefe braces
would be ina ftate of compreffion, and if the brace HI
were fixed at the top it would be in a ftate of tenfion: FG
and K L only require firm butments, but HI to be well
bolted. — It may here be obferved, that if the vertical angle
only be braced and fecured to the two rafters, the whole
frame will then be immoveable.
Prop. XV.
To difcover the effeét of bracing the angles of a roof
flat onthe top, fupported by puncheons at the bottom of
the rafters, to accommodate a femicircular ceiling within.
Let ABCD EF (fg. 2. N° ) be the trufs, divefted
of its braces, the bottoms of the puncheons refting firmly on
the walls at A and F, and the joints at B, C, D, E, to be
quite moveable, like rule joints. Now, as this difpofition of
timbers would fall, and in falling, would affume the form of
N° 2, the angles at C and D would become more and more
obtufe, while thofe at B and E would become more and more
acute ; the latter would therefore require ftraining-pieces,
and the former ties: the itraining-pieces muft have good
abutments, and the ties be well bolted at their extremities.
Let N° 3 be the trufs, with braces difpofed in the lower
angles: this difpofition will bend the rafters B C, D E, and
the puncheons B A, E F, ote towards the outfide, which
3R2 is
ROOF.
Is entirely occafioned by the braces G H and N O: the
camber-beam C D is no otherwife affeéted than by its own
weight. Let it now be fuppofed, that the angles C and D,
N° 4, are braced at I K, LM. In this difpofition, the
puncheons B A and E F are not affeéted in refpet of
tranfverfe ftrains; the rafters C B, DE, and beam CD,
would all become concave on the outfide ; and the points
B and E, at the bottom of the rafters and top of the pun-
cheons, would be pufhed out beyond the perpendicular of
A and F, at the bottom: here it is neceflary to obferve,
that the effeét produced in this cafe on the rafters C B and
DE is contrary to the effe€t produced in N° 3, by the
braces being difpofed in the lower angles. Laftly, fuppofe
that all the angles are braced, as in N° 5, it is evident, fince
the braces H G, N O, produce a contrary effe& to the braces
KI, LM, thefe bending the rafters downwards, and thofe
upwards, that the rafters C B and D E will become nearly
{traight, or aflume an undulated line: the puncheons BA
and E F, receiving the force of the braces H# G and N O at
the points G and O, mutt {till be bent, fo long as the under
ends G and O of the braces do not coincide with the under
ends A and F of the puncheons: in this cafe, there is no
other remedy than by giving the puncheons a {cantling fuffi-
cient to withftand this tranfverfe ftrain, or horizontal thruft,
at the points G and O: however, the fhape of the contour
may be pretty well fecured by introducing two abutments,
HI and MN, N° 6; thefe, by being bolted through the
two ends, will add greatly to the ftiffnefs of the rafters
B Cand DE: the bolts that go through the upper ends
may alfo ferve for the braces 1 K and L M: the fhape of
the horizontal beam C D will likewife be very much pre-
ferved by the piece K L, bolted in three places, one at each
end, into the braces I K and LM, and another in the mid-
dle: the contour of aroof, thus fupported, would be quite
unchangeable, if the rafters were inflexible ; but as this is
not the cafe, and as they are ated upon tranfverfely by the
braces, the trufs will, therefore, in fome degree, be ex-
panded at B and E, and confequently occafion lateral pref-
fure on the walls; it will therefore be unfit for an oblong
building, without other precautions for this purpofe. By in-
ferting parabolic curves in the fides BC and DE, asin
Plate XLVI. fig. 1, it will be effectually prevented.
In roofs of this defcription, joggle-pieces of wood fhould
never be ufed, as the fhrinking of them would tend greatly
to alter the outline of the rafters.
Having laid down fuch principles as will enable the work-
man to judge of the flrength and {train of timbers in the
framings of carpentry, it will now be neceffary to proceed
to fhew the mode of conftruéting roofs to anfwer various
purpofes ; to give fome practical obfervations relative to
their ftrength, and to fhew the various modes of joining
timbers, the forms of ftraps, &c.
Plate XLVI. fg. 1. is the roof of the chapel of the royal
hofpital at Greenwich, conftruéted by Mr. S. Wyatt.
Inches
A A. The tied fk ae: Rest Scanuing.
» The tie-beam, 57 feet long, the {pan of the
walls being ee eek ub) < i eas og
B, Queen-pofts - 2 & ul 9 x 12
C, Braces - 6 5 e 9x 7
D, Straining-beam . re fs 19x 7
E, Straining-piece : = i 6x 7
F, Principal rafters x a 2 IOoX 7
G, Camber-beam for the platform - OI XHN7
H, An iron rod, fupporting tie-beam - Zien
The trufles are feven feet elear ; the platform is covered
with lead, which is fupported by horizontal beams fix by
four inches.
The timbers of this trufs are well difpofed, and perhaps
contain lefs wood than moft roofs of the fame dimenfions.
The iron rod feems of no other utility than to prevent the
middle compartment of the beam from fagging.
Fig. 2. is the roof of St. Paul’s, Covent-Garden, defigned
by Mr. Hardwick, and conftruéted by Mr. Wapfhot, in
1796.
Inches
Scantling.
A A, The tie-beam, fpanning- 50 feet 2inches 16 x 12
B, Queen-pofts - = - - gx 8
C, Straining-beam - - - io xX &
D, King-poft, 14 inches at the joggle - 9x 8
E, Strutts - - - - 9x &
F, F, Auxiliary rafters, at bottom - 10x 8%
H, H, Principal rafters, at bottom - Io x 84
I, Studs fupporting the principals - 8x 8
This roof is much better conftruéted than the original one
by InigoJones. A trufs of the prefent defign contains only
98 cubic feet of timber, whereas that by Inigo Jones had
273, and was very infufficient at the joggles, and had fome
of its timbers very ill difpofed : the interior trufs is well con-
trived for fupporting the exterior, which reaches feven feet
beyond the walls. The tie-beam has perhaps too much
camber, being fix inches; fer fince it a€ts as a ftring, it will
lengthen in the fettling of the roof.
Fig. 3. is the roof of Drury-lane theatre, 80 feet 3
inches fpan, and the truffles 15 feet apart: conftruéted by
Mr. Edward Gray Saunders.
Inches
Scantling.
A, Beams - : - - LOW aany,
B, B, Rafters - 6 - = 7x 4
C, King-pofts. - - - - PES 0G]
D, Strutts - - - Say
E, Purlins o = = 5 O xs
G, Pole-plates - . - - Sl
H, Common rafters - - - ewe!
I, Tie-beam - - - = 15 X 12
K, Potts to ditto - - - 15 xX 12
L, Principal braces to ditto - 14 and12 X 12
M, Strutts 2 - - - x 12
N, Straining-beam. 5 - > 12 x 12
The principal beams are truffed in the middle fpace with
oak braces, five inches fquare. This was requifite on ac-
count of its width, which is thirty-two feet, that the floors
might carry the work-fhops neceflary for the ufe of the
theatre. This trufs is moft admirably conftruted, it is
hardly equalled for {trength, ftiffhefs, and lightnefs by any
other, and will fafely bear aload of nearly 300 tuns, which
is four times more than ever itis likely to be loaded with.
Plate LVI. fg. 1. is the defign of a trufs-roof for a
church, witha nave and two fide aifles. The beam of the
middle compartment is kept from fagging in the middle by
two ftrutts, refting at the bottom on pofts over the columns,
and conneéted together at the top by aftraining-piece. As
the pofts firmly fupport the middle of the rafters, keeping
thefe points always ftationary, there will be little danger of
lateral preflure from a roof of this conftruGtion. All that
is wanted further is to give the rafters ftiffnefs, by fixing
other pieces from the two fixed points of the tie-beam, and
from the two potts.
Fig. 2. is a defign for the trufs of a curb-roof, with a door
inthe middle. The rafters are fupported at equal diftances,
from
ROOF.
from fixed points of the trufs; the weight of the covering
being always uniform, or nearly fo.
Fig. 3, N° 1, a defign for a roof, with lanterns in feveral
ftages, diminifhing in the form of fome Chinefe buildings.
Thefe towers may be carried to any height, at pleafure, by
always truffing in the plane of the diagonal between every
two ftages from the lower, to fupport that immediately
above. There are fome excellent {pecimens to be feen in the
buildings of Deptford, belonging to the victualling office,
called ufually the Red-houfe. N° 2. is a plan for the feat of
the upper ftage.
Fig. 4. is the defign of a conic roof for a rotunda or
circular building, fupporting a lantern at the top. If the
extent of the building is very large, the- rafters would re-
quire to be fupported in the middle; for this purpofe the
bottom piece may be continued, as is exprefled by the
dotted lines.
Fig. 5. is a defign for a pent roof, fupporting a lantern
of an oétagonal form. N° r. is the form of the trufs ; N° 2,
the lower plan, with the feat of the pofts; N° 3, the plan
of the upper part; N° 4, the trufs of the two tranfverfe
arts.
i Having defcribed the form of roofs fupporting lanterns,
and the truffes in which they may be executed with fafety,
it will now be proper to give a few examples of domes, and
fhew how they may be conftruéted under various circum-
ftances. If the dome to be conitruéted be on a circular
plan, and have no lantern above, the ribs may be built in
the following manner, with planks of convenient lengths in
three thicknefles. Having afcertained the length of the
ribs, and the number of pieces in that length, and having
properly fhaped all the pieces to the curve, the middle piece
at the bottom may be one of thefe lengths; to each fide
may be joined two other pieces, one reaching to a third of
the middle piece, and the other to two-thirds from the bot-
tom; fo that by continuing with planks of the whole length
to the other extremity of the rib, the middle thicknefs will
always be covered two-thirds from the bottom on one fide,
and one-third on the other; the deficiency at the top muft
be filled up with pieces, one of a third and the other of
two-thirds, as at the bottom; the whole, being well bolted
together and ftrapped acrofs the joints, will be nearly as
ftrong as a folid rib. Plate LIX. fig. 1 fhews the manner
of conftruéting this kind of dome ; N° 1 being the femi-plan,
N° z the elevation, N° 3 the manner of building the rib.
In domes of this kind it may fometimes be neceflary to dif-
continue the ribs, in order to divide the {paces more equally
for the horizontal ribs. It is evident that a dome built in
this manner may be carried almoit to any degree of extent,
provided that it have a fufficient number of horizontal ribs.
Of this conftru&tion is the Halle du Bled at Paris, of 200
feet in diameter, the invention of a judicious carpenter, the
Sieur Molineau, a man of little education in the point of
{cience, but of confiderable mechanical experience, from
which he formed his theory. Being convinced that a very
thin fhell of timber might not only be fo fhaped as to be
nearly in equilibrio, but that, if well conneéted with hori-
zontal ribs, it would have all the ftiffnefs that was neceffary ;
he accordingly prefented his fcheme to the magiltracy of
Paris: the grandeur of the idea pleafed them, but they doubted
of the pofkibility of its being put in practice. Being a great
public work, they prevailed on the Academy of Sciences to
confider it. ‘The members, who were competent judges,
were {truck with the juftnefs of Mr. Molineau’s principles,
and aftonifhed that a thing fo plain had not become familiar
to every houfe-carpenter. It quickly became an univerfal
topic of convérfation, difpute, and cabal in the polite circles
12
of Paris. But the Academy having given a favourable re-
port of their opinion, the projeét was immediately carried
into execution and foon completed, and now ftands as one
of the greateft exhibitions of Paris. The circular ribs
which compofe this dome confift of planks 9 feet long,
13 inches broad, and 3 inches thick, made in three thick.
neffes, as in that already defcribed. At various diftances
thefe ribs were conneéted horizontally by purlins and iron
ftraps, which made fo many hoops to the whole. When the
work had reached fuch a height, that the diftance of the
ribs was two-thirds of the original diftance, every fecond
(now confilting of two ribs, very near each other,) was in
like manner difcontinued, and the void glazed. A little
above this the heads of the ribs are framed into a circular
ring of timber, which forms a wide opening in the middle,
over which is a glazed canopy or umbrella, with an opening
between it and the dome, for allowing the heated air to get
out. All who have feen this dome fay, that it is the moft
beautiful and magnificent objeé& they ever beheld.
The only difficulty which occurs in the conftruétion of
wooden domes, is when they are loaded in the upper part by
aheavy lantern or cupola. Such a dome as has now been de-
feribed would be in danger of being crufhed at the top in-
wardly ; the moit effectual method of preventing which is by
making the ribs in the form of truffles, as in Plate LIX. fig. 2,
where the ftraight pieces conneéting the two extremities of
the exterior fide, forming as it were the bafe of atrufs in a
common roof, aét contrary to the nature of a tie-beam ;
they refift the vertical preflure of the lantern, without hav-
ing any tendency to burft out the fides, by a¢ting entirely
longitudinally on the wall-plate. In order to fecure the lan-
tern, horizontal braces are fixed from the bottom of the
lantern to the middle of the principal braces under the jog-
gles, fo that the whole is refolved into triangles, which are
all immoveable at the anglés.. The wall-plates fhould be
framed as the ribs of a dome, conftruéted as in the laft
example.
When a dome is to fupport a heavy cupola of ftone, fuch
a conftru@tion as that of the cathedral of St. Paul’s, Lon-
don, may be employed. Fig. 3. N° 1. exhibits the trufs of
this dome, taken from accurate meafurement. AaaA,a
dome of brick, two bricks thick, which, as it rifes every
five feet, has a courfe of ftrong bricks 18 inches long, bond-
ing through the whole thicknefs. Bd B is a cone, built
with bricks one foot fix inches in thicknefs, for fupporting
the heavy cupola above, of Portland ftone, which is 21 feet
diameter, and near 61 feet high, and alfo the timber-work
of the dome. The horizontal or hammer-beams, C,C, &e.
being curioufly tied to the corbels D, D, D, &c. with iron
cramps, which are bedded into the corbels with lead, and
bolted to the hammer-beams. N° 2. fhews more particularly
the manner of tying the hammer-beams to the corbels.
This dome is boarded from the bafe upwards, and the
ribs are therefore fixed horizontally, having their fides in
planes tending to the centre of the dome. ‘The contour of
the dome is formed of two circular fegments, which meet in
the axis like a pointed arch. The feantlings of the curve
rib of the trufs are 10 inches by 114 at the bottom, and
6 inches by 6 attop. It has a very ftrong double iron chain,
linked together at the bottom of the cone, and feveral other
lefs ones between that and the cupola, which may be feen
in that beautiful feétion of St. Paul’s, engraved by Rooker.
This dome was turned upon a centre, which was fupported
without any ftandards from below. Ass every ftory of the
feantling was circular, and the ends of the ledgers meeting
like fo many rings, and truly wrought, it fupported itfelf ;
and as it was both centering and {caffolding it remained =
the
ROOF.
the ufe of the painter, there being a {pace of twelve feet
between it and the dome. This machine, it is faid, was
original of its kind.
Roor, Rotative, or Rotatory, in Aftronomy, is one which
is made to turn round in a horizontal diretion, fo that its
openings or doors may be direéted to any azimuthal line in
the concave expanfe of the heavenly regions. In a tranfit
room, where a meridian line is the only one that is wanted,
a fixed roof, with trap-doors opening at different altitudes
above one another, fufficiently anfwers the purpofe of the
aftronomer ; but in an obfervatory, where an in{trument
that meafures azimuths as well as altitudes is placed; or
where a good telefcope, of either the achromatic refraGting,
or reflecting conftruétion, is ufed, for viewing the ftars and
planets in various parts of the heavens on the fame evening,
a rotative roof is indifpenfably requifite. The conftruétion
which has been moit generally adopted, and which we fhall
firft deferibe, was contrived by the ingenious Mr. Smeaton,
one of whofe papers, of the date of 1788, now lying before
us, was defigned for the late Mr. Aubert’s objervatory at
Highbury, and will fupply us with materials fufficient for
the purpofe of illuftration. In Plate XXII. of Affronomical
Inflrumentsy fig. 1. reprefents a fe€tion of the whole roof
along that plane, which pafles through the doors, or open-
ing, that divides it into two equal portions; fig. 2. is the
plan of the fame, and ferves to illuftrate fig. 13 in both thefe,
a, a, are the rafters, or door-cheeks, covered by two oblong
doors meeting at the apex, and fo contrived by clofe fitting,
as to exclude the rain and {now when nicely made. An en-
larged feGtion acrofs one of thefe doors is feen in fig. 3, and
will be explained prefently. The frame of the roof is co-
vered with alternate boards of deal of a triangular fhape,
tongued into one another at the edges, and when perfeétly
put together with ftrong glue, and feveral times painted
over, will be light, and will laft feveral years ; but if a coat
of copper, particularly of tinned copper of Mr. Wyatt’s
patent manufactory, be fuperadded, the weight will not be
confiderable, and the durability will be enfured. A {quare
foot of Mr. Wyatt’s copper of the thinneft kind weighs a
pound, and therefore a given number of fquare feet will be
covered by fo many pounds weight. An edge plate, formed
into a circle, terminates the eaves, and conceals a ftrong an-
nular fupport, which refts on ten rollers, five of which are
feen in fg. 1, three as circles, and two at the extremities of
the roof in feétion as {mall parallelograms. All the ten
rollers are reprefented in the ring feen in fig. 4, which is
united by five pairs of hinges that conneét the five equal
portions thereof, as feen on the plane of the ring ; while
each of thefe five portions contain two rollers feen in fection,
and one handle projefting inwards. The ufe of the hinges
is to allow each of the five portions of the ring to yield to
the preflure of the fuperincumbent roof, in order that all
the rollers may be made to aé in every pofition of the roof,
in the event of any of the parts becoming diftorted or par-
tially worn. This ring, which receives the pivots of the
rollers, lies intermediate between the roof and fixed circle
that bears the whole weight, and is reprefented by the letters
4,6, in fig. 1, the fixed circle or bed being denoted by the
letters ¢,¢; both which, in the feGion, appear as ftraight
lines, though they are circles or rings, as above defcribed,
and the fixed one, cc, retts on ftrong upright pieces, d, d,
properly braced by frame-work, which it is not neceflary to
fhew. _ From this fhort defcription the reader will now con-
ceive that the roof is feparated from the bed cc, by exactly
the whole diameter of the rollers, which therefore ought to
be turned nicely to the fame dimenfions, in order to preferve
the horizontal pofition of the ring, and to make the rollers
aét {moothly, when the roof is pufhed round by any force
internally applied ; but unlefs fome provifion is made, more
than we have yet defcribed, the roof might be pufhed from
its bed, and be upfet ; to avoid this accident a groove is
made along the upper face of the annular bed cc, in which
the rollers move, and while all the parts of this contrivance
remain unaltered by the weather, the action of the rollers is .
uniform, and the conftruétion anfwers its purpofe in a fatif-
factory manner: but in many inftances, we learn that the
work of turning a large roof, thus conftruéted, becomes
laborious, in confequence of either the ring of rollers, or
the groove in the bed, taking an elliptical fhape, in a
{mall degree, by partial fhrinking or fwelling in different
ftates of the atmofphere; in which cafe the rollers bind
in the groove, and require mechanical force to move them,
in certain parts of the revolution; which force will of
courfe ftrain the joints, and ultimately deftroy the union of
the different parts of the ftru€ture. It is, therefore, of im-
portance that an attention be paid to the grain of the wood,
as well as to its being feafoned, before the upper covering
be attached; which precaution will prevent the bad effeét
of external moifture. Ate, in fig. 3. is one of the hinges
of the doors, attached firft to the fide of the door, and then
to a piece of wood that lies over the roof to receive the
{crews, without penetrating the roof itfelf; and the crank-
fhape of the feétion of the door will explain how it clafps
the door-cheeks, fo as to exclude the admiffion of rain or
{now, fo long as the materials do not warp or decay. The
handle-piece, f, pufhes the door back, and brings it clofe
again, by the aid of a ftaff with a hook at the end, that
takes hold of the ring at the lower extremity of the
handle f, when the roof is too far elevated for the reach of
the human hand. During the perufal of this account of
the mechanifm of Smeaton’s rotatory roof, it may have oc-
curred to the reader, that the rollers might have been at-
tached to the annular portion of the roof, which now refts
on the upper extremities of the rollers, and that confe-
quently the ring, that now carries the faid rollers, and that
is reprefented by fig. 4, might have been omitted. But the
inventor had a good pra¢tical reafon for the introdution of
this ring, which may not yet have occurred to our reader $
and it might perhaps puzzle him to difcover it, without our
affiftlance. Smeaton knew very well that the roof with
rollers, or {mall wheels under it, would move in a groove
made in the bed to receive them; but he knew, moreover,
that, to move in a circular groove, the diameters of the
rollers could not be great, without flicking fait againft the
fides of the faid groove; and, alfo, that the pivots of the
rollers muft be /frong, to fupport the whole roof. The re-
lative diameters of the rollers, and of their pivots, on which
the quantity of fri€tion depends, would not confequently
produce, under thefe circumftances, the eafy motion of the
roof that coniftitutes a leading obje& of the aftronomer; the
ring was, therefore, introduced, for the purpofe of di-
minifhing the frigtion one-half, without altering the neceflary
dimenfions of the rollers, and of their pivots ; which effeé&
may be thus explained. In the firft place, fuppofing the
roof to be moving forwards on rollers attached to it, hke a
carriage on wheels; in this cafe, the velocity of the roof
and Bie rollers, or of the carriage and wheels, would be
the fame ; and the horizontal diltance pafled over in a given
number of revolutions of the roller, or wheels, would be
meafured by the circumference of the roller, or wheel, mul-
tiplied by its number of revolutions; and the mechanical
diminution of friction would be as the diameter of the roller
to that of the pivot of the axis, or of the wheel to that of
its axle, When a motion is thus produced ig a roof, or in
a carriage,
ROOF.
& carriage, we may fay that it rides on, or is carried by its
roller, or wheel, and that with the fame velocity with which
the roller or wheel moves forwards, by virtue of its rota-
tions. But, in the next place, let the rollers be confidered
as attached to the ring in fig. 4, which has as many holes
cut through it as there are rollers for them to pafs through ;
and let us conceive this ring to be put in motion, as it is
placed on its circular bed cc, without any reference to the
roof. In this fituation, the ring rides on, or is carried by
the rollers with their velocity, as the roof or carriage was
on our firft {uppofition. Let now the roof reft on wedges
placed on the ring, but fo as not to touch the rollers, and it
will alfo ride as before, with the velocity of the rollers;
but remove the wedges, and let the roof fall upon the upper
edges of the rollers, and it will now have two motions com-
bined: for, firft, it will ride in common with the ring on
which it refts, in the way we have defcribed; and, fe-
condly, it will be urged by the rollers aGting on its annular
face, as fo many toothlefs pinions, with a fimilar velocity
with which it rides on the rollers, along with the ring ; or,
in other words, the roof will have double the velocity of the
ring on which the rollers are fixed. ‘To underftand this. ef-
fect more clearly, let the reader fuppofe himfelf in an open
carriage. While he fits till, he is carried with the velocity
of his vehicle ; but if he fhould venture to place his foot on
the circumference of one of the wheels, in getting ont,
while the vehicle isin motion, he will run the rifk of being
tofled forward by the faid moving wheel with an increafed
velocity, that will convince him of the danger of fuch an ex-
periment. This effec is familiar to all, but the caufe is not
generally confidered, perhaps but little underftood.
In order that the adaptation of all the parts that are con-
nected with the rollers may be the more evident, we have
given an enlarged fe€tion of one corner of the roof, near the
eaves, within the ring of fig. 4, which, therefore, may be
confidered as a*feparate figure, in which the fame letters
reprefent the fame parts as in fig. 1: namely, a is one of
the rafters, forming one of the door-cheeks, projecting
above the covering of the roof; 44, the roller, feen both in
fe&tion and plan; c, a fetion of the fixed annular bed; g, a
fection of the moveable annular part of the roof, on which
the eaves lie; and ¢4, an iron cranked bar, fcrewed to g
above, and therefore moving with the roof, but in fuch
way, that the crooked part at / lies jnft below an annular
piece #, attached to the bed ¢; fo that if any blaft of wind,
or other external force, fhould move the roof, it will be fe-
cured from overfetting, by the crank-bar at 4 catching the
faid fixed piece i; and if four or more of thefe crank-bars
be ufed, the roof will be fecure in all direétions.
The objeétion which we have ftated, as applying to the
conftruétion of Smeaton’s roof, has very lately been ob-
viated by the Rev. W. Pearfon of Haft Sheen, Surrey,
who has juft finifhed a rotative dome, to receive a large and
very accurate circular inflrument for meafuring azimuths,
as well as altitudes, by Troughton; which inftrument was
originally ordered by the Ruffian Academy, but was coun-
termanded by reafon of the ravages committed by the French
in Ruffia, at the time that the conftruCtion of it was in
hand. This dome is reprefented in fkeleton in fg. 5,
where the circular rafters are feen at fixteen equal diitances,
exclufive of the opening, aa, aa, which is nearly nine
inches, through which the telefcope of the initrument,
placed on the tep of the pillar A, is dire&ted to any part of
the heavens. This femicircular opening, which divides the
dome into two equal portions, or quarters of an oblong
{phere, is covered by five doors, two on each fide, and one
at the fummit ; but in fuch a yay, that a {mall door on one
fide faces a large one on the other, and the top door takes
in five or fix inches more on one fide than on the other, fo
that there is no altitude to which the telefcope may not be
direted, by reverfing the pofition of the dome, i.e. by
turning it juft half round, when neceflary; and yet the
fittings are fo contrived, that any one of the doors may be
opened, while the reft are fhut. The two quarters of the
oblong fphere are conneéted by brafs bars at the points
where the dosrs meet, and grooves are made on the edges
of the rafters, that form the door-cheeks; fo that any rain,
that may be driven into the fides or ends of the doors, runs
down thefe grooves to the eaves, and difappears, without
being admitted within. We have not thought it neceflary
to fhew thefe doors, which turn back on hinges, placed at
their edges, upon the roof, which is covered firft with tri-
angular flips of deal about three-eighths thick, and then
with tinned copper from Wyatt’s manufa&tory; which
metal being eatily feamed, requires not the aid of many
nails. The ornament at the top, being light, turns back
with the top-door, and lies alfo on the Bor while obferva-
tions are made in or near the zenith. The rotative part of
this roof is of the fimpleft conftruction that can well be
imagined, and yet is fafe, and more free from friction than
Smeaton’s, though made with the utmoft care. The ring
of rollers is here entirely left out, and three large balls of
lignum vite are fubftituted in a detached ftate, that is,
without any fixed axis of motion, or pivots; and a four-
fided circular tunnel is fo formed of wood, that thefe balls,
by their fimilarity of dimenfions, keep their relative diftances
from one another, and aé as friétion-rollers both in a ver=
tical and horizontal direétion; nay, even in both at once,
whenever they happen to come in contaé with either of the
fides of the faid tunnel. The balls, which are 42 inches in
diameter each, are fhewn in fg. 5. at oppofite diameters of
the dome, near the eaves, as though four were ufed, for the
fake of exhibiting their mode of pofition and ation; but
three only are much better, becaufe in every fituation of
their revolution they are certain to bear equal fhares of the
whole weight, when the bed is horizontal; and there-
fore none of them will refufe to move, when the dome is
pufhed round; but fhould they happen to gain ground
of one another in meyin forwards, by any difference in their
diameters, they will refume their original fituations refpec-
tively during the backward motion of the dome. Fig. 6.
is an enlarged fcale of the tunnel and of one of the balls, in
which A is a portion of the roof, terminated by the annular
piece of deal B, which is lined with the annular piece of
wainfcot C, to both which the covering-piece D above
the eaves is fcrewed; E is a piece of wainfcot forming the
inner fide of the tunnel, and G is a continuation of one of
the upright planks attached to the annular bed H, and forms
the exterior fide of the fame. All the four fides of ‘the
{quare tunnel, which we called eircular, becaufe it furrounds
the circular erection, are either of wainfcot, or lined with
wainfcot, to come in contaét with the lignam vite which
compofes the balls ; though the rings of deal, B and I, might
have been in contaét with the balls, if they had been hard
enough; but the weight of a dome, of nearly ten feet dia-
meter, covered with copper, would, in that cafe, have pro-
duced hollow places, that might have impeded the uniform
motion of the balls. The piece J is one of the fupporters
of the bed I, to which the deal planks G are made faft, and
alfo the external pilaiters that ornament the vertical portion
of the ftru€ture. In this dome the velocity of the fuper-
ftruGure, as in Smeaton’s, is double to that of the balls ;
and as thefe are left at liberty to turn in any direCtion, where
an obitacle to motion is prefented to any of them, they in-
9 ftantly
ROO
ftantly right themfelves, and fet forwards again with their
load without impedimient, and without groaning. A cranked
bar attached to the piece E, and bending below a ring, faft
to the bed I, but not fhewn in the figure, prevents the dome
from overturning by either accident or violence, and by the
aid of a thumb-{crew fixes it in any given pofition. This
conitruétion was, we believe, fuggefted firft by Mr. Trough-
ton, and as it has not been long in ufe, we cannot forelee
what objections may hereafter apply to it ; but we give the
particulars of it from a perfuafion, that it will be found to
be aconfiderable improvement on Smeaton’s, and that it
may ultimately be generally adopted.
Roors, in Rural Economy, are formed of many different
forts of materials. Thatch was formerly almoft in general
ufe for covering the roofs of farm-buildings; but it is ob-
vioufly objeétionable on many accounts ; it not only ferves as
a hiding-place for rats, mice, infects, birds, and other forts of
vermin ; but it is extremely perifhable in its nature, fubjeé
to be much damaged by high winds, and of courfe liable to
frequent repairs, and, above all, highly dangerous from its
combuttible nature ; it is, therefore, probably the moft im-
proper, the leaft fafe, and, in the end, the moft expentfive
material that can be employed for the purpofe. Mr. Middle-
ton, however, thinks that it keeps out the fummer’s heat and
winter’s cold more effeCtually than any other material now
in ufe ; but that, as it is not quite fo compaét and fightly as
flates or tiles, and the ftraw being of fuch value for other
purpofes, it will probably be fuperfeded by them. Tiles,
though little expofed to danger from fire, do not, by any
means, conftitute a good roof, being ill calculated for pre-
ferving grain or other farm produce. In fummer they ad-
mit a heat very unfriendly to hay, corn, or ftraw, while, in
winter, they are equally objeCtionable, on the ground of
tran{mitting moifture in a high degree, while flates, though
more expenfive at firft, are liable to none of thefe obje¢tions,
efpecially when of the more thick kind. A roof covered
with them, therefore, anfwers every ufeful purpofe, and is
very durable, lafting half a century, with very flight repairs
in any way.
In the Middlefex Report on Agriculture, it is remarked
on this important fubjeét, in fpeaking of the roofs of houfes,
that pantiles are fo eafily heated through by the fun during
the fummer months, that ‘the rooms underneath are as hot
as an oven; while, in the winter feafon, in every common
froft, thefe tiles are fo completely frozen through, as to be-
come as cold as a covering of ice. Thefe extremes muit
confequently have a very bad effet on the health of the
inhabitants. The blue flates are fo very thin, as to be
equally liable to the fame objection, particularly as they
are now laid on moft of our fafhionable houfes, under
Wyatt’s patent. They are rather better when laid on
in the common manner, that is, on double Jaths, but much
better on boards. Plain tiles make a contiderably more
temperate covering for houfes than either pantiles or flates,
by reafon of their being laid double and in mortar, and
thereby forming a much thicker and clofer roof. In this
they are nearly equalled by the thick or ftone flating of the
midland counties ; they might alfo be glazed of a flate co-
four ; in whichcafe they would make a roof more handfome,
temperate, and durable than any. other covering material
now known.
Some other fubftances have been had recourfe to in this
intention. In different parts of the country, cements of
various kinds, and coarfe paper laid over with refin, tar, &c.
and other fimilar matters, have been tried, but with no very
promifing fuccefs as to their application. In fome parts of
Devonfhire, though flate is by no means difficult to be pro-
vel @)(0)
cured, a fubititute for that fort of covering is, Mr. Van-
couver aflerts, getting very much into ufe, which is prepared
in the following manner :—three parts of whiting, five of
fand, one of pounded charcoal, and one of bone-afhes, to
a barrel of common tar, to which are added four pounds of
black refin ; the two lait materials are to be melted together,
and, when boiling, the other ingredients are to be added in
{mall quantities, keeping them conitantly ftirred and in mo-
tion over the fire, until the whole mafs becomes of a confift-
ence fit for ufe. Then the roof, being previoufly covered
over with fheathing-paper fecurely nailed down, is to be
carefully and evenly {fpread with the liquid hot from the
copper, to the thicknefs of about three quarters of an inch;
which will coft, at the cauldron, about thirty-five fhillings
for each fquare of ten feet. The fame meafure of the com-
mon flate roof will coft about thirty-two fhillings. The
roofs for this fort of compofition are pitched very flat, and,
from the lightnefs of the fcantling which is neceffary in
their conftruétion, come confiderably cheaper than thofe
required for carrying flate or tiles.
Materials of the reed and heath kinds have alfo been tried
as coverings for the roofs of farm-houfes and Cottages, in
places where they are capable of being procured in fufficient
quantities for fuch purpofes; and, though they are con-
fiderably more durable than common ftraw thatch, they are
fubjeé to all the inconveniencies and obje€tions of that fort
of covering. Indeed, no kind of material that has hitherto
been made ufe of for forming the coverings of the roofs of
buildings are quite free from imperfections of fome fort or
other. It is confequently a matter of great individual, as
well as national importance, to be acquainted with a fubitance
which is not liable to any fuch defeéts, as a good, cheap,
and durable material of fuch a nature, for this ufe would evi-
dently be a moft valuable difcovery, as fuch a material is ftill
clearly wanting for this purpofe.
Roor, Attic of a. See ATTIC.
Roor, Fal/e. See Fase.
Roor, Hip. See Hip Roof, and Roor, fupra.
Roor-Trees, or Rurr-trees, are the timbers, in a fhip,
which go from the half-deck to the forecaftle. See Roucu-
Tree.
The term is alfo ufed for the upper timbers of any build-
ing ; whence, in the northern counties, it is common to
fignify a whole family, by faying all under fuch-a-one’s -
roof-tree.
Roor-Tyles. See Tyxx.
ROOFING, in Rural Economy, fometimes a word ap-
plied provincially to the ridge-cap of thatched roofs. It alfo
fignifies any fort of material employed in forming the roof
of a building, whether in the frame-work, or covering. In
the bufinefs of roofing farm or other buildings, the chief
circumttance neceflary to be attended to, is that of tying the
two fide-parts well together, and in a fafe manner, by means
of the wall-plates and binding-beams; efpecially thofe
ereCtions which are of the more long kind, without any crofs-
walls to ftiffen and fupport them. It has been remarked,
that it is generally for want of attention to thefe matters that
farm-buildings, as well as thofe of other forts, are fo fre-
quently feen propped up with fhores and buttrefles; or
fallen to the ground half a century fooner, perhaps, than
they would have done under a better and more judicious
management. And it ought, indeed, to be a general prin-
ciple, or line of condud, which every careful and intelligent
manager fhould follow in ere€ting fuch buildings ;—a prin-
ciple which is equally applicable to the other parts as well
as the timber and the covering : whichis, that of {paring no
requilite expenditure ; asa few fhillings, or pounds, of cee
: tional |
ROO
tional coft, in the firft inftance, may be the faving of ten
times the fum in the end. *Sy :
In the work of repairing buildings of this nature, the
roofing claims equally the regard of the manager, with thofe
of the foundations and other external parts. But the infide
works, in all cafes, more commonly and properly demand
the notice of the occupiers.
ROOGEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Courland; 36 miles E.N.E. of Piltyn.
ROOK, in Ornithology, a well-known bird of the crow-
kind. See Corvus Frugilegus.
Great care fhould be taken to guard againtt | thefe
mifchievous birds at the time bad the ie r jutt
oting up; for they perceive it fhooting much fooner
au hd fatmer can, a a led by the thoot to pick it
up. They muit therefore be carefully kept off the ground
until about a week or ten days after this feafon ; for at the
end of that time the blade will be grown up, and the grain
fo exhaufted of its fubftance, that they will not give them-
felves any trouble to pick it out of the ground. They
feldom or ever mole{ft the wheat, which is fown about
Michaelmas ; becaule fo much grain of the late harveit then
lies fcattered about the fields, that they find it much eafier
to pick up there, than to fearch for corn under ground in new-
fown lands. They often do harm when the {now is going off
from the green wheat towards the end of winter; for
having been pinched for food during that feafon, they then
greedily pluck up the young plants, in order to come at
the remainder of the feeds {till adhering to their roots;
and are greatly affifted in this by the loofe ftate of the earth
at that time. d
And they are alfo highly deftructive to pea and bean
crops in the early {pring feafon, when they firft appear
above the ground, as they dig up the whole, both root and
ftem, even when confiderably advanced in growth. They
mutt, therefore, be kept off with great care. A great
many contrivances have been invented to frighten them
away, fuch as feathers ftuck up, the limbs of rooks feat-
tered about the ground, dead rooks hung on flicks, the
un, a boy to halloo, and tofs a dead rook up in the air.
Mr. Tull found this laft to be the moft effectual. It is
probable, however, that firing at them frequently with a
gun is the moft certain means of deterring them from
doing fuch injuries, as they have a great diflike to the fmell
of gunpowder. tere
It is remarked by Mr. Marlhall, in his Rural Economy of
Norfolk, that the method of frightening rooks in practice
there, efpecially when they take to patches of corn, which
are lodged before harvelt, is fimply to flick up a tall bough
in the part infefted ; and if a gun be fired near the place,
before the bough is fet up, this fimple expedient feldom
fails of being effe€tual. And that if rooks make an attack
after feed-time, or when they take generally to the crop
before harveft, a boy is fet to feare them; they being fel-
dom attempted to be fhot at in Norfolk ; where a notion
prevails, and is perhaps well founded, that rooks are eflen-
tially ufeful to the farmer, in picking up worms and grubs ;
efpecially the grub of the cock-chaffer, which, it is believed,
is frequently injurious to the meadows and marhhes of that
country. This opinion alfo prevails in other diftri@s, and
has moft probably fome foundation in truth, as they are
often feen to follow the plough clofe to pick up fuch
rubs.
It has indeed been ftated, and fuppofed by fome, that
thefe birds do as much good by the deftru&tion of grubs,
infe&ts, worms, and other fimilar forts of animals, as they
produce mifchief by their attacks and ravages on the crops
VoL. XXX.
ROO |
of the farmer ; an inftance in favour of which is noticed to
have occurred on the Yorkfhire fide of the county of Lan-
cafter, where it is faid they wholly devoured, dettroyed,
and removed fome fort of infects, which, like locufts, had
feized upon and taken pofleffion of the grafs-plants of a
large track of grafs-land in that neighbourhood in the early
fpring feafon, and nearly eat up and confumed the whole of
it, to the very great alarm of the farmers of the vicinity ;
but which, on the firft flight of the young rooks, were
foon obferved to be completely eaten up and deftroyed, as
was evident from the frefh grafs quickly {pringing up aad
the furface becoming green again.
Thefe birds are, however, in general confidered as the
greateft peits and plagues of the farmers in the above and
{ome other northern diftriéts, as they not only deftroy
the feed-wheat when newly fown, but drag out of the earth
the {pires of the grain or pulfe feeds with them altogether,
in the manner already fuggefted.
They are alfo, in thefe diftriés, equally deftructive of
the potatoe crops, both at the time of fetting or putting
them into~the ground, and when they are coming up, as
they eat and drag them out with great eagernefs, thereby
cauling much irregularity and mifchief in them. That they
may fometimes, however, be ufeful in the above manner
may readily be fuppofed ; but they exift in fuch vait num-
bers in thefe, and fome other parts of the country, that
the ravages and injuries which they commit, very greatly
preponderate over any good they are capable of perform:
ing inthe ways that have been already ftated.
They are, on the whole, an impudent and mifchievous race
of birds, with which, all the means the farmer can poflibly
take in the way of {caring them, are too often of very little
avail. They frequently go to very great diftances, fo that
the ravages they are produétive of are of an extenfive
nature, and not confined to particular places or tra€ts of
country only. The only fafety for the farmer, therefore,
feems to confift in the prevention of their breeding and rear-
ing their young, and their deftru@ion and eradication, as
much as poffible, in other ways. See Rookery.
ROOKE, Lawrence, in Biography, an able mathema-
tician, was defcended from a refpe¢table family, and born
at Deptford, in Kent, in the year 1623. He was educated
in grammar-learning at Eton {chool, whence he removed, in
1639, to King’s college; in the univerfity of Cambridge,
where he took his degrees. In 1650 he went to Oxford,
where he had apartments in Wadham college, for the fake
of improving in the fociety of Dr. Wilkins, and Mr. Seth
Ward. He at length became a fellow-commoner of the
college, and made it his principal place of refidence for fome
years, during which he affifted Mr. Boyle in his chemical
experiments. In 1652, Mr. Rooke was ele&ted profeflor of
altronomy at Grefham college, and in the fame year he
made fome obfervations, at Oxford, on the comet which
appeared in the month of December, and which obferva-
tions were printed by Mr. Ward in 1653. In 1657, Mr.
Rooke exchanged the altronomical profellorfhip at Grefham
college for that of geometry. He was one of the gentle-
men by whofe exertions the Royal Society was firft formed,
though he did not live long enough to fee it eftablithed by
the royal charter. Among the men of rank who cultivated
his acquaintance was the marquis of Dorchefter, who was
not only a patron of learning, but very learned himfelf; and
after the reftoration, that nobleman frequently entertained
Mr. Rooke as a vifitor at his feat at Highgate, whence he
ufed to bring him in his carriage every Wednefday to the
Royal Society, which then met weekly at Grefham college.
Mr. Rooke had always a tender conttitution, and walking
38S from
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from. Highgate to London on a hot fummer’s day, he
took cold, which proved fatal to him. He died in June
1662, in the goth year of his age. He was highly efteemed
by his contemporaries, as will appear from the following
teftimonies. Dr. Pope, in his life of Ward, bifhop of Sa-
lifbury, fpeaking of Mr. Rooke, fays he was profoundly
filled in all forts of learning: «I durit,’’ fays he, ‘ ven-
ture my life upon the truth of any propofition which he
aflerted, either in mathematics, natural philofophy, or hif-
tory, for I never knew him affirm any thing pofitively, that
was dubious. And when I have afked his opinion of an
hypothefis, his ufual anfwer was, I have no opinion. He was
very modeit, and {paring of his words, unlefs among inti-
mate friends, and never talked idly. I may truly fay I
hever was acquainted with any perfon who knew more and
fpoke lefs.””_ Mr. Hooke places him among thofe who were
moft eminent for their knowledge and improvement of aftro-
nomy. Dr. Sprat, in his Hiltory of the Royal Society,
fpeaks of him as ‘a man of a profound judgment, a vaft
comprehenfion, prodigious memory, and folid experience.
His {kill in mathematics was reverenced by all the lovers of
thofe ftudies, and his perfeftion in many forts of learning
deferves no lefs admiration.”’
The only pieces which were publifhed from his papers
confift of “* Obfervationes in Cometam, qui menfe Decem-
bri Anno 1652 apparuit ;” “ Directions for Seamen going
to the Eaft and Weft Indies,’? which were drawn up at the
appointment of the Royal Society, and inferted in their
TranfaGtions for 1665; ‘ A Method for obferving the
Eclipfes of the Moon;’? “ A Difcourfe concerning the
Obfervations of the Eclipfes of the Satellites of Jupiter ;”
and “An Account of an Experiment made with Oil in a
long Tube.”? Ward’s Life of the Grefham Profeffors.
Rooke, Sir GrEorGE, a celebrated naval commander, the
fon of fir William Rooke, knight, of an ancient and ho-
nourable family in the county of Kent, was born in 1650.
Though deftined for another profeffion, a {trong inclination
for the fea-fervice induced him to enter into the navy. His
firft {tation was that ofa volunteer, in which he diftinguifhed
himfelf by his undaunted courage and indefatigable applica-
tion to bufinefs. He very foon obtained the poit of lieu-
tenant, from whence he rofe to that of captain before he
was thirty years of age, which was confidered as a very ex-
traordinary circumitance, at a time when no man, be his
quality what it would, was advanced to that {tation before he
had given ample teftimonies of his being able to fill it with
honour. Thefe preferments he obtained during the reign of
Charles II. and under his fucceflor, James II., he was ap-
pointed to the command of the Deptford, a fourth rate man of
war. His obligations to the Stuart family did not prevent his
hearty concurrence in the revolution, and in 1689 he was ap-
pointed by admiral Herbert as commodore, with a fquadron
on the coait of Ireland. In this ftation he concurred with
major-general Kirke in the famous relief of Londonderry.
Soon after he was employed in efcorting the duke of Schom-
berg’s army, and landing them fafe near Carrickfergus, fa-
cilitated the fiere of that place, and, after it was taken,
failed with his fquadron along the coaft; where he firft
looked into the harbour of Dublin, manned all his boats, and
infulted the place where king James was in perfon; and in
the night of the 18th of September, he formed the defign
of burning all the veffels in the harbour, which he would
certainly have executed, if the wind had not fhifted and
driven him out to fea. In 1690 he was, upon the recom-
mendation of the earl of Torrington, appointed rear-admiral
of the red, and in that rank he ferved in the fight off
Beachy-Head, in which unfortunate affair it was admitted,
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on all hands, that he had done his duty. He was employed
twice or thrice to convoy king William to Holland, and in
1692 he was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral of the
blue, when he ferved in the famous battle of La Hogue.
This was on the 22d of May, and he behaved with fuch
diftinguifhed courage as to obtain the moft marked applaufe
of admiral Ruffel, it being owing to his vigorous behaviour
that the laft ftroke was given to that important day, which
threw the French entirely into confufion, and forced them to
run fuch hazards, in order to fhelter themfelves from their
victorious enemies. ‘The next day was, however, {till more
glorious, for vice-admiral Rooke had orders to go into La
Hogue and burn the enemy’s fhips as they lay. There were
thirteen large men of war, which had crowded up as far as
poflible, and the tranfports, tenders, and fhips with ammu-
nition, were difpofed in fuch a manner that it was thought
impoffible to burn them. Moreover, the French camp was
in fight, with all the troops intended to have been employed
in an invafion of this country, and feveral batteries upon the
coaft well f{upplied with heavy artillery. Notvithitanding
all thefe preparations, admiral Rooke performed the bufinefs
entrufted to him with fo much fkill and judgment, that he
deftroyed twelve fhips of the line, and one fifty-fix gun fri-
gate. This defperate enterprife he effeGted with the lofs of
ten-men only. The behaviour of the vice-admiral at La
Hogue appeared to the king fo great, and fo worthy of
public notice, that, having no opportunity at that time of
providing for him, he fettled upon him a penfion of r1ooo/.
per annum for his life. In 1693 the honour of knighthood
was conferred upon him, and he was, at the fame time, made
vice-admiral of the red. :
The grand fleet of the Englifi and Dutch proceeding to
fea in the month of May, fir George Rooke was detached
from it with a fquadron of twenty-three fhips of bot na-
tions, to convoy a large fleet of merchantmen up the Medi-
terranean. The French, in the mean time, had been indefa-
tigable in repairing their lofles, and with a very powerful
fleet, of which the Englifh miniftry had obtained no proper
intelligence, were lying in Lagos-bay, off Portugal, to inter-
cept the combined fleet. On deferying the enemy, admiral
Rooke ordered the {maller fhips to make their efcape into
the nearelt Spanifh ports, and ftood off under an eafy fail for
the protection of the reft. Two Dutch men of war, and a
great number of merchant-fhips, were captured : the conduct
of the Englifh admiral was, however, not only exempt from
all blame, but he received the thanks of the merchants, and
his promotion was not in the leait impeded by this misfor-
tune, which was owing to the mifmanagement of the mi-
nifters. In 1696, having the chief command of the Channel’
fleet, he was ordered to prevent the Toulon fleet from get-
ting into Breit, which, from the defeCtive manning of his
fhips, he was unable to accomplifh. On this account he
underwent along examination before the houfe of commons,
but nothing appeared upon which a charge again{fthim could
be founded. He continued in command till the peace of
Ryfwick, in 1697. He was chofen member of parliament
for Port{mouth, and in this capacity he performed the duties
of his itation with aétivity and energy ; however, as he
moftly voted with the Tories, great pains were taken by the
oppotite party to ruin him in the king’s opinion ; but, to the
honour of king William, when prefled to remove fir George
Rooke from his feat at the admiralty, he anfwered refolutely,
«¢ T will not.” “* Sir George (continued his majefty) ferved
me faithfully at fea, and 1 never will difplace him for ating
as he thinks moft for the fervice of his country in the houfe
of commons :”? an an{wer truly worthy of a Britifh prince, as
it tends to preferve the freedom of the conftitution, and the
liberty
roo
liberty of parliament. In 1700 he was fent with an Englifh
{quadron, in conjunétion with a Dutch one, into the Baltic,
to preferve the balance of power in the North, where a con-
federacy had been formed againft Charles XII., the young
king of Sweden. Rooke bombarded Copenhagen, and a
peace being effected in the courfe of the year, he returned.
{In the following year he aéted as commander of the Channel
fleet ; and being a fecond time chofen reprefentative for
Port{mouth, he continued to aét with the oppofition. This
line of conduét was confidered as highly meritorious with the
mini{try of queen Anne, who fucceeded to the crown in 1702 ;
and when war with France was declared, he was appointed as
vice-admiral of England, to an united Englifh and Dutch
fleet, in an expedition againft Cadiz, the duke of Ormond
being commander of the land forces. The plan failed, pro-
bably for want of a proper degree of cordiality between the
fea and land-fervice. Soon after, fir George obtaining intel-
ligence that twenty-two Spanith galleons, guarded by a
f{quadron of French men of war, were arrived in the harbour
of Vigo, failed thither ; and fending a detachment of his
fleet, with fire-fhips, into the harbour, deftroyed all the
enemy’s men of war, and a number of galleons, and took the
reft. A valt booty was brought home, and a new coinage
of filver, with the ftamp Vigo, was iflued as a national me-
morial of this brilliant fuccefs. On his return home, fir
George Rooke was appointed to a feat in the privy council,
and aa inquiry having been moved in the houfe of lords into
his conduct at Cadiz, it was voted that he had honourably
difcharged his duty.
In 1704 he was appointed to the command of the fleet
deftined to convey to Lifbon Charles, at that time com-
petitor for the crown of Spain. Having performed that
fervice he preceeded to the Mediterranean, where he cruifed
for fome time. On his return through the Straits, he was
joined by fir Cloudefley Shovel with a large reinforcement,
and feveral fchemes of further fervice being propofed, he
determined to make a fudden attempt on Gibraltar. This
he carried into execution in July, and the prince of Hefle,
with the land forces, being difembarked on the neck, the
fhips proceeded to cannonade the fortifications at the mole.
The enemy were driven from their guns, and a_ party
of feamen landing, took poffeflion of the batteries. The
governor, intimidated by this bold and unexpeéted aétion,
capitulated ; and that important fortrefs has ever fince re-
mained in the hands of the Englifh. Sir George Rooke
then proceeded to Malaga, where he encountered the
French fleet under the count de Touloufe. The numbers
on each jide were nearly equal in fhips of the line, but the
French were fuperior in men and guns. The engagement,
which enfued Auguft 13th, was undecided, neither party
lofing a fhip, and each returned to their own ports. ;
Factions now ran high in the nation; and fir George
Rooke, perceiving that as he rofe in credit with his country,
he loft his interelt with perfons in power, refolved to retire
from public bufinefs, and prevent the affairs of the nation
from receiving any injury on his account. ‘Thus, almoft
immediately after he had taken the important fortrefs of
Gibraltar, and beaten the whole naval force of France in the
battle of Malaga, he was conftrained to quit his command:
and as the Tories had before driven tke earl of Orford from,
his poft immediately after the battle of La Hogue, fo the
Whigs returued them the compliment, by making ufe of
their afcendancy to the like purpofe with regard to fir
George Rooke. After this return for the important fer-
vices he had done his country, fir George Rooke paffed
the remainder of his days as a private gentleman, and, for
the moft part, at his feat in Kent. ‘ His zeal for the
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church,” {ays the difcerning Campbell, ‘ and his ftri& ad-
herence to the Tories, made him the darling of one fet
of people, and expofed him no lefs to the averfion of
another, which is the reafon that an hiftorian finds it diffi-
cult to obtain his true charaéter from the writings of thofe
who flourifhed in the fame period of time. For my part,
I have ftudied his ations, and his behaviour, and from thence
have colleéted, that he was certainly an officer of great
merit ; if either conduct or courage could entitle him to
that character.”
In party matters he was perhaps too warm and eager ;
but in aétion he was perfeétly cool and temperate, gave his
orders with the utmoft ferenity ; and as he was careful in
marking the conduét of his principal officers, fo his candour
and juftice were always con{picuous in the accounts he gave
of them to his fuperiors; he there knew no party, no
private confiderations, but commended merit wherever it
appeared.
In private life he was a good hufband and a kind matter,
lived hofpitably towards his neighbours and left behind him
a moderate fortune: fo moderate, that when he came to
make his will, it furprifed thofe that were prefent ; but
fir George exclaimed, “ I do not leave much, but what I
have was honeftly gotten; it never coft a failor a tear, or
the nation a farthing.’? He died in January 1708, in the
58th year of his age, and was interred in the cathedral of
Canterbury. He had been thrice married, and left one for
only. Sir George Rooke has merited very highly the re-
putation of a brave and able feaman, who maintained the
honour of the Britifh flag, at a period when its fuperiority
was much lefs decided than it has been during the prefent
reign. Stockdale’s edition of Campbell’s Lives of the
Admirals, vol. iv.
ROOKERY, in Rural Economy, a term applied to a
nurfery of rooks, or place where they build their nefts,
and colleét in large numbers.
There are every where in many of the northern and other
counties of the kingdom, numbers of fuch deteftable nurfe-
ries of thefe mifchievous and rapacious vermin, where they
are fuffered to breed and multiply in countlefs multitudes,
to the great deftrution of the hopes of the farmer and the
nation at large. If it be neceflary that fuch repofitories
of mifchief to the produce of the hufbandman fhould be
preferved and kept up, for the vernal {port and amufement
of their proprietors, certainly {ome other more certain and
effeGtual means than thofe of the crofs-bow kind fhould be
had recourfe to for the deftruétion of their young, in order
that they may be kept fufficiently reduced and thinned in
their numbers, to obviate, in as great a meafure as poffible,
their baneful depredations and feats on the feeds and pro-
duce of the farmer.
The rooks fly from thefe defpicable abodes, which are
the head-quarters or dwellings where they colleét and re-
pofe themfelves, as well as breed, to very confiderable dif-
tances, in order to execute and effeét their different mif-
chievous and rapacious attacks on the aya fown or rifing
crops of the hufbandman, as they but feldom commit fo
much depredation on the fields which are near home.
They collet together during the feverity of the winter
feafon, efpecially in the more northern diftri€ts, from the
different neighbouring {mall rookeries to be protected in
large ones, and the woods which may happen to be near
them; and thus render themfelves fecure at this inclement
period, feparating in the early {pring to form their nefts and
breed in their particular rookeries.
In Lancafhire, the whole track of the Fildes, as well as
fome others, is befet with thefe deftru€tive and impudent
382 birds,
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birds, from the va{t rookeries and woods of Raweliff-Hall
and other halls in the fame neighbourhood, without the owners
of them ever fufpeéting that they harbour and fupport a
breed of deftruGtive vermin, which greatly injure and leffen
the agricultural produce of the county. The fame is alfo
the cafe in a variety of other diltri¢ts of the kingdom.
Therefore fome fteps fhould be taken, either by feverely
taxing them, or fome other means, in order that the mif-
chievous confequences of fuch nurferies may be leflened, or
wholly prevented, by their affording the convenience of
breeding and rearing of fo many of thefe birds.
ROOKPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; fix
miles N. of Kifhenagur.. N. lat. 24° 28/. EE. long.
86° 46'.
ROOM, in Building. See BuILDING.
Room, Cook. See Cook-Room.
Room, Fruit, in Gardening, a place con{truéted for the
purpofe of {toring and laying up different articles of the
fruit kind. Rooms of this nature are contrived in many
different ways, but the beft are perhaps thofe made with
drawers and fhelves for containing and preferving this fort
of produce in all the different kinds and ftates of it. An
ingenious plan and contrivance of this defcription has
lately been fuggefted and delineated in the fecond volume
of the Tranfactions of the Horticultural Society, by Mr.
Maher, who, has found it, in feveral years’ experience, ex-
tremely ufeful in keeping fruit, efpecially of the apple and
pear kinds. : ;
It is reprefented as confifting of a long {quare form, the
infide of which is fitted up, from the top to near the bot-
tom, with drawers in different divifions, according to the
fize of the room. The number of each of the drawers is
marked upon it, and a {pace left oppofite to each fuch num-
ber, for inferting the name of the particular kind of fruit
it may contain.
The lower rows of drawers have clofe bottoms, and are
termed f{weating drawers, as the fruit is put into them im.
mediately after it is gathered, in order to undergo that ope-
, ration. Then, inthe courfe of ten or fifteen days, accord-
ingly as the apples and pears may be found to have come
forward, they are forted, and the other drawers prepared
for receiying them, by covering the bottoms of them with
very clean wheat ftraw, which has been thoroughly ven-
tilated and rendered quite dry in the open air. ‘The bottoms
of the drawers for this purpofe are to be formed in open
trellis work.
It is recommended, as faving much time and trouble in
running up and down ftairs, to have thefe rooms built upon
the ground furface ; and that the door and window of each
fhould have flides, in order to admit a free circulation of
air, when the weather is fine; but in damp days, or when
it rains, the rooms fhould conttantly be kept fhut up in a
clofe manner.
It is alfo advifed, that a flate and pencil fhould hang in
the rooms, the former of which fhould be divided into feven
different columns, in ‘which may be put down what fruit is
delivered out each day in the week, for the fatisfaétion of
families and feryants.
Where thefe kinds of rooms are conftructed with thelves,
they fhould be formed of fuch forts of wood as commu-
nicate no bad fmells or tattes, and have thin flips of boards
faftened on their fore parts to prevent the fruits from fall-
ing off from ithem. Some advife their being covered all
over with a very coarfe canvas, in order to prevent any
fort of injury in the above way. -The fruit is then to be
laid fingly in rows all over the furfaces of the fhelves after
being well dried, but never heaped over each other. Some
3
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cover it by means of the fame fort of canvas or by paper,
taking care to turn it, and remove all that is damaged, two
or three times during the winter feafon.
When the fruit is firft laid upon the fhelves, the earlieft
fhould be put upon the loweft fhelves, and fo on to the
higheft in their proper order. As this requires much time
in many inftances, it fhould always be done at every leifure
eriod,
, Many, however, think it the beft way of keeping fruit,
to firft put it in glazed earthen pans, well packed and
clofed with covers, which are then to be placed on the
fhelves in thefe drying rooms,
Thefe forts of rooms fhould conftantly be placed in the
molt convenient fituations, and contiguous to the rooms de-
figned for other forts of garden produce.
Rooms, Flight of. See Fucur.
Rooms in houfes might be warmed by the fteam of boil-
ing water conveyed in pipes along their walls. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 476. p. 370. feq.
This contrivance is a copper with a itill-head, and a lead
or copper pipe fixed to this head, which conveys the hot
{team of the boiling-water through the different rooms in-
tended to be warmed.
Rooms, in Ship-Building, the different vacancies between
the timbers, and likewife thofe between the beams, as the
maft-rooms, capftan-rooms, hatch-rooms, &c. Alfo the
different apartments or places of referve, of which there
are a number in. a fhip, as the bread-room, an apartment
in the hold abaft for containing the bread for the fhip’s ufe.
The {pirit-room is adjoining the after-hold, to contain the
{pirituous liquors for the fhip’s ufe. The captain’s and
lieutenant’s ftore-rooms are two apartments built next each
other on the ftarboard fide of the after platform abaft, for
thofe officers to {tow their wine, &c. in.. On the oppofite
fide to the above is the fteward’s room, whence moft of the
provifions are iflued, and which is the place appointed for
the purfer’s fteward to tranfact his bufinefs in. Sail-rooms
are built between decks, upon the orlop or lower deck, to
contain the fpare fails. Befides thefe, there are feveral
other ftore-rooms, in which the carpenter’s, boat{wain’s,
and gunner’s ftores are kept. Filling-room is a place
parted off in the magazine ; it is lined with fheet-lead, and
therein the powder is ftarted, in order to fill the cartridges.
Room and Space, the diftance from the moulding edge
of one timber to the moulding edge of the next timber,
which is always equal to the fiding of two timbers, and the
room or opening between.
Rooms, in a military fenfe, are thofe parts of a building
or barrack, which, by fpecitic inftru€tions, the different
barrack-mafters muft provide, and furnifh for the accom-
modation of the king’s troops in Great Britain or elfewhere.
The {chedule, as publifhed by authority, defcribes the num-
ber of rooms allowed in barracks for the commiffioned,
warrant, and non-commiffioned officers, and private men, to
be as follows:
Cavalry Rooms.—Field-officers, each two rooms; captains,
each one ditto; fubalterns, ftaff, and quarter-matters, each
one ditto; the ferjeants of each troop of dragoons, and the
corporals of each troop of horfe, one ditto; eight rank
and file, one ditto ; officer’s mefs, two ditto.
Infantry Rooms.—Field-officers, each two ditto ; captains,
each one ditto; two fubalterns, one ditto; ftaff, each one
ditto; twelve non-commiffioned officers, and private men,
one ditto; officer’s mefs, two ditto; ferjeant-major, and
quarter-matter ferjeant, one ditto. When there are a fuffi-
cient number of rooms ina barrack, one may be allowed
to each fubaltern of infantry.
ROONAY,
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ROONAY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 33 miles
S.E. of Ghidore.
ROOP, a term applied to fignify a hoarfenefs, fuch as
happens among animals of the cattle kind.
ROOPAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Oude; 31 miles E.N.E. of Manickpour.
ROOPAT, a town on the E. coaft of Sumatra. N. lat.
1° 3!. E. long. 101° 12/.
ROOPGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 34 miles N.N.W.
of Dinagepour.
ROOPGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; five
miles S. of Surat.
ROOPNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Agimere ; 30 miles E, of Agimere. N. lat. 26° 39'. E.
long. 75° 52!.
ROOPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sirhind; 58 miles N. of Sirhind.
ROOS, Puixip, better known by the name of Rofa da
Tivoli, in Biography, was the fecond fon of a painter, whofe
name was John Hendrick Roos; and he was born at Frank-
fort in 1655. His early inclination to the art practifed by
his father, and the proficiency he exhibited,) gained him the
favour of the landgrave of Hefle, at whofe court the father
and an uncle of Philip, called Theodore Roos, refided ; and
for whom they painted, conjoirtly, compofitions of animals,
land{capes, and figures.
This prince became the patron of Philip alfo, and pre-
fented him with a fum of money to profecute his ftudies at
Rome, from whence he never returned to repay the obliga-
tion. He married a beautiful woman, daughter of an hif-
torical painter, Giacinto Brandi, but was diffipated and
extravagant.
He took up his refidence at Tivoli, from whence comes
his cognomen of Rofa da Tivoli, and there he imitated and
combined the forms he met with. His piétures are generally
made up of a group of fheep, goats, or cattle, a herd{man
or woman, and a piece of building, illumined with itrong
contrafts of light and fhade, and touched with uncommon
fpirit and freedom. That latter quality is their bane, for
relying upon its effect upon the obfervers, and working ge-
nerally from neceffity, or the {pur of the moment, he was
tempted to reft fatisfied with incorreétnefs and common-
place. His fhadows are generally too dark and too brown,
effe&ted by leaving the dark ground upon which he worked ;
but the arrangements of lis lights are ingenious and capi-
tally executed, and the colour is frequently rich and full.
He died in 1705, at the age of 50.
' ROOSAND, in Geography, a town of Norway; 48
miles N.N.E. of Romfdal.
ROOSEBURG, a {mall ifland in the Meufe; 3 miles
N.E. from the Brill. ,
ROOT, (Ranix,) in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiolgy,
an important part of the vegetable body, being the bafis of
the whole, and what is firit produced from the feed, when
evolved by the procefs of germination. Its ufes are, to fix
the plant to a commodious fituation, and to derive nourifh-
ment for its fupport. This organ is therefore perhaps in-
difpenfably neceflary, at the firft period of the growth of
vegetables ; and it ufually continues to be fo, at leaft
among{t what are termed the more perfeét kinds; the Cu/-
cuta, or Dodder, being almoit a folitary inftance, of a
phenogamons plant, parting with its root at an early age,
and trufting for its future fultenance to the vegetable bodies
on which it parafitically fixes. In fome cryptogamous tribes
the roots, though lefs difcernible to us, are not the lefs
effective for the performance of one or other of thefe func-
tions. ‘Thus, the cruftaceous Lichens have not only a
ROO
confiderable inequality of furface underneath, infiquating
itfelf into every minute irregularity of the ftone or bark
over which they fpread, but feveral of them have very dif-
tinguifhable, fibrous, branched roots; witnefs Lichen faxt-
Jragus, Sm. Tranf. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 82. t. 4. f 4, and
L. tartareus. The Submerfed Alge, or Sea-weeds, feem,
at firft fight, to be merely fixed by their fmall: difk-lke
roots; though many of them have branched and entangled
raiicles, infinuating themfelves among pebbles at the bottom
of the fea, which laft may well be organs of nourifhment,
as well as of fupport. But even fuch as are fixed by a mere
difk, are found, if cut down to that part, to fprout up again
with all the vapidity and vigour of a full-grown fhrub,
treated in the fame manner. Pisce it appears that the diflc
in queftion muft aét as an organ for imbibing nutriment.
That procefs indeed feems not to be accomplifhed, as ufual,
by the bafe, or under part, efpecially confidering the nature
and fize of the bodies to which this kind of root is com-
monly attached. But fomething analogous may be ob-
feryed in feveral parafitical plants of the Orchis family, (fee
Orcuipe,) whofe thick fibrous roots lie naked upon the
bark or branches of trees; and if they do imbibe a part of
their fuftenance from the latter, fhould feem alfo to be in-
debted confiderably to the atmofphere, (to which a much
larger portion of their furface is conftantly expofed,) as fea-
weeds are to the circumambient water. With the roots of
parafitical ferns, indeed, as well as the fupplementary radi-
cles, thrown out from the climbing ftem of the Cu/cuta, the
cafe may be different, as both are infinuated into the bark
of the plants on which they grow. Floating fea-weeds, and
abundance of frefh-water plants nearly related te them,
agree with the Cu/cuta fo far, that after vegetating on fome
fixed f{pot, to which the parent feed attaches itfelf, they
foon feparate therefrom, and can derive nothing fubfe-
quently from thence. But being entirely difengaged, they
can obtain matter of growth and nourifhment, in future,
from no other fource, than the water in which they float.
Who fhall fay whether fuch nutriment is abforbed by their
whole furface ; or whether the various and multiplied,
fibrous or tubercular, appendages of their curious, and
often complex, ftruéture, may not, many of them, be ana-
logous to the fibrous radicles, thrown out by the ftems of
the Dodder? .
The molt ufual economy of the roots of plants is to’ be
immerfed in the earth, they having always a tendency to
grow downwards, as {tems in general have to afcend. Dr.
Darwin’s fimple and luminous explanation of this phenome-
non is quite fufficient, and precludes all others. He ‘con-
ceives that each part elongates itfelf in the dire@ion in
which it is moft ftimulated; the infant ftem being moft
ated upon by air, the radicle by moiiture.
A root commonly confifts of two parts; the caudex, or
body, and radicula, the fibre. The latter, generally greatly
multiplied, branched, and extended, is the effential organ
of nourifhment.
The duration of roots is either annual, biennial, or peren-
nial. Annual Roots, confifting chiefly of numerous fibres,
belong to plants whofe exiftence is limited to one fummer,
as Barley, and a vait tribe of field or garden flowers, many
of which muft occur to every one’s recolleétion. Biennial
Roots produce, the firft feafon of their growth, only herb-
age, and, mite through the enfuing winter, bear flowers
and fruit, or feed, in the following fummer, after which
they perifh; for they never bloffom or fru€tify but once,
any more than annual herbs. Their exiftence indeed may
be prolonged by accidents which hinder their flowering,
year after year, in fome cafes; but after perfeGting feed, or
even
ROOT.
even blofloms, they die. Wheat, as cultivated with us,
may be termed biennial ; but is more properly an annual,
which is fown and fprings up the feafon before it flowers,
as many annual weeds often do; while the feeds of others,
perhaps of the fame {pecies, remain latent in the earth,
awaiting the approach of fpring. More genuine biennials
are fome fpecies of Verba/cum, the Digitalis purpurea or
Fox-glove, &c. Perennial Roots belong to plants which
live and bloflom through many fucceffive feafons, to an in-
definite period, as is the cafe, not only with all trees and
fhrubs, but with many herbaceous plants, whofe entire
ftems and foliage are frequently annual. Such are the
bulbous roots of Tulips, Hyacinths, Anemonies, &c. and
the large flefhy ones of Rhubarb, and the Gentiana lutea,
with many others, whofe herbage dies. every year entirely
down to the ground; while other perennial roots, princi-
pally of a fibrous nature, are never deprived of herbage, as
the Gentiana acaulis, Lamium album, and mott perennial
grafles. Several plants of hot climates, naturally perennial,
and even shrubby, become annuals in our gardens, as the
Common Natturtium, Tropzolum, which is capable of being
increafed by cuttings, nearly as well as by feeds, and thus
its double-flowered variety is preferved. The fame thing
may be faid of the Hemimeris urticifolia.. The Tree Mallow,
Lavatera arborea, wild in Pembrokethire, and occafionally
feen in gardens, exemplifies, in a remarkable manner, the
durability of the vital principle in feeds, as well as in bien-
nial plants hindered from flowering. Nearly twenty years
ago the feeds of this large and handfome fhrubby plant
were fown in a garden under our obfervation. From that
period many of the young plants have, every year, fprung
up, but the winter ufually deftroys them. A few have, now
and then, furvived a mild winter, and attaining a large fize,
have borne flowers, dying entirely at the end of autumn,
nor do we believe that any of them has ripened feeds, fo as
to replenifh the ftock in the earth. At leaft this has not
been the cafe for eight or nine years palt. We have never
taken the pains to fhelter a young plant of this {pecies in a
ftove, or green-houfe, through one or more winters; but
Linnzus, with whom it was a favoured exotic, aflerts that
it will fometimes wait, for feveral years, for a profperous
flowering feafon, even in the open ground, though perifhing
afterwards, with the firft cold, in {pite of all the protection
it can receive.
The Caudex, or Body of the root, in the Turnip, af-
fumes the appearance of a ftem, by rifing confiderably
above the furface of the ground. Such is partly the cafe
with onions, and many exotic bulbous plants. Linnzus
{peaks of the item of a tree as a caudex, or root above
ground. Perhaps the caudex may be as properly termed a
{ubterraneous {tem. This analogy neverthelefs is fearcely
correét, the line of demarcation being much more ftriétly
drawn between an annual ftem, and its perennial root, than
between the branches of any tree and its trunk.
The fibres of the root, at leaft their growing extremities
that imbibe nourifhment from the earth, into which they
are gradually and continually infinuating themfelves, are, in
every common cafe, ftriétly annual. The powers of roots
lie dormant through our winters, or in bulbous plants, in-
habitants of arid burning fands, through the fummer of
fuch climates. After they have begun to form freth radi-
cles, they cannot without deftruction, or great danger, be
tranfplanted ; nor can even herbs with fibrous roots be
fafely removed, while their fibres are in a progreflive ttate,
yery young annuals alone excepted.
Botanifts, as well as gardeners and agriculturifts, dif-
tingnifh feveral kinds of roots, whofe nature requires atten-
I
tion from thofe who with to be mafters of their economy or
cultivation. The following are the principal heads under
which they may be comprehended. :
1. Radix fibrofa, a Fibrous Root, the moft fimple of all,
confifts entirely of fibres, undivided or branched, neceflarily
conneéted indeed by a common head, or by the bafe of the
ftem. Thefe fibres convey nourifhment dire@ly to the ftem
or leaves. Such conftitute, in general, the roots of grafles,
and of moft annual herbs; which latter requiring no re-
ferved ftore of provifion for another feafon, have no need of
a caudex in which it might remain through the winter.
While fuch roots exift, they keep growing, fuccefflively
forming new fibres, as well as elongating their older ones.
Their fibres are occafionally remarkably fhaggy, or downy ;
whether to increafe the furface for more ample abforption,
or to fix the plant more firmly in the ground, we cannot
always directly determine. Botanical experience has taught
us, that very downy or woolly fibres are efpecially appro-
priated to grafles that inhabit loofe blowing fand.’
2. Radix repens, a Creeping Root, is rather perhaps a
{ubterraneous {tem, branching off horizontally, extending
itfelf at the extremity, and decaying at its origin, throwing
out fibres as it goes, which are the efficient or a€tual roots.
Such a root is extremely tenacious of life, as any portiun of
it will grow. Weeds which have this fort of root, as Couch-
grafs and Mint, are the moft difficult of all things to eradicate,
except perhaps the deeply defcending roots, partly flefhy,
of Convolvulus arvenfis, and Carduus, or rather Cnicus, ar-
venfis, whofe more vertical pofition enables them to run
fo far into the ground as to be hardly acceffible. The
widely creeping roots, well guarded with hard and durable
fheaths, and fupported by long woolly fibres, which belong
to many fea-fide, or fand, grafles, render fuch plants of great
importance in the economy of nature. They bind down the
loofe fand, and form barriers again{t the encroachments of
the ocean itfelf. The whole country of Holland is perhaps
indebted for its very exiftence to fuch natural mounds, ju-
dicioufly fottered and imitgted by art. The three principal
grafles that ferve fo valuable a purpofe are Carex areuaria,
Arundo arenaria, and Elymus arenarius, all plentiful on our
fandy fhores.
3. Radix fufiformis, a Spindle-fhaped, or Tap Root, like
the Carrot, Parfnep, Radifh, and many common plants, of
biennial, perennial, or more rarely annual duration. Its form
is beft calculated for penetrating deeply into the ground, or
rather is owing to the refiftance encountered by the young de-
{cending radicle. The caudex, of a flefhy juicy fubftance,
abounding with peculiar fecretions, and pregnant with the
materials of the future herb, throws out numerous fibres,
which are the real roots.
4. Radix premorfa, an Abrupt Root, is nothing more than
an oblong or fpindle-fhaped, vertical or horizontal, flefhy
root, whofe progrefs has been impeded, either by want of
vigour, or by fome mechanical interruption, fo that it feems
to have been cut or broken off. The name alludes to an
ancient opinion of its having been bitten off, by no lefs a
perfonage than “the divel,’? out of fpite to mankind.
Hence feveral plants, with fuch a root, were relied on for
their fuppofed medical virtues, which nothing but herefy and
{chifm could doubt.
5, Radix tuberofa, a Tuberous or Knobbed Root, is of
various kinds. ‘This fort of root belongs to perennial
plants, its knobs, whether of themfelyes annual, biennial,
or perennial, being refervoirs of nourifhment, and of
vital energy, in which the refources of the herb are huf-
banded through the winter. Such are the Potatoe, and
Jerufalem Artichoke. , Many of the Vetch or Pea tribe
have
ROOT.
have likewife {mall annual tubercles to their roots, by which
thefe plants are enabled better to fupport the cafual priva-
tions of a barren, dry foil. The knobs of Pzonies and
Spiraea Filipendula are perennial, and analogous to bulbs.
In the Orchis family they are biennial, whether fimply oval,
hand-fhaped, or fafciculated; for in each cafe the plant
of the feafon lives on that portion of its root which was
. formed during the preceding year, and meanwhile makes a
new pair of knobs, or bulbs, to bloffom in the following
fummer, or at leaft to produce herbage, whether circumftances
may admit of flowers or not. There is reafon to believe that
certain f{pecies of this family, as the Linnean Ophrys /piralis,
often produce a mere tuft of leaves, without flowering at
all, for many fucceffive years, in {pots which, in favourable
feafons, are profufely decorated and perfumed with that
charming little flower.
6. Radix bulbofa, a Bulbous Root, is often folid, as in the
common Crocus, and its near relations Jxia, Gladiolus, the
{plendid Tigridia, &c. In the Onion tribe, the bulbous
root confilts of concentric layers, enveloping one another, as
alfo in the more folid root of the Tulip. The Lily has a
fcaly bulb, exaétly analogous to the laft ; but as the leaves
of this plant are narrow, and in fome meafure whorled, not
fheathing, like thofe of the Onion and Tulip, the layers of
its roots, having the clofelt affinity to leaves, affume a fimilar
arrangement. The ftri& analogy of fuch coated or fealy
bulbs with leaf-buds, indeed one might almoft fay their
identity, appears from the icaly axillary buds of the Orange
Lily, and other fpecies, formed on the upper part of the
ftem, which, falling to the ground, become actual bulbous
roots, without any transformation. Similar buds in Den-
taria become, by a flight alteration, the tuberous {caly root
proper to that genus. The conttitution of bulbous roots is
admirably fuited for plants inhabiting hot fandy countries,
fubje& to long drought. After flowering, their withered
herbage ferves-like wings to difperfe them far and wide, till
the firlt rains caufe them to fix their fprouting radicles in
the moiftened foil, where they {peedily put out frefh leaves
and blofloms, during the favourable feafon ; after which
their life and energy are locked up again in the bulb, or
perhaps multiplied in feeds, for the fucceeding year. The
feeds of the Jxia and Gladislus families are no lefs ad-
mirably adapted to the circumftances of their fandy and
windy country ; fuch as are winged being readily wafted,
and the large polifhed round kinds, as extenfively rolled, over
the open defarts which they are appointed to adorn.
9- Radix articulata, or granulata, a Jointed or Granulated
Root, does not effentially differ from a fealy bulb. The
Wood Sorrel, Oxalis Acetofella, for inftance, has, as it were,
a {caly bulb, pulled out into an oblong form, and conneéted
by a thread; while the Saxifraga granulata has a feries of
fubterraneous buds, like folid bulbs. S. cernua and bulbi-
fera have axillary buds, formed on their items, like Dentaria,
which become granulated roots.
The objeét of Nature is nearly the fame throughout all
thefe feemingly different produétions ; to eftablifh a refervoir,
in which the vital force of the plant, as well as its material
refources, are ftored up ; till the former is {trengthened, in
confequence of fufpended action, and the latter are matured
by reft. Such affiftance is occafionally afforded to plants
whofe roots have naturally hardly any thing of a flefhy fub-
itance, whenever they are expofed to danger from viciflitude,
or from interrupted fupplies. Thus grafles with fibrous
roots, accidentally ftationed in a foil too dry or flu€tuating,
have a power of becoming bulbous. Tor the fame reafon,
bulbous roots, when defired to be had in great fize or per-
fection, fhould firft be fupplied with plentiful nourifhment,
and then be checked in the too luxuriant growth of their
herbage. By fome treatment of this kind, exotic bulbs,
which feldom afford flowers in our gardens or ftoves, becaufe
of the uniformity of their languid exiftence, may perhaps be
made to bloffom more frequently than they do. Sudden and
abundant fupplies of heat, food, or moifture, and as fudden
checks of one or the other, at the difcretion of the culti-
vator, are likely to have this effeét. In general, an inter-
ruption of thé luxuriance of a root, favours its produétion
of flowers and of feeds. The latter are feldom perfe&ted in
the more luxuriant forts of Mint, except by greatly re-
itraining the growth of the roots, in a garden-pot, dry
border, or otherwife. The bulbous lilies will often form
feeds, if their buds are {tripped off, but feldom in their or-
dinary {tate of culture.
A juft attention to the nature and conftitution of each
different kind of root, wili teach us to underftand its beft
mode of cultivation, tranfplantation, &c. and will account
for thofe general praétices, founded on experience, which
are too well known to require illuftration here, and properly
come under the notice of the agriculturift and gardener.
Root, in Hufbandry, the lower part of a plant, or that
which is in the ground, and by which it adheres to the
earth, draws its nourifhment, and tranf{mits it to the other
parts. For the method of clearing lands from the roots of
trees, under-wood, &c. fee RECLAIMING Lands.
It may be noticed, that the roots of plants are of ufe to
them principally in two refpects, namely, to give them ita.
bility in the ground, that they may not be difplaced, or
blown down by high winds, or other accidents ; and by their
{preading in the ground, for colleéting, and perhaps in fome
meafure preparing, food for the whole plant. Plants are,
however, in part fed or nourifhed from the air, fine vapours,
dews, &c.; which enter by their leaves and branches, but
principally by what is abforbed and taken up by their roots :
for which reafon the farmer takes infinite pains to prepare
the land by tillage and manure, whereby it is opened, pul-
verized, and not only made more eafily penetrable for the
roots to {pread in, and collec their nourifhment, but rendered
more proper for being impregnated with fuch matters, as
well as for retaining and conveying them to their fibrous
roots in order to be drank up.
Roots, in the intention of the farmer, may alfo be divided
into two forts, namely, perpendicular or tap-roots, which
penetrate deep, and run down into the ground, ufually
fingly, fuch as carrots, parfneps, and the roots of fome
trees, as the oak, &c. And thofe that divide near the fur-
face of the ground, and fpread out init in various directions,
which are called horizontal and fibrous roots, and if very
{mall, capillary roots. The tap-roots have alfo fibrous
roots iffuing from their fides, all round the tap-root ; and
thefe lateral roots are longeft near the furface of the
ground, and gradually fhorter as the tap-roots defcend
deeper into the foil.
And further, the furfaces of roots are foft and fpongy,
more particularly in the fmall or fibrous roots, and thefe are
furnifhed with abforbent veffels, the mouths of which drink
up the vegetable food, and diftribute it to all parts of the
plant. As the large roots are more clofe and hard on their
furfaces, it would appear that they are chiefly intended for
the fupport and ftability of the plant, while the fibrous
roots colle the nourifhment for the fupport of the plant
as well as the large roots. ‘The brauches of roots are
formed with their extreme ends pointing from the ftem of
the plant, and hence it appears that roots, when once well
formed, do not afterwards increafe, or extend further longi-
tudinally ; they lengthen at their ends, but not at their in-
termediate
ROOT.
termediate parts, for if they did, the branches, being left
behind, would be drawn back, with their ends pointing to-
wards the ftem; but they are conftantly found in a con-
trary pofition, with their ends pointing in a direétion from
the ftem. If -a root is cut it extends no farther in length,
as already obferved, but new roots are formed near the cut
end of the old root; two or more new or young roots
being formed in the room of the former old one. Hence
the fibrous roots of plants are multiplied by cutting them
with afpade or hoe; and this“is oftena great benefit to the
plant. The pores of the fibrous roots are the mouths of
the abforbent veffels, by which the whole plant is fed, and
the more they are multiplied the more nourifhment they
colle for it.
And thus a plant that naturally extends its roots to a
confiderable diftance, is in danger of being killed by tranf-
planting, unlefs it is alfo furnifhed with fibrous roots, which
muft be carried with it to the new ground; or new ones
muft be formed to make the plant thrive. Hence it is that
plants which have long ftraggling roots are removed with
difficulty ; but plants of the fame kind and age, and that
grow in the fame ground, are tranfplanted with fafety and
fuccefs, if they have been previoufly dug round with a
f{pade, whereby their fibrous roots have been cut and multi-
plied, fo that they rife with a ball of earth adhering to
them.
Befides, there is a communication between the different
roots of a plant, as when fome of them are well nourifhed
the others are benefited thereby. If fome of the roots of
2 plant be laid in dry earth or fand, and others in water,
the latter will furnifh the dry roots with water fufficient
to keep them and the earth about them moiit, fo long as
they have a fupply of water; it is for this reafon that deep
rooting plants are little afle€ted by drought; the tap-roots
finding moilture below, fend fome of it up to the roots near
the furface ; for which reafon, alfo, lucern and faintfoin
flourifh in dry hot weather, in which common grafs, and
other fibrous-rooted plants, that do not defcend deep, are
{eorched and burnt up. And as roots communicate moif-
ture to each other, they therewith alfo communicate nourifh-
ment; for. it is found by experience, that drilled plants,
well hoed on each fide of a row only, are better nourifhed
than fown plants ftanding at equal diftances, or upon an
equal furface of ground with the drilled, and not hoed.
Befides thefe forts of roots, fome kinds of grain, as that
of wheat, have them double, or what may be termed two
fets; the firft coming direétly from the grain or feed, while
the latter fhoots fome time afterwards from the top or crown.
Hence they are denominated /emina/ and coronal roots. The
feminal root is, Dr. Hunter fays, pufhed out at the fame
time with the germ, which, together with the farina, nourifhes
the plant during the winter, before the crown and coronal
roots are formed. But that in the {pring, when the crown
has become fufficiently large, it detaches a number of {trong
fibres, which pufh themfelves obliquely downwards. Thefe
are the coronal roots ferving to nourifh the plant till it
arrives at maturity. And he adds, that a {mall’ pipe pre-
ferves the communication between them and the feminal
roots. This makes an effential part of the plant, and is
obferved to be longer or fhorter, according to the depth
that the feed has been buried. But on the contrary, it is
remarkable, that the crown is always formed juft within the
furface. Its place isthe fame, whether the grain has been
fown deep or fuperficial. And that as the increafe of this
fort of grain depends upon the vigerous abforption of the
coronal roots, it is obvious why they fix themfelves fo near
the furface, where the foil is the moft rich, and contains
the largeft proportion of nutritious fubftances. It is alfo
evident, that as this fort of grain muft be, expofed to the
feverity of the winter feafon, its roots are admirably dif-
pofed to withitand its effects.
It is evident, that thefe faéts, and thofe conne&ted with
the nature of the roots of different plants of the grafs
kind, lead to many important confiderations in the practice
of the farmer, and fully fhew the neceflity as well as utility
of his being perfe€tly acquainted with the nature, form,
and mode of growth of the roots of fuch plants as have
been introduced into the field culture.
All thofe forts of flefhy roots which run to a confider-
able depth in the ground, as is the cafe with the carrot,
parfnep, beet, mangel wurzel, liquorice, and fome others
of the fame nature, con{tantly require a great depth of
cultivation and tillage to fecure good and full crops. And
the various lefs flefhy roots, which run deeply in the earth,
fuch as thofe of beans, hops, parfley, red clover, lucern,
faintfoin, and many forts of grafles, as well as the common
and Swedifh turnip, Sc. alfo ftand in need of a rather fine
and deep preparation of the foil in order to afford equel
and full crops.
Among the grain kinds of:crops, wheat, from the nature
of its root, demands the deepeft and finett tillage ; but nei-
ther this nor any of the others require any great depth of
ploughing merely on that account, as the roots always
{pread out very near the furface. ‘The fame is the cafe with
moft of the cabbage forts, yet the land fhould always be
well prepared for them. ;
Much difference of opinion has been entertained by dif-
ferent inquirers re{pecting the caufe of the coxftant down-
ward direGtion of roots and the upward growth of items.
Some have fuppofed it to depend on the quality of the fap
juice which circulates within them; others have, with
greater ingenuity and plaufibility, afferted it to be owing to
the living principle or power in them, and the ftimulus of
the air and moifture upon different parts of them. And
more lately, and with itill greater probability, it has been
attributed to cireumftances of a mechanical nature, as de-
pending on the principle of gravity. This notion has been
beautifully illuftrated and explained by the experiments of
Mr. A. Knight, by placing moiftened beans in favourable
fituations for vegetating upon the circumferences of wheels
moviag with different degrees of velocity in vertical and
horizontal pofitions.
The roots of large old trees, which have been felled, are
often got out of the ground in a cheap convenient manner
by blaiting or blowing them with gunpowder, by means of
a boring auger contrived for the purpofe. See BLAsTING.
Roots, in Gardening, are of many different kinds, which
vary confiderably in their nature. They moitly confitt of a
ftock, or thick main part, which ftrikes into the earth or
foil, and of fibrous or thread-like parts, which terminate,
and are fent of from different portions of it, fpreading
themfelves to great diltances in the ground, for the purpote
of colleGting the nourifhment and fupport of the particular
lant.
: The peculiarities of ftru€ture, and the dire€tion m the
ftock parts of roots, have led to feveral diftin@ions in regard
to their kinds.
In this way we have perpendicular and horizontal roots, or
thofe which defcend and run down into the earth or foil
in a ftraight downward dire€tion; and thofe which run
or pafs along under the furface of the ground in a fuper-
ficial tranfverfe manner: /imple and compound or branched
roots, or fuch as are perfeétly fingle, anc without any fort
of fubdivifion in their parts, and fuch as are divided in a
lateral
ROOT.
lateral branched manner, with many fubdivifions and rami-
fications : /pindlefhaped and tapering roots, or thofe which
have oblong thick upper parts, which taper in a regular
adual manrier to the lower extremities: of this nature are
the roots of the common radifh, the parfnep, the carrot, and
many others: du/bous and tuberous roots, or thofe which have
a roundith, oval, {welling, bulbous form, and which are com-
’ ‘pofed, in fome cafes, of many fucculent imbricated feales, and
in others, of numerous involving coats, including three diftin&
forts, as fcaly bulbs, having the parts lying over one an-
other, as in the root of the lily ; tunicated bulbs, which
are formed of feveral different tunics or coats involving each
other in a clofe manner, as in the onion; and folid bulbs, as
in thetulip ; and thofe which are of a thick, flefhy, knobby,
folid, lumpy form, whether of aroundifh, irregularly knobbed
or oblong fhape, whether conttituted of only one knob, or
of feveral colleéted into bundles: examples of thefe forts
are met with in the roots of the potatoe, the Jerufalem
artichoke, anemone, peony, &c. as well as in all thofe
which are made up of a folid flefhy fubftance : fibrous and
creeping roots, er fuch as are wholly compofed of numerous
radical or flender fibrous parts, and are the moft common
fort, efpecially in various defcriptions of herbaceous plants,
confifting of roots of the perpendicular, horizontal, fimple,
and branched kinds; fome of which are very thin and fine,
like threads, others fomewhat of a flefhy nature; and fuch
as run along immediately under the furface of the ground
to a confiderable length or diftance, emitting and fending
forth at certain points {mall fibres below and fhoots at the
upper parts: globular and bundled roots, or fuch as have
roundifh, flefhy, folid roots of the tuberous defcription,
as in the earth-nut, &c. and fuch as are compofed of many
{mall, oblong, flefhy kernelly parts or knobs, which are
all connected on the upper part, and terminated underneath
in radicles or fibres, as in the ranunculus, &c.: thefe are
alfo often termed grumous roots: granulous aggregate and
pendulous cluftered roots, or thofe which confiit of many
roundifh knobs, like grains of corn, the whole of which is
congregated together, fo as to form a root; and thofe
which are compofed of feveral roundifh flefhy knobs or
tubers, which are ftrung on and fufpended, as it were, at
the ends of fibres, as in the afphodel and many others:
handed tuberous and tefliculuted roots, or fuch as have oblong
tuberous forms of them which divide and fpread out like
an open hand, and fuch as are compofed of two roundifh,
egg-like, tuberous knobs, united in fomewhat a tefticulated
manner: jointed and woody roots, or thofe which are long,
thickifh, and jointed at certain diftances ; and thofe which are
conttantly becoming of a hard, tough, woody nature, as thofe
of moft trees, fhrubs, and under-fhrubs: and doanright or
tap roots, or thofe which have a main flefhy part, that
runs dire€&tly downwards in a perpendicular manner, as in
the carrot, parfnep, beet, &c. as well as in fome forts of
‘trees and fhrubs.
Garden roots are likewife further divided and diftinguifhed
according to the time of their duration or lafting in the foil or
ground. In this refpeét, there are annua/ roots, or thofe which
continue or endure for one year only, at the fartheft, and
then wholly perifh and decay, as in all the annual plant kind :
biennial roots, or {uch as continue and laft out for two years,
or thereabouts, only, after which they entirely decay and
are deftroyed ; and perennial roots, or fuch as are of many
ears’ duration or continuance. In fome cafes of this nature
oth the roots and items are perennial, while in others only
the former.
Roots of the garden defcription, for the moft part, pene-
trate and infert themfelves into the foil or ground, in order
VoL. XXX.
to draw and derive nourifhment and fupport from it ; but
there are fome few which form exceptions to this. rule, as
the root of the mifletoe, which attaches and fixes itfelf to
the branches or other parts of trees, being inferted between
their bark and wood, whence it acquires its means of fup-
port, the ftem proceeding in a downward dire@tion from
It, &c.
In bulbous roots of different kinds, there are great dif-
ferences in regard to their habits of growth, in fo far at
leaft as relates to the depths which they require to be in
the earth or foil; fome ftanding in need of being quite
fuperficial, while others neceflarily defcend to confiderable
depths below the furface. Thefe circumftances therefore
probably require much greater attention in their cultiva-
tion than has hitherto been beftowed upon them, in order
to procure good roots of fuch kinds.
The roots of different kinds of garden plants require to
be taken up at particular feafons, and to be kept and pre-
ferved for ufe in different manuers, according to their different
natures, and the purpofes for which they are intended. All
the roots of the different flower bulb and tuberous kinds
may be taken up when the ftalks decline towards the end
of fummer, or the beginning of the fucceeding feafon;
they fhould then be rendered perfe&tly dry by fome gentle
means, fuch as expofing them to a dry current of air and a
middling degree of heat, when thinly f{pread out in a fieve,
or fome other convenient manner ; afterwards, when this
has been perfeétly accomplifhed, they may be put into
drawers in dry fituations, or hung up in bags in fimilar
places.
Bulbous culinary roots of the onion kind have been at-
tempted to be kept in many different ways, as by laying
them thinly in dry rooms, roping them and hanging them up
in dry airy places, and burning or charring the root parts
of the bulbs; but they feem not to be capable of being
long preferved without fhooting while in the open air, in
any way that has hitherto been made trial of in fuch inten-
tion. The beft methods of proceeding with them are pro-
bably thofe of taking them from the ground after fome dry
weather, expofing them thinly to the fun and air until they
are become, in every refpeét, perfectly in a itate free from
any fort of mould or moiiture, and then either to have them
roped and hung up, or {pread out in a thin manner upon a
dry boarded floor. The warmth or heat of the fur or fire
fhould never be fuffered to penetrate into the places where
they are kept, but they fhould be naturally dry.
Tuberous roots, fuch as thofe of the potatoe, in the
general keeping crop, fhould always be taken up during a
dry feafon, and be afterwards, as quickly as poflible, by
mild means, made thoroughly dry and free from any mouldy
matter that may hang about them, when they may be laid
up in any place which is free from damp, taking care to
cover them fufficiently thickly with dry ftraw when the
weather is frofty. Roots of the Jerufalem artichoke, and
other fimilar kinds, may be preferved in the fame way,
but without the ufe of the ftraw, as they do not ftand in
need of it.
Perpendicular and tap-roots, fuch as thofe of the carrot,
parfnep, beet, and others of the fame flefhy kind, fometimes
require to be laid up in order to preferye them in a juicy
moift ftate. This is beft accomplifhed by the ufe of dry
light fand, or other fimilar materials of a light dry nature,
packing them up in layers one over the other, each fort to-
gether, in a feparate manner. In this way they may be well
preferved ina {tate fit for conftant ufe. The roots of celery
and cardoons may alfo be preferved in the fame way with
much fuccefs and advantage when neceflary.
cpa It
ROOT.
It is eccafionally neceffary that the tap-roots of feedling
plants, while they are in the nurfery, fhould be fhortened, with
the view of preventing their ftriking down too deep into a
bad fubfoil, 2s well as to force out lateral horizontal roots
in greater abundance nearer to the furface of the ground,
where the foil is good, that they may derive more full nourith-
ment and fupport, and thereby thrive in a better and more
expeditious manner. .
The roots of annual and biennial plants ftand in need of
being renewed every year, or at the end of every two years,
by the fowing of their feeds, or the fetting of fome other
part of them: and the perennial roots are continued by the
parting, dividing, flipping, cutting, and refetting of them
or their different parts, as well as by various other methods,
as may be feen fully defcribed under their different proper
heads. ;
Roots, in Medicine. The psincipal roots ufed in the
practice of phyfic, are rhubarb, rhaponticum, farfaparilla,
ipecacuanha, jalap, zedoary, galangal, caflumenar, gentian,
turmeric, liquorice, madder, &c. See RHUBARB, SARSA-
PARILLA, IpECACUANHA, &c.
There are feveral ways of preparing roots for medicinal
ufe in the eaftern nations, which ftrongly alter them from
their original form and appearance. An inttance we have of
this in the drug called falep, which is no other than the root
of an orchis thus prepared.
Other roots they alfo prepare in the fame manner, or
fomething like it ; an inftance of which we have in fome of
the oriental ginfeng, which is clear and pellucid, as a refin,
and friable like one, retaining very little of the ftruCture or
appearance of the root. Kempfer gives the method by
which the people in the Eatt do this, and it may be well
worth trying on fome of our own roots.
The Chinefe, this author informs us, give their ginfeng
its colour and tranfparence in this manner. They mace-
rate the frefh root for three days in cold rice-water, then
expofe it in clofe veffels to the vapour of the fame water ;
after which they carefully and leifurely dry it, and it becomes
hard and brittle, of a brownifh-red colour, and as tranf{parent
as arefin.
All the ginfeng of China is not of this fort; and it has
been fuppofed by fome, that fuch as was fo had affumed
that appearance by age, as many of the more fucculent
roots, which have very {mall fibres, will become much lefs
opaque when perfe&tly dry than they were at firft; but ex-
perience fhews that this is not the cafe ; for many perfons
have kept the oriental ginfeng a great many years, but it has
never been known to aflume that appearance. There is no
doubt, however, but that if the Weft Indian ginfeng were
treated in this manner, it would equal the prepared ginfeng
of the Eaft; for the roots of fome of our umbelliferous plants,
particularly the {kirret, may be made clear and tran{parent
in this manner, by only boiling it in common water, and
afterwards drying it in the open air. Mem. Acad. Scienc.
Par. 1740.
Roots, Flower. See FLowER.
Roor of Ofscolla, a word ufed to exprefs a fort of foft
and rotten matter, on which the ofteocolla of Germany is
found in fandy grounds.
The workmen feck after the ofteocolla by the dire&tion of
certain lumps of a white marley matter, which they find
lying on the fands ; under this they always find a parcel of
rotten vegetable matter, branching out from a main ftem or
trunk, at ten or twelve feet deep up to the furface ; this rot-
ten fubftance they call the root of the olteocolla ; and they
obferve, that where the-matter they feek after is not found
round it at the time of their digging, they need only mark
5
the place, and dig again a year afterwards, and they will
find it formed in a perfect manner. The ofteocella found
near Frankfort is all of this kind; and we find the holes
in the centre cf all the pieces through which this root had
pafled. It is fo tender, that it ufually moulders away on
the ofteocolla being expofed to the air; but fometimes they
wath it out. Phil. Tranf. N° 39.
It is not eafy to conceive what this is, unlefs the remains
of foffile branches of trees; but even then it is as difficult
to account for the formation of the ofteocolla about them,
as there is none of it found concreted where they are not.
We have a fort of ofteocolla found with us in what we call
petrifying /prings ; but as this is done in the water, it is eafier
to conceive how it becomes fo pure, than how a foft and
pappy fubftance, found in the midit of a bed of fand, comes
not to have fome fand embodied in it.
Root, Indian Arrow. See AnRow-root.
Root, China. See Sminax.
Root, Fale China, afpecies of Senecio ; which fee.
Root, Fever, a {pecies of Triofleum ; which fee.
Root, Hollow, a {pecies of Adoxa ; which fee.
Root, Rof. See Rose-root.
Root, Seminal. See SrmMinau.
Root, Snake. See SNAKE-root.
Root, Black, or Wild Snake, of America, a f{pecies of
Aciea ; which fee.
Root, Dr. Witi’s Rattle-/nake, a {pecies of Prenanthes ;
which fee.
Root, Senegaw Raitlefnake, a {pecies of Polygala;
which fee.
Root, Sweet, a f{pecies of Glycirrhiza ; which fee.
Roor of Scarcity, in Agriculture, the common name of a
plant of the tap-rooted flefhy kind, that has much refemblance
to the beet, and which is now cultivated to a very large
fize both in the root and top, as cattle food, where a proper
fort of feed is provided. It isa very hardy vegetable, is eafily
grown, and much relifhed by horfes as well as neat cattle.
See Mancer Wurzel.
Roor-Crops, fuch forts of field crops as afford their pro-
duce in roots, fuch as potatoes, turnips, carrots, parfneps,
&c. Thefe forts of crops cen{tantly require to have the
ground peculiarly prepared for them. See thefe feveral
heads.
Some of the crops require that the land be well pulve-
rized and prepared before they are put into it, and after-
wards to have the mould well ftirred and laid up about them
while they are growing. They fhould alfo, in many in-
itances, be at firit, or in a gradual manner, thinned, fet out,
and left at fuitable diftances for gaining their full and perfect
{tates of growth. Some of them ftand in need of being re-
gularly taken up out of the.ground at the proper feafon and
{tored up, as the potatoe, carrot, parfnep, beet, &c. while
others may often remain in the foil until they are confumed,
as the various forts of turnips, and fome others, not only
without fuftaining any great injury, but fometimes with
much benefit. The Swedifh turnip is, however, frequently
ftored up with utility and convenience. When laid up they
require to be in a dry condition on the outfide, and to be de-
pofited in dry fituations. Potatoes fhould always be kept
dry and fecured from frott, by means of ftraw or other fimilar
matters being laid round them.
Root-Grafting. See ENGNAFTING.
Root-Heu/e, in Rural Economy, the place where roots
are depofited for the more readily fupplying hive-ttock of
different kinds with them. It is of much confequence to
the farmer to have this place as near as poffible to the {tables,
feeding-houfes, and cattle-fheds. Thefe houfes are effentially
neceflary
ROOT.
neceffary wherever there is a number of cows or other forts of
cattle to be fupported on roots of the carrot, parfnep, turnip,
and potatoe kinds, as well as for cabbages, as without them it
would not be only inconvenient, but in many cafes, in fevere
weather, impoffible to provide them for the daily fupply of
fuch ftock. The cabbages fhould net, however, ever be
kept long in thefe houfes, as they are very apt to take on
the putrid fermentation, and become ufelefs. The farmer
fhould be careful that the yard-man conftantly keeps fuch
places perfe&tly clean and {weet, in order that the roots may
contract no bad {mell, as cattle are in many cafes extremely
nice in their feeding, and when once difguited with any fort
ef food of this kind, feldom take to it again in a proper
manner.
Root-houfes are always the beft and {weeteft when laid
over on the infides with a coarfe plafter, or boarded with
fome rough common boarding material. They may in many
cafes be divided for different forts of roots, with great ad-
vantage and convenience. ‘The doors of them fhould for the
moft part be large, fo that the carts may be backed and
readily emptied in at them without any difficulty.
Root, in Arithmetic and Algebra, denotes a quantity
which, being multiplied by itfelf, produces fome higher
power, and it is called the 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. root, according
to the number of times that the multiplication by itfelf is
performed, that number being always one lefs than the deno-
mination of the root: thus, if a number is multiplied once
by itfelf, it is called the {quare root, or 2d root of the pro-
du& ; if twice, it is called the cube, or 3d root ; if three
times, the biquadrate, or 4th root; and fo on to other roots,
which, beyond the 4th, are commonly denoted by the sth,
6th, &c. root ; though ancient authors, and even fome mo-
dern ones, ufe particular denominations for all higher roots,
as we do for the {quare root and cube root. Thus, the
2d root, is called the /guare root.
3d root _ cube root.
4th root er as Ne aay or bigua-
5th roet _ JSurfolid root.
6th root _ quadrato-cubo.
&c. &c.
But fuch diitin@tions are ufelefs, and are, therefore, now
commonly omitted.
For the method of extra€ting the roots of numbers, fee
the articles AppROxIMATON and ExTrActTion ; and for a
table of the fquare roots and cube roots of numbers, fee
the conclufion of this article.
Roots of Equations, in Algebra, denote fuch a number
or quantity as, when fubftituted for the unknown quantity,
will produce an equality between both fides of the equa-
tion: thus, in the equation -
x3 — 6x7 + 112 = 6,0r x? — 6x74 117 —6=03
if we fubftitute 1 inftead of x, we have 1 — 6 + 11 = 6;
therefore 1 is a root of that equation: if we fubftitute 2
inftead of x, we have 2? — 6.27+ 11.2 = 6; therefore
2 is alfo a root of the fame equation: and if we fubititute
3 for x, then 33? — 6. 3* + 11. 3 = 6; and, therefore,
3 is likewife a root of the fame equation : hence the roots
are I, 2, and 3; that is, there are three diftin& numbers,
which, when fubftituted for x, will produce the equality
required. And it is the fame in all equations, viz. it has
always as many roots, real or imaginary, as there are units in
the index of the higheft power of the unknown quantity.
This property has place in equations of the moft fimple forms,
asx’? = 1,x'= 1, rt 1,x° = 1, &c. each of thefe
=
having as many roots as there are units in the exponent of
the power: thus, the
two {quare roots of 1, are + 1 and — 1;
three cube roots of 1, are 1, — 4, +2 7 — 3, and — f,
I xf 4 -
et Ase Ios
four 4th roots of 1, are 1, — 3, + Jf — I,and — ,/ — 13
sal tial 5 I+ /5\¢
five sth roots ia 4 tv i( ZF oy iad {
of I pee badd 2 ;
’ I : ty} ea
and
the two latter forms containing each two roots, in confe-
quence of the ambiguous fign, ++, which enters into their
compofition.
: The doétrine of the roots of equations is one of the moft
intricate, but at the fame time molt interefting, of any
branch of algebra. The method of finding the roots of
quadratic equations is found in the earliett algebraic authors ;
it is even given, though fomewhat different in form, in the
Bija Ganita, a Sanferit algebra, written about the latter
end of the r2th, or the beginning of the 13th century, tranf-
lated into Perfian in 1634, and lately into Englifh by
Mr. Strachey, of the Eait India Company’s Bengal civil
eftablifhment. The folution of cubic equations was firft
publifhed by Cardan about 1540, though it is clear that
he was not the inventor of the method, having received it
from Tartaglia, who is commonly confidered as the real
author ; however, Lagrange attributes the general invetti-
gation to Hudde, a celebrated Dutch mathematician, a
contemporary of Defcartes and Fermat. Equations of the
4th degree were firft folved by Ferrari, a pupil of Cardan’s,
and publifhed by the latter in 1540; fince which time no
further extent has been given to the fubje&t, the sth, and
all higher equations having refifted the whole accumulated
power of the modern analyfis. Still, however, many important
properties of the roots of equations have been difcovered ;
the whole theory has been reduced to one uniform prin-
ciple of operation; and approximations have been made in
all thofe cafes where direét methods of folution were un-
attainable. We cannot, of courfe, enter upon this fubjeé&
at any great length ; but a fummary of the mof intereiting
particulars, though not accompanied, in all cafes, with their
demonttration, will not, we prefume, be unacceptable to the
general reader ; in the enumeration of which we {hall avail
ourfelves of the Introduétion to Barlow’e Mathematical
Tables.
General Properties of the Roots of Equations.
1. Every equation of the general form
eo Axe + Bat + Cara &e. tik
has m reots real or imaginary (fee IMAGINARY Roots) ; and
may be fuppofed to be formed by the continued produ of
m fa&tors,
(z—«) (x — 8) (x — 4) (x — 3) &. = 0,
where «, fy y, 3, &c. are the roots of the equation,
2. The imaginary roots of an equation always enter in
pairs, and if a + 6 ./— 1 be one of thofe roots, a — &
af — 1 is another of them; fo that the fum of every pair
of them isa real quantity, and the f{quare of their difference
a real negative quantity; and an equation can have no
imaginary root but is reducible to the above form. Thefe
properties of the imaginary roots of equation are generally
attributed te d’Alembert. ,
ie bay:
3+ Since
ROOT.
3. Since every equation
2 @ 4 Ax ™-'4 Br7-*4 Cx7-34 &o + K= 0
is compofed of the factors
(« —«) (x —#) (x —y) (x — 9) &. = 0,
it is obvious, that if, by any means, one of thofe roots, as a»
can be found, the original equation may be divided by (a —«),
and thence be reduced to another of lower dimenfions.
4. If we fuppofe the figns of each of the roots of
an equation to be changed, then the co-efficient of the
fecond term of that equation will be equal to the fum of all
thofe roots fo changed; the co-efficient of the third term
equal to the fum of all the produéts that can be formed
with them, taken two and two at a time; the co-efR-
cient of the fourth term equal to all the products that can be
formed with them, taken three and three at a time ; and fo
on to the abfolute term, which is equal to the produét
of all the roots ; thus, if a, 4, c; d, be the roots of an equa-
tion, then the co-efficient of the firft term being 1, that
cf the
2d = —(a4+6+4c+ d)
3d = (2h + ac+ad+bc+bd+cd)
4th = — (abe + abd + acd + bcd)
BUM av Ga,
5. Ifthe fubttitution of any two numbers, m and a, in-
ftead of the unknown quantity of an equation, give refults
with contrary figns, one, or fome odd number, of the real
roots of the equation, are contained between thofe two
limits.
6. And converfely, if two numbers be fubftituted for the
unknown quantity of an equation, which comprife between
them any odd number of the roots of that equation, the
refults thus obtained muft neceffarily have contrary figns.
But if two, or any even number Gf roots, be comprifed
between thofe limits, then no change of figns will take
place in the refults. See a demontftration of thefe properties
in Barlow’s Tables.
7. Therefore, when we fubftitute for the unknown ae
tity of an equation the feveral terms of the progrelffion,
0, I, 2, 3. &c. it will furnifh us with the integral lmits of
all the real pofitive roots of that equation, provided it has
not any that differ from each other by a quantity lefs than
unity, or if it have any odd number of fuch roots; but if
twvo, or any even number of its roots, be comprifed between
two confecutive integers, then thefe fubftitutions will not
-enable us (at leaft not by the change of fign) to difcover
the integral limits between which they are comprifed.
8. But if we fubftitute for the unknown quantity the
feveral terms of the progreffion, 0, A, 2 4,34, &c. A being
fuppofed lefs than the difference of any two of the real roots
of the equation, then the limits of every real pofitive root
will be indicated by the feveral changes of figns in the re-
fpective refults.
The above two properties have chiefly reference to La-
grange’s method of approximation.
g. If, in an equation, whatever real value be fubifti-
tuted for the unknown quantity, the refult is always
pofitive, it is certain that all the roots of that equation are
imaginary.
to. The figns of all the roots of an equation may be
changed from pofitive to negative, or from negative to
pofitive, by changing the figns of the alternate co-efficients,
viz. the 2d, qth, 6th, &c. ;'and hence the finding the real
roots of an ‘equation is reduced to that of finding pofitive
roots only. mene
1r. Every equation of an odd degree has at leaft one real
root, which will be pofitive if the laft term be negative, or
negative if that term be pofitive.
12. Every equation of even dimenfions, having its laft
term negative, has at leait two real roots, one pofitive and
the other negative ; but if its laft term be pofitive, it fur-
nifhes us with no means of judging of the nature of the
roots.
13. The firft term of an equation having (as we have
fuppofed throughout) unity for its co-efficient, its greateft
pofitive root will be lefs than the greateft negative co-
efficient plus 1.
14, And the abfolute term of an equation being divided:
by the fum of that term, and the greateft co-efficient having
a contrary fign, will give a limit lefs than the leaft root of
that equation.
t5. An equation, having unity for the co-efficient of its
firft term, and integral co-efficients for all its others, cannot
have a fractional root, diz. its roots muft be either integral,
irrational, or imaginary.
16. An equation cannot have more real pofitive roots,
than there are variations in the fucceflion of the figns of its
co-efficients, nor more real negative roots than there are
permanencies of figns.
Therefore, when all the roots of an equation are real..
there are precifely as many pofitive roots as there are varia-
tions, and as many negative roots as there are perma-
nencies. :
17. When any term of an equation is wanting, or has its
co-efficient equal to zero, and the preceding and following
terms have the fame figns, the equation has neceflarily fome
imaginary roots.
18. An equation cannot have all its roots comprifed be-
tween two confecutive integers, nor between any two in-
tegers, of which the difference is not greater than 2.
Thefe properties; the demonttrations of which are given
by different algebraical authors, may frequently be advan-
tageoufly confulted in determining the nature and limits of
the roots of equations.
On the Forms of the Roots of Equations—We have before
obferved, that the roots of equations, beyond thofe of the
fourth degree, cannot be generally exhibited in an analytical
form; yet from the analogy difcoverable in thofe of in-
ferior dimenfions, there feems little doubt but that thofe
of the fifth and higher dimenfions partake of the fame
form.
When an equation of the fecond, third, or fourth degree
has its fecond term taken away, to reduce it to its moft
convenient form for folution, the roots will have the fol-
lowing form.
Szcond Degree.
w= a /p, x=a! s/p, where a, a’, are the roots of 1.
: Third Degree.
wa pp Yaxady pte ygr=ey ptave
where a and a’ are the two imaginary roots of ¥/ 1.
Fourth Degree.
4 4 4
= vp au ined vr i | where a, a’, a’, are
Mier A Nh Bribe en ney tote Mod ak the three ima-
we yp pie Y pe ear { ginary roots of
4 4 4 a/ le
imi ees +a. ne |
ve via Whence
ROOT.
Whence it is very natural to infer, that in an equation of
the fifth degree, the roots will have the form,
Vet Vat vrt ws
xa pre Yqtayriays
ea aspteeOVatiayria ay 5
OVptavgtayrtays
aYpta Var eyrt ays
where a, a’, a’, a’, are the four imaginary roots of 3/ 1.
This generalization of the forms of the roots of equations,
though generally attributed to Euler, is, we believe, due
to Waring; but neither of thefe able analyfts were able to
derive from it the folution of any general equation above the
fourth degree. On the fubject of equations, viz. of finding
their roots, we would refer the reader to Waring’s “ Medi-
tationes Algebraice,”’ Lea’s “ Refolution of the higher
Equations in Algebra,’? La Grange’s treatife on the re-
folution « Des Equations Numeriques,’’ and the Introduc-
tion to Barlow’s “* Mathematical Tables,’? from which
we have extracted the following general fynopfis of refolu-
tion. See alfo Bonnycaftle’s Algebra.
s=
=
General Synopfis of the dire@ and approximate Methods of
afcertaining the Roots of Numbers and Equations.
Extration of the Roots of Numbers.
I. Let # reprefent the index of the root,
x the number of which the root is required,
ran approximate value of {/ x;
which may be found by trial, or otherwife, as near as con-
venient, and either in excefs or defect: then will,
2r(x—r")
(n+1)r" + (n—1)x
And ufing this new approximate value in the fame way,
another value may be found ftill nearer; and fo on, to any
degree of accuracy required.
This general formula refolves itfelf into the following
particular ones ; viz.
rE Yxert+
very nearly.
2r(x—r’)
2. CN Hee Aa oa
3 r(x—r)
Eh Gil or 2r> + x
2r(«—r'
4 fears eae)
5 r(x—r’) of
ae mre e Br + 2n
By the Binomial Theorem.
II. Let (2 + 4) reprefent any binomial, and n the index
of the root or power, which may be either pofitive or ne-
gative, integral or fractional ; then will
(a+ 6)"*=
” a n—t n(n— 1) n— 9
(1) a" + ik ashame an 95? +
Behe 2) aa ae an.
1.2.3
If 4 be negative, tle odd powers of 4 will alfo be nega-
tive; that is,
(a — 4)” —
(ay ahi aay PE ON oa par
I 1.2
cMate alideetist 6 a Fate x
Boj 2/.3
Otherwife: let reprefent the index, and put .
a
Q; alfo, let A, B, C, D, &c. reprefent the firft, fecond,
third, &c. terms of the feries, with their proper figns ;
then will
(el Berea Ge) =
A B Cc D
a m m—n m—2n
(3) arch AR cyand Qik aggre
m—
4n
which is by far the mot convenient form in the cafe of
fraGtional or negative indices.
f(s 3” Dyed
Roors or Equations.
QuaprRaAtic Equations.
III. Let x* + ax—5=0, orx?+ ax = 4, reprefent
any quadratic equation, a and 4 being either pofitive or ne-
gative; then will
—a ag
meses ag £8):
But if a and 4, independent of the fign by which they are
preceded, be always iuppofed pofitive; then this general
formula refolves itfelf into the four following particular
ones, viz.
I. + ax—b=0, where» = —* t/(S4 b)
an / (= 4 b).
Ayideeat
4. 27 -+ ax + b= 0, wherexe = = cL
=
2. x°— ax — b= 0, where x =
3. x — ax + b= 0, where x =
By Sines and Tangents.
IV.
I. ge
Put 7 a
? q
px = %
tan. 2; then
tan. x, or
cof, £ x.
|
ba
rs)
x x
.
®
ROOT.
2, x + px = gy thefe branches can be found in other binomial furds, which,
when poffible, is done by the following formule :
2 E
Put z /q7 = tan. x; then (1) Yat v/ 5) mE a VALE
ee + /q X cof. x, or (2) 8 —3a2 7 (@—b) —e=o0.
— /q X tan. % (3). 9. e/a? HB)
x. ps == ¢- By Sines and Tangents.
VI. In this cafe, it is neceflary to feparate the above
3
2
Put — ./g = fin. z; then
: Sa :
p general formula into the following particular ones, ac-
NES Vig. x tansg.z5/0r cording as @ and 6 are politive or negative, as follows; viz.
tL — vq x cof. gz. Form:1. x'+ ax—b=0.
A SUS 2, © +axn-+b=0.
ee 24s q CR ea ea oh
2 3 ahs =
Put — /q = fin. 2; then 4.) ai = ax B10.
P 1. Solution of Form i: x} +ax—b=0.
eae + /g x tan. ig, or ; .
+ Vg X col gz. Put = (2)y = tan. <3 and iy) tan. (45? —is}) =
Cusic Equations. tan. u. ‘
By Cardan’s Rule. Then « = 2 / x cot. 24.
V. Letx? + ax — 56 = 0, orx' + ax = 4, reprefent 3
any cubic equation wanting its fecond term, and in which 2. Solution of Form2: 25 +ax+b=0.
a and 6 may be either pofitive or negative ; then will b3\3
Put = (2) = tan. z; and 4 tan. (45°—is) =
BLUESY SA Bag
node ae Ae} 2° VAGe +=)t + tan. wv.
SY fe al é ey Then will =-2,/= x 2
J/ie-VE+D}- x 3 co u
ts js & ary 3. Solution of Form 3: x} —ax—b=o.
a as 5 ne i + = ca This form refolves itfelf into two cafes, according as
2 aN}.
+a 7% (<) is lefs or greater than 1.
: {4 / (2 +2 ig 2 (2;
2 \ 4. 247° In the firft cafe, put ae ey) = cof. x, and re tan.
Which latter form is frequently the moft convenient, as it Oa yin
requires only one Ao of the cube root, whereas the (45 5%) = tan. u
former requires two. Be ik VA a
The eo term of a cubic equation may be taken away Suna 2 aN 3 x cofec. 24.
by the following formule : , bias
if In the fecond cafe, put — (2y = cof. x, then has x
Letyi+ py t+ gy tr=o 2a
the three following values, viz.
Affumey 2 22g = G9 +. 3\p% s.and.b =a opie — 3 é
2p? — 2773 Peo 24 /% x cok =
fo fhall x} + ax — b= 0 be the transformed equation is hoi
required, which will, under this form, have integral co- 2 x= 2 w/ — x cof. (6 sF=
efficients. 3
When a is negative, that is, when the equation is x* — Pe oT Sete ie ey (rect =)
ax = 4, the preceding formula becomes eat 3 pa 37°
& 4. Solution of Form 4: x’ — az 4+6=0.
5 a’
:
Eine fo4/ ~—=)} 4 a
\/ 2 G “ll This has alfo two cafes, according as ee G ) is lefs
3 b be 3
as j ins BS \ & _ <)t . or greater than I.
3 2 2 Gh z ug 3
And here, when z > -, both branches of the root be- In the firft cafe, put Ty ( =) = cof. x, and // tan.
Ebonon PDN eae : °—ig) =tanu
come imaginary, and the equation is faid to be of the ir- (45 2%) *
reducible cafe; no folution being then obtainable by this reek \ = x cof. 2u.
rule, except in thofe cafes in which the cube roet of each of :
Q
ROOT.
In the fecond cafe, put = cy = cof. z, then has x
the three following values :
a z
ea —2y/ x oof %
3 3
CE ee ae / + x cof, (60° + 5):
Spy SSE \/ . x cof. (60° 2)
The two latter cafes of forms 3 and 4 belong to the ir-
reducible cafe, each of which gives three real roots or
values of x; whereas the other forms have each only one
real root. See InrepucIBLE Cafe.
By infinite Series.
Let x? + ax = 4 reprefent any cubic equation, in which
a and 4 may be each either pofitive or negative.
Adi oe =¢ aL
my Cah + 4a] a7 + 4a
= wv; then,
Bots. ei 2.5.1
Fealte BI 35, Bae = 5 7
i iE aaah F 6.9 12.15 6.9.--21
3 x? + &c.], or
I.
Rik 2-5 8 .1r 14.17
bores eae Pe tas 18. 21
«C+ &e.]
In which lait form, A, B, C, &c. reprefent the pre-
ceding terms.
3 2 3
Again, aflume 2 Vie = ¢, and js =e
7
then,
pee, p! 2.5.8 Mr Ad bad 3
- LF 6 BORO. 12 3.6...18
=} — &c.], or
2.¢
A IN? sh et SS Ib. 14
eS el oie 6 Gelia. 15.18
oe! erie]
In which, alfo, A, B, C, &c. are the preceding terms.
Both thefe feries are corre&t analytical expreflions for the
value of x, in the general cubic equation x'+ar=4;
but they are not equally commodious for the purpofes of
folution.
The former muft be ufed in all cafes when a is pofitive,
as alfo when a is negative, and 4a' greater than 548°;
and the latter when a is negative, and 4a c/s than 544°;
becaufe then =, in both cafes, will be lefs than unity, and
the feries will, therefore, be converging ones.
BiquapDRATIC Equations.
By Simpfon’s Rule.
VIIS. Let x4 4+ ax34 bx? +cx + d=0, be any
equation of the fourth degree, in which a, 4, c, d, may be
any numbers at pleafure, pofitive, negative, or zero.
Find the values of p, g, andr, by means of the three
equations
8p'— 4bp? + (2ac—8d)p—a'd+4bd—ci=0
gq = Vv (42° + 2p—4b)
PRS Ae
a
then will the four roots of the propofed equation be con-
tained in the following formule ;
I I
32-9 24—1), a i
2 +v{( 2 se
ula age { 24+) --p}
2 2
The above rule was only generalized by Simpfon, it is
originally due to Ferrari, though commonly afcribed to
Bombelli.
r
By Defcartes’ Rule.
IX. Let «+ + a27 44x 4+ ¢ =0, be any biquadratic
equation, wanting its fecond term.
Find the value of y in the double cubic equation
y +2ay+ (a —4c)y¥—P=0;
then will the four values of x be comprifed in the formulz
b
se La Ger kn eadre,
eshytv(-te-4at
By Euler’s Rule.
X. Let xt— ax2* — bx — c= 0, be any biquadratic equa-
tion, wanting its fecond term, a, 4, and c, being any num-
bers, pofitive, negative, or zero.
B
BPS OR el,
f= 345 b= 64
Then find the three roots of the cubic equation
yt+fyt+zey—h=o,
which let be p, g, and r.
Then willthe four values of x in the original equation be
exprefled as follows.
When 4 is pofitive,
Affume
;§ =e + he
rit root x
= Ad chomn wea Als OG ie A
2d Oo VP—-VU+tVNT
3d r= — V/ptV/q-wvr
4th ee ip — fd + af
When 4 is negative,
ft root x = JptVI-Vr
2d z= A Pi Oe te A
3d A Picton te ALE
4th x= —-Vp—-V/q-wWvr
EQUATIONS IN GENERAL.
By Approximation.—Firft Method.
XI. Let x® + a@x">* +4 bx"-2 4 0x"-2 4 d2x®—*+ Ke.
= 0, be any general equation, in which a, 4, c, d, &c. are
any numbers, pofitive, negative, or zero; then 7 being an
approximate value of », we have
.x2>
ROOT.
(n— 1)? + (2— 2) ar"—4 (a1 — 3) b+
(2 — 4) cr*3?+ &e
ar"-t4 (n —1) ar"-?4 (n— 2) br*™-2 4
(a — 3) cr" *+4 &e.
.x=
nearly, which general form refolves itfelf into the following
particular ones ; viz.
Equations of the third Degree.
2xetaxstbxtc=o;
ip NEE Ba es
3r°+2ar+ b-
Equations of the fourth Degree.
Betas +bxr tent d=0;3
u 3re4 2ari+ br? —d
4r>4+3ar'+2brpe
Equations of the fifth Degree.
Ota pbs tom tdxtermo;
oy ari bgaritebritecr me.
srit+qgar'+ 3b6r +2cer+d
&e. &e.
&
By the fecond Method.
XII. Let-2°+4 aa" 4+ 6 x*-24 ¢ "34 dx"—-*+ &e.
= w, be any general equation, as before, and 7 an approxi-
mate value of x; then making ;
wt ari brat crt 34 dr'-t*+ &.=9
we fhall have
(w—v)2ar
i ae (n—1) wt (at 1) r+ (@—I) ar t+
(n — 3) br*-? + &e.
Or,
pene (w—v)2r
(n—1I)v+ (2 +1) r"4+ (2— I) ar"4
(n — 3) br"-*+ &e.
The firft formula being applicable to the cafe in which
ris greater than unity, and the fecond to thofe in which
it is lefs. :
Thefe general formule refolve themfelves into the follow-
ing particular ones 5 via.
Lquations of the third Degree.
3.x t+artbeomw;
(w — - v) r
Bs ”
worv+2r>+ar
Lquations of the fourth Degree.
4c +aetbet+eox=w;
(w— v)2r
Z3wor3zut+srit+3gartbr—er
Lquations of the fifth Degree.
5. PP +axtt+bStexm+t+dx=w;
ev=r+
(w—v)r
2worzv+ 37r4 2art-4+br'—dr
sort
The latter formule, which are by far the moft converg-
ing, were firft publifhed by Mr. Barlow, in No. 12. of Ley-
bourn’s Mathematical Repofitory ; with reference to which
we propofe giving one example by way of illuttration.
Lxample.—Given x? — 2x = 5.
Affume r = 2, then (by formula 1),
(ese oO 27 3—O
—2r=-—4 wa 5
ai aed 21 divifor.
wo 5
w—Vv= I DaexX<ee:
Pa aN Ae whence = .094.
Therefore x = 2.094 nearly.
Affume, therefore, r = 2.094, then,
7 = 9.181846584 2 = 18.363693168
; vee
— 2r= 4.188 i
v = 4.993846584 23.363693168
w5- | :
w—v= 006153416
Tee 2.0904
+ (w — v) = 012885253
-012885253
whenc 33.383003" = .0005515.
Therefore x = .0945515 nearly ; which is true to the neareft
figure in the eighth place, by only two fubititutions.
TABLE
ROOT.
TABLE of Square Roots and Cube Roots, from 1 to 1200.
Number.) Square Roots. Cube Roots. Y -| Square Roots. Cube Roots. [Number.| Square Roots. | Cube Roots.
I.0000000 I.CO000006 71414284 3-7084298 | Tor | 10.0498756 4-65 70095
1.4142136 I.2599210 72111026 3-7325111 102 | 10.0995049 4.6723287
1.7320508 1.4422496 72801099 37562858 103 | 10.1488916 4.6875482
2.0000000 1.5874011 7-3484692 3-7797631 104 | 10.1980390 | 4-7026694
2.2360680 | 17099759 T-4161985 | 3-8029525 | 105° | 10.2469508 | 4.7176940
2.4494897 1.8171206 7-4833148 3-8258624
2-6457513 | 1-9129312 7-5498344 | 3-8485011
2.8284271 2.0000000 : 3-8708766
2.08008 37 : 3-8929965
2-1544347 : | 3-9148676
10.3440804 | 4.7474594
10.3923048 4.7622032
10.4403065 4.7768562
10.4880885 47914199
2.2239801 - 3-9364972 10.5356538 | 4.8058955
2.2894286 : 3-9578915 | 10.5830052 4-8202845
2-3513347 : 3-9790571 | 10.6301458 4.8345881
-7416574 2-4101422 5 4.0000000 | 10.6770783 4-8488076
-8729833 2.4662121 ; 4-0207256 | 10.7238053 | 4.8629442
OO MDIADA\| Nbwnae
i
10.2956301 | 4-7326235
|
|
|
|
|
|
| 2.5198421 : 4-0412401 10.7703296 4.8769990
-1231056 | 2.5712816 : 4.0615480 10.8166538 4.8909732
4.2426407 2.6207414 4.0816551 10.8627805 4-9048681
4-3588989 2.6684016 : 4-101 5661 | 10.g087121 | 4.9196847
44721360 2-7144177 8.3666003 4-.1212853 10.9544512 | 4.9324242
4-5825757 2.7589243 8.4261498 4.1408178 I1.00C00000 | 4.9460874
4.6904158 2.8020393 8.4852814 | 4.1601676 11.0453610 49596757
4-7958315 | 2.8438670 8.5440037 | 4.1793390 11.0905365 | 4.9731898
4-8989795 2.8844991 8.6023253 4.1983 364 | 1141355287 4-9866310
5-0000000 2.9240177 8.6602540 4-2171633 | 11.1803399 | Lrrolelelesojeje)
— —____ —_——_‘“_—. ___
5-0990195 2.9624960 8.7177979 4-2358236 11.2249722 5-0132979
51961524 | 3.0000000 8.7749644 | 4.2543210 11.2694277 §-0265257
5.2915026 3-0365889 8.8317609 4.2726586 11.3137085 5-0396842
5-3851648 3-0723168 8.8881944 | 4.2908404 11.3578167 5-0527743
54772256 | 3.1072325 8.9442719 | 43088695 11-4017543*| 5.0657970
5-5677644 31413806 g-0000000 4.3267487 11.4455231 5-0787531
5-6568542 31748021 9-0553851 4.3444815 11.4891253 5-0916434
5-7445626 3-2075343 9-1104336 4.3620707 11.5325626 5-1044687
5-8309519 | 3.2396118 Q-1651514 | 4.3795191 11.5758369 | 5.1172299
5-9160798 | 3.2710663 | 9.2195445 4.3968296 11.6189500 5-1299278
——nd SE
6.0000000 3-3019272 | 9.2736185 4-4140049 | 11.6619038 5-1425632
6.0827625 | 3.3322218 | 9-3273791 | 4-4310476 | 11.7046999 5-1551367
6.1644140 | 33619754 | 9-3808315 | 4.4479602 | 11-7473444 | §5.1676493
6.2449980 363912114 9-4339811 4.464745 1 | 11.7898261 | 5.1801015
6.3245553 | 3-4199519 9-4868330 | 4.4814047 | 11.8321596 | 5.1924941
6.4031242 | 3.4482172 95393920 | 4-4979414 11.8743421 | 5.2048279
6.4807407 3-4760266 9-5916630 4-5143574 11.9163753 §-2171034
6-5574385 | 3-5033981 9-6436508 — 4.5306549 11.9582607 | 5.2293215
6.6332496 3-5 303483 9-6953597 45468359 12.0000000 5-2414828
6.7082039 | 3.5568933 97467943 | 4-5629026 12.0415946 | 5.2535879
6.7823300 35830479 9:7979590 12.0830460 5-2656374
6.8556546 3-6088261 9.848857 4-5947009 12.1243557 5-2776321
6.9282032 3.6342411 9-8994949 4.6104363 12.1655251 §-2895725
J-OQ000C00 3-6593057 9-9498744 4.6260650 12.2065556 5-3014592
7-0710678 3-6840314 10.0000C00 4-6415888 12.2474487 5-3132928
VoL. XXX. 3U
ROO'T.
Lasix of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Number.| Square Roots. Cube Roots. [Number.| Square Roots. Cube Roots. |Number.
151 | 12.2882057 5-3250740 | 201 | 14.1774469 5-8577660 # 251
152 | 12.3288280 5-3368033 | 202 | 14.2126704 5-8674643 | 252
153 | 12.3693169 5-3484812 | 203 | 14.2478068 5-8771307 | 253
154 | 12.4096736 5-3001084 | 204 | 14.2828569 5.8867653 | 254
155 | 12.4498996'| 5-3716854 | 205 | 14.3178211 5-8963685 } 255
156 | 12.4899960 5-3832126 } 206 | 14.3527001 5-9059406 | 256
157 | 12.5299641 | 5-3946907 | 207 | 143874946 | 5.915417 | 257
158 | 12.569805t 5-4061202 }| 208 | 14.4222051 5-9249921 258
15g | 12.6095202 5-41 75015 | 209 | 14.4568323 5-9344721 259
160 | 12.6491106 5-4288352 | 210 | 14.4913767 5-9439220 | 260
161 | 12.6885775 5-4401218 14.5258390 59533418 7 261
162 | 12.7279221 5-4513618 14.5602198 5.9627320 | 262
163 | 12.7671453 | 5-4625556 145945195 | 5-9720926 | 263
164 | 12.8062485 5-4737037 14.6287388 5-9814240 | 264
165 | 12.8452326 5-4848066 14.6628783 5-9907264 | 265
169 | 12.8849987 5-4958647 14.6969385 6.0000000 | 266
167 | 12.9228480 55068784 14.7309 199 6.0092450 | 267
168 | 12.9614814 55178484 14.7648231 6.0184617 | 268
160 | 13,0000000 525287748 14.7986486 6.0276502 | 269
170 |. 13.0384048 5-5390583 14.8323970 6.0368107 | 270
171 | 13.0766968 5-5504991 14.8660687 6.0459435 | 271
172 | 13.1148770 55612978 14.8996644 6.0550489 | 272
173 | 13-1529464 | 5.5720546 14-9331845 | 6.0641270 | 273
174 | 13.190g060 5-5827702 14.9666295 6.0731779 4 274
175 | 132287566 5-5934447 150000000 6.0822020 } 275
176 | 13.2664992 5.6040787 15.0332964 6.0911994 | 276
177 | 13.3041347 5-6146724. 15.0665 192 6.1001702 } 277
178 | 13-3416641 5-6252263 15.0996689 6.1091147 | 278
179 | 13-3790882 5-6357408 15.1327460 6.1180332 | 279
180 | 13.4164079 5-6462162 15.1657509 6.1269257 | 280
181 | 13-4536240 5-6566528 15.1936842 6.1357924 | 281
182 | 13-4907376 5-6670511 15.2315462 6.1446337 | 282
183 | 13-5277493 | 5-6774114 15-2643375 | 641534495 | 283
184 | 13.5646600 5-6877340 15-2970585 6.1622401 | 284
185 | 13.6014705 5-6980192 15+3297097 6.1710058 | 285
186 | 13.6381817 5-7082675 15.3622915 6.1797466 | 286
187 | 13.6747943 5-7184791 15-3948043 6.1884628 }| 287
188 | 13.7113092 5-7286543 15-4272486 6.1971544 | 288
189 | 13.7477271 5-7387936 15.4596248 6.2058218 | 289
190 | 13-7840488 5-7488971 15-4919334 6.2144650 | 290
Igi | 13.8202750 5:7589652 15.5241747 6.2230843 291
1g2 | 13.8564065 5-7689982 15-5563492 6.2316797 } 292
193 | 13-8924440 | 5.7789966 15-5884573 | 6.2402515 | 293
194 | 13.9283883 5-7889604 15.6204994 6.2487998 | 294
195 | 13-9642400 5-7988g00 15-6524758 6.2573248 | 295
196 | 14.0000000 5.808785 7 15.6843871 6.2658266 | 296
197 | 14.0356688 5.8186479 15.7162336 6.2743054 | 297
198 |. 14.0712473 5.8284767 15.7480157 6.2827613 | 298
199 | 14.1067360 5.8382725 15.7797338 6.2911946 | 299
200 | 14.1421356 5-8480355 15.8113883 6.2996053 | 300
15.8429795
16.7332005
Square Roots.
15-8745079
15-9059737
15-9373775
15.9087 194
16.0000000
16.0312195
16.0623784
16.0934769
16.1245155
16.1554944
16.1864141
16.2172747
16.2480768
16.2788206
16.3095064.
16.3401 346
16.3707055
16,4012195
16.4316767
16.4620776
16.4924225
16.5227116
16 5529454
16.5831240
16.6132477
16.6433170
16.6733320
¥6.7032931
16.7630546
16.7928556
16.8226038
16.8522995
16.8819430
16.9115 345
16.9410743
16.9705627
17.0000000
17.0293864
Cube Roots.
643079935
643163596
6.3247035
6.33 30256
6.3413257
6.3496042
6.3578611
6.3660968
6.3743111
6.3825043
6.3906765
6.3988279
6.40695 84.
6.4150687
6.4231583
6.4312276
6.4392767
6-447 3057
6-4553148
6.463 3041
6.4712736
6.4792236
6.4871541
6.495065 3
6.5029572
6.5 108300
6.5186839
6.5265189
6.5 343851
6.5421326
6.5499116
6.5576722
6.5654144
6.5885 323
6.5962023
6.6038545
6.6114890
6.6191060
| 17.0587221
17.0880075
17.1172428
17.1464282
17-1755640
17.2046505
17.2336879
17-2626765
17.2916165
17-3205081
6.6267054
6.63428 74.
6.64185 22
6.6493998
6.6569302
6.6644437
6.6719403
6.6794200
6.6868831
6.6943295
Number.| Square Roots.
Exer
302
303
304
395
306
397
308
329
310
311
312
313
ot
3)
17-3493516
17.3781472
17.40689 52
17-4355958
17-4642492
17-4928557
17+5214155
17-5499288
17-5783958
17.6068169
17-635192£
17-6635217
17.6918060
17.7200451
17-7482393
17.7763888
17-8044938 |
178325545
17.8605711
17.8885438
17.9164729
179443584
179722008
18.0000000
18.0277564.
18.0554701
18.0831413 |
18.1107703
18.1383571 |
18.1659021
18.1934054
18.2208672 |
18.2482876 |
18.2756669 |
18.3030052
18.3 303028 |
18.3575598 |
18. 3847763
18.4119526 |
18.4390889 |
{——_—————_
18.4661853 |
18.4932420 |
18.5202592
18.5472370 |
18.5741756 |
18.6010752 |
18.6279360
18.6547581
18.68154.17
18.7082869
ROOT.
Taste of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Cube Roots.
Number.
| 18.8944436 |
Square Roots.
18.7349940
18.7616630
18.7882942
18.8148877
18.8414437
18.8679623
| 18.9472953
18.9208879 |
18.9736660 |
1g.0000000
19.0262976
19.0525589
19.0787840
Qt O49 732
19-13 11265
19-15 72441
19.1833261
982003727
19-2353841
19-261 3603
19.2873015
£9:3132079
193390796 |
19-3649167
19-3907194 |
19-4164878 |
194422221
19.4679223
19-4935887
19.5192213 |
19-5448203 |
19.§703858
19-5959179 |
19.6214169 |
19.6468827
| 19.6723156 |
19-6977 156
19.72305829
| 19-7484177
| 19.8746069
19-7737199 |
19.7989899 |
19.8242276
19-3494332
| 198997487
199248588
| 19:9499373
6.7017593 | 351
6.7091729 | 352
6.7165700 | 353
6.7239508 | 354
6-7313155 | 355
| 6.7386641 | 356
6.7459967 | 357
6.7533134 | 358
6.7606143 | 359
6.7678995 | 360 |
6.7751690 | 361
6.7824229 | 362
6.7896613 | 363
6.7968844 | 364
6.804092 1 365
6.811284) 366
6.8184620 | 367
6.825624 368
6.8527714 -| 369
6.8399037 | 37°
6.84.70213 ] 371
6.8541240 | 372
6.8612120 | 373
6.8682855 | 374
6.8753443 | 375
6.8823888 } 376
6.8894188 | 377
6.8964345 | 378
6.9034359 | 379
6.91c4232 | 380
6.9173964 | 381
6.9243556 | 382
6.9313008 | 383
6.9382321 | 384
6-9451496 | 385
6.9520533 | 386
6.9589434 | 387
6.9658198 | 388
6.9726826 | 389
| 69795321 | 39°
6.9863681 | 391
6.9931906 | 392
70000000 } 393
70067962 | 394
FO135791 |. 395
7+0203490 | 396
7-0271058 | 397
7-0338497 | 398
7-0405806 399
7-0472987 | 400
19-9749844
20.0000000
-1465695
7-2431565
| 7-2747864
*3372339
7-05 40041
7.0606967
7-067 3.767
79740440
7.0806988
7.0873411
7-2939709
7.1005885
7:1071937
7+1137866
-1203674
-1269360
<Seh re a)
- 1400370
Inn] ~~
-1530901
-1595988
-1660957
-1725809
Wet 9°544
sss ~1
7-1855162
7+1919663
7-1984050
7-2048322
7-2112479
7-2176522
7-2240450
7-2304268
7:2367972
7-2495045
7-2558415
7-2621675
7-2684824
72810794
7-2873617
7-2936330
7-2998936
7-3061436
7-3123828
7-3186114
7-3248295
7-3310369
73434205
7+3495966
7-3557624
7-3619178
7+3680630
Number.} Square Roots.
401 | 20.02490844
G02, |, 20:0499377
403 | 20.0748599
HOPE 202009 7522
405 | 20.1246118
406 | 20.1494417
407 | 20.1742410
408 | 20.1990099
409 | 20.2237484
410 | 20.2484567
411 | 20.2731349
412 | 20.2977831
413 | 20.3224014
414 | 20.3469899
415 | 20.3715488
416 | 20.3960781
417 | 20.4205779
418 | 20.4450483
419 | 20.4694895
420 | 20.4939015
421 | 20.5182845
422 | 20.5426386
423 | 20.5669638
424. | 20.5912603
425 | 20.6155281
426 | 20.6397674
427 | 20.6639783
428 | 20.6881609
429 | 20.7123152
430 | 20.7364414
431 | 20.7605395
432 | 20.7846097
433 | 20-8086520
434 | 20.8326669
435 | 20.8566536
436 | 20.8806130
437 | 20-9045450
438 | 20.9284495
439 | 20.9523268
| 20.9761770
441 | 21.0000000
442 | 21.0237960
443 | 21.0475652
444 | 21.0713075
445 | 21.0950231
446 | 21.1187121
447 | 21-1423745
448 | 21.1660105
449 | 21.1896201
450 | 21.2132034
j
|
Cube Roots.
7+3741979
7-3803227
73864373 ©
7-3925418
7-3986363
7-4047206
7-4107950
7-4168595
7-4229142
7-4289589
7-4349938
7-4410189
7-4470342
7°45 30399
7-4590359
7-4650223
74709991
7-4769664
7-4829242
7-4888724
7-4948113
7-5007406
75066607
75125715
7-5 484730
7-5243652
75302482
7-5361221
7-5419867
7-5478423
7+5536888
7:5595263
7-5653548
7+5711743
7-5769849
7-5827865
7:5885793
7-5943633
7.6001 385
7+6059049
7-6116626
76174116
7-6231519
7-6288837
7:6346067
7+6403213
7-6460272
7-6517247
7-6574138
7-6630943
Square Roots.
21.2367606
21,2602916
21.2837967
21.3072758
21.3307290
21-3541565
21-3775583
21-.4009346
214242853
21.4476106
21.4709106
21.4941853
21.5174348
21.5406592
21.5638587
21.5870331
21.6101828
21.6333077
21.6564078
21.6794834
RN ae
21.7255610
21.7485632
217715411
211944947
21.8174242
2128403297
21.8632111
21.8860686
21.9089023
21.9317122
| 21-9544984
21.9772610
22.0000000
22.0227155
22.0454077
22.0680765
22.0907220
22.1 133444
22-1359436
22.1585198 |
22.1810730
22.2036033
22.2261108
22.2485955
22.2710575
22.2934968
22.3159136
22.3383079
22.3606798
ROOT.
Taste of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Cube Roots.
7.6687665
7-6744303
7.6800857
7.6857328
7-6913717
7.6970023
7-7026246
7.7082388
7-7138448
7.7194426
7-7259325
7-73060141
7-7361877
774175 32
7*7473109
7-7804904
7-7859928
7-7914875
7-7969745
7.80245 38
7-8079254
7-8133892
7.8188456
7.8242942
7:8297353
7-8351688 |
7:8405949 |
7-8460134 |
78514244 |
7.8568281
7-8622242
7:8676130
7-8729944
7.8783684
7-8837352
7.8890946
7-8944468
78997917
7+9051294
79104599
7-9157832
7-92 40994
7.9264085
7-9317104
7:9379053
Number.
Sor
502
503
504
505.
506
507
508
Hee)
510
511
512
508
514
ous
516
Syed
518
519
520
521
522
Bs}
524
525
526
527
528
529
532
531
532
533
22.4722051
22.5831796
22.6936114
22.8035085
22.9128785
23.0217289
23+2379001
23-3452351
Square Roots,
223830293
224053505
22.4270615
224499443
22.4944438 |
22.5166605
22.5388553
22.5610283
22.605 3091
22.6274170
22.6495033
22.6715681
22.7156334
22.7376340
22.7596134
22.7815715
22.8254244
22.8473193
22.8691933
22.8910463
22.9346899 |
22.9564806
22.9782506 -
23.0000000
2320434372
23.0651252
23.0867928
23.1084400
23.1300670
23-1516738
231732605
23.1948270
23-2163735
23-2594067
23.2808935
23.3023604
2323238076
233666429
23.3880311
23-4093998
23-4 307498)
234520788
T
7:9633743
8.0155946
8.1180414
Cube Roots.
7-9422931
7-9475739
79528477
79581144
7.9686271
7:9738731
7.9791122
79843444 |
7-9895697
7-9947883
8.0000000
8.0052049
8.0104032
8.0207794
8.0259574
8.0311287
8.0362935° |
8.0414515
8.0466030
8.0517479
8.0568862
8.0620180
8.0671432 |
8.0722620 |
8.0773743
8.0824800 |
8.0875794
8.0926723
8.1028390
8.1079128
8.1129803
8.1230962 §
8.1281447
8.1331870 |
8.1382230 |
8.1432529 |
8.1482765 |
8.1532939 |
8.1583051
8.1633102 }
8.1683092
8.1733020 |
8.1782888
8.1832695
8.1882441
8.1932127
8.0977589 |
Number.
1 55%
opie
| 553
554
555
556
} 557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
| 573
574
575
23.8746728
23-4733892
23-4946802
255 ON eon
23.5372046
23-5534380 |
23.5796522
23.6008474
23-6220236
23.643 1808
23.6643191
23.6854386
23.7065 392
23.7276210
23.7486842
23.7097286
23219071549:
23.8117618
23.8327506
23.8537209
23.8956063
23.9165215
23.9374184
23.9582071
24.0000000
24.0208243
24.0416306
24.0624188
24.0831891
241039416
24.1246762
241453929
24.1660919
24.1867732
24.2074369
24.2280829
24.2487113
24.2693222
24.2899156
24.3104916
24.3310501
24-3515913
24.3721152
24.3926218
24.4131112
24-4335834
244540385
244744765
24-4948974
Square Roots. | ‘Cube Roots,
8.1981753
8.2031319
8.2080825
8.2130271
§.2179657
8.2228985
§.2278254.
8.2327463
8.23 76614
8.2425706 }
8.2474740
8.2523715
8.2572633
8.2621492
8.2670294 §
23-9791576 |.
8.2719039
8.2767726
8.2816355
8.2864928
8.2913444
8.2961903
8.3010304
8.3058651
8.3106941
8.3155175
8.3203353
8.3251475
8.3299542
8.3347553
8.3395509
8.3443410
8.3491256
8.3539047 |
8.3586784
8.3634466
8.3682095 |
8.3729668
8.3777188 J
8.3824653
8.3872065
8.3919423
8.3966729 §
8.4030981 |
8.4061180
8.4108326 |
S.4155419 |
8.4202460
8.4249448
8.4296383
8.4343 267
Number.
60!
602
=.)
w
al
24.6981781
24.8997992
251992063
25-2982213
Square Roots:
24-5153013
2405 356883
24.5560583
24.5 764115
24.5967478
24.6170673
24.637 3700
24.6576560
24.6779254
24.7184142
24-7 386338
24.7588368
24-7 790234
24-7991935
24-8193473
24.8394847
24.8596058
24.8797106
24.9198716
24-9399278
24-9599679
249799920
25-0000000
25.0199920
250399681
250599282
25-0798724
25-0998008
2501197134
25.1396102
251594913
25+1793566
25-2190404
252388589
25.2586619
25-2784493
——— |
25-3179778
25-3377189
25+3574447
253771551
25-3968502
25-4165301
25-4361947
25-4558441
25-4754784
25+4950976
8.5270189
+8.5726189
ROOT.
Tas x of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Cube Roots.
8.4390098
8.4436877
8.4483605
8.45 30281
8.45 76906
8.4623479
8.4670001
8.4716471
8.4762892
8.4809261
8.4855579
8.4901848
8.4948065
8.4994233
8.5040350
8.5086417
8.5132435
8.5178403
8.5224321
8.5316009
8.5361780
8.5407501
85453173
8-5544372
8.5589899
8.5635377
8.5680807
8:5771523
8.58 16809
8.5862047
8.5907238
8.5952380
8.5997476
8.6042525
8.6087526
8.6132480
8.6177388
8.6222248
8.6267063
8.6311830
8.6356551
8.6401226
8.644585 5
8.6490437
8.6534974
8.6579465
8.6623911
85498797
Number.
26-4575131
Square Roots. Cube Roots.
| 2505147016 8.6668310
25-5342907 8.6712665
25-5538647 | 8.6756974
25-5734237 8.6801237
25-5929678 8.6845456
25-6124969 8.6889630
25.6320112 8.6933759
25-6515107 8.6977843
25-6709953 8.7021882
25-6904652 | 8.7065877
257099203 8.7109827
257293607 | 8.7153734
25-7487864 | 8.7197596
25-7081975 8.724 1414
25-7875939 | 87285187
25.8069758 8.7328918
25-8263431 8.7372604
25-8456960 8.7416246
25.8650343 | 8.7459846
25-8843582 8.7503401
25-9036677 | 8.7546913
25-9229628 8.7590383
25-9422435 | 8.7633809
25-9615100 8.7677192
25-9807621 8.77205 32
26.0000000 8.7763830
26.0192237 8.7807084
26.0384331 8.7850296
26.0576284 | 8.7893466
26.0768096 8.7936593
26.0959767 | 8.7979679
26.1151207 8.8022721
26.1342687 8.8065722
26.1533937 8.8108681
26.1725047 8.8151598
26.1916017 8.81944.74
26.2106848 8.8237307
26.2297541 8.8280099
26.2488095 8.8322850
26.2678511 8.8365559
26.2868789 8.8408227 |
26.3058929 8.8450854
26.3248932 8.8493440
26.3438797 | 8.8535985
26.3628527 8.8578489
26.3818119 8.8620952
26.4007576 8.8653375
26.4196896 8.8705757
26.4386081 8.8748c99
8.87 90400
Number.
7O1
702
723
74,
195
706
7°7
708
709
710
711
712
Square Roots.
26.4764046
26.4952826
26.5141472
26.5329983
26.5518361
26.5706605
26.5894.716
26.6082694.
26.6270539
26.6458252
26.6645833
26.683 3281
26.7020598
26.7207784:
26.7394839
26.7581763
26.7768557
26.7955220
26.8141754.
26.8328157
26.85 14432
26.8700577
26.8886593
26.9072481
26.9258240
26.9443872
26.9629375
26.9814754
27-0000000
27-0185122
270370117
270554985
27+0739727
27+0924344
27-1108834
| 2741293199
27-1477439
271661554
271845544
27+2029410
27+2213152
272396769
27.2580263
2722763634
27-2946881
273130006
27+3313007
27-3495 887
| 27-36078644
| 27-3861279
Cube Ronis.
8.8832661
8.8874882
8.8917063
$.8959204.
8.9001304
8.9043366
8.9085387
8.9127369
8.9169311
8.9211214
8.9253078
8.9294902
8.93 36687
8.9378433
8.9420140
8.9461809
8.9503438
8.9545029
8.9586581
8.9628095
8.9669570
8.971 1007
8.9752406
8.9793766
8.983 5089
8.9876373
8.99176z0
8.9958829
Q-0000000
| QrOO41134
g-0082229
90123288
g-0164309
9-0205 203
9-0246239
g-0287149
g-0328021
9-0368857
9-040965 5
9:045 04.19
9.0491 142
9-0531831
9-0572482
9-0613098
9-065 3677
9.0694220
9-07 34726
9:0775197
9-081 5631
g-0856030
Se
27-4772633
27-5680975
| 27-6586334
27-7488739
27-8388218
27.9284801
28.0178515
28.1069386
| 28.1957444
| 28.2488938
| 28.2842712
Square Roots.
27-4043792
27.4220184
27-4408455
27-4590604
274954542
27-5136330 |
27-5317998 |
27-5499546 |
27.5862284 |
27-6043475 |
27-6224546 |
27-6405499
27-6767050 |
27-6947648
27-7128129
277308492
27.7668868
27.7848880
27.8028775
27-8208555 |
27.8567766
27-8747197
27.8926514
27-Q1OS715
27-9463772
27.9642629
27.9821372
28.0000000 _
28.0356915
28.0535203
28.0713377
28.0891438
28.1247222
28.1424946
28.1602557
28.1780056
28.2134720
28.2311884
28.2665881
9-0896392
| 91258053
ROOT.
TABLE of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Cube Roots.
9:0936719
9:0977010
g-1017265
9-1057485
—
9-1097669
g-1137818
9-1177931
g-1Z18010
g-1298061
9-1338034
9-1377974
9-1417874
9-1457742
-| Square Roots.
28.3725219
28.4604989
28.6356421
28.7402157
28.8270706
28.3019434
28.3196045
28.3372546
28.3548938
28.3901391
28.4077454
28.4253408
28.4429253
28.4780617
28.4956137
| 28.5131549
28.5306852
28.5482048
28.5657137
28.5832119
28.6006993
28.6181760
28.6530976
28.6705424
28.6879766
28.7054002
28.7228132
28.7576077
28.7749891
28.7923605
28.8097206
28.8444102
28.8617394
| 28.8790582
28.8963666
28.9136646
28.9309523 |
28.9482297
28.9654967
28.9827535
29.0C00000
29.0172363
| 29.0344623
9-1497576 | 816 |
9-1537375 | 317
9-1577139 | 818
g-1616869 | 819
9-1656565 | 820
g-1696225 | 821
9-1735852 | 822
9-1775445 | 823
g-1815003 | 824
| 9-1854527 | 825
g-1894018 }| $26
9-1933474 | 827
9-1972897 | 828
g-2012286 | 829
g-2051641 | 830
g-2090962 | 831
9-2130250 | 832
g-2169505 | 833
9-2208726 | 834
9-2247914 | 835
g:2287068 | 836
92326189 | 837
9-2365277 | 838
9-2404333 | 539
9-2443355 | S40
9-2482344 | 841
g-2521300 | 842
9-2560224 | 843
9 2599114 | 844
9-2637973 | 845
9-2676798 | 846
9-2715592 | 847
9-2754352 | 848
9-2793081 849
9-2831777 | 850
| 29.0688837
29-0516781
| 29.0860791
29-1032644
29.1204396
29-1376046
g-2870440
9-2909072
9-2947671
9-2986239
9-3924775
9-3063278
9-3101750
g-31401g0
9-3178599
9+3216975
93255320
9+3293634
9-3331916
93370167
93408386
9-3446575
93484731
93522857
93560952
9:3599016
9-3637049
93675051
9-3713022
9-3750963
9-3788873
9-3826752
9-3864600
9-3902419
9+3940206
9-3977964
9-4015691
9-405 3387
G-ACOTOS
9-4128690
9-4166297
9-4203873
9-4241420
9-4278936
9-4316423
9-4353880
94391307
9-4428704
9-4466072
OOS aEO
9-4540719
9-4577999
9-4615249
9-4652470
29-1547595
9-4689661
9-4726824.
Number.
Square Roots.
29-17 19043
29.1890390
29.2061637
29.2232784
29-2403830
29-2574777
29.2745623
29-2916370
29-3087018
29-3257566
29-3428015
29.3598365
29.3768616
29-3938769
29-4108823
29.4278779
29.4448637
29.4618397
29.4788059
29-495 7624
29.5127091
29-5296461
29-5465734
29-5634910
29.5803989
295912972
29.6141858
29-6310648
29.6479342
29-6647939
29.6816442
29.6984848
29-7153159
29-7321375
29.7489496
29-7657521
29.7825452
29-7993289
29-8161030
29.8328678
29.8496231
29.8663690
298831056
| 29.8998328
| 29-9165506
29-9332591
29-9499583
29.9666481
29-983 3287
30.0000000
|
9-4912200
9-5096854
95280794
9-5464027
9-5646559
9-6226030
9-6369812
Cube Roots.
9:4763957
9-4801061
9-4838136
94875182
9-4949188
9-4986147
95023078
9-5059980
9-5133699
9+5170515
95207303
95244063
9:5317497
9-5354172
9-5390818
9-5427437
9-5500589
9-5537123
9-5573630
9.5610108
9.5682932
9:5719377
9:5755745
9:5792085
9-5828397
9-5864682
9+5900939
9-5937169
9-5973373
g-6009548
9-6045696
9-608 1817
g-6117911
9:6153977
g-6190017
g-6262016
9-6297975
9-63 33907
9-6405690
9-6441542
9-6477367
9-6513166
9-6548938
Square Roots.
30.0166620
30-0333148
30-0499584
30.067 5928
30.0832179
30:0998339
301330383
30. 1662063
30.1827765
39-1993377
30.21 58899
9022324529
30.2489669
30.2654919
30.2820079
30.2985148
30.3150128
30-3315018
303479818
30-3644529
30.3809151
30.4138127
30.4302481
30-4466747
30.4630924
SO=4- 795023
S049 9014
30.5122926
30.5450487
30-5614136
| 30-5777697
ed
30-6104557
30-6267857
30.6431069
30.6594194
30-675 7233
30.6920185
30-7083051
30.7245830
30.7408523
30-7571130
32-7733651
30.7896086
30.8220700
SN
30.1164407 |
| Cube Roots.
30.1496269 |-
30.5286750 |
| 9-7364484
30:3973683 |
ROOT.
Tasxe of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
g-6584684
9-6620403
9-6656096
9.6691762
9-6727403
9-6763017
9-6798604
9-68 34166
g-6869701
g-6905211
9-6940694
9-6976151
g-7011583
9-7046989
g-7082369
Ses
P75 3o5 4
9-7 188354
9-7223631
9-7258883
9-7294109
9-7329309
9+7399634
9-7434758
9-7469857
9-7 504930
9-7539979
9°7575002
9-7610001
9-7944974
9-7679922
9-77 14845
9-7749743
9-7784616
9-7829466
9-7854288
9-7889087
9-7923861
9-7958611
9-7993336
9-8028036
9-8062711
30.8058436 |
9.8097 362
g-8131989
g-8166591
g-8201169
9-8235723
g-8270252
| 9-8304757
|
|
Number.| Square Roots.
951 | 30.8382879
952 | 308544972
953 | 30.8706984
954 | 30-8868904
955 | 39:9039743
956 | 30.9192497
957 | 30-9354166
958 | 309515751
| 309677251
30.9838668 |
g61 | 31.0000000
g62 | 31.0161248
963 | 31.0322413
964 | 31-0483494
965 | 31.0644491
966 | 31.0805405
967 | 31.0966236
968 | 31.1126984
969 | 31.1287648
31.1448230
971 | 31.1608729
972 | 31-1769145
973 | 31-1929479
974 | 31.2089731
975 | 31.2249900
976 | 31.2409987
977 | 31-2569992
978 | 31-2729915
979 | 31.2889757
980 | 31-3049517
ee
g8t | 31.3209195
982 | 31.3368792
983 | 31-3528308
984 | 31.3687743
985 | 31-3847097
986 | 31.4006369
987 | 31.4165561
988 | 31.4324673
989 | 31.4483704
99° | 31.4642654
991 | 31.4801525
992 | 314960315
993 | 31-5119025
994 | 31-5277655
995 | 31-5436206
996 | 31-5594677
997 | 31-5753068
998 | 31.5911380
999 | 31.6069613
1000 | 31.6227766
9-8476920
9-8648483
g-8819451
g.8989830
9-9159624
9-9328839
9-9665549
Cube Roots.
9-8339238
98373695
g-8408127
98442536
g-8511280
9-8545617
98579929
g-8614218
9-8682724
9-8716941
98751135
9-8785305
9-885 3574
98887673
g-8921749
9-8955801
9-9023835
9-9057817
g-9091776
9-9125712
9-9193513
9-9227379
g-9261222
9-9295042
99362613
9-9396363
9-9430092
9-9463797
9-9497479
9-95 31138
9:9564775
9:9598389
9-9631981
9-9699095
9-9732619
9-9766120
9-9799599
9-983 3055
9-9866488
9-9899900
9-9933289
9-9966656
10.00C0000
Number.
1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
IO1O
IOI
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1OIg
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
1032
1033
LO34
1035
1036
OSA
1038
to38
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
1046
1047
1048
1049
31.7804972
31-9374388
32-0936131
1050 |
Square Roots.
31-6385840
31.6543836
31.6701752
31.6859590
31-7017349
31-7175030
31.7332633
31-7490157
31.7647603
31.7962262
318119474 |
31.8276609
31.843 3666
31.8590646
31-8747549
31.8904374
31.g061123
Suz os
31-95 30906
319687347
319843712
32.0000000
32.0156212
32.0312348
32.0468407
32.0624391
32.0780298
1091887
1247568
eae
1558704
1714159
32
32.
32.
32.
32.
32.18695 39
32.2024844
32.2180074
O22 305ee0
322490310.
32.2645316
32.2800248
B22 2055205
32.3109888
32-3264598
32+3419233
32-3573794
32.3728281
32.3882695
324037035
Cube Roots.
10.003 3322
10.0066622
10.0099899
10.0133155
10.0166389
10.0199601
10.0232791
10.0265958
10.0299104
10.0332228
10.0365 330
10.0398410
10.0431469
10.0464506
10.0497521
10.05 30514.
10.0563485
10.0596435
10.0629364
10.0662271
10.0695156
18.0728020
10.0760863
10.0793684
10.0826484
10.0859262
10.0892019
RO; OO 2A
10.0957469
| 10.0990163
i
10.1022835
10.1055487
10.1088117
10.1120726
10.1153314
10.1185882
10.1218428
10.1250953
10.1283457
10.1315941
10.1348403
| 10.1380845
10.1413266
10.1445667
10.14.78047
1510406
SAAT AA
10.1575062
10.4607359
10.1639636
10.
10.
75%
152
753
7154
755
756
757
758
759
760
~
Ve)
oo
Square Roots.
27-4043792
27.4220184
27-4408455
27-4590604
27-4772633
27-4954542
27-5136330
27-5317998
27-5499546
27-5680975
27-6405499
| 27-6586334
27-6947648
27-7128129
277308492
27-7488739
27.7668868
27.7848880
27.8028775
27.8208555
27.8388218
27.8567766
27.8747197
27.8926514
27-QIlO$715
27.9284801
27-9463772
27.9642629
27.9821372
28.0000000 _
28.0178515
28.0356915
28.0535203
28.0713377
28.0891438
28.1069386
28.1247222
28.1424946
28.1602557
28.1780056
28.1957444
28.2134720
28.2311884
| 28.2488938
28.2665881
| 28.2842712
9-0896392
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i
27.5862284 |
27-6043475
27.6224546 |
27-6767050 |
9-105 7485
—!
SO EAS 42
9-1656565
9-1854527
9-205 1641
9:2637973
ROOT.
TABLE of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Cube Roots.
90936719
9-0977010
g-1017265
g-1097669
g-1137818
9-1177931
g-1Z18010
| 9-1258053
9.1298061
9-1338034
9-1377974
9-1417874
9-1497576
9-1537375
9-1577139
9-1616869
g-1696225
9-1735852
91775445
g-1815003
g-1894018
9+1933474
9+1972897
g-2012286
g-2090962
9-2130250
g-2169505
9.2208726
g.2287068
92326189
9:2365277
9-2404333
'9-2443355
9-2482344
g-2521300
g-2560224
9 2599R14
9-2676798
922715592
9-2754352
9-2793081
9-2831777
92247914
28.3725219
28.4604989
28.6356421
28.8270706
28.9136646
| 28.9654967
| 28.9827535
| 29.0000000
| 29.0344623
29.0688837
Square Roots.
28.3019434
28.3196045
28.3372546
28.3548938
28.3901391
28.4077454
28.4253408
28.4429253
28.4780617
28.4956137
28.5131549
28.5306852
28.5482048
28.5657137
28.5832119
28.6006993
28.6181760
28.6530976
28.6705424.
28.6879766
28.7054002
28.7228132
28.7402157
28.7576077
| 28-7749891
28.7923601
28.8097206
28.8444102
28.8617 394
28.8790582
28.8963666
28.9309523 |
28.9482297
29.0172363
29-05 16781
29.0860791
29.1032644
29.1204396
291376046
29 UO 5)
9-2870440
93024775
93408386
9:3599016
9:3977964
9-4166297
9-4353880
9-4540719
9-2909072
9-2947671
9-2986239
9-3063278
9-3101750
g-3140190
9-3178599
9-3216975
93255320
9+3293634
9-3331916
93370167
9-3446575
9-3484731
93522857
9+3560952
9:3637049
9:3675051
9-3713022
9:3750963
9-3788873
9-3902419
9+3940206
9-4015691
9-405 3387
9-4091054
9-4128690
9-4203873
9-4241420
9-4278936
9-4316423
9-43 91307,
9-4428704.
9-4466072
O45 O3ALO
9-4577999
Number.
Square Roots. Cube Roots.
29-1719043 | 9-4763957
29.1890390 9-4801061
29.2061637 9.4838136
29-2232784 9-4875182
29-2403830
9-4912200
29-2574777 | 9-4949188
29-2745623 | 9.4986147
29-2916370 95023078
29-3087018 9-5059980
29-3257566 | 9.5096854
29-3428015 | 9.5133699
29-3598365 | 95170515
29.3768616 95207303
29-3938769 | 9-5244063
29-4108823 9-5280794.
29-4278779 | 9-5317497
29-4448637 | 9-5354172
29.4618397 | 9.5390818
29.4788059 | 9-5427437
29-4957624 | 9.5464027
29.5127091 9-55c0589
29-5296461 | 9.5537123
29-5465734 | 9-5573630
29-5634910 | 9.5610108
29-5803989 | 9-5646559
29-5972972 | 9.5682932
29-6141858 | 9-5719377
29.6310648 | 9-5755745
29.6479342 | 95792085
29-6647939 | 9-5828397
29.6816442 9-5864682
29.6984848 | 9-5900939
29-7153159 | 95937169
29=7321375 1) (9259733713
29-7489496 | 9-6009548
29-7657521 9-6045696
29.7825452 9-6081817
29.7993289 | 9-61179I1
29-8161030 9-6153977
29.8328678 g-6190017
29-8496231 9-6226030
29.8663690 g-6262016
29-883 1056 9-6297975
| 29.8998328 | 9-6333907
29.9165506 9.6369812
29-9332591 | 9-6405690
29-9499583 | 9-6441542
29.9666481 9:6477367
29.9833287 9.6513166
3}0.0000000 9-6548938
ROOT.
Tasxe of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Square Roots. | Number. Square Roots. | Cube Roots. Square Roots. Cube Roots.
30.0166620 | g.6584684 | 30.8382879 9-8339238 31-6385840 | 10.0033322
30.0333148 9-6620403 | 30-8544972 9-8373695 31.6543836 | 10.0066622
30.0499584 9-665 6096 30.8706984 g-8408127 31.6701752 | 10.0099899
30.0675928 | 9.6691762 30.8868904 9-8442536 31-6859590 | 10.0133155
30.0832179 | 9-6727403 30.9030743 | 9-8476920 31-7017349 | 10.0166389
30.09983 39 9-6763017 | 30.9192497 | 9-8511280 31.7175030 | 10.0199601
30.1164407 9-6798604 | 957 | 30.9354166 | 9-8545617 31.7332633 | 10.0232791
30-1330383 | 9-6834166 | 958 | 30.9515751 | 9-8579929 31-7490157 | 10.0265958
30-1496269 |}. 9.6869701 | 30.9677251 | 9-8614218 31.7647603 | 10.0299104
30. 1662063 9-6905211 30.9838668 | 9-8648483 31.7804972 | 10.0332228
git | 30.1827765 | 9.6940694 31.0000000 | 9-8682724 31.7962262 | 10.0365330
912 | 30-1993377 | 9-6976151 | 962 | 31.0161248 | 9.8716941 318119474 | 10.0398410
913 | 30.2158899 9-7011583 | 963 | 31.0322413 | 9-8751135 31.8276609 | 10.0431469
914 | 30-2324329 | 9-7046989 | 964 | 31.0483494 9-8785305 31.8433666 | 10.0464506
915 | 30.2489669 | 9.7082369 | 965 | 31.0644491 | 9-8819451 31.8590646 | 10.0497521
916 | 30.2654919 | 9.7117723 | 966 | 31-0805 405 9-8853574 31-8747549 | 10.0530514
917 | 30,2820079 9-7153051 | 967 | 31.0966236 98887673 31.8904374 | 10.0563485
g18 | 30.2985148 9-7188354 | 968 | 31.1126984 g-8921749 31.9061123 | 10.0596435
91g | 30.3150128 | 9.7223631 31.1287648 9-895 5801 319217794 | 10.0629364
920 | 30.3315018 | 9.7258883 31-1448230 | 9.8989830 31-9374388 | 10.0662271
| 31.1608729 9-9023835 31.9530906 | 10.0695156
921 | 30.3479818 | 9.7294109
972 ae 9-9057817
|
922 | 30.3644529 | 9-7329309 31.9687347 | 18.0728020
923 | 303809151 | 9-7364484 | 973 | 31-1929479 9-9091776 31.9843712 | 10.0760863
924 | 30.3973683 9:7399634 | 974 | 31.2089731 g-9125712 32.c000000 | 10.0793684
925 | 304138127 9.7434758 | 975 | 31.2249900 9-9159624 32.0156212 | 10.0826484
1026 | 32.0312348 | 10.0859262
1027 | 32.0468407 | 10.0892019
976 | 31.2409987 | 9-9193513
977 | 31-2569992 | 9-9227379
30-4302481 9-7469857
927 | 30-4466747 9-7 504930
941 | 30-6757233
928 | 30.4630924 | 97539979 | 978 | 31-2729915 g-9261222 | 1028 | 32.0624391 | 10.0924755
D2Oui 50-4795 913 9-7575002 | 979 | 31-2889757 | 9-9295042 | 1029 32.0790298 | 10.0957469
930 | 30-4959014 | 97610001 | 980 | 31.3049517 | 9-9328839 | 1030 | 32-0936131 | 10.0990163
931 | 30-5122926 | 9.7644974 | 98 | 31.3209195 9-9362613 | 1031 | 32.1091887 | 10.1022835
932 | 305286750 | 9.7679922 | 982 | 31.3368792 9-9396363 | 1032 | 32.1247568 | 10.1055487
933. | 305450487 | 97714845 | 983 | 31.3528308 | 9-9430092 | 1033 | 32-1403173 | 10.1088117
934 | 30-5614136 9-7749743 | 984 | 31.3687743 9-9463797 | 1034 | 32-1558704 | 10.1120726
935 | 305777697 | 9-7784616 | 985 | 31.3847097 | 9-9497479 | 1035 | 32-1714159 | 10.1153314
936 | 30.5941171 | 9.7829466 | 986 | 31.4006369 | 9-9531138 | 1036 | 32.1869539 | 10.1185882
937 | 306104557 9-7854288 | 987 | 31.4165561 9-9564775 | 1037 | 32-2024844 | 10.1218428
938 | 306267857 | 9.7889087 | 988 | 31.4324673 | 9-9598389 | 1038 | 32.2180074 | 10.1250953
939 | 30-6431069 | 9.7923861 | 989 | 31.4483704 | 9-9631981 | 1039 | 32-2335229 | 10.1283457
942 | 30.6594194 | 9-7958611-| 990 | 31.4642654 99665549 | 1040 | 32.2490310. | 10.1315941
9
,
9
| 97993336 31-4801525 9-9699095 | 1041 32.2645316 | 10.1348403
942 | 30.6920185 | 9.8028036 31-4960315 9-9732619 | 1042 | 32.2800248 | 10.1380845
943 | 30-7083051 8062711 | 31.5119025 9-9766120 | 1043 | 32-2955105 | 10.1413266
944 | 30-7245830 | 9.8097362
1044 | 32-3109888 10.1445667
| 30-7408523 | g-8131989
1045 | 32-3264598 | 10.1478047
| 31-5277655 | 9-9799599
31-5436206 | 99833055
——
i)
>
wa
1046 | 32.3419233 | 10.1510406
1047 | 32-3573794 | 10-1542744
1048 | 32.3728281 | 10.1575062
1049 | 32.3882695 10.4607359
1050 | 32-4037035 | 10.1639636
946 | 30.7571130 | 98166591 | 996 | 31.5594677 9-9866488
947 | shotat | g-8201169 | 997 | 31.5753068 | 9.9899900
\
30-7896086 | 9.8235723 | 998 3145911380 | 9-9933289
30-8058436 | 9.8270252 } 999 | 31.6069613 9-9966656
950 | 30.8220700 | 9-8304757 | 1000 | 31.6227766 | 10.00C000CO
Number.
IOs
1052
1053
1054
1055
1056
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
1064
1065
1066
1067
1068
1069
1070°
Io71
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
1090
IOQI
1092
1093
Too4
1og5
1096
1097
1098 |
I0g9
T1100
ROOT.
Tape of Square Roots and Cube Roots.
Square Roots. Cube Roots.
32.4191301 | 10.1671893
32-4345495 | 10.1704129
32-4499615 | 10.1736344
32.40653662 | 10.1768539
324807635 -| 10.1800714
32.4961536 | 10.1832868
32-5115364 | 10.1865002
32.5269119 | 10.1897116
32.5422802 | 10.1929209
32.5576412 | 16.1961283
32-5729949 | 10.1993336
32-5883415 | 10.2025369
32.6036807 | 10.2057382
32.6190129 | 10.2089375
32-6343377 | 10.2121347
32.6496554 | 10.2153300
32.6649659 | 10.2185233
32.6802693 | 10.2217146
32-6955654 | 10.2249039
32.7108544 | 10.2280912
32-7261363 | 10.2312766
32-74141II | 10.2344599
32-7566787 | 10.2376413
32.7719392 | 10.2408207
32.7871926 | 10.2439981
32.8024389 | 10.2471735
32.8176782 | 10.2503470
32.8329103 | 10.2535186
32.8481354 | 10.2566881
32-8633535 | 10.2598557
32.8785644 | 10.2630213
32.8937684 | 10.2661850
32.9089653 | 10.2693467
32-9241553 | 10.2725065
32-9393382 | 10.2756644
32-9545141 | 10.2788203
32.9696830 | 10.2819743
32.9848450 | 10.2851264
33-0000000 | 10.2882765
33-0151480 | 10.2914247
33-:0302891 | 10.2945709
33-0454233 | 10.2977153
33-0605505 | 10.3008577
33-0756708 | 10.3039982
330907842 | 10.3071368
33-1058907 | 10.3102735
33-1209903 | 10.3134083
33-1360830 | 10.3165411
33-1F511689 | 10.3196721
33-1662479
10.3228012
Number.
IIOL
1102
1103
1104
IlO05
1106
1107
1108
1109
IIIO
IIII
I1I2
1113
I1i4
ees
1116
III7
1118
I11g
1120
I121
1122
1123
1124
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
| 34.0881211
| 344963766
Square Roots.
33+9263909
33-941 1255
33-9558537
33-9795755
33-9352910
34-0000000
34.0147027
340293990
340440890
34.0587727
34.0734501
34.1027858
34-1174442
34-1320963
34-1467422
34.1613817
34-1760150
34.19064.20
34.2052627
34-2198773
34.23.4485 5
34-2490875
34-2636834
342782730
34.2928564
34- 3074336
34.3220046
34+3365694
34.3 511281
34-3656805
34.3802268
34-3947670
34-4093011
34-4238289
34-4383507
344528663
344673759
34-4818793
Square Roots. Cube Roots. | Number.
33-1813200 | 10.3259284 | 1151
33-1963853 | 10.3290537 | 1152
33-2114438 | 10.3321770 | 1153
33-2264955 | 10.3352985 | 1154
33-2415403 | 10.3384181 | 1155
33-2565783 | 10.3415358 | 11956
33-2716095 | 10-3446517 | 1157
33-2866339 | 10.3477657 | 1158
33-3016516 | 10.3508778 | 1159
33-3166625 | 10.3539880 | I160
33-3316666 | 10.3570964 | 1161
33-3466640 | 10.3602029 | 1162
33-3616546 | 10.3633076 | 1163
33-3766385 | 10.3664103 | 1164
333916157 | 10.3695113 | 1165
33-4065862 | 10.3726103 | 1166
33.421 5409 OO. 3 757070) eT
33-4365070 | 10.3788030 | 1168
33-4514573 | 10.3818965 | 1169
33-4064011 | 10.3849882 | 1170
33-4813381 | 10.3880781 | 1171
33-4962684 | 10.3911661 | 1172
33-S111921 | 10.3942523 | 1173
33-5261092 | 10.3973366 | 1174
33-5410196 | 10.4004192 | 1175
33+5559234 | 10.4934999 | 1176
33-5708206 | 10.4065787 | 1177
335857112 | 10.4096557 |} 1178
33-6005952 | 10.4127310 |} 1179
33-6154726 | 10.4158044 | 1180
33-6303434 | 104188760 | 1181
33-6452077 | 10.4219458 | 1182
33-6600653 | 10.4250138 | 1183
33-6749165 | 10.4280800 | 1184
33-6897610 | 10.4311443 | 1185
33-7045991 | 10.4342069 | 1186
33-7194306 | 10.4372677 | 1187 |
33-7342556 | 10.4403267 | 1188
33-7490741 | 10.4433839 | 1189 |
33-7638860 | 10.4464393 | I1gO
33-7786915 | 10.4494929 | 1191
33-7934995 | 10-4525448 | 1192
33.8082830 | 10.4555948 | 1193
33-8230691 | 10.4586431 } 1194
33-8378486 | 10.4616896 | 1195
33-8526218 | 10.4647343 | 1196
33-8673884 | 10.4677773 | 1197
33-8821487 | 1ro.4708185 |} 1198
33-8969025 | 10.4738579 | 1199
33-9116499 | 10.4768955 } I2c0
34-5108678
34-5253530
34-5393321
3455-43051
34-5687720
34-5832329
34-5976879
34.6121366
34-6265794
34.6410162
Cube Roots,
10-4799314
10.4820656
10.4859980
10.4890286
10.4.920575
10.4950847
10.4981101
10.5011337
10.5041556
LO OF 75
10.5101942
10.5132109
10.5162259
10.5192391
10.5222506
10.525 2604.
10.5282685
LON S249)
10.5342795
10.5 372825
10.5402837
10.5432832
10.5462810
10-5492771
10.5522715
10.5552642
10.5582552
10.5612445
10.5642322
16.5672181
10.5'702024
10.573 1849
10.5761658
OP AS)
10.5821225
10.5850983
10.5880725
10.5910450
10.5940158
10.5969850
T0-5999525
10.6029184.
10.6058826
10.608845 1
10.61 18060
10.6147652
10.6177228
10.6206788
10.6236331
10.6265857
ROO
Root, Fal. See Fause.
Root, Jmpofible, is not only the fquare root of a nega-
tive quantity, but any other root denominated by any even
4 6 8 .
number. -Thus /-» sf -» /-» or in
general \/- ry \/-* are all impoffible roots, or
quantities. Some call them imaginary roots or quantities.
See Fatse Root.
Root, Real. See Fatse Root.
‘Root, Refidual. See Restpvuat.
Roots of Equations, ExtraGion of the. See ExtRac-
TION, ReDuction of Equations, and Root of an Equation,
fupra.
Ror: Radices, in Grammar, are the primitive words of
a language, whence others are compounded or derived.
Thus the Latin fluo is the root of fludus, fluxio, flumen,
fluvialis, influxus, refluens, fluGifer, fludifonus, fiuGivagus, &c.
Thus cate ice sae? i a ip a$e0c, ars
acpo:, &e.
And thus alfo, theugh in a lefs proper fenfe, the Danith
rood is the root of the Englifh word root; the Latin radix
the root of the French racine, as rado is the root of radix;
and perhaps fadio: the root of rado.
Roots, in the Hebrew language, confift of thofe lettersthat
are denominated radical (which fee), and are generally verbs,
confifting commonly of three, fometimes of two, and rarely
of four i. Of whatever letters, whether radical or
feryile, any word confifts, it muft, at leaft, contain one of a
radical character. The inveltigation of the radical and a
primitive is an obje& of importance in grammar. In order
to facilitate their inveftigation in the Hebrew, and other
Eaftern languages, it is neceffary to be well acquainted with
the divifion of the letters into radical and fervile ({ee each
term), becaufe thefe laft muit be rejected before the root is
obtained.
If the root confift of pure radicals, commonly three in
number, it is eafily found, and as eafily divefted of the fer-
viles which attend it. But, as the fervile letters may alfo
conftitute roots, it is fometimes a matter of difficulty to
diftinguifh when thefe letters ought to be confidered in their
radical, and when in their fervile capacity. This difficulty
is increafed in the verbs denominated imperfe@. For, in
fome of their parts, either by contraétion, or commutation,
thefe verbs lofe fometimes one, fometimes two, of their
radical letters, which mutt be reftored to their place before
the root can be exhibited in its true form.
The learner mult therefore endeavour, by frequent prac-
tice, to acquire a dexterity in difcovering the radical letters,
in divefting them of their ferviles, and in reftoring them
where they are loft by the abbreviated flexions. This exer-
cife is the more neceflary, as, in almoft all lexicons, the words
are arranged according to the alphabetical order of the roots.
Thefe are commonly printed in a larger charaGter, and have
below them their derivatives, as children and defcendants.
By this plan, neither the fignification of any verb, nor of
any noun derived from it, can be found, till its root be in-
veitigated and determined.
The following direétions will be found ufeful in the in-
yeftigation of radical words.
The chief things to be attended to are, what letters are
commonly fervile, either in nouns or verbs ; in what part of
the word they moft generally appear ; and what is the moft
probable conjeGure to be formed, in order to reftore fuch
radicals as are loft by the abbreviated flexions.
The fervile letters in nouns are fuch as form the feminine
gender, and the plural terminations, the prefixes, including
Won. aah
ROP
the figns of the cafes, the hecmantic letters, and the poi-
feffive pronouns, or affixes.
The dervile letters in verbs are the perfonal prefixes and
poftfixes, formerly named the pronominal ferviles, the eha-
raGteriftics of the different forms, and the verbal affixes.
) and » whether inferted in nouns or verbs, muft be re-
jeGed in the inveitigation of the root.
As the ferviles generally appear in greateft number at the
end of words, the moft proper method of difcovering the
root feems to be this;
Begin from the left hand, remove the ferviles as you go
along, retain the pure and the fuppofed radicals, reje& the
inferted } and 9, reftore or commute the radicals loft by ab-
breviations,, and, finally, rejeét the prefixes.
DireGions for finding the Root, and for reflaring the deficient
Radicals.
I. If, after reje€ting the ferviles, three pure radicals
remain, you may conclude thefe to be the root.
II. If only two remain, as is the common cafe in abbrevi-
ated roots, prefix to thefe either } or + or infert } betwixt
them, or poftpone 7] or double the fecond.
The inveftigation of roots is not peculiar to the Hebrew,
but common to all languages, and is of fingular ad-
vantage, if we would attend to accuracy and propriety of
writing.
In fuch languages as do not admit of the diftin@ion be-
tween radical and fervile letters, the following may be ob-
ferved as general rules for reducing words to their firft
principles. Let that part of the word which remains un
varied be confidered as the radical term, and let the chan ges
of termination be difregarded, or cut off. Compound words
mutt be refolved into their component parts. and the pre-
pofitions excluded. In thofe words which feem reducible
to Hebrew roots confiiting entirely of confonants, the inter-
mediate vowels employed for their enunciation, are not to
be confidered as effential, or as conftituting a part of the
root. See Wilfon’s Elements of Hebrew Grammar.
Mafclef Gram. Heb. vol. i. c. 21. p. 214, &c. Robertfon’s
Gram. Heb. Appendix, iii.
The Greek and Hebrew tongues are learnt by roots.
Of di€tionaries, fome are in alphabetical order, others are
difpofed by roots, as Scapula, Faber’s Thefaurus, and the
firit edition of the DiGtionary of the French Academy.
In the edition of 1718, this laft is thrown into the ufual
alphabetical order.
ROOTS, in Geography, a town of Virginia, in the
Mattapony ; four miles N.E. of Weft Point.
Roots, a townfhip of Portage county, in the Ohio, con-
taining 216 inhabitants.
ROOTWELT, in Hufbandry, a term applied to the hat-
tocks of grain, when the butt-ends of the fheaves are turned
up towards the wind and fun, in order to dry them. The
practice is common in bad rainy harvelts. See Harvest,
and Harvsstine Grain.
ROPALON, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the nympbea, or water-lily, and alfo to the faba Zgyptia of
the river Nile.
ROPE, an affemblage of feveral twifts or ftrings of hemp,
twifted together by means of a wheel; of various ufes, as
in binding, ftaying, drawing, fufpending, &c. ; or, all cord-
age, in general, above one inch in circumference, moftly
made of hemp fpun into yarns or threads of a certain length ;
and a number of thefe yarns or threads, according to the
fize of the rope, are twifted together, and called a ftrand.
Three of thefe ftrands twifted or laid together, is called a
hawfer-laid rope, and nine of them a cable-laidrope. See
Ropge-Meting.
3X Whes
ROP
When the rope is made very thick, it is called a cable ;
and when very {mall, a cord.
Though it be difficult to give a certain account of the
forces required to bend ropes of different diameters, in mak-
ing them go round bodies of different bigneffes, yet to make
no allowance for the lofs of motion fuftained thereby, would
be as prejudicial to the practice of mechanics, as it would be
to overlook the friGtion of the parts of engines. The diff-
culty of afcertaining this force arifes from the different
materials of which they are made, their different ftiffnefs
according as they are more or lefs twifted ; and fometimes
from the temperature of the air, as to moifture and
drynefs.
Dr. Defaguliers has computed the forces required to bend
ropes of different diameters, ftretched by different weights,
round rollers of different bigneffes. The refult of his expe-
riment is expreffed in the following table.
Refiftance
Diameters off
Weivht Refiftance Refiftance
the ropes of Rise he xe about a roller Jabout a rollerjabout a roller
three ftrands,! ng i f. lof halfan inch Jof one inch injone and a half,
expreffed in aan dae “| diameter, in | diameter, in |inchdiameter,
tenth. parts of |° 4 i pemeeet oz. avoirdu- | oz. avoirdu- | in oz. avoir-
an inch. ae pois. pois. dupois.
Ib. oz. oz. 0z
0-5 60 225 1124 75
0.2 60 go 45 30
Ol 60 45 224 15
0.5 40 150 75 50
0.2 40 60 30 20
O.1 40 30 15 10
3) 20 75 373 25
0.2 20 30 15 10
O.1 20 15 14 *
On the whole, it has been found by experiments, that the
difficulty of bending a rope round a roller decreafes direétly
as the diameter of the roller increafes, or is, inverfely, as
the diameter of the roller. See Defaguliers, Experim.
Phil. vol. i. p. 233, &c. See alfo Corpace.
A Taste, fhewing how many fathoms, feet, and inches
of a rope of any fize, under fourteen inches, makes a
hundred weight, with the ufe of the table.
Sis tel ele tel Sill, SS Syed calle etataaed e
FPP RIPPED RV GPE a2 8 8
3° . 2 2 o * & o io} a3 o |o o
by 3. ° “| 3 ° a 8 : Y 3 be
1 1486 00 1124 0.0| 8 \7 36 112/341
14] 313 13 0 +/21 30) 81) 7 0 8|j112 3 3 3
13/216 O0O]|5 |19 3 0) 84] 6 4 3]//12 |3 2 3
13/159 3 olls$'17 4 0/] 8216 2 1/122 3 2 3
2 |124 30 54/16 101] 9 6 00 123.3) 2,9
24| 96 20/55/14 46) OF] 5 40) 125 2 7 8
23| 77 30/16 |13 3.0) 9315 20] 13 2 5 3
25| 65 4 0|/64/12 2.0] 93] 5 0 6/134 2 4 9
3 | 54 0 0|/63)11 3 O10 | 4 5 Of 134 240
34| 45 5 2/65/1040 tor] 4 4 1/1135 2 3 6
32| 39 3°117,| 95 6109/4 22114 |221
URE aide:
2 | 4 0 3
44 26 5 3|78 8 36 |i) 3 057
ROP
Suppofe I want to know how much of eight-inch and
quarter rope will make a hundred weight? Find 84 under
inches, and againtt it, in the fixth column, you find 7 0 8,
which fhews ina rope of 83, there will be feven fathoms
_eight inches required to make one hundred weight.
A Taste, fhewing the weight of any cable or rope of
120 fathoms in length, and for every half inch from three
inches to twenty-four in circumference.
=|coel zloell zl|oel] Flee zlee
Bel aha GaN es 1a Sots lon eueees || aes eeu) ota cael | ne
8 a \< g ener g [+
3 3 3 ee :
Zila ral 74 \14 Oj] 12 | 36 o| 162 68 0/21 |110 1
331 4.0|| 8 [16 o|/124)39 0} 17 | 72 1) 21k \115 2
4 | 4 1]) 83) 18 off 13 |42 1) 175176 2]}22 121 o
43} 5 0] 9 |20 1] 132|)45 7,18 |81 off222|126 2
5.1 5 ©i| gS] 22 21114 |49 0]/ 185/85 21123 |132 4
53, 7 oll 10 |25 off 144/52 2]/ 19 | 90 1] 2321138 9
6] 9 o|/ 1ok}27 2}/15 156 rll toh} g5 0] 24 |144 0
62} 10 2|| 11 |30 1]|154|60 0|/20 |100 0
7 | 10 1] 114] 33 0|/16 | 64 0 | 205 105 0.
The greateft confumption of rope is ufed for the purpofes
of navigation in rigging of fhips: where, though ropes
include the whele cordage, there are feveral particularly deno-
minated, and which have particular names given to them ;
as follow. 1. Awning-ropes are the ridge and fide-ropes.
The ridge-rope reeves through the trucks feized along the
middle of the awning; the fide-ropes reeve through the
trucks feized along the fide of the awning. By thefe ropes
the awnings are f{pread between the matts. 2. Bell-rope,
nine or ten feet in length, which fplices round a thimble in
the eye of the bell-crank, In the middle of the rope is a
diamond-knot, and at the end a double wall-knot crowned.
3. Boat-rope, or painter, that by which the boat is towed
at the ftern; it {plices with a thimble to a ring-bolt infide the
ftem. 4. Bolt-rope, the rope fewed to the edges of the fails,
as the head-rope, foot-rope, andleech-rope. 5. Breaft-rope,
that faftened along the laniard of the fhrouds, for fafety, when
heaving the lead in the chains. 6. Bucket-rope, that which
is faftened to the bucket for hauling up water. 7. Buoy-
rope, the one faftened tothe buoy and crown of the anchor.
8. Davit-rope, the lafhing which fecures the davit to the
fhrouds when out of ufe. g. Entering-ropes have their
- upper end thruft through the eye in the iron-ftantions at the
gangways, and are walled and crowned ; and diamond-knots
are made at every nine inches afunder in the whole length.
10. Grapnel-rope, that which is bent to the grapnel, by
which the boats ride.. 11. Guift-rope, that faftened to an
eye-bolt in the fhip’s fide, and to the outer end of a boom
projecting from the fhip’s fide, by guys, to keep the boats
clear from rubbing againft the fides. 12. Heel-rope, that
which hauls out the bowfprit of cutters, and the jib and
ftudding-fail boom. 13. Man-ropes are for the fecurity of
the men going out upon the bowfprit. 14. Parral-ropes are
to conne& the ribs and trucks of the parral together.
15. Pafling-ropes lead round the fhip through the eyes in the
quarter waiit and forecaftle-ftantions, have one end ftopped
through the eye of the gangway-ftantion, with a wall-knot
crowned, and are fet forward through an eye-bolt in the
knight-head with alaniard, having a thimble turned into the
end. 16. Ring-ropes are occafionally made faft to the ring
or ftopper-bolts in the deck, and by crofs turns round the
cable, to confine it more fecurely in ftormy weather.
17. Slip-rope is to trice the bight of the cable mto the
heads ;
ROPE-MAKING,
heads ; a flip-rope is alfo ufedin cafting off a veffel, till got
into the tide’s way, &c. 18. Swab-rope is made faft to the
eye of the {wab, to raife it out of the water. 19. Tiller-
ropes are the ropes by which the tiller is worked by means
of the fteering-wheel. 20. Top-rope is the rope that is
reeved through the fheave-hole in the heel of the topmatt,
to raife it by its tackle to the maft-head. 21. Yard-ropes
are only temporarily ufed to heave the yards on board.
Ropes are diftinguifhed by being either cable-laid or haw/er-
laid: the former are compofed of nine itrands, viz. three
great ftrands, each of which is compofed of three {maller
ftrands, and each containing an equal number of threads :
and a rope, cable-laid, eight inches in circumference, has
333 threads, equally divided, and laid into nine ftrands ;
the latter is made with three ftrands, each of which contains
a certain number of rope-yarns, in proportion to the fize
of the rope required. A rope hawler-laid, eight inches in
circumference, has 414 threads, equally divided, and laid
into three flrands. Thirty fathoms of yarn make eighteen
fathoms of rope cable-laid, and fo in proportion. ‘Thirty
fathoms of yarn make twenty fathoms of rope hawfer-laid,
and fo in proportion. Ropes of from one to two and a half
inches in circumference are hawfer-laid ; of three inches to
ten inches, either hawfer-laid or cable-laid; and from ten
inches to any greater dimenfion, always cable-laid.
Twice-laid cordage is made of cait rigging, as fhrouds,
ftays, mooring and other cables, which, if not much worn,
will make good ropes for netting fhips’ fides, worming and
woolding for cables, fpun-yarn for feizing, worming for large
ftays, feizing for ftrops of blocks, {mall cable-laid ropes
for warping fhips, ratlines, fcaffalding-ropes for dock yards,
&e.
When the yarn of this old ftuff is overhauled, a little
thin tar fhould be poured on it, which will make it pliable
and liebetter. The yarn unfit for knotting will pick into
oakum for caulking.
To open a cable, for making it into {mall ropes, hang the
frands upon three hooks in the tackle-board, itretch it out
tight upon the hooks in the fledge, and heave till they are
uutwilted ; then draw out the yarn.
The procefs of making {mall ropes is fimilar to making
large ones, except the twilting and clofing, which are done by
a back-frame wheel or a table-wheel. See the next article.
Rope-Making, the art of preparing hemp, and {pinning
it into yarns or threads, and twifting thofe threads into
ftrands, and laying thofe ftrands into cordage of the
largeft fize, as the {malleit kind is called cord or tqwine
{pinning.
Before we proceed further, it may be neceffary to inform
our readers of the different forts of hemp proper to be made
ufe of in the manufa@turing of cordage. Of all the hemps yet
produced at our Englifh markets, the Ruffian hemp has proved
to be the beft ; it is grown in the fouthernmoft parts of
Ruffia, and fhipped for England from the ports of St.
Peterfburgh and Riga. The beft fort is Riga rhine hemp:
the next in quality is termed Peterfourgh clean hemp. Thefe
two are confidered the beft forts of hemp to be ufed in
making the ftrongeft cordage.
The firft procefs in the art of rope-making is, Hatchelling
the Hemp.
Hatchelling the hemp, is the combing or clearing the
ends, which elfe, in fpinning, would run in with the long
hemp, and fo preparing it ready for the {pinner; in the
procefs of which, care and particular attegtion muft be paid
by the hatchellers that they do not ufe too great a quantity
of oil, as in fuch cafe it will prevent the yarn from imbibing
its proper proportion of tar, and thereby prove a ferious
injury. jot. Poul
N. B. A {mall quantity of train-oil, fay one pint to every
hundred weight, {prinkled or daubed with a wad on the
hemp, facilitates the hatcheller’s bufinefs exceedingly, and
is very neceflary when the hemp is fomewhat too dry, as the
{pinners are better able to perform their bufinefs when it
has received fuch affiftance.
The fecond and principa! procefs to be attended to in the
manufacturing of cordage, is Spinning the Yarn.
In fpinning, particular attention muft be paid by the
{pinner that the yarn be {pun even, folid, and round; to ac-
complifh whick, he mutt {pin with a ftrong even grip of the
hand, taking care not to make his yarn larger in one place
than in another, nor make a praétice of {pinning too much
in a hurry ; and the fpinning-wheel muft be kept turning a
conftast soe pace, otherwife the yarn fo {pun will lofe
its principal fupport, which is its proper turn, or twitt, and
will be little {tronger than a parcel of ftraight hemp laid
together, which would break in warping or ftraining up.
The following regulations mut be attended to in {pinning.
Every fpinner is to {pin out of the beft hemp fix threads,
one hundred and fixty fathoms long, for a quarter of a day’s
work ; but he is to {pin out of the hemp which compofe the
bands by which the bales of hemp are bound together, no
more than four threads, one hundred and fixty fathoms long,
for one quarter of aday’s work. To every twelve {pinners
there are allowed two hatchellers, one wheel-turner, and one
wheel-tender: the wheel-tender’s bufinefs is to {plice the
threads, and wind them on winches. The latter mentioned
perfons are paid in the fame proportions as the {pinners, that
is, according to what work is done upon the wheel, only with
this difference, the fpinners are paid feven-pence per quarter
for their work, the hatchellers, wheel-turner, and wheel-
tender, only fixpence.
Each thread of the under-mentioned fizes of yarn to the
{pinning mark, (viz. 160 fathoms,) fhould weigh as fol-
lows:
Ibs. oz. drs. Ibs. oz. drs.
16 AY Or 21 3)00)sq
17 guiar ey: 22 214 9
18 3 8 14 23 212.8
19 3.5 14 24 2 10 10
20 oe 25 2vsiig
The third procefs to be attended to in the manufaCturing
of cordage, is Warping the Yarn.
Warping the yarn, is the ftretching the yarns, previoufl
to their being tarred, all to one given length, which, in full
ae rope grounds, is two hundred fathoms, and putting a
flight turn or twift into it. The ufual method is to warp the
yarn either in whole or half hawls, which is done by putting
the number of threads you mean to draw down at once in a
bite, into a block with one fheave, (the one end of the bite
of yarn being faft at the upper end,) which being drawn
down and fixed over the end of a hook made faft to a poft at
one hundred fathoms diftance from the warping poft, forms,
when opened, a length of two hundred fathoms, as above-
mentioned. The number of half bites, or blocks of yarn,
contained in a whole or half hawl, is to be governed, in 2
great meafure, by the fize of the yarn to be warped,—as, for
inftance, 16 to 19-thread yarn is warped three hundred and
thirty-fix threads in a hawl, 20 to 25-thread yarn is warped
four hundred threads ina hawl. In winding the yarns on the
winches after they are {pun, it is moit ufual to wind them on in
companies of four in 2 company; but as that method can-
a not
ROPE-MAKING.
not always be purfued, it frequently happens that whole or
half hawls of yarn are obliged to be warped in half bites
of an odd number. :
The following rules and regulations refpecting the warp
ing of yarn mult be particularly attended to. |
In a hawl of yarn containing three hundred and thirty-
fix threads, there fhould be warped as under-mentioned.
3 Bites. Threads.
3 7d of g threads in a Z bite.
33,46 10 ditto.
ZOuumsO II ditto.
2 OKO, 12 ditto.
2S a DE 13 ditto.
24)... 0 14 ditto.
22.06 1s ditto.
24 40 16 ditto.
Ig 13 17 ditto.
18 12 18 ditto.
W713 19 ditto.
16 16 20 ditto.
In a hawl of yarn containing four hundred threads,
there fhould be warped as under-mentioned.
& Bites. ‘Threads.
44 4 of 9 threads in a Z bite.
AO) 0, 10 ditto.
36 4 11 ditto. ~
MS, 12 ditto.
30.01 13 ditto.
28. 8 14, ditto.
26 10 15. ditto.
CSG) 16 ditto.
23. «9 17 ditto.
DD 18 ditto.
2k 1g ditto.
ZO. | 0 20 ditto.
When the yarn is warped in half hawls, it is to be care-
fully obferved that only half the number of yarns, or threads,
above-mentioned, are to be warped, and care fhould be
taken to warp the number of threads as near as poffible.
It requires three men to warp a hawl of yarn, who are
employed as follows: viz. two men to warp (or draw the
yarns to their proper diftance), and one man to fet up (that
is, to tighten the yarns, and bring each yarn to its proper
bearing): each man is allowed twelve threads (or two
quarters of a day’s work) for his labour.
To take the hawl of yarn up after it is warped, and carry
the fame into the tar-houfe, requires ten men, who are each
paid one thread (viz. one penny) for their labour.
The fourth procefs to be attended to in the manufaCturing
of cordage, is Tarring the Yarn.
Tarring the yarnis 2 procefs which fhould be particularly
attended to, being extremely careful that the tar is not
boiling too faft nor too flow ; if too faft, the tar will not ftay
in the yarn, if not hot enough, the tar will not fufficiently
penetrate the yarn; therefore a ftri€t medium mutt be care-
fully obferved by the kettle-heater, as well as to keep the
horfe, or men, which turn the capftan round, going at a
gentle, fleady pace, thereby giving the yarn a proper time
to imbibe its neceflary proportion of tar, but at the fame
time not fuffering it to be kept in the boiling tar too long,
which is apt to make the yarn very tender, therefore fhould
be very carefully avoided ; and fhould the capftan be ftopped
by accident, the ftop that keeps the yarn down mutt be in-
Aantly raifed, and the yarn taken out. Particular attention
9
fhould alfo be paid in paying (or coiling) the yarn into the
kettle, that too long a length be not payed in at once; if it
is fo done, the yarn will, of courfe, touch the bottom of
the kettle, which it fhould, by no means, be fuffered to do,
as in fuch cafe it willimbibe the dregs and fettlements of the
tar appertaining to the bottom of the kettle, and make the
yarn in fuch places black, or very much difccloured, and
have a very unpleafing appearance in the rope when made.
Yarn for cables requires more tar than for hawfer-laid ropes.
For ftanding and running rigging the lefs tar the better,
provided the thread is well covered. It fhould be always
remembered that the yarn, when tarred, fhould be overfet
(or removed) the fame day, as this piece of bufinefs, being
omitted, will be likely to prove of a ferious confequence in
heating and tendering the yarn, which at all times mutt be
carefully avoided. In overfetting the yarn it fhould always
be remembered that the yarn be well fhook and opened for
two or three days, as in fo doing it admits the air, feparates
and hardens the yarns, and contributes very much to the
{trength of the cordage. The hawls or half hawls of yarn,
when tarred, fhould always be weighed and tallied.
Tarring yarn requires three men, who are employed as
follows: viz. one to heat the kettle, one to pay (or coil)
the yarn in the kettle, and one to haul off and overfet the
yarn. They are, in general, paid in proportion to the work
the {pinners perform, which is called going by the wheel.
The fifth and latt procefs to be attended to, is Laying the
Cordage.
In laying cables, and all forts of ropes in general, the
great art lies in making each yarn to bear alike. For this pur-
pofe it was, particularly in the larger fized cables, that the
patent machines have been introduced. Particular atten-
tion mutt be paid to this point, as therein confifts the grand
principle of making a ftrong rope. For all forts of ropes
which are to be immerged in the water, the utmoft care
muft be taken to give the ftrands their proper hardnefs in
their firft procefs, according tothe remarks laid down be-
fore, which will prevent the water from penetrating the
ftrands, and thereby preferve the infide yarns of the cable;
as, if this procefs is not regularly attended to, the infide yarns
will be always wet, and very foon decay. It frequently hap-
pens that when the yarn is tarred fomewhat too deep, that
many a cable is fpoiled, though not intentionally ; the fear in
the perfon who has the direétion in making the cable, of
turning a very dark coloured rope out of hand, prevents
the regular make being given the cordage, as in preffling the
yarn to their proper hardnefs, the tar will {pring out, very
much difcolour the rope, and thereby give it a very un-
pleafing appearance, efpecially when the fun is fhining very
hot upon the yarn ; to prevent which, in a great meafure, care
fhould be taken, in the fummer months, to lay cables, and
all forts of cordage in general, either early in the morning,
before the fun has much power on the yarn, which is alfo
apt to tender it, or late in the evening, after the fun has fet,
or gone off the ground, or in heavy weather (by no means
rainy) ; in which cafe your cordage will have a bright
pleafing appearance, as the {mall fibres of the hemp will all
yield to the top, and lay {mooth, which otherwife would look
rough, and appear as if the cordage was made of inferior
hemp, though in fact it was not fo, as all forts of hemp
have {mall fibres appertaining to them, and which it is paft
the art of man to prevent the fun from drawing up, and there-
by making the rope look rough and unfeemly.
N. B. The above remarks refpeéting taking advantage of
the time for laying the cordage are only to be obferved in un-
covered grounds.
In
ROPE-MAKING.
In laying cordage, the yarn for twifting into ftrands is
hung on the hooks in the tackle-board, at the upper end of
the ground, and upon hooks in the brealt-board of the
fledge, at the lower end, which are turned by men at both
ends until the ftrands are hard; and are kept up from the
ground by the ftake-heads.
Before the turn is put in, the yarn fhould be ftretched to
- its full extent by means of the tackle fixed from the fledge
to the capftern, at twenty yards afunder, at the lower end of
the ground; and when ftretched to two hundred fathoms,
the prefs is put upon the fledge and drag, before the tackle-
fall is caft off; for if the yarn be not properly ftretched be-
fore the tackle-fall is caft off, the rope will not be of its fize,
nor well made.
The ftrands fhould have a good hardening before the top
is put in to lay the rope, and the layer fhould fee that the
heavers at the upper end keep the fame hardnefs that the
ftrands had before the top fet off, nor fhould he begin to lay
the rope until the fledge or wheel is moved by the power of
the twilt from the upper end.
When twilted fufficiently hard, the ftrands are hung on
one hook in the breaft-board of the fledge, but remain fe-
parate on the three hooks at the other end. The top is
placed in at the fledge, and the rope twifted by turning the
hooks at both ends one way, and, as the rope clofes, the
top moves towards the upper end.
When the top is put in, fome of the weight fhould be
taken off the fledge or drag, for if laid with as much weight
as is ufed in the hardening, it would be too ftiff, but, by re-
moving a part of the weight, the ftrands will couch better.
The ftrength of the men at the hooks being greatly inade-
quate to the force required for twifting of cables, woolders
are ufed, according to the fize of the cable, at equal diftances
along the whole length.
Cables fhould be rounded by the lower hook after they are
laid, to throw the turn wellup. They are generally thought
to wear beft when flack-laid; but fome think when fhort-
laid.
Cablets ufed for tow-lines or hawfers, require the ftrands
to be laid fhorter than cable-ftrands, but not fo fhort-laid in
clofing ; for being ufed in water, they would become ftiff,
hard, unhandy to coil away, and liable to break in cold
weather.
In all cable-laid ropes, the proportion of the circum-
ference is to the length of the ftrand in one round, as 11 is
to 15; that is, if the circumference be 14+ inches, the
length of the {trand in one circumference is 192 inches. In
all hawfer-laid rope, the proportion is as 12 to 163; that is,
if the circumference be 7 inches, the length of the ftrand in
one circumference is near 93.
The ftrength of ropes depends on the hardening or well
manufacturing, and not on the bare ftrength of the hemp ;
for it ftrengthens through every ftage ; viz. when firft {pun
into yarn it is little better than hemp extended; when
twifted into ftrands, it fhortens and ftrengthens as above,
and increafes in the fame manner when laid into rope.
Where the diameter and circumference of one rope to an-
other is as two to one, that is, where one rope is twice as
big as another, the fquare of the diameter is as four to one $
which fhews, that one rope has four times as much yarn in
it as the other, and confequently is four times as ftrong,
according to the sifferent magnitudes.
Cabletaid ropes fhorten as five to three, and hawfer-laid
ropes as three to two; confequently the length of the yarn
and ftrength will be accordingly ; that is, the ftrength will
be in the yarn, after it is laid in the rope, as much as if the
rope-maker, in fpinning, had allowed the fame quantity of
hemp in two feet as he did in three feet, fo that the ftrength
communicated by the procefs is two-thirds.
A rope is the fame fize when laid as the yarns were before
twifted ; fo that what the yarns are leffened by twilting it is
made up by fhortening ; from which it is inferred, that the
yarns are always of an equal bignefs, fince the hemp is the
fame at one time as at another, and not any way diminifhed.
Were the ftrands fingle, without being twifted one about
another, the ftrength would then be only in proportion as
the area of each particular ftrand is in itfelf; but if the
ftrands could poflibly be twifted fo as to be dire@lly perpen-
dicular to the bafe, the ftrength would then be found, by
multiplying the diameter of the ftrands and the diameter of
the whole rope one into the other, and the half of the pro-
dué&t would be the ftrength of the faid ftrands; but more
particularly take the area of the fingle ftrand and area of the
whole cable, and add them together, amd the half of that
will fhew the ftrength of each ftrand when they are well
twilted together.
But as it may be obferved the ftrands lie at a certain angle
between a perpendicular and the bafe, fo that, as the angle
of incidence is to radius, fo is the relative to the abfolute
itrength.
Refpeéting the Banding of Cordage.—In the calculations
{pecifying the weights of the different lengths of cordage,
fuch weights are to be confidered as the neat weights of the
rope without bandage.
N. B. To every hundred weight of cordage the manu-
facturer is allowed to put on four pounds weight of bands;
thofe bands are compofed of the fhakings, flyings, and
ftrings with which the hemp is tied together, formed into an
inferior kind of cordage ; but it is to be obferved thofe are
all weighed to the rope-makers as good hemp, and paid for
accordingly, therefore if he was not allowed to apply the
refufe to fuch purpofe, he mutt either put a higher price on
his cordage, or be a very confiderable lofer. At the fame
time it fhould be confidered, that as it is neceflary that every
coil of rope fhould be bound together for the convenience of
carriage, ftowage, &c. this kind of bandage anfwers
fuch purpofe in every degree, as well as if the coils were
bound with bands made from the beft hemp.
TABLE
ROPE-
ype Sa en
Cy tN Tea.
Thefe fizes of Yarn are warped 336 Threads, —
and
Tare I.
from 19 are warped 400 Threads in 2 Hawl.
20 21 22 23 | 24
Ib. oz. Palins oz. dr. jlb. ez. dr.| tb. oz. dr.} Ib. oz. ar | Tb: oz.
AO Oy ShE Ady SMASH ee yale aleet od |S) Seatac ote a
i
cage Vg glo oath EM ol bal aes et wont ce
to to to H to to to
5-0. 0 | 4.12 3/4 811/45 9|4210/4 0
I 1! 2 I 3
© 31530 31240 3 9803 7103 42 0
to to | to to to to
0 4 0/0 313/0 3 10h 03 7303 540 3
C. qr. Ib. | C. qr. Ib.| C. qr. Ib.) C. qr. Ib.|C. qr. i C. ar.
14-0 4i/T3) 2 11 \12 3 1g*|t2 Yr! fer Qury |ra) Mr
|
17. 2.20|16 3 9/15 3 19 |15 1 14 14 2 35.14 0
to to to to to to
MAKING.
16 17 18 19
Weight of one) | Ib. oz. dr. | lb. oz. dr.} lb. oz. dr.| lb. oz. dr.
A & thread 200 fa- 50 OO; 411 CHa ah Pie 43 6
thoms long.
One-tarred z
thread ee! | GHZ Oj SagZbigy rg RBis'o fF Zot
B thomslong => to to to to
| fhould weigh 64 015 14 2}158 14154 3
L from
Ten fathoms of I 1\- I 3
each fize of B 0.4 154) 0 4 103,04 640 4 25
c fhould weigh uO EO : to A to '
from Og Ol Om 2 a0 2 | 94 33
D ca eee C. qrlb. |C. qr: ‘Ib. C. ge. th. | C. qr. Ib. ]
|
tral eee ane oe 3 I 9 12 2 14
Weight of each 1182.07, /17 1 25 162 O15 2 15
Ef hawl when to | to to to
tarred from 3118 3 0 |17 2 16/16 2 18 15 3 4
|
17 Bud LT vio O16 0 9g \15 2 3/4314 14 1
N.B. The calculations of B and C will be found extremely ufeful, provided the yarn be fpun and tarred regular, as
by weighing one fingle yarn, or even ten fathoms, the fize of the yarn may be a{certained, without being at the trouble
of weighing the hawls.
Tas
LE If.
Shewing the Number of Threads to work ger Hook for three-ftrand cable-laid Cordage of 6, 12, 18, and 24 Inches
in Circumference, of the undermentioned Sizes of Yarn,
with the Girt of each Strand, and Weight of each Cable :
alfo the Number of Men required to lay both Strands and Cable, with the Allowance to each Man for his Labour.
eT
The N° of Threads Sizes of Yarn Weight of each} Men | Threads} Men | Threads
here mentioned weigh — +r Cable 120 Fa-| for eT for per
99 lb. to 100 Ib. 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 20 | oe 22 | 23 24 | 25 | thoms long. | Strands.| Strand. | Cables. | Cable.
Sizesin} Girt of
Inches. | Strands. Threads per Hook.
C. qr. Ib.
6 3 4 18| 19] 20] 21] 22] .23].24] 25] 27] 28 90 0 7 6 1s
12 | 64 | 72| 76| 80] 85} 89) 94) 98) 103) 107/112) 360 of 17 6 | 37
18 gt 4 | 162) 171 | 181 | 191 | 201, 211) 220] 231} 242/252) 810 o| 31 8 73
288 | 304 340] 358 | 376| 394) 412/430] 448 0
x Six threads are called a quarter of a day’s work, for which each workman is paid 7d., and fo on in proportion for a
greater or lefs number.
Remarks and Direétions how to apply Tables 1. and II.
Example.—Suppole a cable of 12 inches in circumference
is wanted to be made, the hawls of yarn out of which, upon
examining the weights, are found to weigh 16 cwt. 2qr. 1olb.
per hawl of 336 threads. A reference is to be made to Table
I. line E, and the weight, being between 16 cwt. 2 qr. olb.
and 16 cwt. 2 qr. 18 lb. will be found to anfwer to 18-thread
yarn. Then look down the 18-thread column, Table IT.,
and upon the line of 12, (the fize in the margin,) is found
8o threads per hook, which is the number of threads to be
laid up per hook for the cable to be made of the weight fer
hawl of yarn of 336 threads above {pecified.
Again, if the hawls of yarn fhould be tarred of fuch a
weight (fay for example) requires to be worked between a
17 and an 18-thread yarn, in fuch cafe take the number of
threads per hook to be worked for the fize of the cable de-
manded, as fhould be worked both for 17 and 18-thread
yarn; add them together, and take half the number of
threads fo added, to work per hook for the cable; but if
there fhould happen in dividing to be an odd thread remain-
ing, you muft obferve to which fide the weight of your
haw] of yarn is molt inclining, and throw the thread in dif-
pute to the heavieft fide. The fame rules mutt be obferved
in confulting all the following tables.
Remarks.—In laying three-ftrand cable-laid cordage, if
you are in doubt refpecting the fize of your yarn, you muft
girt the yarn you purpofe laying in one ftrand, and that
fhould be half the fize of your cable.
In hardening the ftrands in the laying of cable-laid
cordage,
ROPE-MAKING.
cordage, you muft work with (in addition to your fledge)
one prefs-barrel to every 20 threads contained in your ftrand ;
but in laying the ftrand, hardening, and laying the cable,
you muft have only one prefs-barrel to every 40 threads con-
tained in your ftrand or cable. The above is to be confidered
asa ftanding rule in covered rope-grounds, but in open
grounds, the prefs muft be varied according to the ftate of
the bottom of the ground, which, after a fhower of rain, or
in damp weather, will be naturally foft, and occafion the
fledge to draw exceedingly heavy, asd of courfe want the
lefs weight of prefs.
N. B. The weight of a prefs-barrel fhould be from 33 te
4 cw.
Taste III.
Shewing the different fhrinking Proportions of the Yarns and Strands in
each Procefs in making the undermentioned
Lengths of Cable.
Sei | In laying the ftrands,
In hardening the ftrands, the ftrand will fhrink
-10th part of the whole
Length in
fathoms of
cable.
the yarn will fhrink1-sth 5
part of the whole length |
fms.
66
100
133
200
fms.
+ Cable 40
+ 60
80
Whole 120
s S| length warped, and is
warped, and is called the epee
“la od’s hardening iat! Eq the ftrand’s going
In hardening the cable-
ftrands previous to laying
the cable, the firands
will fhriuk 1-30th part
of the whole length
warped, and is called the
cable's hardening mark.
In laying the cable itwill
Shrink 1-15th part of the
whole length warped,
which brings it to the
diftance. length required.
fms.
46
7°
93
T40
Taste IV.
Shewing the Weights of three-ftrand cable-laid Cordage.
fins. |3-Inch Cable.|/6-Inch Cable- 9-Inch Cable. |12-Inch Cable]15-Inch Cable.|18-Inch Cable} 21-Inch Cable. |24-Inch Cable
\c. qr. Ib. oz.| C. qr. Ib. oz.) C. qr. Ib. oz.) C. gr. Ib.0z.| C. qr. Ib. oz.| C. qr. Ib. oz.
00 Oo] 63 00 os)
1 000
40103 00/3
|
20 0,100 140
co eM
60\1 0 14 04
80)1 2 0 0}6
120,21 00|9
It is neceflary to be underftood, that in rope-making
{according to the nature of the rope), weight will give fize,
and fize will give weight, if properly made.
Rule.—To calculate very nearly the weight of any fized
rope from 3 to 24 inches in circumference, 120 fathoms long,
and leffer lengths in proportion; as may be readily proved by
the above table, viz. multiply the fize of the rope by itfelf,
and one-fourth of that produ is the weight of a hundred of
112 pounds. 3
E,. ample.—Suppofe the rope 12 inches in circumference ;
12 X 12:: 144, the fourth of which is 36 hundred weight, or
3732 pounds, the weight of 120 fathoms of rope 12 inches
in circumference. Again, 40 fathoms is the third of 120
fathoms ; and the third of 36 cwt. is 12 cwt. the weight of
40 fathoms of 12-inch cable, as above.
Dire&ions how to apply the following Tables.
In which is confidered the four moft principal forts of
yarns made ufe of in cable-laid cones: viz. 16, 18, 20,
and 25-thread yarn, and in hawfer-laid cordage, to the
three principal forts of yarn made ufe of, viz. 18, 20, and
25-thread yarn, as it is very feldom any other fize yarn is
made for either cable or hawfer-laid rope, except very par-
ticularly ordered to the contrary. The particulars of every
rope of the fizes mentioned in the tables are fully explained
I
13 2 00 24000/372 00/54000)
90 0}201 @0:36000)561 00/81 000 II01
C. qr. Ib. oz.
36 3 00
55.074 0
732 00
C. qr. Ib. oz.
48000
72000
96 000
0 0/144000
18 3 00/27000
28 0 140/40200
to the length of twenty fathoms, which will be found
quite a fufficient guide for a rope of any length required :
4s for Example.—Suppofe I want a taper cable-laid rope
to be made out of 16-thread yarn, 60 fathoms long, and
6 inches in circumference, to be tapered ¢ds the length,
and ds the fize of the rope. I refer to Table V., and
find under the figure 6, (the fize demanded, ) that it muft be
worked 5 threads ger hook in the fhank, the length of yarn
to be warped for which, for 20 fathoms (I find in the margin)
requires to be 33 fathoms 2 feet, three times which is 100
fathoms, the length of yarn required to be warped for the
fhank of a rope of 60 fathoms long. I then obferve, in the
next column on the right in the margin, the length of yarn
required in the head for 20 fathoms is 11 fathoms o feet
8 inches, three times which is 33 fathoms 2 feet, the length
of yarn required in the head to the firft taper for a rope of
60 fathoms. Next refer to the number of tapers to be
worked, which, upon looking under the figure 6, (the fize
demanded, ) I find to be g, the diftance between them I find
(upon cafting my eye down the column) to be 14 feet 72
inches for 20 fathoms, three times which is 44 feet 53
inches, the diftance to be obferved between the tapers for a
rope of 6o fathoms, being the length demanded. The fame
rule is be obferved, either adding or multiplying, according
as required in all the tables of a fimilar defcription.
TABLE
ROPE-MAKING.
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wh 1S rth 1ie26 1/*o zt] gk z] g zito £) tg € |tS + |#9 5 | 99 |49 6 | 41 11 goiul|b&S +o] o1
*#Q O1GTg O1FF6 Olftor O|*fo 1] gz 1) b r/o 1) for 1 |tz z |t62) HE |46 4 |49 S PES |ohz lee s
b €)48L Eltto +] FS vi4tr Sitto 9] g g/4tor L| 4p 6 | 41 11] b £1| g orl te zz} g gz br 7z|gor | 66} o2
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Or Oj ctor oO} FO 1] tr 1/48 rltto 1] g ri) 1) th 2/46 2] 46 | zr [495 | 99 v ES -\°9 bz \ez 9 5
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SLO) Feo) Sr) ir PATS righ) | *gsot|for 1) 42 eisto. zi ihs 2 -|S9 8/464 dco & | + 9 vES lg & 2 l-259 5
ro vb) $8 vittr S| tz og] 9] th L| > g| #9 6) tr rt] & 1] g orlee zz| g gz| + EE| biz} gour|zgé&}] oz
aro €) b §i*tor $) z vit*6 +) $9 S| € go| 41 L} 4 gl o or] g zr]°g 91| 0 o7z| o Sz rJ|/O% 91/928 |O Sz] St
HO" 2) $2 az|on9 2| 46 zjez | $9 58| 2 ¥| 46 ¥| 9 S)ie- 9 | Healer iii: % Er) gor 9 goi|vésS |bo1} o1
200 SOK! Sok ata 6 Giese Tj ete| $ors1| 7 we ah 2 | $6 <2 | yo §—i—2-p legis | go 4) bie VES-) 9g pie2 2 9 S
‘ul "hy “ul a’W “Sty “ul “yy “suzy "YW *Suy
See “Seg . ;
ssodey, yaya | ajoyn so! 278
*saade J, 9} Uva Jaq IULYIC, 0} UJEK on pray, fyvegg ui) 2 8
; jo stpSuary | ayy ur uiex | urex jo 2 FA
jo sipduary | sipSuary 3
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ob LE e¢ of gz Zz o% 9 § - : siade3 ay) UL
9f ef of gz tz 0% gi 9 4 i peyxsom aq 0} speaayy Jo szaquinyy
£& of gz bz Iz gt gl 5 4 ;
gz tz IZ 61 Li Sx £1 S v
Zz 61 Li $1 tr zi Or £ £ : - yueyy oy} ur
61 Ly St +1 ZI II 6 £ £ pexsom aq 07 speozy} Jo saquinyy
Lt St +I zi II Or 8 € Zz
gh oL £9 98 of ee ge ZI or
5 oS St ov 4 of 6
“ Ba eee ob | of 1g | Lz 6 i eat otf) 12 00H ad speany,y,
os Sv oF gt zf gz +z 8 9 gi
oI % 6 | 4&8 8 g L + gE use X . ° papuewap sazig
SHOUT | peaagy,
adoy ayy Jo azig ay) spary3-oM3 pur ‘y3Suary ay3 spary3-omg ode y, oJ,
"ule pvaryy-Sz pur ‘oz *gi 91
toy $ssodey, dy} uaaMjaq paasayqo aq 0} aouryIC{ oy} pur ‘que ay} 10f padaem aq 0} paambas uae Z jo syyZua'y ayy yas ‘poxyaad oo1043 syySus'T oy} pur ‘sazig
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"A XLTLV J,
ROPE-MAKING.
oto z| gor z| #1 §| 49 €] o +| 46 bl*E §S!] ¢ 9.| sive Att 641-21 |-9 zx] 9 ox
TIE] 41 z| 4h «| #g c/o €| 49 €/%1n €] 49 | 46S [226 9 |) ¥ galt 6oo 21
Se rl4§ 7) $9 1) 46 1/0 el] 4h w/t Gel 42 6 | 40 § Seog 60 & | of om ee
**L o| 3 0] #6 0| 401 0/ o | 42 1 SE 1} to 1 | 461 [446 ce (460 J41 | ce
¥ £) #9 | © tito +] o S/Hor S$! g oltg £ lat 6 | tr xr| 48 $1 8 91] 0 0%
9 %) 4g zt) Oo E\tth €1 6 El eth +! © Siet6 § [436 9 % gx/ 49 or) -9 enh o-S1
8 1] #6 1] © e/tE tc] 9 cltt a) & E§lt0r € [4,19 + £9 § i41-L | % 9. |-0 or
Org) FOr oO ~O wees or) Se rte a] g omittrr x) |32So2 | 46-¢- lah Ele bol ors
78 £)| o H/o b) o Sltp S| 9g ol4tte Lit 6| oor 9 Z1/4€ br} 0 oz] 0 Sz
40 Zico itty Fl] 6 €| ei o 5/226 She 9 94 | 44 6 |4g o1|. o Sr] 6 gx
fOr) oO 214t& «| 9g 2/46 Z| vv E]4201 Eltto + o$ £9 |41 £ | oor] 9 1
411 Oo} 0 r/44y 7 € 1/* r/ Q rl4trr reese < 9% 41 § |4o € 0 [lac 0}
Oo b/F9 64! oO S| f9 S| & 9] 41 L| + glo on! 41 111 46 1 8 91] 0 oz] o Sz
o f/sib £1 6 €] zc bltg bl ty S| §€ Oi! 50) Phs| Bigs) on | oxen | on oa |sGuor
© e17tE «| 9 Z| 46 zitr § to. | € v) © § | 49 S_|} 41 £4 | 4g | oor o 21
o 1/471 1 € | 4h 1l*9 | 46 1 Tog) || 46" rey CV | BOnS™ Seo
: JO syysduary | sqastuory
PSS, GOT ERR aye Nr els cc a ee Oe ee OREN TE OS Le Oe hae WE Al |
6£ SE ze
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=
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Lz * fz zz oz gi St £1 I o1 8 L Ss b £ gt
Sz zz oz gi gl a zI Ol 6 L 9 5 b £ gr
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gz Sz &z oz gt 91 tr ZI ol 8 L 9 A) + gi
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gl ol £9 9S of fb gt 4 3z fz 61 91 ZI or Sz
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or 76 6 $8 8 G4 4 79 9 $5 att Be a oe ert
*satpouy proayy,
radoy aya jo azig ayy grey pur yaBuary oyy Jey sede y, oy,
“pmnuyjuoI—" \ ATAV J,
\ PaYAOM aq 0} sp¥aayy Jo s9QuINNy
Oo! oor z ¢f oz
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oS of + 1 Oo
Sz Sc zg )
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SL SL o Sz SI
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SL SL o Sz St
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oor oor z £¢ [oy 4
SL SL ° Sz $1
os o$ ¢ gor] o1
Sz Sz 2: al bale
y y “y *suy
ssodey ‘sua
*sadey, pay ayy — | apo so
Jo suaduary | aya ur aie x | uswx jo
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3
0} UID 0} pray jyaryg uy 4 |
a
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peoy ay} ye yooy aad speory T,
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VoL. XX
ROPE-MAKING.
Taste VI.
Shewing the Number of Threads to work ger Hook and Heart for cable-laid Stays, four Strands and a Heart, of
52 10, 15, and 19 Inches in Circumference, of the undermentioned Sizes of Yarn, with the Girt of each Strand pre-
fixed again{t each Size.
Number of Threads
afunder to weigh from 16 | 17 | 18
99 to 100lb.
ize ip i cee Threads ser Hook and Heart.
5 Pe 9 NG} Ke) at | II 12 | 12 13 | 13 14
10 43 5 35 37 39 41 43 46 48 50 52 55
15 Ea saat eagke) 84 89 94 99 104 109 114 119 124
19 82 127 | 135 | 143 | 151 159 167 175 183 Igl | 199
The fhrinking proportions of cable-laid ftays are exactly heart of the ftay to encompafs, occafions the ftrands to
the fame as in three-ftrand cable-laid cordage, except inthe fhorten in a much greater proportion than in three-{trand ca-
clofing the ftay, which being compofed of four ftrands, lie ble-laid cordage. The ftay, in clofing, will fkorten .; parts
much clofer in the rope than three ftrands, and having the of the length of yarn firft warped.
Taste VII.
Shewing the Weight of cable-laid Stays, four Strands and a Heart, from 5 to 19 Inches in Circumference, and from
5 to 30 Fathoms in Length.
; i
ce 5-Inch Stay. | 7-Inch Stay. | 9-Inch Stay. | 11-Inch Stay. | 13-Inch Stay. | 15-Inch Stay. | 17-Inch Stay. | 19-Inch Stay.
2 |
qr. Ib. oz. |C. qr. Ib. oz.| C. qr. Ib. -| C. qr. Ib. oz. |} C. qr. Ib. oz.
16°10) Tet G9 17 25
2UOVA ALO, aD oT 20
io 8|5 1t 10 12 18
27 s21OL2.20..7 15
Th T2'3 O42 2 13
C.
°
° | 5 jg Al 2u2, LOu, 6 23
°
I
I
I
Tas_e VIII.
Shewing the Number of Threads to work per Hook for four-ftrand cable-laid Cordage without a Heart, from
5 to 24 Inches in Circumference, of the Sizes of Yarn undermentioned, with the Weight of each Cable prefixed.
No. of Threads Weight of each
weighing from 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Cable 120
99 to 100lb. Fathoms long.
Size in | ‘Titeads ger Fldok:
CG. qr. Ib:
5 9 bf) 10 Ir 12 12 13 13 14. 15 6 2 10
10 38 40 + 45 47 50 52 54 57 59 labs: 36
15 85 gi 96 10! 107 112 118 123 128 134 58 3.0
20 152 162 171 181 Igo 200 Lolo) 219 228 238 | 104 1 9
a4 219 233 247 260 | 274 288 301 315 329 343 | 150 I 2
ROPE-MAKING.
Tasie IX.
Shewing the Length of Yarn required to be warped, and the different fhrinking Proportions
in making the undermentioned Lengths of four-ftrand cable-laid Cordage.
Fathoms | Lengths of Yarn
Strand’s Hardening
demanded. warped. Mark.
fms. ft. in. fms. ft. in.
iy O° a Be 40
34. {10 Zura 2)
68 2 0 54 4 0
102 3 0 82 0 0
136 4 0 109 2 0
205 0 oO 164 0 0
N.B. The fhrinking proportions of four-ftrand cable-laid
cordage is exaCtly the fame as three-ftrand, except in clofing
the cable, which confifting of four ftrands, lie much
elofer in the rope thar three {ftrands, but not having a heart
to encompafs it, does not diminifh in length fo much as
cable-laid ftays. The cable in clofing will fhorten +.% parts
of the length of yarn firlt warped. ,
It being rather unufual to lay cables with a greater num-
ber of ftrands than four, the above tables are not laid down
for a greater proportion,—but to know how to find the
umber of threads to work ger hook for a greater number
may at fome time be neceflary, therefore the following me-
Suand’s Going Cable’s Hardening Cable's
Diftance. Mark. Length.
fms. ft. in. fins. ft. in.
i ane) ir (2-4 10
28% kx ao 22 AS 20
47 5 0 45 3 4 40
71" “a 6 68 2 0 60
95 4 0 oz 0" 8 80
| 143 3 © 136 4 0 120
thod muft be purfued to lay a cable in as many ftrands as
may be thought expedient. Suppofe a five-ftrand cable-laid
rope is wanted to be made, you firft fquare the fize
of the rope propofed to be made, and multiply that pro-
du& by the fize yarn you mean to make your cable from,
that produ& divide by 52, and the quotient will be the
number of threads to work ger hook for a five-ftrand
cable-laid rope. If for a fix-ftrand, proceed as before,
and divide by 62; for a feven-ftrand, divide by 72; for an
eight-ftrand, divide by 82; and fo on, adding 10 to your
divifor for every ftrand you mean to increafe in number in
your cable.
Tas_e X.
Shewing the Prime Coft to the Manufacturer in each Procefs, in making the undermentioned Sizes of
three-ftrand cable-laid Cordage, with the Weight of Hemp and Tar required for each Rope.
Warping,
Taking-up,
at 7d. per | and Tarring,
at 9s. per
Wheel-turn- Expence
ing, and
Tending.
Spinning.
Quarter.
qr. thds.
22 3
93 43
211 5%
375 0
540 0
The above table is calculated according to the ufual
mode of rope-making, and is termed by the trade work-
ing by the fquare, which is performed in the following
manner: Suppofe a cable 15 inches in circumference,
the {quare of 15 is 225, the half of which is 1124;
that is, 113 threads per hook mutt be laid up for
a 15-inch cable, proceeding in the fame manner for
any fize demanded, which mode of working an{wers to
Total Expence
of Manufac-
turing into
Cordage.
Weight of
Hemp re-
quired for
each Rope.
Weight of
ar required:
for each
Rope.
Laying at 7d.
per Quarter.
C. qr. Ib.
: Goals lly ©)
500
LI, 0
2000
28 35
fixteen-thread yarn in all fizes of three-ftrand cable-laid
cordage. °
Where the diameter and circumference of one rope to an-
other is as 2 to 1, that is, where one rope is twice as big as
another, the fquare of the diameter is as 4 to 1, which
fhews that one rope has four times as much yarn in it as the
other, and confequently is four times as ftrong, according
to the different magnitudes.
SYS
ROPE-MAKING.
Tape XI.
Shewing the Number of Threads per Hook to work for three-ftrand hawfer-laid Cordage, of 3, 6, 9, and 12 Inches
in Circumference, of the Sizes of Yarn undermentioned, with the Weight of each Rope, and the Number of Men
required to lay the fame, with the Allowance to each Man for his Labour.
N° of
Threads 99
} to 100lb.
Weight.
a
Weight of each
25 Rope 133.2 Mor
long.
Threads
Rope. —_|per Rope.
Threads per Hook.
Inches.
19 21
76 84
171 189
304 336
|
|
Size in |
|
Remarks.—In hardening the ftrands, and in laying
hawfer-laid cordage, it muft be worked with (in ‘addi-
tion to the weight of the fledge) one prefs-barrel for
every twenty threads contained in the rope. This is to be
confidered as a ftanding rule in covered rope-grounds,
but in open grounds the prefs muft be varied according
to the ftate of
cordage.
In laying three-ftrand hawfer-laid cordage, if there is any
doubt refpeéting the fize of the yarn, you muft girt the
yarn you propofe laying in two of your readys (or itrands),
and that fhould be jutt the fize of the rope.
the ground, as mentioned in cable-laid
Tas_e XII.
Shewing the Length of Yarn required to be warped, and the different fhrinking Proportions of the Yarn in each
Procefs, in making the undermentioned Lengths of hawfer-laid Rope, and alfo the Weight.
The Sledge fhould
movestonhe follow, 3-Inch. | 14-Inch.} 2-Inch. 4-Inch. 6-Inch. 8-Inch. 10-Inch. 12-Inch.
Fathoms |} Length fing Marks fromthe
of Rope | of Yarn Tackle-Pofts.
qa Fone a a en puncte an
Length. | warped. | Rope’s Rass
Harden- | ; "0? Weight. | Weight. | Weight. Weight Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight.
ave Length ts) 5 5
ing Mark. . :
fms. ft. | fims. fms. | fins. ft. |qr. Jb. oz.|qr. Ib. oz.|C. qr. Ib. oz. |C.qr. Ib. oz. |C. gr. Ib. oz. |C. qr. Ib. oz. |C. qr. Ib. 0z.!C. gr. Ib. oz.
10 0 15 12 |' 100]0 2 70 415/00 914210111 9f108 5 13/1118 63)2 023 8|3 020 6
20 0 30 24 200/0 415]0 9 4/0019 123/0,2 23 8 1210.3 )2 38 8 123/41 319 0) 6112 12
40 0 60 AS 40,,0:\| 0" 92.14)'0°:19- 120-8 o11, 4:9)! Ty 2184.6 180.20 6 *1.05).2) 1700 90 )).8)'3) 110) Gi] 129) 95" 8
Half
Coil 66 4 100 80 6654 30 VER 8 HiT 4S) 10 [ Or DEO (60) [iS PATI ON P56 IG) ONO 20) (O44 2896027" 0124. 10
“80 0 120 96 80/9) |'O,.U9) T2041 ced 83.0 223 2730) (8 12 GUTH TIDAL 7, 17 2 20 0/25 1.23 0
100 0 150 120 100 0 |0 24 11 ]1 21 6/0 3 14 143/32 3 15 7 8 22 15 |14 0 15 143/22 0 11 0/31 8 7 12
120 0 180 144 190" OF [2 SH IPTOH 2) By 41d Ov 6214) 4 O26) 90 2 9 2 .5 2 }16 3,24 11 |26 2 2 0/38 0 20 8
Whol
Cal ¢ 133 2 200 160 1338 2 |1 5 0O7/}2 10 0/1 020.0)]4 2 24 0/102 12 0/18 3 12 0 |29 1:24 0442 1 20 O
Remarks.—In hardening the ftrands the yarn will fhrink one-fifth of the whole length, which is called the rope’s
hardening mark. : Sms
In laying the rope the ftrands will fhrink one-fixth of the remaining diftance, which brings the rope to the length
required.
TABLE
ROPE-MAKING. —
Tasie XIII.
Shewing the exa& Coft to the ManufaGturer in each different Procefs as undermentioned, in making the following
Sizes of three-ftrand hawfer-laid Cordage, with the proper Proportions of Hemp and Tar neceffary for each Rope.
| Hatchel-
ing, Wheel
turning,
and Tend-
ing
| ing.
Expence at
7d. per
Quarter.
Expence at
6d. per
Quarter.
Size in
Iuches.
Spinning.
qr. thds.
Sa
6 4
15 0
26 4
414
The foregoing table is grounded (as termed by the
trade) upon the principle of the fquare, but the method of
working upon this principle differs between cable and hawfer-
laid cordage. The mode purfued for making hawfer-laid
cordage is as follows: Suppofe it is wanted to make a three-
ftrand hawfer-laid rope, fix inches in circumference ; the
Warping, |
Taking-up,
and Tarring | pence at 7d.
Expence at | per Quarter.
9s. per Hawl..|
|
|
Total Expence
of manufae-
turing into
Cordage.
Weight of
Hemp re-
quired for
| each Rope.
Weicht of
Tar required
for each
Rope.
Laying Ex-
. Ib.
26
21
13
2
14
26
a ee
Neo CnT I &
{quare of 6 is 36, and twice 36 is 72, which is the number
of threads to work ger hook for a fix-inch three-{trand hawfer-
laid rope. The fame method mutt be purfued, according to
ie way 2 woreings for any other fize, and anfwers to
eighteen-thread yarn in all three-ftrand hawfer-laid cordace.
See Table XI. Bees
TABLE XIV.
Shewing the Weight of Yarn (of the four moft general Sorts madeufe of) capable of being fpun by each of the
following Number of Spinners, at eight Quarters, (or 48 Threads)
per day, in 1 Day, 1 Week of 6 Days,
1 Month of 24 Days, and 1 Year of 13 Months; with the Yield of Cordage at the Year’s End prefixed againit each
Number of Spinner’s Work.
Numb. of | Weight of Yam
Spinners for} - Day.
Weight of Yarn
per Week.
Cwr. qrs. lbs.
2
| Tons.
16-thread Yarn,
~
woman
wNomoaenw
a)
18-thread Yarn.
-ooocosd
|
|
|
|
|
rS
=
=
>
ct
:
»
=
icy
r=)
a
woman, rw
Le)
ee
wPomaenw
cocuenmwro
25-thread Yarn.
be
Weight of Yarn
per Month.
Weight of Y ~
er vane ann Yield of Cordage.
Tons. . Ibs.
53
106
3
r
2
a
mh oO = tO
eoocoooo
ooooco
oooodcso
eocooco
ooocco
~
oO
DD
oe
oe
aon,» Ww oO
Crr Ww &
is)
Or ©
Cwm ip Hb Oo
wow
19
~
~
ol
1 tS
ao
wOoOruconw
9
7hrODe WD
mI Om be
en a es
eer own
- o
we © Ww
a
~
N.B. By the above table may be found how much yarn can be {pun by any number of {pinners in any given time whatever.
5
ROPE.MAKING.
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—
ROPE-MAKING.
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‘panurpLorm= AX ATAV J,
ROPE-MAKING.
Suppofe you want to make a rope either cable or haw-
fer-laid, to be tapered one-third the length, and one-third
the fize; you muit refer to Table V. or XIV. for making
taper-cable, or hawfer-laid cordage, two-thirds the length
and two-thirds the fize, which you muft work almoft wholly
the reverfe way, by working the number of threads there
mentioned to be worked in the tapers in the fhank, and the
number of threads in the fhank muft be worked in the ta-
pers: the length of yarn there mentioned to be tapered mutt
be the lencth in the head to the firit taper, and the length
Tas_e XVI.
Shewing the Number of Threads to work fer Hook for four-
ftrand hawfer-laid Cordage, from 2 to 12 Inches in Circum-
ference, of the Sizes of Yarn as undermentioned: the Ropes
to be laid without Hearts, the Yarns comprifing which being
there mentioned in the head muft be the length of the yarn
to be tapered: the length of yarn requefted to be warped
for the fhank will -be the fame as there mentioned, and the
diftance between the tapers will, in almoft all cafes, be the
fame as there nominated; but if at any time there fhould be
a difference, and you are at a lofs to find the diftance be-
tween the tapers you muft divide the length of yarn to be
tapered by the number of threads you have to taper, and
that will give the exact diftance between them.
i Tasle XVII.
Shewing the Length of Yarn requefted to be
warped for the undermentioned Lengths of
four-ftrand hawfer-laid Cordage, with the
Hardening Mark prefixed againtt each re{peCtive
equally divided in the Strands. Length.
No. of | |
Threads Fathoms Length of Yarn .
cain Be WorG) | 274) WS ij*lOr| 20-27 +|2 221 23) |e24n) 25 demanded. required. Eee
weigh 99 to
100lb. ———
ft. in. fms. ft. in.
ae Threads per Hook. ; - a
) 4 0 2,50
By Hl Siloti ea G6) 25 | Wie A Ole 8 bod Seo oo
4 22| 23| 24) 25| 26) 27| 29] 30] 32) 33 ZR Ae
6 | 48| st] 54/ 57| 60! 63| 66] 69] 72| 75 Tei 2.430.
8 84] 90} 96/101 | 107 | 112] 117| 122) 128} 138 O279 oo
10 | 133 | 142 150/158) 167| 175 | 183 | 192 | 200| 208 2 6 z 0
12 weal 208) 216 (228 | 240 | 252 | 264 | 276 | 288 | 300
Remarks.—It is very feldom that hawfer-laid cordage is
compofed of more than four ftrands, but for the fake of
experiment, or otherwife, it might be demanded to contain
a greater number: as fuch, the following rule, carefully
attended to, will inform our readers how to lay a haw-
fer-laid rope in as many ftrands as may be confidered ex-
pedient.
Suppofe you want a five-ftrand hawfer-laid rope, you
mutt {quare the fize of the rope propofed to be made; that
product multiply by the fize yarn you propofe making
your rope from ; the produét of which, divided by 15, will
give the number of threads to work fer hook for a five-
_ftrand hawfer-laid rope. If you want to make a fix-itrand
hawfer-laid-rope, you mult proceed as above, and divide
by 18; if a feven-ftrand, divide by 21; if an eight-itrand,
by 24; and fo on, adding 3 to your divifor for every ftrand
you mean to increafe in the rope.
* ‘The fhrinking proportion in making four-ftrand hawfer-
laid cordage, in the firft procefs, is exaétly the fame
as in three-ftrand; the only difference is in clofing the
rope, which, being compofed of four ftrands, occafions
the rope to lay more round and clofe than in three-
ftrand cordage, which makes the fhrinkage be in a much
greater proportion. The rope, in clofing, will fhorten
~3,th parts of the remaining length of yarn, after the
rope is hard, inftead of 3th, as in three-ftrand hawfer-laid
cordage.
The weight of each coil of four-f{trand hawfer-laid
cordage may be nearly afcertained, by referring to the table
of the weight of three-ftrand (Table XII.), there being as
near the number of threads in each fize rope as can poflibly
be laid, for each ftrand to have an equal number. But it
fhould be remembered, that a coil of four-ftrand hawfer-laid
rope, made out of 200 fathoms of yarn, will be only 130
fathoms long, inftead of 133.2, as in three-ftrand hawfer-
laid cordage,
TABLE
ROPE-MAKING.,
Taste XVIII.
Shewing the fhrinking Proportions of the Yarn, in making the undermentioned Lengths of Bolt-Rope ; alfo its Weight
(untarred), from 1 to 8 Inches in Circumference.
The Sledge
fhould move
to the fol- 1-Inch. 2-Inch. 3-Inch. 4-Inch. 5-Ineh. 6-Inch. 7-Inch. §-lnch.
Length st lowing Marks
in Fa- | of Yarn | from the
thoms of | required Tackle-Poft, _ = =
Rope de-| in and is called
manded, |Fathoms.| 44... Rope’s f : J ;
Hardening- Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight.
Mark.
P| os —|——_—__—_ '—_—_—___|- Be ee
Fms. feet. |C.qr. Ib. 02. |C.qr. Ib. oz. | C. qr. lb. 07. | C. qr. lb. oz. | C. qr. Ib. 02. |C.qr. lb. 07. C.gr. Ib. oz. | C. qr.
10 14 11 4 joo 2 8f00 711/00 16 123}01 1 59/0118 230211 2|08,7610)10
20 28 93 #2 oo 5 0f0 0 15 6/01 5 OF 02 2 11% Opes BB 5 0228 42.2 p3 442014 5
40 56 46 4 0010 1/01 2 12 ‘0 '2° TR 13110 5 7 }|12 16 10 |2 1 16 8/3026 8 41 010
60 84 7O Oo 0015 130 18 1241.08) 16, 70 diet? Ve tee} 24) 2 124.15 |38 2 10 ea 4391119) 6 J 14 5
80 112 93 2 (0020 2/02 5 8] 1-022 3 201014 /31 5 4|43 5 0] 612s fea 1 4
100 140 116 4 |0025 2402 20 14| 11 27 119)2213 93/4018 9|5 397 4/8010 410215 9
120 168 140 0O Oo L 2-3 [O%8 8 2a 6 «4 3016 5 43 2114/7021 8|/92 23 8123 1 14
Coil 143 200 166 4 0.3.8.8 /° 3.26.01] .20.16...0)) 3.3.0) 10 5316 0/8 2 8 01) a 8 15 024 0O
Remarks.—In hardening the ftrands, the yarn will fhrink
one-fixth part of the whole length, which is called the
rope’s hardening mark.
In laying the rope, the ftrands will fhrink one-feventh
part of the remaining diftance, which brings the rope to the
length required.
N.B. Bolt-rope is ufually made of 20 or 25-thread
_ yarn, and generally delivered from the rope-maker white ;
the procefs of tarring it being ufually performed by the
fail-maker, and is called ftoving it, it being done’in a ftove
or oven calculated for the purpofe. In laying up your
work, you muft work with the fame number of threads as
in common hawfer-laid cordage. Bolt-rope, for exporta-
tion, is fometimes lightly tarred; in which cafe, in cal-
culating the weight, you muft add one-fixth to the weights
hereunto annexed.
TasBLe XIX.
Shewing the Number of Threads to work ger Hook for three-ftrand hawfer-laid white Cordage, from
1 to 12 Inches in Circumference, of the undermentioned Sizes of Yarn, with the Weight of each
Rope prefixed.
No. of
Threads
here men-
tioned
to weigh
88 lbs.
Size in
Inches.
N. B. Efpecial care fhould be taken relative to making
white cordage for tackle-falls, crane-ropes, &c. that the
hemp be of the very beft quality ; and that the fame be
topped, viz. all the fhort hemp taken out by the hatcheller ;
Vor. XXX.
Weight of each
Rope 133.2
Fathoms long.
2
”
ne =
On con &
Nv -
AnOLR NOM
ROR OR Om
-— Nw
aro
w&
~~
wn
>
and that the fpinner do fpin his yarn for the fame exceeding
{mart and even, by no means lighter than the weight fpe-
cified under the article /pinning the yarn: if he does, his
rope will not anfwer the fize required to be made.
TAELI
ROPE-MAKING.
Tasle XX.
Shewing the Number of Threads to work fer Hook for four-ftrand hawfer-laid white
Cordage, without Hearts, from 2 to 12 Inches in Circumference, of the Sizes of Yarn
as undermentioned.
No. of
Threads
here men-
tioned
to weigh
88 lbs.
Size in
Inches.
2 CH are Dc Ne in AEE NON ea Pa spall
3 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 19
4 26 obi s2gue | ZO NN) VPN Y SO! Nok SOy. eines 2H in233
5 Sait 39 41 43 45 47 49 yy
OM SRSA ORS Tile Cai OB ihe OG. || OOH Mirae eT
8 g6 | 101 107 112 117 122 128 133
10 150 | 158 167 iS My S3\))| \TO2 «|: 20041 208
12 | 216 | 228 240 | 252 | 264 | 276 | 288 | 300
N.B. The weight of the above ropes may be found by
confulting Table XVII. for three-ftrand hawfer-laid white
cordage ; the number of threads in each rope of a fize being
of an equal number, as near as poilible.
Cordage made by ContraG for the Ufe of His Majefly’s
Navy.—The under-mentioned fhews the number of threads
to work per hook ; the loweft weight, allowance in weight,
bandage, and higheft weight ; the cordage.is to be received
and allowed for by the receiving officers of his majefty’s re-
Taste XXI. Cablets.
Thread |
ireads
a Loweft Allowance | - bee Higheft
Size.) pe | Weight. | in Weight.| Par#s* | Weight.
Ib. qr. Ib. t. Ib. qr. lb
2 3 4 4 4 12
25) 4 ° 5 5 10
3 6 I 7 8 16
34 8 2 | fe) II 23
18 | 12
WI
7]
nv
tlle
4
(ee)
Lal
w»
OmMAMBWNHHO
(e)
ON ANP wW HHH OO
he OW DNWW Dh OW He Dw &
Leal
(eo)
CO OI AAI BS
nv
Lal
RPHOOWNOHOWNDOOKR KWH D
yn
eo0000000O000000007
NHNYHHHHHOOOOOODOOO
o
iN
wv
O#OZO; ©: OFO> O500- 0:0) 0} OO. OXON
RYN HH HHH OOOOOOO O88
= G
(e)
Z| 24 10 I 19 I 4 | 10 3 24
28 12 0 18 6 g | 12 5
a lr °32.. | 13 3. 16 Il 14 | 14 2 13
EY ean WX) 6 | 17 21 | 16 3 16
Z| 42 18 0 27 2/21 oO} 19 0 22
9 1:47 .|-20 1.17 r | 7 |-21 1 25
95 | 52 | 222 9 7 13, 233 1
It is to be obferved, that the above fizes in Tab. XX.,
viz. 2 to gi inches, are termed, in the navy contradts, ca-
blets, the yarn for which fhould be warped 200 fathoms
leng, and the cablets, when complete, to be 120 fathoms.
A hawl of yarn containing 336 threads, fhould weigh from
i6cwt. oqr. 8lb. to 16cwt. 1qr. 25lb., and no more,
allowing one-fixth part of fuch weight for tar, which is
the allowance made by the honourable navy-board, and no
more.
a
+
Threads ger Hook.
{peGtive dock-yards, under the honourable commiffioners of
his majefty’s navy, to rope-makers who have made cordage
(upon the ufual principle) by contraét, in coils, hawfers,
cablets, and cables, with the length of yarn to be warped
for the fame, and length of cordage when made, as ordered .
by the honourable navy-board.
N.B. The higheft weight a hawl of yarn for each fort
of cordage fhould weigh (and by no means more,) is here
noted,
TAastR XRT. Gables:
Size pe Loweft ; Allowance Highett
Solita eget Weight. | in Weight.| Weight.
aa ie C. qr. Ib. re. qr. Ib. } C. qr. Ib.
10 5S PZT O23" | tO) 22a 2h 22 6)
104 64) |):23 17120) 2> On |E2su3N26
II 70: | 215 2) TO: | 0) 215) ||| 26.082
11d 7627 30h Aa| VON2i 22h k2oeT26
12 825 )] SOUTHIONINO, Sho MORON LE
124 90) || (32 357) Non Zi Sr iaghbe zs
13 98 | 35 3 9 | 0 3 16 | 36 2 25
134 | 106 | 38 3 11] 0 3 25 | 39 2 26
14 T¥4,/] 4% 2°20) |) F260" 5) | 42, 2425;
142 | 122 | 44 2 12 | 1/0 12 | 45 2 24
15 130 | 47 2 3] 1-0 21 | 48 2 24
153 | 139 | 503 7/11 2)520 9
16 148 | 540 13) 1 I Il | 55 1 24
163 | 157 | 57 116} 11 20} 583 8
|
Cablets from 4 to 93 inches will not be rejected, if they
are half an inch in girt above the dimenfions ordered.
The yarn for the above cables (Tab. XXII.) are warped
166 fms. 4.ft. long, and the cables, when complete, to be
too fathoms long. A hawl of yarncontaining 336 threads,
166 fms. 4 ft. long, fhould weigh from 13 cwt. 2 qr. 61b.
to 13 cwt. 3 qr. 16!b., and no more, tarred with the fame
proportion of tar as the yarn for the cablets before-men-
tioned.
Cables
ee ee
a a
ROPE-MAKING.
Cables ro inches and upwards, are allowed three-fourths
of an inch in girt more than the dimenfions given. .
In proportions of cordage wherein the cables contained in
them do not exceed 133 inches in circumference, a propor-
tion of 1} cwt. of fpun-yarn is allowed to be fent to every
ton of cordage ; but if the cables are 14 inches in circum-
ference and upwards, then 3 cwt. for every ton is allowed,
- in order to work up the toppings (or hemp) which
fhould be taken out of the hemp agreeable to contra¢t,
previous to its being {pun into cable-yarn (in particular),
as it frequently happens that the great number of lives of
fome ef his majeity’s moft valuable fubjeéts are at ftake
upon the dependance of a fingle cable.
The cables made in the ufual mode, by contraé, have of
Jate never exceeded 163inchesin circumference, (Tab. XXII.
extends no further): for all the higher fizes are made by
patent machines, by which much manual labour is {pared,
and the yarns and itrands laid much clofer and more even,
and bear the {train more equally.
Loweft Allowance Banidic Highett
Weight. in Weight. baci Weight.
C. qr. C. qr. C. qr. Ib. |. C. qr. Ib,
3 ol ome) OFGY S14 MORTAG
I ot [olre) OO} ilo) 1,22
id 03 ome) 0}0, 2) 03°17
2 Tet [ole) Qj O54.) Te 1g:
24 20 ole) OF § 6p! Wi 2) OTT
3 2.3 (ole) OVO yl t3,0,4'9
3h 33 [ole) ©, OED!) |+ 4° 002
4 50 oe) QfOL TON 5) 1916
4i 61 (ome) 0020/] 63 4
5 7 oe) Coton YA at Te ET)
5i 92 oo O Thy |hTO,0.92
6 Br. ol Ook Cyalent 53) 24
64 13.1 Oo! Oo!
1a, | ee 5
The fizes of cordage hereunto annexed, from 3 to 33
inches in circumference, are termed, in the navy, con-
tract coils ; all above, viz. 4 to 64 inch, are called hawfers,
The yarn for both coils and hawfers fhould be warped
195 fathoms long, and the ropes, when completed, are to
be 130 fathoms long. A hawl of yarn, confifting of 336
threads, 195 fathoms long, fhould weigh from 16 cwt. 1 qr.
7lb. to 16cwt. 2 qr. 24]1b. and no more, tarred in the
fame proportion as cablets and cables. ;
All cordage delivered into his majefty’s dock-yards un-
dergo a trial, which is, by proving one ftrand out of each
rope, each thread (or yarn) of which having a weight,
weighing one-third of an cwt. made faft to it, which. it
fhould lift ; but if a certain number of yarns (according to
the fize of each rope) fhould break in the trial, the repe
is rejected, otherwife it is received.
Particular attention fhonld be paid not to fend any kind
of cordage into his majefty’s dock-yards above its highett
weight, allowed according to contra¢t, as, in fuch cafe, all
above that weight will bea lofs to the manufacturer ; the re-
ceiving officer not being authorifed to allow any more than
is {pecified in the contract.
N. B. It is to be obferved, that, in making cordage by
contract for the ufe of his majeity’s navy, his majefty
finds his own hemp, the contraétor tar and labour at a
certain price per ton. All cables and cordage to be
tarred with good Stockholm tar, without mixture of any
other, except about one-third part, which may be of Ruffia
tar.
A white thread, twilted the contrary way, (fometimes
called the rogue’s yarn,) is to be laid in all the ftrands of
the cables and large cordage ; and a twine in the {mall
cordage for the king’s mark, fo as to be feen on the outfide
of the ftrands.
In any of the ftrands, there is to be no greater number
of threads at the ends of the cables or cordage than in the
middle.
The only parliamentary regulations, relative to the ma-
nufaéture of cordage, are contained in the following a@ ;
« An aét for more effetually preventing deceits in the ma-
nufaéturing of cordage for fhipping ; and to prevent the
illicit importation of foreign-made cordage.’’ 25 Geo. III.
c. 56.
ia July 1799, a patent was granted to W. Chapman and
E. W. Chapman, of Newcaftle-upon-Tyne, for their im-
proved method of making cords and ropes, twined and un-
twined, from the {pinning of the yarn inclufive, to the finifh-
ing of the rope or cordage. This invention appears, by the
{pecification, to include material improvements in the fpin-
ning of rope-yarn, and in the manufacturing of cordage.
Rope-yarns are at prefent {pun by men, at an expence of
from half a crown to five fhillings per day, according to the
fituation of the place, whether in the out-ports, or on the
river Thames. Or it is wholly {pun by machinery.
In the practice of the firft method rope-walks are necef-
fary, and the fibres of the hemp are drawn into the yarn
of different lengths propertionate in a given degree to their
pofition in the outfide or infide of the yarn; accordingly,
when this yarn is ftrained, and its diameter collapfes, the
infide fibres of hemp bear the greateit ftrain, and thus they
break progreffively from the intide.
In the {pinning by a mill the fibres are all brought for-
ward ina pofition parallel to each other, previoufly to their
receiving their twift. They are confequently all of one
length; and, when twifted, the outfide fibres are moft
fhortened by forming the fame number of {pirals round a
greater axis than the interior, and thus they mutt confe-
quien break the firft, on the fame principle that the out-
ide yarns of ftrands of ropes manufactured in the old
method break before the interior yarns ; and, confequently,
with lefs {train than ropes of the improved principle, where
the ftrands, (or immediate component parts of the rope)
have been formed in fuch a manner as that all the yarns
fhall bear equally at the time of the rope’s breaking.
Neverthelefs, yarns {pun by a mill have been found
ftronger than common yarns, on account of the great
evennefs with which they are fpun; the manual labour in
manufacturing is much lefs than in the common method :
but, on the other hand, there is the expence of machinery,
and the greater wafte of hemp in preparing it for being
pani out in the progreffive ftages of its advance to the
indle.
Phe method invented by Mefirs. Chapman differs from
both the preceding, in having, by an eafy and fimple con-
trivance, the fibres of the hemp laid in the yarn in fuch
a manner as the yarns themfelves are laid in the ftrands of
the rope manufactured on the new principle.
Their machinery confifts only of a f{pindle, divided into
two parts, the upper containing apparatus to draw forward
the hemp from the fpinner with twilt fufficient to combine
ihe fibres ; which enables them to employ women, children,
and invalids, and alfo to appropriate the rope-ground folely
to the purpofe of laying ropes,
The part we have defcribed is only an improvement on
3Z 2 the
ROL?
the methods of {pinning, granted to Mr. William Chapman
on the 8th day of November 1798. g
The remaining parts of their invention confift chiefly in
the giving, from a ftationary power, internal motion to a
locomotive machine, viz. to the roper’s fledge, on which
the ftrands and the rope itfelf are twifted, by which con-
trivance they are enabled to apply a water-wheel, or fteam-
engine, to the whole procefs of making ropes of all kinds
whatever.
Mr. Jofeph Huddart of Ifington obtained a patent in
Auguft of the fame year for an improved method of regif-
tering or forming the flrands in the machinery for the
manufacture of cordage. Having previoufly taken out a
patent for this purpofe, he contrived to effect it by the fol-
lowing means ;
1. By keeping the yarns feparate from each other, and
drawing them from bobbins, which revolve, to keep up the
twift whillt the ttrand is forming.
2. By pafling them through a regifter, which divides
them by circular fhells of holes ; the number im each fhell
being agreeable to the diftance from the centre of the
ftrand, and the angle which the yarns make with a line
parallel to it, aud which gives them a proper pofition to
enter.
3 A cylindrical tube, which comprefles the ftrand, and
maintains a cylindrical figure to its furface.
4. A gauge to determine the angle which the yarns in
the outfide fhell make with a line parallel to the centre of
the ttrand when regiftering ; and, according to the angle
made by the yarns in this fhell, the length of all the yarns
in the ftrand will be determined.
_ 5. By hardening up the ftrand, and thereby increafing
the angle in the outfide fhell, which compenfates for the
ftretching of the yarns, and the compreffion of the ftrand.
The patent which Mr. Huddart took out in Auguft re-
Jates to the invention of a machine that may be worked
by men, or any other power, and by means of which the
regiftering may be commodioufly and effectually carried on.
But figures are neceflary for deferibing intelligibly his pecu-
liar contrivance. Mr. Huddart, in the following year,
took out a patent for improvements in the method of turn-
ing cordage in the manufaéture of it. But our limits
forbid our enlarging on this article. The fpecifications of
the patents for regiftering, as well as faftening, may be
confulted by thofe who are concerned in this manufacture.
Rove Walk, or Rope-houfe Ground, is the place where
ropes are manufa@tured. This fhould be 400 yards long, and
about 10 broad. At the upper end are fixed the {pinning-
wheels, over which is the hatchelling-loft, alfo the back-
frame wheels, tackle-boards, and pofts, winches for winding
the yarn on as it is fpun, and reels on which to reel the
ropes. On each fide are ftake-pofts ; in the middle is fixed
the warping-poft, and at the lower end, the capftern and
reaching-pott. Back-frame wheels for fmall, and fledges
and drags for large ropes, are ufed towards the lower end ;
the back-frame wheel, for laying cordage from a fix-thread
ratline to a two-inch rope, ,is about four or five feet in
diameter, and is hung between two uprights, fixed by
tenons on a truck, and fupported by a knee of wood.
Over its top is a femicircular frame, called the head, to
contain three whirls (that turns on the braffes) with iron
fpindles, fecured by a hafp and pin. They are worked
by means of a leather band encircling the whirls and the
wheel. Three of the whirls are turned when hardening the
ftrands, and one only when clofing the rope, the ftrands
being hung together upon it. The truck, on which the
back-frame wheel is fixed, runs on four wheels, and is
9
ROP
made of three-inch oak plank, about nine feet long and
thirteen inches broad at one end, and eleven inches broad
at the other. ‘The capftern, about eight feet high, and
fourteen inches in diameter, is turned either by men or
horfes ; its ufe is to draw the yarn, when tarring, out of
the copper, through the nipper, to be coiled away in the
yarn-houfe, and there properly hardened before it is ufed ;
otherwite it will kink, 7. e. twift or curl, by being twifted
too hard in clofing. Another capftern, or crab, is fixed
at the lower end of the walk, for ftretching the yarn to its
fulleft extent, before it is worked into ftrands, by means of
the tackle-fall, led from the /ledge to the capftern; thefe
being about eighteen yards diftant from each other. The
crank-wheel, which is ufed for {pinning of lines, box-cord,
&c. is fixed on an iron fpindle or axis, with a handle by
which to turn it. It hangs between two pofts, and in its
upper part, above the wheel, is let in a femicircular board
to receive three fets of whirl-bolts, with wheels upon them,
on which the fpinners hang their threads: at the front
fide of the wheel is a fhort poft, {upported by a knce of oak,
on which the fpindle refts. The drags refemble the hinder
part of the fledge, to which they are faftened by ropes, and
they are lined with a board on the upper fide: their weight
ferves as a prefs, when the rope requires more than the
fledge can carry properly to ftretch the ftrands, and prevent
their kinking. ‘Fhe hatchel ferves to clear the ends of the
hemp, by drawing it through, having forty fharp-pointed
iron-teeth, fimilar to the hatchel in the clearer, which has
finer teeth. Iron-jacks are fometimes ufed inftead of the
table-wheel or back-frame wheel, and differ from the latter
by having an iron-wheel with cogs, which work in the
whirls, that have likewife iron-cogs. The /oper, which ig
ufed to lay lines, has two iron {wivel-hooks (running round
in a brafs or iron box) at each end, for the line to hang on
and work, by the power of the fore-turn, from the wheel
at theupper end. The nipper is formed of two fteel-plates,
with a femi-oval hole m each, which, by the motion of the
upper plate, enlarges or contraéts as the tarring of the yarn
requires. It is thus fixed: a poft is placed between
the kettle and the capftern, with a mortife cut eighteen
inches long from the kettle’s furface, and five inches wide.
The under plate is turned up on each fide, to form two
grooves, and is let into the front fide of the poft from the
lower part of the mortife. The upper plate has a dove-tail
on the back, that flides up and down in a groove into the
grooves of the lower plate ; and by a ftaff, made fatt to its
front, it is raifed or lowered, and regulated by a weight
fufpended at the other end, fo that the yarn receives no more
tar than isrequired, and that which is fqueezed out drops into
a trough, and returns into the kettle. Prefs-barrels are old
tar-barrels filled with clay, and laid on the fledge or drag
to add weight when the rope is clofing. The reaching-po/t
1sa poft in the ground at the lower end of the walk ; ufed in
ftretching the yarn by means of a tackle, one of the blocks
of which is hooked to a ftrap round the poft, the other
block to a pendant at the fledge, being about eighteen
yards diftant from each other. Sv/edges are frames made of
{trong oak, clamped with iron in different parts; the two
‘fides are the length of the fledge, made of oak, and tied in
with oak bars at each end ; near the front are two uprights,
let into the fides, and fupported by two flanting pieces from
the upper end. A. breatt-board is faftened with iron pins
to the uprights, and contains holes for the hooks to pafs
through, on which the hooks are hung ; which, being turned
by men, is twifted into rope, and fo clofed or finifhed.
Thefe fledges are loaded as the occafion of making the rope
requires. The /pinning-wheel is hung between two potts
; fixed
_
ROP
fixed in the ground; over its top is a femicircular frame,
called the head, which contains twelve whirls, if it be for
twelve f{pinners to {pin at the fame time ; thefe whirls turn
on iron fpindles, with hooks to their front ends to hang
the hemp on, and are worked by means of a leather band
encircling the wheels and whirls. The tools and terms
appropriate to rope-making are defcribed in their proper
~places.
: Ropr-Yarn, the yarn of any rope untwiited. It com-
monly confifts of cable-ends which are worn out; and
are called junks of the cables. It ferves for many purpofes
among the failors.
Rope-yarn: properly denotes the {malleft and fimpleft
part of any rope, being one of the threads of which: a
itrand is compofed ; fo that the fize of the latter, and of
the rape into which it is twifted, are determined by the
number of rope-yarns.
Ropes, Standing, in a Ship, the fhrouds and ttays are fo
called, becaufe they are not removed, unlefs to be eafed or
fet taught. See SHrouns, and Srays.
Ropes, Staple, ropes made of hemp, not inferior to clean
Peterfburgh.
Rope-Bands, braided cordage, ufed to faften the heads
of fails to their refpective yards. See Rossrns.
Rops-Deck. See Decx.
Roper, in Agriculture, a thick fort of cord formed of
hemp, or other material; much ufed by farmers. See
CorDAGE.
A very ufeful fort of rope for traces, and other fimilar
purpofes, has lately been formed of the coarfe wool of fheep.
Ropg, Cart, that fort of rope ufed in loading hay, ftraw,
or other bulky loads, by the farmer. Thefe ropes fhould
always be ftrong, and formed of the beft materials, what-
ever the nature of them may be.
Rope is alfo a word fignifying to tedder, as a horfe,
or other animal. It is a very injudicious practice, and
one which fhould by no means be generally followed by
farmers.
Roper, Cord, or Strap, in the Manege, is any of thefe
tied round a pillar, to which the horfe is faftened, when
they begin to quicken, and fupple, to teach him to fly from
the chambrier, and not gallop faitly or incompaétly.
In thofe maneges where there is no pillar, a man ftands
in the centre of the ground, and holds the end of the rope.
Ropes, Drag, in the Artillery, are thofe by which the
foldiers pull the guns backwards and forwards both in their
exercife, and in an engagement. They are of various
lengths and dimenfions, as they are ufed for guns or
howitzers of different weights.
Ropes, Foot. See eg ape
Ropes of tevo Pillars, are the ropes or reins of a cave-
fon, ufed to a horfe that works between two pillars. See
Pittar.
Rope-Dancer. See Dancer, and Nusance.
Rore of Sand, a phrafe familiarly ufed to denote dif-
union, or want of adhefion and continuity. In this fenfe
it is applicable to a variety of cafes, and in military lan-
guage to the difagreement that fubfifts between the colonel
and the captains of a regiment.
Rove Machine for raifing Water, in Hydraulics.—If a
vertical grooved wheel, fixed in a frame, be fituated within
the water at the bottom of a well, and another fimilar
wheel, having a handle affixed to its axis, be fituated in
another frame at the upper part of the well; alfo an endlefs
rope (viz. a rope whofe two extremities are {pliced into
each other) be paffed round both wheels ; then, on turning
the handle, the wheels and the rope will be caufed to move,
ROP
viz. the rope will afcend on one fide, and will defcend on
the other, pafling fucceffively through the water of the
well; but the afcending part will carry up a quan-
tity of water adhering to its furface; and this water
differs in quantity, according to the fize of the rope, the
depth of the well, and the quicknefs of the motion;
viz. with a larger rope, in a lefs deep well and quickeft
motion, a greater quantity of water will be raifed, than
otherwife. :
In order to intercept the water at the top of the well, the
upper wheel is inclofed in a pretty large box, in the bottom
of which there are two holes, through which the afcending
and defcending parts of the rope pafs. To thefe holes are
affixed two few tubes, which prevent the exit of the
water which falls to the bottom of the box. There is alfo
a lateral {pout on the fide of the box, clofe to the bottom,
for the water to come out of; and on the broad fides of the
box there are two holes for the axis of the wheel. The
gth and roth figures of Plate XIV. Hydraulics, exhibit a
{eG&tion and a front view of a machine of this fort, which
was put up in the year 1782, on the caftle hill at Windfor,
where the depth of the well is 95 feet. A fimilar machine
was alfo placed on the round tower of Windfor cattle,
which draws the water from the depth of 178 feet.
The fame letters refer to the like parts in both figures.
The wheel, H, at the bottom of the well is of ligaum
vite, one foot in diameter. Its axis is of fteel, and turns
with its extremities in fockets of bell-metal.
The frame, I I, is of iron.
The wheel, E E, at the top of the well is of iron; but
its rim, with the groove which receives the rope, are of lead.
The diameter of this wheel is three feet.
The axis, dd, is of fteel, and its extremities turn in bell-
metal fockets, which are fixed in two upright pofts, A, A,
that fupport the machine. T is the handle affixed to the
axis, which handle defcribes a circle of 28 inches.in diameter ;
6 is the wooden box, lined with lead, which mclofes the
wheel E. F, F, are the holes at the bottom of the box
through which the rope pafles. Their diameter is about
two inches.
On the fame axis, dd, another wheel, C C, of about four
feet in diameter, is fixed. This wheel is of wood, loaded
on the edge with lead, and it ferves as a fly to facilitate the
motion.
The rope is of horfe-hair, and meafures half an inch in
diameter.
With this identical machine, feveral experiments were
tried, the refult of which is as follows :
When the machine was worked flowly, viz. fo as to
make about 30 revolutions of the handle in one minute,
then very little water came up adhering to the rope ; and
of this water a very {mall portion was co pag from the
rope within the box, fo as to come out of the fpout Z, in
the fide of the box.
When the revolutions of the handle were about 50 in
a minute, then a confiderable quantity of water came up
adhering to the rope ; and on turning the wheel E E round,
the greateit part of that water, having acquired a confiderable
velocity, flew off in a tangent from the rope, and formed a
jet within the box. ‘This water, falling to the bottom of
the box, came ont of the fpout Z.
It was found, that the utmoft exertion of an ordinary
working man could not make more than 60 revolutions of
the handle in a minute; in which cafe the rope moved at
the rate of about 16 feet per fecond. With this velocity
the quantity of water that came out of the fpout, Z, was
about fix gallons fer minute: but it would have been ims
poflible
ROQ
poflible for the man to have worked at that rate for more
than three or four minutes.
This machine may evidently be placed aflant, viz. fo as
to convey the water from one place to another, which is
not quite perpendicularly over the former. The fame con-
ftru€tion, and almoft the fame expence, will adapt the
machine to wells of different depths, though the effects
will not be always the fame.
More than one rope, or a broad band inftead of a rope,
might be adapted to this machine, for which purpofe, the
wheels muft have more than one (or a broad) groove, &c.
The greateft difadvantage of this machine is, that the
rope does not laft loug. Its being always wet deltroys
it very foon. In putting on the rope, care muft be had to
foke it well in water before it be {pliced; otherwife it will
either be too tight, or it will break. A hair rope has been
found to laft longer than one of hemp. See Cavallo’s
' Elem. of Nat. and Exp. Philofophy, vol. ii.
ROPI, in Geography, a town of South America, in the
jurifdiGtion of Guamanga.
ROPITZ. See Repitz.
ROPOUREA, in Botany. See Camax.
ROPPEN, in Geography, a town of the Tyrolefe ;
4 miles S.W. of Stambs.
ROQUE, Joun ve ta, in Biography, a writer of
voyages and travels, was the fon of a merchant at. Mar-
feilles. He ftudied in his native city, and afterwards tra-
velled into the Eaft, but in what capacity is not known.
In 1689 he vifited Syria, mount Lebanon, and other coun-
tries in the Eaft. In 1715 he was a refident in Paris, and
was there aflociated with his brother in publifhing the
6 Mercure de France.’? He died in 1745, in his 84th
year. The following is a lift of his principal publications :
s¢ Voyage de l’Arabie Heureufe par l’Ocean oriental et le
detroit dela Mer Rouge, fait par les Francois, &c. avec un
Memeire concernant l’Arbre du Caffe,” 1716. ‘* Voyage
de la Paleftine, fait par Ordre de Louis XIV.”’ 1717: to
this is annexed a tranflation of Abulfeda’s Defcription of
Arabia. ,‘* Voyage de Syrie et du Mont Liban, &c. avec
un Abregeé de la Vie de M. M. de Chaftenil,”’ 2 vols. He
was a member of the Royal Academy of Belles Lettres at
Marfeilles,
Roaqur, La, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Var; 6 miles S.W. of Brignoles.
Rogue, Cape, a cape on the coaft of Brafil. S. lat. 5°
W. long. 35° 4o!.
ROQUEBROUE, La, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrit of Aurillac ; 12 miles W. of Aurillac. The place
contains 1277, and the canton g812 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 310 kiliometres, in 15 communes,
ROQUEBRUSSANNE, La, a town of France, in
the department of the Var, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri€t of Brignoles. The place contains 1436, and
the canton 5220 inhabitants, on a territory of 1874 kilio-
metres, in 8 communes. y
ROQUECOR, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot and Garonne ; 7 miles N.E. of Agen.
ROQUE-COURBE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t
of Caftres ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Caftres. The place contains
4294, and the canton 3829 inhabitants, on a territory of
3322 kiliometres, in 6 communes.
ROQUEFEUIL, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aude; 15 miles S.W. of Alet.
ROQUEFORT, a town of France, in the department
of the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
ROQ
Limoux; 7 miles S. of Quellan. The place contains
567, and the canton 4920 inhabitants, on a territory of
322% kiliometres, in 13 communes.—Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Landes, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri€&t of Mont-de-Marfan; 12 miles
N.E. of Mont-de-Marfan. The place contains 1077, and
the canton 8380 inhabitants, on a territory of 565 kilio-
metres, In 14 communes.
ROQUELAURE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gers; 3 miles from Auche.
ROQUE-LIMBAUT, La. See Roquetarmsaut.
ROQUEMADOUDR, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Dordogne ; 12 miles S.E. of Sarlat.
ROQUEMAURE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@® of Uzés, on the W. fide of the Rhone; 6 miles
N. of Avignon.
ROQUE-»’OLMES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Arriége; 7 miles S. of Mirepoix. ~
ROQUEPIC, an ifland in the Indian fea, covered with
cocoa and other trees, flowers, and odoriferous plants. N.
lat. 9° 56'. E. long 95° 14/.
ROQUES, Pever, in Biography, a French Proteftant
divine in the 18th century, was born at Caune, in Upper
Languedoc, in 1685. Having been educated for the
miniftry, he was chofen, at the age of 25, paftor of the
French Proteftant church at Balil, in conneétion with
which he {pent the remainder of his life. He died in 1748,
at the age of 63. . He was author of many works, which
bore teftimony to his learning, and the excellence of his
judgment : of thefe, the principal are, “« A Picture of the
Behaviour of a Chriftian ;”? ‘* The Evangelical Paftor ;??
‘* Elements of the Hiftorical, Dogmatic, and Moral Truths
contained in the Sacred Scriptures.’? He was the author
of numerous papers inferted in the * Journal Helvetique,’’
and “ Bibliotheque Germanique.”’
ROQUESTARON, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Maritime Alps, in the diftri& of
Puget-Theniers. The place contains 344, and the canton
2224 inhabitants, on a territory of 2174 kiliometres, in 7
communes.
ROQUET, in Zoology, the name of a {pecies of Ame-
rican lizard, of {mall fize, and of a reddifh-brown colour,
variegated with black and yellow fpots. Its fore-legs are
remarkably long for a creature of this kind; its eyes are
particularly vivid and {parkling, and its head is carried con-
tinually ereét ; and the creature is almoft always in motion,
hopping about like a bird, and it ufually carries its tail bent
into a femicircle over the back. It is far from being thy or
timorous, and is delighted at the fight of men; when tired
with play or with running, it will open its mouth and pant,
and loll out its tongue as the dogs do,
ROQUETAIMBAUT, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri€t of Agen; feven miles N.E. of
Agen. The place contains 1294, and the canton 5494
inhabitants, on a territory of 874 kiliometres, in 10 coms
munes.
ROQUETAS, a town of Spain, in the provinee of
Grenada, on the coatt of the Mediterranean ; 10 miles S.W.
of Almeria.
ROQUEVAITRE, a town of France, in the depart.
ment of the Mouths of the Rhone, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftriét af Marfeilles; 12 miles E.N.E. of
Marfeilles. The place contains 3182, and the canton 17,926
inhabitants, on a territory of 275 kiliometres, in 10 com~
munes.
ROQUILLE,
ROR
ROQUILLE, a meafure of capacity in the Welt Indies ;
thus, the Englifh gallon is divided into two pots, four pintes,
eight chopines, fixteen roquilles, thirty-two muces, or fixty-
four demi-muces.
ROQUITE, in Geography, ariver of Africa, which runs
into the Atlantic ; 70 miles S.E. of cape Bajador.
ROR, atown of Bavaria; four miles S.W. of Abenf-
erg.
Ss RORAAS, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim ; near which is a large copper mine, difcovered
in the year 1644; 68 miles S.S.£. of Drontheim. This
mine is in the fouthern flope of the chain of Dofra, in
a rock of what the Germans call horn-{chiffer, or horn-
blende flate. The veins are from fix inches to fix ells in
thicknefs ; and the ore of a pale yellow. The mines of
Roraas are very produétive, and a fource of confiderable
revenue,
RORARIUS, Jerome, in Biography, who flourifhed
about the middle of the 16th century, was a native of
Pordenoné, in Italy, and in the courfe of time he became
nuncio from pope Clement VII. at the court of Ferdinand,
king of Hungary. He was author of a curious work, en-
titled “ Quod animalia Bruta Ratione utantur melius
Homine,” in which he undertakes to fhew, not only that
beafts are rational creatures, but alfo that they make a
better ufe of their reafon than man. This work, after
lying concealed in the obfcure recefles of libraries 100 years,
was publifhed by M. Naudeat Paris in 1645. Bayle.
RORBACH, in Geography, a town of Auitria; 18
miles W. of Freyftatt.—Alfo, a town of France, in the
department of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri&t of Sarreguemines; fix miles W. of Bitche.
The place contains 655, and the canton 10,280 inhabitants,
ona territory of 1874 kiliometres, in 20 communes.— Alo,
a town of Germany, in the principality of Culmbach;
feven miles S.S.E. of Gemunden.
RORE, in Biography. See Cipriano.
RORENTZBERG, in Geography, a mountain of Ger-
many, on the Brifgau ; two miles S. of Triberg.
RORHAW, 2 town of Auitria; eight miles W.S.W.
of Hainburg.
RORICHE, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into
the Oder ; three miles N.W. of Konig(berg.
RORIDULA, in Botany, from roridus, moift with dew,
in allufion to the glandular moilture which clothes its herbage,
like that of Drofera, the Sun-dew.—Linn. Gen. 567.
Schreb. 157. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1184. Mart. Mill.
Did. v. 4. Juil. 426. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 141. Gertn.
t. 62.—Clafs and order, Pentundria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
uncertain, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five lanceolate, equal,
permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, ovate-oblong, equal,
larger than the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, aval (hapedk
half the length of the corolla; anthers inferted a little above
their bafe, oblong, of two parallel, nearly cylindrical lobes,
opening obliquely at the top, and feparated almoft half way
down ; their bafe pouch-like, proje¢ting downwards, termed
by Linnzus the nectary. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, oblong ;
flyle thread-fhaped, the length of the itamens; itigma
abrupt, ae three-lobed. Peric. Capfule oblong, tri-
angular, of three cells and three valves, the partitions con-
trary to the valves. Seeds folitary, oval, angular at one
fide, minutely dotted in rows.
Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals.
Anthers with a pouch at the bafe.
and three cells. Seeds folitary.
Obf. Linnzus. defcribes numerous feeds, but Gartner
Calyx of five leaves.
Capfule of three valves
ROS
and Juffieu found them folitary in each cell. There is no
reafon to fuppofe thefe writers did not examine the very
identical {pecies.
1. R. dentata. Linn. Gen. Pl. 567. Syft. Veg. ed. 14.
244. Willd. n. 1. (R. mufcicapa; Gaertn. v. 1. 298.
Ireon verticillata ; Burm. Prodr. Cap. 6.) - Native of bogs
at the Cape of Good Hope, but apparently either in fome
remote traét, or not of frequent occurrence. The /fem is
fhrubby, branched, round, fmooth, purplifh. Leaves nu-
merous, crowded about the ends of the lateral fhoots, linear-
lanceolate, pointed, about two inches long, finely downy,
deeply pinnatifid, or petinate ; their fegments awl-fhaped,
fringed with glandular-tipped briftles. Flower-flalks firtt
terminal, then lateral, folitary, racemofe, woolly, longer
than the leaves, each bearing about four large and handfome
flowers. Braéeas and calyx fringed like the leaves. The
petals feem to be white, or blufh-coloured. This is a very
fine and fingular plant, with which it is pity we are not ac-
quainted in arecent {tate. May it not be allied to Juffieu’s
Tiliacee ?
RORIFEROUS Duct, g. d. dew dropping-pipe ; aname
given by fome to the thoracic dué ; from its flow manner
of conveying, and, as it were, diltilling, the chyle into the
common ttream of blood.
RORIPA, or Rorippa, in Botany, Scop. Carn. ed. 1.
520. Adanfon Fam, y. 2. 417, a name which Scopoli
{ays he borrowed from Gefner, and by which he defignated
a genus, which he feparated from Si/ymbrium, on account
of its coloured calyx, four converging’ glands, and fhort
pods, The fame author, in his fecond edition of Flora
Carniolica, reduces this genus, as moft others have done, to
SisyMBRIUM ; fee that article.
RORNBACH, in Geography, a town of the bifhopric
of Paflau ; two miles N. of Paflau.
RORSBACH, atown of the Helvetian republic, be-
longing to the abbey of St. Gall; fix miles N.E. of St.
Gall.
RORSHEIM, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Halberftadt ; fix miles N.E. of Ofterwick.
ROS, Dew. See Dew.
Ros Solis, in Botany, Sun Dew, a plant fo called from
the clear drops of viicid moifture, ftanding on the briftles
which clothe its foliage ; moit abundant and confpicuous in
hot bright weather. See Drosera.
Ros Vitrioli, among Chemifts, is fometimes ufed for the
firft phlegm diftilled from vitriol in balneo Marie.
Ros fur Couefnon, in Geography, a town of France, ia
the department of the Ille and Vilaine; feven miles E.N.E.
of Dol.
ROSA, in Botany, an ancient and popular name, derived,
with mot{t probability, from the Celtic, rés or rhos ; whence
comes alfo its Greek fynonym, jodoy; and the name of the
fame flower in various modern languages, Rofe, Rofa, &c.
De Theis remarks, that the Celtic rhodd, or rhudd, red, is
the primary root of thefe words, the rofe colour being
almoit fynonimous with redaefs. Hence alfo came Réus,
Rubia, Rubus, and the Greek name of the Pomegranate,
fow, or fodsa, ftill in ufe. All thefe words have a manifeit
reference to ared colour, in fome part of each of the plants.
—Linn. Gen. 254. Schreb. 341. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.
1063. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 537. Prodr.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 347. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 257.
Purfh 344. Jufl. 335. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 440. Gertn.
t. 73.—Clafs and order, Jcofandria Polygynia. ' Nat. Ord.
Senticofe, Linn. Rojfacee, Jull.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf; tube fwelling, ovate
or globofe, contraéted at the top ; limb {predding, in five
deep,
ROSA.
deep, converging, long, narrow-lanceolate fegments, two
of which are ufually fringed, at both edges, with unequal
leafy appendages, the third at one edge only, the two re-
maining having both edges naked; in fome fpecies all are
fimple and naked. Cor. Petals five, inverfely heart-fhaped,
the length of the calyx, and inferted into its neck. Stam.
Filaments very numerous, capillary, fhort, inferted into the
neck of the calyx ; anthers roundifh-triangular. Pi/f. Ger-
mens numerous, in the cavity of the calyx ; flyles as many,
villous, very fhort, inferted laterally into each germen, and
clofely compreffed by the neck of the calyx; {tigmas ob-
tufe. Peric. none, except a {purious berry, formed of the
turbinate tube of the calyx become foft and coloured, of
one cell, contracted and clofed at the neck, crowned with
the faded hardened fegments of the limb. Seeds numerous,
oblong, hard, angular, hifpid, lining the interior furface of
the calyx.
Eff. Ch. Petals five. Calyx urceolate, five-cleft, flefhy,
contrated at the neck. Seeds numerous, hifpid, lining
the infide of the calyx.
No genus more natural than this, in habit, or technical
charaéters, can poffibly be found. The Rofe is alfo the
mott favourite of plants in all countries of the globe, the
type of beauty and love, beftowing its name to enrich other
flowers, which derive from thence their chief celebrity, and
taking unquettioned precedence in all matters of ornament or
talte. But thorns are proverbially the accompaniments of
rofes; nor can any one be more fenfible of this, than the
botanitt, who attempts to extricate and define the {pecies of
this beautiful family. Cultivated plants in general are
known to {port in luxuriant varieties, often tranfient indeed,
but fufficiently durable to caufe much perplexity to the ac-
curate obferver. No wonder therefore that rofes, fo
abundant in every garden, fhould aflume various afpects
from difference of foil and treatment ; though lefs perhaps,
than moft other tribes, from crofs impregnation. The habit
of this genus is invariably fhrubby, and almoft univerfally
prickly ; the branches round ; leaves alternate, pinnate with
an odd leaflet, ferrated, frequently prickly or glandular ;
one fpecies only being known to have fimple leaves, or, in
other words, to want the lateral leaflets. Stipulas almott
always united to the bafe of the conimon footftalk. Flowers
terminal, ftalked, ufually red, varioufly and delicioufly fra-
grant ; fometimes white; very rarely yellow, and in that
cafe either inodorous or feetid. Fruit harmlefs, but feldom
pleafant. Seeds flowin germination.
The generality of writers on Rofes have come under the
defcription of florifts rather than botanifts, and their figures
have been executed accordingly. Linneus found the deter-
mination of fpecies very difficult. Ehrhart paid confiderable
attention to the fubjeét, and in his Beir@ge has thrown much
light upon it, by which Willdenow has profited. The
garden Rofes are well arranged in the new edition of Aiton’s
Hortus Kewenfis, where we hall find but little to improve
or correct ; and they are elegantly-difplayed in Mifs Law-
rance’s ample colle¢tion of figures, publifhed in 1799, except
that we could have wifhed for much more delicacy, and dif-
crimination of tints, in their various foliage. Several new
Britifh ones have been firft defcribed, by the writer of the
prefent article, in Engli/b Botany, where Mr. Sowerby has,
as ufual, been happy in his reprefentations of their diftinGtive
habits and characters.
The fpecies are diftributed by Linneus, and all his fol-
lowers, into two feCtions, diftinguifhed by the fhape of the
tube of the calyx, inaccurately termed by him the germen.
Of this error Willdenow takes notice, without correcting
it, not being at that time aware of the meafure adopted in
our Flora Britannica, where, by fubftituting fruit for germen,
every inconvenience and inaccuracy is avoided. Mr. Dry-
ander and Mr. Aiton in Hort. Kew., while they follow, as
we fhall here do, Willdenow’s general aud particular diftri-
bution of the f{pecies, have, in the point juft mentioned,
corrected his phrafeology. Our new fpecies, chiefly fup-
plied by Englifh Botany, and Purfh’s Flora of North Ame-
rica, will be inferted, as nearly as poffible, according to their
affinities. ‘Perhaps fome of the old ones might have been
better placed; but except any glaring impropriety pre-
fented itfelf, more inconvenience than benefit would arife
from difturbing an arrangement fo generally received, and
which Linnezus firlt formed in his Sy/ema Nature, ed. 12.
We have only brought canina and its allies nearer together
than they are placed in the above-mentioned books.
Section 1. Fruit nearly globofe.
1. R. berberifolia. Barberry-leaved Rofe. «Pallas in
Nov. Ad. Petrop. v. 10. 379. t. 10. f. 5.” Willd. n. 1.
Ait. n. 1. (R. fimplicifolia; Salif. Hort. 359. Parad.
t. 101. Poiret in Lamarck Did. y. 6. 276.)—Fruit
globofe, prickly, as well as the flower-flalk. Leaves
fimple, nearly feffile, with ftipulary recurved prickles.
Found by Michaux and Olivier in the north of Perfid.
Seeds fent by the former to fir J. Banks were raifed at Kew
about the year 1790, but the plants did not long furvive.
This {pecies is extremely remarkable for its fimple /eaves,
which are obovate, glaucous, coarfely ferrated, about an
inch long, fmooth, on fhort ftalks, without /fipulas, but
having in their ftead a pair of recurved taper prickles, {pread-
ing from the bafe of each foutftalk. The dranches are alfo
befet with fhorter prickles. F/owers folitary, on fhort,
terminal, prickly, downy ftalks. Petals yellow, crimfon
at the bafe. Fruit globular, very prickly, crowned with
the fimple narrow fegments of the calyx. We with the
name fimplicifolia had been retained, as much the beft; and
if Juffieu had a€tually given it as a name, in his Gen. Pl. 452,
it might, by the right of priority, have fuperfeded Pallas’s
appellation.
z. R. lutea. Yellow Sweet-briar. Mill. Dié&. ed. 8.
n. rr. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Curt. Lond. t, 363.
Lawr. Rof. t.12. Lob. Ic. v. 2. 209. Ger. Em. 1267.
(R. lutea fimplex ; Bauh. Pin. 483. R. Eglanteria; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 703. R.chlorophylla unicolor; Ebrh. Beitr. v. 2,
jo. Arb. 156. R. feetida; Herm. Rof. 18. Allion.
Ped. v. 2. 138.)
6. bicolor. Auftrian Rofe, or Copper Sweet-briar ;
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t.1. Curt. Mag. t.1077. Lawr.
Rof. t.6. (R. fylvettris auttriaca, flore pheeniceo ; Hort.
Angl. 66. t. 18.)—Fruit globofe, fmooth, as well as the
flower-ftalk. Calyx and leaf-{talks minutely prickly.
Prickles of the branches {traight. Leaflets obovate, doubly
ferrated, rather glutinous, fmooth.— Native of Germany
and Italy ; but not, as Willdenow reports, of England. It
is however frequent here in old country gardens, in a pure
air, flowering in June. Gerarde cultivated this {pecies, and
even raifed it from feed, in order to refute a vulgar error, of
its being {ome common rofe, turned yellow by grafting on a
broom-ftock. The beautiful red or copper-coloured va-
riety, 6, is more difficult of cultivation, efpecially with
refpeé&t to air. The /femis bufhy, four or five feet high,
Leaves deciduous, of five or feven obovate, ftrongly fer-
rated, deep green, fhining leaflets, rather vifcid to the
touch, and exhaling a mott {weet and peculiar aromatic
odour, more grateful to us than that of the Common Sweet-
briar. Flowers copious, large, ufually of an uniform
golden yellow, with the {mell of bugs; but in the variety
the upper fide of the petals is of a tawny red, and the dif-
agreeable
ROSA.
agreeable odour is lefs. We have, under the article EGLan-
TERIA, given the hiftory of Linneus’s miftake, in con-
founding the prefent fpecies, firft with the Common Sweet-
briar, and then with the Double Oriental Yellow: Rofe,
(fee hereafter R. fulphurea and R. rubiginofa) ; as well as
our reafons for following the Hort. Kew., Willdenow, &c.
in thefe names. The fruit of R. dutea has never been feen or
heard of by us, in a itate of maturity.
3. R. fulphurea. Double Yellow Rofe. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 1. n. 2, ed. 2. 0.3. Willd. n. 3. Lawr. Rof.
t.77. (R. glaucophylla; Ehrh. Beitr. v. 2. 69. R. he-
mifpherica; Herm. Rof. 18. R. lutea multiplex ; Ger.
Em. 1267. Hort. Angl. 66. t. 18. R. lutea maxima,
flore pleno ; Hort. Eyit. vern. ord. 6. t.2. f. 4. R. flava,
pleno flore ; Cluf. Cur. Pot. 6.) —Fruit globote, fomewhat
prickly. Flower-ftalks {mooth. Stem with two fets of
copious ftraight prickles. Stipulas jagged. Leaflets obo-
vate, fimply ferrated, glaucous, {mooth. This fine and
fingular {pecies, {trangely confounded, by many botanifts,
with the lait, was received by Clufius from the Levant, but
its native country is not precifely known. It has been culti-
vated in England for near 200 years, and is perfeétly hardy
as to cold, but very impatient of low, confined, or {moky
fituations ; nor does it, inthe moit favourable, often expand
its copious and truly glorious flowers to advantage. We
have feen them in the greateft perfe€tion, on a poor gravelly
foil, expofed to eait winds, about outhoufes and hovels,
where no care was taken of the plant. The bufh is larger
than R. lutea, and evidently diltinguifhable by the pale
glaucous hue of its fmooth inodorous /eaves. The prickles
of the flem are of two kinds; fome twice as large as the
others. Flowers large and very double, without fcent, of
arich but delicate golden yellow ; their inner petals, when
perfect, fo profufely and elegantly crumpled, and fo brightly
tranfparent, that neither the ftru€ture, nor the colour, of
any other rofe, can give the flighteft idea of their beauty ;
much lefs has any artift, except perhaps Van Huyfum, in
one or two of his fineit pi€tures, done this flower tolerable
juttice. The foliage in Mifs Lawrance’s plate is much too
dark, and wants the glaucous pale afpe& which characterizes
the f{pecies. The flower is well drawn in the old Hortus
Eyttetenfis.
4. R. Bankfie. Lady Banks’s Rofe. Ait. n. 4.—
«‘ Smooth, naked, and without prickles. Fruit globofe.
Leaves ternate or pinnate, fhining. Stipulas fetaceous,
diftin&.’’? — Native of China, from whence it is faid to have
been brought; by Mr. W. Kerr, in 1807. It is marked,
by Mr Aiton, as a green-houfe /brub, blofloming in June
and July. We have feen neither {pecimen nor figure.
5- R. dlanda. Labrador, or Hudfon’s bay, Rofe. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 1. n. 3. ed. 2. n.5.. Willd. n. 4. Purth
pn. I. Lawr. Rof. t. 27.—Fruit globofe, fmooth. Adult
ftems, like the flower-italks, quite fmooth, and without
prickles. —Native of the moft northern parts of America,
on the eaft, as well as weit, coats, flowering there, as in
our gardens, from Mayto Auguit. Mr. Gordonis known
to have cultivated it in 1773, but the fpecies has not excited
general notice. The young branches, and their /eaf-falks,
bear copious, ftraight, red prickles, but they afterwards
become fmooth, naked, red and fhining. ‘The /eaflets are
ufually feven, oblong, or obovate, large, varying in breadth.
Stipulas broad and long, with glandular fpreading points.
Flowers folitary, moderately large, crimfon. Tube of the
calyx fhort, and almoft hemifpherical ; fegments long and
fimple, tapering gradually to a point.
6. R. cinnamomea. Cinnamon Rolfe. - Linn. Sp. Pl. 703.
Willd. n.5. Ait, n.6, Engl. Bot. t. 2388. Ger. Em,
Vor. XXX.
1268. Lawr. Rof. t.34. (R. fluvialis; Fl. Dan. t..$68.
Retz. Scandin. ed. 2. 120. R. majalis; Herm. Rof. 8.
Rofier printanier ; Reynier Mém. de la Suifle, v. 1. 222.)
@. R. collincola; Ehrh. Beitr. v. 2.70. Arb. age :
Fruit globofe, {mooth as well as the flower-ftalks. Stem
with occafional, fmall, twin prickles, below the ftipulas.
Footttalks fearcely prickly. Leaflets oblong, finely downy,
glaucous beneath.— Native of Germany, Switzerland,
Sweden, and Denmark ; firft obferved wild in England by
Mr. Salifbury, in the wood in Aketon pafture, near Ponte-
fraét, Yorkthire. In gardens the double variety is common.
This is one of our earlieft Rofes, flowering in May. The
bufhis rather tall, with brown or reddith twigs, fhining and
{mooth, except the {mall, and not univerfal, twin prickles,
under each ffipula. The leaves have a dull glaucous afpe,
and are ufually elliptic-oblong, unequally ferrated ; in
@, Ehrhart’s collincola, which our friend Dr. Afzelius is in-
clined to make a diftinét {pecies, they are broader and more
obtufe, but we can find no permanent {pecific mark. Still
lefs can we diitinguifh, even as a variety, the fluvialis of Fi.
Dan. The flowers are of a delicate purplifh blufh-colour,
at leaft fuch are the double ones, feen in gardens ; in which
we could never dete&t any of the cinnamon fcent, mentioned
by Bauhin, to juttify thename. The fruit of the wild kind
is {mall, globofe, fcarlet. Segments of the calyx fimple,
long, and flender, for the moft part flightly {patulate at the
end, but not invariably fo. The bufh, when young, is
fometimes very prickly.
7. R. kamtfchatica. Kamtfchatka Rofe. Venten. Hort.
Cels. t. 67, not 68. Ait. n. 7.—Fruit globofe, fmooth as
well as the flower-ftalks. Stem downy, very prickly. Leaf-
ftalks fomewhat prickly. Leaflets obovate, abrupt.—
Native of Kamtfchatka.—Sent to Kew by M. Cels, from
his garden at Paris, in 1802; but it was, long before, cul-
tivated in Chelfea garden, frem whence we received a fpe-
cimen in 1791. Every part is larger than the preceding.
The /lem is downy, and armed with numerous, fecattered,
ftraight, pale, flender prickles ; fome of which are alfo found
on the leaf-ftalks. Leaflets ufually feven, of a pale glancous
green, veiny and rugged ; fomewhat downy beneath ;
coarfely ferrated, abrupt and emarginate. Stipulas obovate,
dilated, obtufe, veiny and downy. Flowers folitary, pur-
plifh rofe-coloured, fragrant. Segments of the ca/yx fimple,
entire, fpatulate at the ends. Fruit {mall, globofe, red.
Perhaps this {pecies ought to have been introduced between
blanda and cinnamomea.
8. R. arvenfis. White Dog Rofe. Hudf. Ang]. ed. 1. 192.
Linn. Mant. 2. 245. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n.8. Fl. Brit. n. 2.
Engl. Bot. t. 188. Lawr. Rof. t. 86. (R. fylveftris ;
Herm. Rof. 10. R. Herporhodon ; Ehrh. Beitr. v. 2. 71.
R. ferpens; Ehrh. Arb. 35. R. fylveftris folio glabro,
flore plane albo ; Bauh. Hitt. v. 2. 44.)—Fruit nearly glo-
bofe, {mooth. Flower-{talks glandular, fomewhat cymofe.
Prickles of the ftem and leaf-ftalks hooked. Styles elon-
gated, combined.—Native of England, Germany, and Swit-
zerland. It often decorates, in profufion, the hedges and
thickets of the gravelly counties of England, flowering in
June and July, when its long, trailing, purplifh-brown twigs,
and copious milk-white bloffoms, are highly ornamental.
We believe this fpecies is unknown in Sweden and Den-
mark ; for the t. 398 of Fl. Dan. cited by Linnzus, whom
Willdenow like Hudfon copies, is moft evidently, as it calls
itfelf, /pinofiffima. There is a glaucous hue on the youn
Shoots, as well as on the backs of the leaflets, which are moftly
five, oval, pointed, fmooth, with fharp unequal ferratures.
Stipulas linear, pointed. Flower-flalks rough with glandular
brittles, not prickly. Bafe of the calyx {mooth and ovate,
4A but
ROSA.
but the fruit is globofe, of a deep red, crowned with the
elongated /fy/es, {o combined as to feem one.
9. R. /pinofifima. Burnet Rofe. Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 1.
491. ed. 2.705? Willd.n.8. Ait.n.g. Fi. Brit. no. 1.
Engl. Bot. t. 187. Fl. Dan. t. 398. Lawr. Rof. t. 48 and
t.78. Ehrh. Arb. 85. (R. pimpinellifolia ; Linn. Sytt. Nat.
ed. 10.1062. Sp. Pl. 703. R.n. 1106; Hall. Hitt. v. 2.
4o. R. campeftris fpinofiflima, flore albo odoro; Bauh.
Pin. 483. R. campeftris odora; Cluf. Pan. 111. R.
campeitris odorato flore; Cluf. Hilt. 116. R. pimpinelle
folio; Ger. Em. 1270.)—Fruit globofe, {mooth as well as
the flower-ftalks. Prickles of the {tem very numerous,
ftraight and fetaceous. Leaflets roundifh, {mooth. Calyx
of the fruit reflexed.—Native of fandy downs near the fea,
as well as the borders of fields, and mountains, in various
parts of Europe; not uncommon in Britain, flowering in
July.—This is a bufh of humble growth, feldom more than
two or three feet high, and much branched. The /fem is
copioufly clothed with innumerable, ftraight, crowded,
needle-like, pale prickles. The /eaf-/talks are occafionally
prickly. Leaflets feven or nine, roundifh, or flightly ellip-
tical, obtufe, ferrated, fmall, even and {mooth, a httle glau-
cous, not fhining. F/ower-flalks terminal, folitary, fingle-
flowered, rather {welling upwards, always, as far as we have
feen, fmooth and naked. Germen deprefled, and nearly
hemifpherical. Segments of the calyx tapering, {mooth, and
entire. Flowers with a light pleafant fcent, ufually cream-
coloured, yellow in the middle ; but Mifs Lawrance’s t. 78
reprefents the red variegated variety, firft defcribed by Sib-
bald in his Scotia Iluftrata, p. 2. 46. t. 2, under the name
of R. Ciphiana. he fruit is much larger than the leaflets,
globofe, dark purple, and finally quite black, with large
Jeeds, and crowned with the reflexed calyx. We feel no
{cruple in referring the pimpinellifolia of Linnzus to his /pi-
nofiffima, of which it is not even a variety ; but we cannot
take into confideration all the different things which various
authors have fuppofed one or other of thefe fpecies. We
fhall notice pimpinellifolia of Villars under alpina. Mis
Lawrance’s t. 15 and t. 19, are doubtful, on many accounts.
The former indeed anfwers to our next {pecies. Her t. 63
is furely different from both. The fynonyms of old writers,
regarding this Rofe, are very puzzling, nor have they ever
been well explained. The figure in Clufius’s Stirp. Pannon.
114, belongs in truth to /pinofi/fima, as he gives it in his Hif-
toria ; while his 4th Role, or xaaijodov of the former work,
to which that figure feems annexed, is pumila of Jacquin.
His other cut, at p. 111, more refembles cinnamomea, which
is often very prickly the firft feafon, as-profeffor Swartz re-
- marks. Our learned correfpondent juft named likewife fug-
geits that the cinnamomea is one of various things which Lin-
nzusin EF], Suec. confounded under the name of /pinofiffima.
Haller has certainly not adverted to all the Rofes known to
be found in Switzerland, but his n. 1106’ can be no other
than our /pinofiffima.
10. R. rubella. Red-fruited Dwarf Rofe. Sm. Engl.
Bot.t. 2521. (R.{pinofifiima y ; Fl. Brit. 537? @; Lawr.
Rof. t. 15.)—Fruit globofe, fomewhat briftly. Flower-
ftalks briltly. Prickles of the {tem very numerous, ftraight,
and fetaceous. Leaflets elliptical, fmooth. Calyx cf the
fruit inflesed.—Gathered near Newcaftle, by Mr. Winch.
We have alfo fpecimens from Mr. James Backhoufe, who has
jutt informed us that he finds the inflexed calyx, after flower-
ing, an invariable charaéter of this {pecies, that of the fore-
going being always reflexed. The rough flower-ftalks are
lefs ‘unalterable, though tolerably conftant. The fcarlet
Jruit isa very remarkable difference. The flowers are ele-
gantly tinged with red. My. Backhoufe thinks this rather
the taller-growing fhrub of the two, and he obferves that
the /eaves fold together, or /lzep, at night. We know not
whether this is the cafe with /pinofiffima.
11. R. mvoluta. Dr. Walker’s Rofe. Fl. Brit. 1398.
Engl. Bot. t. 2068. Ait. n. 10.—Fruit globofe, very prickly
as well as the flower-ftalks, Prickles of the {tem very nu-
merous, and nearly ftraight. Petals involute and imperfeGly
expanded. Leaflets elliptical, hairy beneath.— Native of the
Hebrides, where it was gathered by the Rev. Dr. Walker,
and Mr. J. Mackay.—The prefent f{pecies has the general
habit, and very prickly /lem, of the two laft. But the
flowerftalks, leaf-falks, and young fruit, are all extremely
prickly, the latter being more difpofed to be ovate than
deprefled. The leaflets are more elliptical, their under fide
hairy, efpecially the ribs. Segments of the calyx long,
fimple, pomted, rough externally with glandular prickles.
Petals pale bluth, with deeper tints here and there, concave
and involute, feldom more than half expanded. Ripe fruit
unknown to us.
12. R. parviflora. Small American Rofe. Ehrh. Beitr.
v. 4.21. Willd n. 9. Purfh n. 2. (R. caroliniana ;
Mich. Boreal-Amer. v. 1.,295. R. carolina; Sm. Inf. of
Georgia, v. I. 49. t. 25.) —Fruit globofe, flightly depreffed,
briftly as well as the flower-ftalks and calyx. Leaf-ftalks
downy, fomewhat’ prickly. Prickles in pairs under the
ftipulas, ftraight. Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, fimply fer-
rated, {mooth. Flowers folitary or in pairs.—*¢ Native of
woods on the fides of hills, from New York to Carolina,
flowering in June and July. About two feet high. There
are a number of varieties of this fpecies.”” Pur/b. Our
fpecimens, fent by the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, anfwer well
to the figure above cited, and have, like that, folitary
flowers, of a pale pink hue. The /fem 1s flender and fmooth,
except a pair of awl-fhaped, flender, ftraight prickles under
each ftipula. Leaflets five, elegantly elliptical ; their com-
mon fla/é reddifh, channelled, prickly, fomewhat downy, or
hairy. The Rofe in Dill. Elth. t. 245. f. 316, is exa@ly
our’s, though quoted by authors for the /ucida.
13. R. nitida. Polifhed American Rofe. ‘Willd. Enum.
544.” Purfh n. 3.— Fruit globofe. Calyx, flower-ftalks,
and branches hifpid. Leaf-italks rather downy, without
prickles. Leaflets oblong-lanceolate, polifhed and {mooth
on both fides.”,—In Pennfylvania and Virginia, flowering
from June to Augutt. Petals red, obcordate. Leaflets
feven. Purfh, We have not met with any fpecimen or
figure. é
Brin R. lucida. Shining American Rofe. Ehrh. Beitr.
v. 4.22. Arb. 76. Willd. n.10. Purfh n. 43; excluding
the fynonym of Dillenius. (R. alpina 6; Ait. n. 27.
Lawr. Rof. t..75.)—Fruit globofe, depreffed, rather hifpid
as well as the flower-ftalks. Leaf-ftalks fomewhat prickly,
not downy. Prickles ufually in pairs under the ftipulas,
ftraight. Leaflets ovato-lanceolate, bluntifh, coarfely fer-
rated, very fmooth, fhining. Corymbs of few flowers.—
On the borders of fwamps, from New York to Carolina,
flowermg in July and Auguft. From four to fix feet high.
Purfh. By Ehrhart’s fpecimen, the only one we have feen,
it evidently appears, that the R. carolina fragrans, foliis
mediotents ferratis; Dill. Elth. 325. t. 245. f. 316, is very
erroneoufly referred by Willdenow and Purfh to the prefent
fpecies; belonging, if we are right in what we take for parvi-
flora, n. 12, indubitably to that plant. The prefent has feven
leaflets, of a larger fize and firmer texture. Stipulary prickles
fhorter, thicker, not always prefent. /oqwers corymbofe,
four or five together. If we are right in Mifs Lawrance’s
figure, this {pecies, as well as parviflora, ought to be placed
on the lift of our garden plants.
1s KR.
ROSA.
15. R. gemella. Twin-flowered American Rofe. ‘ Willd.
Enum. 544.”’ Purfh n. 5.—Fruit gai {mooth as well
as the flower-ftalks.. Flowers moitly in pairs. Leaflets
elliptic-oblong, opaque ; their veins hairy beneath. Leaf-
ftalksdowny. Prickles in pairs under the ftipulas, hooked.
—On dry funny hills, from New England to Carolina,
flowering in July and Auguit. A low /brub, with large
red flowers. Purfh. Specimens in the herbarium of Lin-
nzus, referred by him to R. carolina, have flender branches,
quite {mooth, and fomewhat glaucous. Leaflets feven,
{maller, thinner, and more acutely ferrated than the lait ;
rather glaucous and downy beneath; their veins as if
fringed. Leaf-ftalks and ftipulas finely downy and hoary.
Flowers terminal, in pairs, on fhort {mooth /lalks, enveloped
in large downy braéeas. Germen exattly globular, quite
fmooth and naked. Segments of the ca/yx {mooth at the
bafe, downy at the edges and upper part, fimple ; fpatulate
at the end.
16. R. Lyonit. Lyon’s American Rofe. Purfh n. 6.—
“ Fruit nearly globofe, fmoothifh. Flower-ftalks hifpid,
moftly ternate. Leaf-ftalks rather prickly. Stem with itraight
{cattered prickles, not hairy. Leaflets ovate-oblong, acute,
ferrated ; fmoothifh above; downy beneath: the upper
leaves fimple. Stipulas linear. Segments of the calyx
downy, linear, fcarcely laciniated.’’—Gathered by Mr. Lyon
in Teneflee, North America, flowering in July. The /eaf-
lets are three or five, {mall, with coloured veins. Flowers
pale red. Purfh.
17. R. fetigera. Fringe-cupped American Rofe. Mich.
Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 295. Purfh n. 7.—* Fruit globofe.
Stalks and ribs of the leaves prickly. Branches not hairy ;
their prickles in pairs or feattered. Leaflets pointed, fmooth.
Segments of the calyx fringed with briitles.””—In {wamps of
Virginia and Lower Carolina, flowering in June and July.
From five to eight feet high. Zeaffets three or five. Pur/h.
18. R. carolina. Carolina Rofe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 703,
omitting the reference to Dillenius. Willd. n. 11. Ait.
n. tr. Purfhn. 8. Lawr. Rof. t. 24. t. 3.t.54; alfo per-
haps t. 68, and t. 66; fcarcely t. 36. (R. corymbofa;
Ehrh. Beitr. v. 4. 21.)—Fruit globofe, brittly as well as the
flower-italks. Leaf-ftalks hairy, fomewhat prickly. Stem
fmooth. Stipulary prickles flightly hooked. Leaflets el-
liptic-lanceolate, acute, finely ferrated ; downy and glaucous
beneath. Flowers corymbofe.—In fwamps, and on the
banks of ponds, from New England to Virginia, flowering
in June and July. Purth fays, “* there are a great many
varieties of this fpecies.”? So little, however, have thefe
been attended to, that five or fix of thofe fpecies which we have
lait defcribed have, by Linnzus and others, been ufually
referred to R. carolina. The true carolina common in our
fhrubberies, flowering in June and July, is well diftinguifhed
by the above characters, firft peinted out by the accurate
and obferving Ehrhart. This /brud is five or fix feet. high,
bufhy, but ereét, with red, fmooth, a little glaucous, twigs.
fosict large, more copioufly and minutely ferrated than
in lucida, n. 14, which this {pecies, at firft fight, moit re-
_fembles ; but they differ alfo from that in their glaucous
and downy under fide, as well as in having a fine taper
poe The flowers are more numerous in each corymb,
arge, of a full crimfon, The Penfylvanian Rofe of the
gardens, figured by Mifs Lawrance, t. 68, and t. 66, differs
in fome refpeéts from the common carolina. Its leaflets are
more coarfely and fharply ferrated; pale, but not glaucous
nor downy, beneath. lowers {maller and paler; in the
double variety peculiarly beautiful, moft of the outer petals
being of a light flefh-colour, the central ones involute of
tufted, of a rich crimfon.
19. R. rubifolia. Bramble-leaved Rofe. Ait. n. 12.
Purfh n. 9.—* Fruit globofe, rather hifpid as well as the
flower-ftalks. Calyx unexpanded, pointlefs. ‘Leaves ter-
nate; downy beneath. Leaf-ftalks glandular and prickly.
Stem with fomewhat hooked, ftipulary and {cattered,
prickles, not hairy. Flowers corymbofe.’?—Difcovered in
North America, by the late Mr. Francis Maifon, who
fent it to Kew in 1800. It is a hardy /brub, flowering
in June and July, but has not yet fallen under our ob-
fervation.
20. R. villofa. Apple Rofe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 704. Willd.
n.12. Ait. n. 13. Fi. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 583.
Lawr. Rof. t. 33, and t.29. (R. pomifera major; Park.
Parad. 418. f. 7.)—Fruit globofe, briftly as well as the
flower-ftalks. Prickles of the ftem nearly itraight. Leaflets
elliptic-oblong, downy on both fides. Segments of the
calyx the length of the ripe fruit.—Native of mountainous
woods and thickets, in the north of Europe. Plentiful in
Weitmoreland, Cumberland, and the north of Yorkfhire,
flowering in June. It is often cultivated in fhrubberies
for the fake of the beauty of its large fcarlet briftly fruit,
above an inch in diameter. The double-flowered variety,
when luxuriant, is one of our handfomeit flowering fhrubs.
Mifs Lawrance’s figures of this {pecies are not happy. The
bufh is from four to fix feet high, with itrong, {traight,
{eattered prickles. Leaflets five or feven, large, of a pecu-
liar elliptic-oblong fhape, fomewhat rounded at the end,
doubly ferrated and glandular at the edges, finely downy
and hoary on both fides, aromatic or pungent, in fome de-
gree, when rubbed. Flowers one or two at the end of
each branch, lightly fcented, of a fine pale pink. Fruit at
every period armed with ftrong thorns, and crowned when
ripe with the hifpid, involute, twifted calyx, which then
hardly exceeds it in length.
21. R. mollis. Soft-leaved Round-fruited Rofe. Sm.
Engl. Bot. t. 2459. (R. villofa@; Fi. Brit. 538. Relh.
Cant. 193. R. fylveitris, folio molliter hirfuto, frué@tu
rotundo glabro, calyce et pediculo hifpidis; Dill. in Raii
Syn. 478.)—Fruit globofe, half as long as the fegments
of the calyx, briftly as well as the flower-ftalks. Prickles
of the ftem ftraight. Leaflets elliptic-ovate, downy on
both fides.—Native of bufhy places, in England, Scotland,
and Wales, flowering in June or July. A much more
humble fhrub than the vil/ofa; the leaflets lefs oblong, and
more ovate ; petals of a deeper red; ripe fruit much {maller,
purplifh, not fcarlet, its length or diameter not above half
the length of the permanent calyx, one fegment of which,
and no more, is often very diftin@tly pinnated. The Rev.
H. Davies has found the fruit variable in Anglefea, from
perfe&t fmoothnefs, as mentioned by Dillenius, to every
degree of roughnefs. The prickles of the fem vary in fize,
and are frequently hooked.
22. R. glutinofa. Clammy Cretan Rofe. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 348. Fl. Gree. t. 482, unpublifhed.
(R. cretica montana, foliis fubrotundis glutinofis et villofis ;
Tourn. Cor. 43. R. pumila alpina, pimpinelle exaéte
foliis fparfis, {pinis incurvis, aquaté purpurea; Cupan.
Panphyt. ed. 1. v. 1. t. 61.)—Fruit globofe, hifpid as
well as the flower-ftalks. Prickles of the {tem copious,
hooked. Leaflets roundifh ; downy and glandular on both
fides.—Native of the Sphaciote mountains of Crete, and,
from Cupani’s fynonym, of the mountains of Sicily. By
a f{pecimen fent to Linneus, the plant feems to have beer
cultivated in the French gardens, but we know it not in
England. The fem is low, bufhy, with numerous ftoyt
branches, armed with many, feattered, ftrong, hooked
prickles. Leaflets feven, roundifh and obtufe, ftrongly and
4A 2 often
ROSA.
often doubly ferrated ; downy, fomewhat hoary, glandular
and vifcid on both fides, as are alfo the leaf-flalks. Flowers
fmall, palesbluth, terminal, folitary, on fhort, briltly, vifcid
fialks. Fruit globofe, fearlet, covered with rigid glandular-
pointed briftles, its diameter full half an inch, which nearly
equals the length of the permanent, upright, converging,
hifpid calyx.
23. R. hibernica. Irith Rofe. Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2196.
Ait. n. 14.—Fruit nearly globofe, {mooth as well as the
flower-ftalks. Prickles of the ftem flightly hooked. Leaf-
lets elliptical, {mooth; their ribs hairy beneath.—Dif-
covered by John Templeton, efq. in the county of Down,
about Belfaft harbour, where it grows abundantly, flower-
ing from the early part of June, till the middle of Novem-
ber. The difcoverer thus became entitled to the liberal
premium of fifty pounds, offered by the patrons of botany
at Dublin, for the deteétion of any new Irifh plant. The
above characters readily diftinguifh this {pecies, from every
other defcribed rofe. The fem is fix feet high, ereét,
much branched, and very prickly. Leaflets broadly ovate,
deeply and acutely ferrated, {mooth, except the back. of
their ribs and veins, which are hairy. Sometimes a few.
eoarfe hairs oceur on the upper furface. Flower-flalks
often folitary, fometimes two or three together. Petals
pale blufh-coloured. fruit {carlet, fmooth, accurately
globofe when young, but in ripening fometimes elongated
at the fummit, fo as to become {lightly ovate.
This is not the only new Irifh Rofe that has been dif-
covered of late; Dr. Taylor having favoured us with in-
complete {pecimens of what will certainly prove two or three
others, hitherto nondefcript ; one of them with remarkably
large, twin, hooked, ftipulary prickles, unlike any other
fpecies with which we are acquainted.
24. R. finica. Three-leaved Chinefe Rofe. Linn. Sytt.
Veg. ed. 13.394. Ait.n. 15.—* Fruit nearly globofe, {mooth.
Flower-ftalks prickly, hifpid. Stem and leaf-{talks prickly.
Segments of the calyx lanceolate, fomewhat ftalked.”?—
Native of China. Cultivated by Miller in 1759. A hardy
fhrub, flowering from May to July. Aiton. We adopt
this entirely on the authority of the Hortus Kewenfis, hav-
ing never feen the garden plant ; nor have wé any authentic
{pecimen to prove what R. finica of Linnzus really is; he
having mentioned it only, under the above characters, in
his Sy/fema Vegetabilium. There occurs in his herbarium, a
fpecimen from the Upfal garden, marked China, which
anfwers to the above chara¢ters; efpecially in the para-
doxical account of the ftalked leaves, or fegments of the
calyx, they being here in a deformed or montftrous ftate.
But the leaflets are five, not three, as Mr. Aiton’s Englifh
name implies; and the very young fruit, though “ nearly
globofe,”’? has all the appearance of being truly oval when
perfectly formed. Indeed we believe this fpecimen to be
not eflentially different from R. indica, the Pale China Rofe,
now fo common in gardens.
25. R. rugo/a. Rugofe Japan Rofe. Thunb. Jap. 213.
Willd. n. 13.— Fruit globofe, fmooth. Flower-ftalks,
leaf-ftalks, and ftem prickly. Leaflets obtufe with a point,
rugofe, downy beneath.’?—Native of Miaco in Japan,
flowering in May and June, and known by the name of
Ramanas.—Svem fhrubby. Branches fomewhat downy,
armed with larger and fmaller, very denfe, {preading, white
prickles. Leaflets nine, an inch tong, ovate, blunt, with
a point, ferrated; green and rugofe above; downy, veiny
and rugofe beneath; their common flalk downy, befet with
{cattered, {preading, white prickles. Floqwers folitary, on
downy falks, furnifhed alfo with copious, very flender,
fpreading, white prickles. Cafyx downy within; hairy
without. Young fruit globofe, deftitute of prickles or
pubefcence. Thunberg.
26. R. provincialis. Provins: Rofe. Mill. Di&. ed. 8.
n. 18. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. n. 11. ed. 2. n. 16.
Willd. n. 14. Lawr. Rof. t. 8 t. 22. t. 1. t. 4. te 43.
t. 21.
f. R. mufcofa; Ait. n. 25. Willd. n. 22. - Curt.
Mag. t. 69. Lawr. Rof. t. 14. (R. rubra plena fpino-
fiffima, pedunculo mufcofo; Mill. Ic. 148. t. 221. f. 1.
R. provincialis fpinofiflima, pedunculo mufcofo; Hort.
Angl. 66. t. 18.)
y» Leaves and flowers much {maller. Rofe de Meaux,
&c.; Lawr. Rof. t. 31. t. 50. t. 71. Curt. Mag. t. 407.
To which are moft akin Lawr. Rof. t. 88 and t. 76;
mere evanefcent varieties.
Fruit roundifh. Flower-ftalks and leaf-ftalks hifpid.
Prickles of the branches fcattered, fomewhat hooked.
Leaflets roundifh-ovate; hairy beneath; with glandular
ferratures.—Native of the fouth of Europe; at leaft it is
fo confidered ; though a plant too generally cultivated for
any thing to be averred on this fubjeét. With us it is hardy,
flowering in June and July. Mot of the varieties are in-
creafed by roots or layers, and remain tolerably diftin& ;
the different forms of variety y are leaft permanent. Stems
ufually three or four feet high, ftraight, very prickly.
Leaflets five, of a rounded bluntifh figure, veiny and rugofe.
Stipulas linear-lanceolate, acute, undivided; moft entire in
their lower part. F/owers two or three, or more, at the
top of each branch, large, delightfully fragrant, of that
peculiar bright crimfon hue popularly termed a rofe-colour,
with broad brown ftains on the backs of the outer fetals,
which are permanent in the otherwife white variety, repre-
fented in Mifs Lawrance’s t. 4. In all our cultivated va-
rieties the fowers are double, with flight remains of /lamens
or ftyles ; 1o that the fruit never ripens. We have however
feen, in the ample collef&ion of rofes at Meflrs. Lee and
Kennedy’s, perfectly fingle flowers of the Mofs Rofe,
which thofe experienced cultivators have proved to be only
a variety of the Common Provins Rofe. Indeed we have
been told in Italy, that this variety lofes its moflinefs,
almoft immediately, in that climate.
27. R. ferox. Hedge-hog Rofe.
Rof. t. 42.—Fruit globofe, hifpid. Leaflets elliptic-
oblong, rugofe, four pair with an odd one. Stem, leaf-
ftalks, and young branches, very denfely {pinous.—Native
of mount Caucafus. Introduced about 1796, by Lee and
Kennedy. Hardy, flowering from June to Auguit.—A
flout bufhy /arub, very remarkable for its copious, long,
ftraight prickles. The /eaflets are recurved, convex, and
rugofe, of a glaucous hue. FYowers large, crimfon, on
fhort ftalks.
Seétion 2. Fruit ovate, or oblong.
28. R. gallica. Red Officinal Rofe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 704.
Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 19. Ehrh. Off. 324. Woodv.
Med. Bot. t. 141. Lawr. Rof. t. 16. t. 13. t. 57. t. 75
and t.49. (R.rubra; Ger. Em. 1261. Bauh. Pin. 481.
Rofa; Matth. Valgr. v. x. 168. R. milefia rubra, flore —
fimplici; Hort. Eyft. vern. ord. 6. t. 6. f. 3. R. pre-
neftina variegata; ibid. t. 2. £2. Mill. Ic. 148. t. 221.
Ait. n. 17. . Lawr.
£2.
B. R. centifolia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 704. Willd. n. 15.
Ait. n.18. Lawr. Rof. t. 11. t. go. t. 85. t. 44. t. 51.
t. 2. t. 35. t. 46. t. 67. t. 20. t. 5g. t. 47. t. $5. t. 39.
t. 73. t. 82. t. 87. t. 79. t. 89. (R. centifolia rubra ;
Hort. Eytt. vern. ord. 6. t.2. f. 1. R. hollandica, five
batava; Ger. Em. 1262.
Fruit ovate, hifpid as well as the flower-ftalks. Stem
hifpid
ROSA.
hifpid and finely prickly. Leaflets ovate ; hairy beneath.
Calyx half-pinnate.—Native of the fouthern parts of Eu-
rope. This, in its nearly fingle ftate, is the Rofe always
ufed medicinally, for conferve, tincture, &c. on account of
the richer colour, and more aftringent quality, of its petals.
Its numerous varieties are common in gardens throughout
Europe, blooming in June and July. We perfeétly agree
with our friend Mr. Lee of Hammerfmith, that the R. cen-
tifolia of authors, of which fo many trifling varieties are in-
dicated above, is itfelf merely a variety of the gallica.
This a comparifon of their eaves will readily prove. The
roughnefs of their /eaf-/alks is undoubtedly variable. R.
gallica in its natural itate, as it is faid to be in the fouth of
France, and as we fee it ufually in country gardens and
fhrubberies, is f{carcely three feet high, throwing up, from
its creeping roots, many /lems, armed with fine, difperfed,
and not numerous, ftraight, fhort prtckles. Leaflets five,
large, ovate, doubly ferrated, overlapping each other at
their heart-fhaped bafe; the under fide pale, downy or
hairy, often whitifh; the upper fmooth, of a fine, rather
fhining, green. Stipulas linear-lanceolate, pointed, entire,
downy and glandular. Flowers of a few large {preading
petals, whofe colour is a peculiarly rich and deep crimfon,
their bafe, like the /Jamens, of a fine golden yellow. Seg-
ments of the ca/yx downy, broad at the bafe, fome of them
fringed at the keel or margin, with a row of linear-lanceo-
ee, Ora asif pinnate. Fruit globular, pale {carlet, be-
coming nearly fmooth as it ripens. The red and white
parti-coloured variety, or Rofa mundi, Mifs Lawrance’s
t. 13, differs only in colour. This is often termed the York
and Lancafter Rofe. The Giant Rofe, her t. 49, is gi-
gantic in fize and height, but paler in colour. The Velvet
Rofe, hert. 51 and t. 2, Hort. Angl. t. 18, is of fo very
dark a colour, at leaft thofe flowers which firft expand, that
fome perfons take the liberty of calling it black, and con-
firm the mifnomer by a round affertion of its being pro-
duced by grafting on a black-currant bufh. The innume-
rable varieties of the centéfolia differ chiefly in the difpofition
of their richly multiplied, though diminifhed, petals, and
are, many of them, very beautiful from their fullnefs, and
precife neatnefs of figure ; their colours are different fhades
of crimfon, verging to pink, or to a blueifh-purple.
29. R. damafcena. Damafk Rofe. Mill. Di&. ed. 8.
n.15. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 20. Lob. Ic. v. 2. 206.
Lawr. Rof. t. 38. t. 52. t. 10. t. 5. t. 17. t. 70. t. 58.
t.¥18. t. 83. t. 80, and t. 9o.—Fruit ovate, turgid,
hifpid as well as the flower-ftalks. Stem and leaf-
ftalks with hooked prickles. Leaflets ovate, pointed,
hoary ; villous beneath. Calyx _half-pinnate.—Native
of [the fouth of Europe, and cultivated, time out of
mind, in our gardens, flowering in June ’and July. The
{pecific name feems to have originated with Lobel, and indi-
cates that this fpecies of Rofe came from Damafcus. Per-
haps it may be what is reported to have been brought from
Syria by a Comte de Brie, at his return from the crufades, of
which the abbé Rozier {peaks in his Cours complet d’ Agri-
culture ; though that author’s defcription accords with the
common R. gallica, and not with our dama/cena, and he calls
it moreover R. provincialis. We have feen an extra& only
from his work, communicated by a learned friend, to whom
we, as well as Mr. Aiton, are indebted for the more correé&
orthography of Provins, inftead of Provence, Rofe, for our
n. 26, Wecite Rozier to fhew that fome particular fort of
Rofe was brought from Syria to France; but whether it
might be our damafcena, or the mofchata hereafter men-
tioned, which many old authors have termed damajfcena, and
which is certainly an oriental Rofe; we have not materials
even to form a conjecture. ‘The Damafk Rofe is prover-
bially fweet, nor can any be more fo than the fpecies now
under our confideration, which forms a bufh four or five feet
high. The /eaves are diftinguifhed, at firft fight, by a
hoary afpe&t, and more downy furface, than the provincialis
or gallica, as well as by the longer, more pointed, fhape of
their /eaflets. The prickles of the /lem are broader, and
hooked. F/owers more copious, with more flender and
hoary fralks, as well as calyx. Their ufual colour is a deli-
cate uniform pink, verging rather towards purple than {car-
let, and their fragrance 1s delicioufly {weet as well as lafting.
The name of York and Lancafter Rofe, given to a very
cafual and tranfient variety of this, Lawr. t. 10, fome of
whofe petals are white, others blufh-coloured, appears much
more fuitable to the red and white R. gallica.
30. R. fempervirens. Evergreen Rofe. Linn. Sp. Pl.
704. Willd. n. 18. Ait. wn. 21. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 1. 348. Fl. Grec. t. 483, unpublifhed.
Lawr. Rof. t. 45. Cluf. Exot. append. alt. — Dill.
Elth. 326. t. 246. (R. mofchata fempervirens; Tourn.
Inft. 637.)—Fruit ovate, hifpid as weil as the calyx
and flower-ftalks. Stem and leaf-ttalks with hooked
prickles. Leaflets ovate, pointed, fmooth and fhining.
Flowers fomewhat umbellate. Braéteas lanceolate, re-
curved.—Native of Germany, in hedges near Tubingen.
Roth. Dr. Sibthorp found it very frequent in the
hedges of Greece, and the neighbouring iflands, and ju-
dicioufly confidered it as the genuine xu»cBa1e of Diofco-
rides, with whofe rather ample defcription it exaGtly agrees.
The reader may fee in John Bauhin’s Hitt. v. 2. 33, what
uncertainty has enveloped this fubje&. This Rofe has been
cultivated about two hundred years, or perhaps longer, in
England, being, on account of its fingularly luxuriant and
rapid growth, as well as the beauty of its fhining evergreen
leaves, very fit for covering tall buildings, as well as for
making an impervious hedge or trellis. The flowers more-
over are beautiful, fweet, of a delicate white, and plentiful
whenever they appear at all, lafting through June, July, and
Augutft ; but we have, like Clufius, found this fhrub little
difpofed to bloffom. Its general afpe&, both in Jaf and
flower, is moft like our wild R. arvenfis,n. 8; but the ovate
fruit, yellow when: ripe, and the want of a glaucous hue
about the foliage, flower-flalks or buds, are, among other
things, fufficient marks of difference.
31. R. Jevigata. Climbing American Rofe.
Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 295. Purfh n. 10.—* Fruit ovate,
very denfely hifpid. Segments of the calyx nearly entire.
Prickles in pairs, recurved. Leaf-ftalks flightly prickly.
Leaflets lanceolate-oval, almoft riblefs, polifhed. Sti-
pulas narrow, with awl-fhaped points.””—Found in the
fhady woods of Georgia, North America, climbing to a
great height. An evergreen /hrub. Leaflets three or five.
Tube of the calyx clothed with long and flender /pines.
Purfh, Michaux.
32. R. pumila. Dwarf Auftrian Rofe. Cluf. Hift. 117.
Linn. Suppl. 262. Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 22. Jacq.
Auftr. v. 2. 59. t. 198. (R. auftriaca ; Crantz Fafe. 2. 36:)
—Fruit obovate, hifpid as well as the flower-italks. Leaf-
ftalks and ftem with ftraightifh prickles. Leaflets elliptical,
glaucous beneath; their ferratures glandular.—Common ia
Auftria, on dry grafly hills, efpecially about woods and
thickets, flowering in May and June. Jacquin. Root
creeping. Stems twelve or eighteen inches high, ere&, fimple,
or flightly branched, befet, in the upper part chiefly, with
copious, fmall, flender, nearly ftraight prickles. Leaflets
five, fometimes but three, drooping, of a roundifh-ellipti-
cal fhape, with double glandular ferratures ; {mooth and
green
Mich.
ROSA.
green above ; paler, glaucous, and fometimes downy, be-
neath. Flowers folitary, rather large, crimfon; pale or
whitith in the centre ; very {weet-fcented. Segments of the
calyx partly pinnate, downy within and without. Fruit
obovate, or pear-fhaped, fcarlet, more or lefs hifpid, its
pulp fweet and agreeable.—We are much inclined to refer
this, as a variety, to_R. gallica, n. 28; at leaft, if a more
natural arrangement of the fpecies were attempted, they
ought to ftand next to each other. Schleicher has found
the pumila in Switzerland, nor can we doubt its being Hal-
ler’s n. 1104, though Jacquin fays the contrary, on the
authority of a dried fpecimen, of what authority we know
not. Haller, in his Hiforia, adopted his n. 1104 from
other authors, nor did he there attempt a {pecific chara¢ter ;
but in his Nomenclator, he has given one which precifely an-
fwersto Jacquin’s plant.
33. R. turbinata. Frankfort Rofe. Ait. ed. 1. n. 17.
ed. 2.n. 23. Willd.n. 20. Lawr. Rof. t. 69, marked 63.
(R. campanulata; Ehrh. Beitr. v. 6. 97. R. inapertis flo-
ribus, alabaftro craffiore, francofurtenfis quibufdam ; Tourn.
Inf. 639. R. francofurtenfis; Park. Parad. 414. t. 415.
f. 3.)—Fruit turbinate, hairy as well as the flower-ftalks.
Leaf-ttalks and leaflets villous. Prickles fcattered, hooked.
—The native country of this Rofe is not known; but the
fhrub has been cultivated in gardens, ever fince the days
of Parkinfon, from June to Augult. There is an ap-
pearance of monftrofity about the calyx, whofe tube is bell-
fhaped, thick, and dilated at the top ; the fesments how-
ever are, moft of them, quite fimple and entire. Petals
large, crimfon. Leaves broad, villous.
34. R. rudiginofa. Common Sweet-briar, or Eglantine.
Linn. Mant. 2. 564. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 24. FI.
Brit.n.5. Engl. Bot. t.991.' Jacq. Auftr. t. 50.
Beitr v. 4.22. Arb. 75. Lawr. Rof.t..56. t. 65. t. 72.
t. 41. t.61.t. 74. (R. eglanteria; Herm. Rof. 17. Hudf.
Angl. 218. R. fuavifolia; Lightf. Scot. 262. Fl. Dan.
t. 870. R. fylveftris odora ; Ger. Em. 1269. f. 1. R.
n. 11033 Hall. Hitt. v. 2. 39.)—Fruit obovate, briftly as
well as the flower-ttalks. Prickles of the ftem and leaf-ftalks
hooked. Leaflets elliptical, clothed beneath with rufty-
coloured glands.— Native of dry funny banks in various parts
of Europe, flowering in June and July ; truly wild in many
places in England, where the foil is gravelly or fandy, fome-
times even in wet fituations about rivers. The /fem is bufhy,
much branched, about a yard high, with copious, broad,
ftrongly hooked prickles, of a pale brown, all over its green
branches. Leaflets five or feven, of a roundifh, elliptical
figure, with ftrong, double, glandular ferratures; their
upper furface bright green, flightly hairy ; the under
clothed with reddith vifcid glands, the feat of a delightful
fragrance, which renders the plant acceptable to moft peo-
ple, though often compared to the fcent of apples, which
many perfons diflike. F/Jowers alfo {weet-fcented, of a full
and uniform pink : occafionally double, and fometimes pale
or whitifh, as reprefented in fome of Mifs Lawrance’s plates.
Fruit {carlet, more or lefs obovate, briftly, often nearly
{mooth ; internally mealy and infipid. This well-known
fhrub makes beautiful and fragrant, though not long-lived,
hedges. It bears forcing well, and hence is generally intro-
duced, in winter or {pring, into the apartments of thofe who
delight in fuch innocent luxuries. Care fhould be taken to
obtain the true fort, and not the following {pecies.
35. R. micrantha. Small-flowered Sweet-briar. Sm.
Engl. Bot. t. 2490.—Fruit ovate, fomewhat briftly, as
well: as the flower-ftalks. Stem ftraggling, with fcattered
hooked prickles. Leaflets ovate, acute, clothed beneath
with rufty-coloured glands.—Mr. W. Borrer finds this
7
Ehrh. -
{pecies of Rofe common in hedges and thickets, in Eng-
land, flowering about June and July. We have alfo met
with it in gardens, confounded with the genuine Sweet-briar,
from which it differs as follows. The /fem is lefs prickly,
lefs bufhy, and of a more elevated and ftraggling form of
growth, like R. canina. Leaflets lefs rounded, lefs rufty
beneath, and not fo fragrant as thofe of rubiginofa. Flowers
paler, and {maller, bemg lefs than thofe of any other Bri-
tifh Rofe. Fruit ovate, with a more gradual neck, not
obovate or pear-fhaped. It varies in roughnefs. Footftaiks,
and backs of the /eaves, downy as well as glandular.
36. R. fuaveolens. American Sweet-briar. Purfh n, 11.
“eR, eglanteria americana; Andrews’s Rofes, with a fi-
gure.”’?)—Fruit ovate. Flower-ftalks, and prickly leaf-
ftalks, rough with glandular brittles.. Stem fmooth; its
prickles long, flender, flightly curved. Leaflets roundifh-
elliptical ; downy above ; fomewhat glandular beneath.—
Native of North America. We received fpecimens from
Pennfylvania, gathered by the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg. Lin-
neus cultivated this fpecies at Upfal, and has preferved a
branch, without name or defcription, in his herbarium. The
plant differs from both the foregoing, in its long, flender,
flightly curved, but by no means hooked, prickles, which
often ftand, two together, near, or clofe to, the bafe of
the /eaf-ftalks. The leaflets are of a broad roundifh form;
finely hairy above; loofely befprinkled with ftalked glands,
though not rufty, beneath. Flowers pink, f{mall, often,
but not always, folitary, nor are the fegments of the calyx,
as Mr. Purfh defcribes them, always fimple or entire ; fome
of them are pinnate. Fruit fmooth, or fomewhat prickly.
37. R. feabriufcula. Roughifh-leaved Dog Rofe. Sm.
Engl. Bot. t. 1896. (R.n. 459; Winch Guide, v. 1. 48.
v. 2. preface, 5.)—Fruit roundifh-ovate, briftly as well as
the dower-ftalks. Prickles awl-fhaped, nearly ftraight.
Leaflets elliptical, roughifh with minute hairs.—Native of
hedges in Durham and Northumberland, as well as on the
north fide of Bury in Suffolk, flowering in June.—This
Rofe has a general refemblance to canina and tomentofi,
hereafter defcribed ; but its pube/cence is hairy, more of the
nature of the two or three laft, as are alfo the glandular
ferratures of the eaves. There is a harfhnefs about them,
very unlike the tomentofa, nor have they any greyifh hoary
hue. Their fcent is fearcely any. The /fem is tall, with
copious, fcattered, nearly ftraight, and rather flender, brown
prickles. Leaf-ftalks hairy, prickly, and clothed with glan-
dular briftles. Leaflets elliptical, pointed, doubly and fharply
ferrated, of a light bright green; finely hairy all over their
upper furface, but moft fo on the rib and veins beneath.
Flower-ftalks and young fruit befet with {trong glandular
briftles. Calyx partly pinnate; downy within; glandular
and briftly at the outfide. Petals moderately large; Mr.
Winch finds them always white, tinged or blotched with
red; in Suffolk they are moftly of a pale pink. Fruit large,
red, inclining to a globular figure. f
38. R. cefia. Glaucous-leaved Dog Rofe. Sm. Engl.
Bot. t. 2367. (R. canina pubefcens; Afzel. in Sims and
Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 211.)—Fruit roundifh-ovate,
{mooth. Prickles of the ftem hooked. Leaflets ovate,
pointed, doubly ferrated, downy; very glaucous as well
as the germen and young branches.—Found by Dr. Adam
Afzelius in Sweden, and by Mr. W. Borrer in the highland
valleys of Perthfhire and Argylefhire, flowering profufely
in July. Mr. Borrer defcribes the bu/h as “* compa, not
fo tall as the canina. Flowers ufually folitary; fometimes
in pairs, generally of an uniform, but very beautiful, carna-
tion hue; occafionally white. Calyx fometimes fprinkled
with glands, fometimes not. Young twigs, /eaves and ger-
men
_ botanifts, till within a few years patt.
ROSA.
men remarkably czfious.’? His {pecimens accord precifely
with thofe fent by Dr. Afzelius. The very glaucous /eaves,
clothed on both fides with fine hairy pubefcence, effentially
diftinguifhes this plant from canina, under which fo many
diftin& {pecies have been negligently confounded, by mott
The fruit has been
obferved by Dr. Swartz to vary fomewhat in form, being
occafionally oblong, obovate, or nearly globofe: ina young
ftate it is glaucous and blueifh ; always fmooth. Calyx
partly pinnate.
39. R. tomentofa» Downy-leaved Dog Rofe. Fi. Brit.
n. 4. Engl. Bot. t.g90. Ait. n. 31. (R. villofa; Ehrh.
Arb. 45. Villars Dauph. v. 3. 551. R. fylveftris alba,
cum aliquo rubore, folio hirfuto; Bauh. Hitt. v. 2. 44.)—
Fruit ovate, briftly as well as the flower-ttalks. Prickles
of the ftem hooked. Leaflets ovate, downy on both fides.
—Native of woods, hedges, and thickets, in various parts
of England, flowering in June and July. It is alfo found
in Germany and Dauphiny. The /lem is bufhy, and mode-
rately tall. Prickles hooked, generally placed under the in-
fertion of each leaf-ftalk, either folitary or in pairs. Leaf-
Jets five or feven, ovate, acute, with fine double glandular
ferratures, of a grey hoary green, denfely clothed on both
fides with foft pubefcence, and, when rubbed, exhaling a
flight acefcent fragrance, moft like the fmell of R. villofa,
n. 20. Calyx pinnate, in thé manner defcribed in the gene-
ric charaéter, clothed externally with glandular briftles.
Fruit in every {tate, more or lefs briftly, though fometimes
nearly fmooth, while the fower-/alks are always very briftly ;
its colour when ripe is a tawny fearlet. Petals almoft white
towards their bafe, otherwife elegantly rofe-coloured, and a
little fragrant. Specimens from Ehrhart and Villars have
determined their fynonyms ; though the latter, at lealt, by
his defcription, has apparently confounded the true villo/a
with our ¢omentofa. So little were Rofes underftood or con-
fidered at one time, that we recolleét many grave debates
among the Norwich botani{ts, about thirty years ago, whe-
ther this moft diftin& fpecies were different or not from the
common canina!
40. R. canina. Common Dog Rofe, Wild Briar, or
Hep-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 704. Willd. n. 31. Ait. n. 30.
Fl. Brit. n.6. Engl. Bot. t. 992. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5.
t.34. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 139. Fl. Dan. t. 555. Lawr.
Rof. t. 81. t. 60. Ehrh. Arb. 55. (R.n. 1101; Hall.
Hitt. vy. 2. 38.)—Fruit ovate, {mooth as well as the flower-
ftalks. Prickles of the ftem fcattered, hooked. Leaflets
ovate, pointed, very fmooth, unequally ferrated.—Very
common in hedges and thickets in Britain, as well as
throughout Europe, flowering in June. Few plants con-
tribute fo much to the ornament of the country, for it is
certainly the moft elegant of our Rofes; the {cent of its
lowers, and the flavour of its fruit, are both peculiarly
grateful. The latter, when mellowed by froft, affords a
moft agreeable conferve, kept in the apothecaries’ fhops.
The /fem is often fix or feven feet high, ere& and ftraggling,
with irregularly difperfed, pale brown, broad prickles. Leaf-
lets ufually feven, of a dark fhining myrtle-like green ;
paler, or glaucous in fome degree, underneath; with nume-
rous, fharp, unequal, not glandular, ferratures. Leaf-flalks
fmooth, armed with a few hooked prickles. F/oqwer-/lalks
terminal, naked and very {mooth, often folitary, fometimes
two, three, or four in a kind of umbel. Calyx downy,
{carcely ever glandular. Fruit oblong-ovate, of a coral red,
almoft always quite {mooth.
41. R, collina. Rough-ftalked Dog Rofe. Jacq. Auftr.
v.2. 58.t.197. Willd. n.32z. Ait. n. 32. Engl. Bot.
t. 1895.—Fruit ovate, fmoeth. Flower-{talks briftly, cluf-
tered. Prickles of the ftem feattered, hooked. Leaflets
ovate, downy beneath, fimply ferrated. Leaf-ftalks downy.
— Gathered by Jacquin on hills in Auftria. Mr. W. Borrer
finds it common in Suffex, flowering in July, and ripening
fruit in O€ober.—Its habit and general afpeét are like the
canina. ‘The prickles are difperfed, hooked. Leaflets ufually
feven. variable in length and roundnefs, fimply, and tole-
rably equally, ferrated ; always downy, or finely hairy, be-
neath, efpecially the rib ; fometimes flightly fo above. They
have no fcent, and are thicker, as well as lefs fhining, than
thofe of canina. Leaf-flalks downy and prickly. lowers
pale pink, fragrant, commonly two or three together, on
fralks covered with glandular briftles. Fruit in every ftage
ovate and {mooth, except now and then a ftraggling briftle
or two; fcarlet when ripe, and faid not to be diftinguifhable
from canina. We have never tafted it. The fyles, after -
flowering, are combined and elongated, as in R. arvenfis.
42. R. dumetorum. Downy-ttalked Dog Rofe. * Perf.
Syn. part 2. fe&. 1. 502? Engl. Bot. t. 2579.—Fruit
ovate, fmooth. Flower-{talks villous, fomewhat briftly,
cluftered. Prickles of the {tem hooked, rather aggregate.
Leaflets ovate, doubly ferrated; flightly hairy beneath.
Leaf-{talks very downy.—Gathered by Mr. W. Borrer, in
bufhy places in Suffex, flowering in July, and ripening fruit
in O&ober. We believe it alfo to have been found in Swit-
zerland, near Orbe, by the late Mr. Davall, and there is a
{pecimen, without name, or any mark, in the Linnzan her-
barium. The fynonym of Perfoon was fuggefted by Mr.
Borrer, nor have we any further authority for its applica-
tion. The habit of the /brub is more robuit than R. canina,
with very ftrong hooked prickles, ufually placed in pairs
under each foot/falk, and fometimes three or more together
under the lateral branches. It differs alfo from that f{pecies
in having very downy footflalks ; leaflets rounder and flatter,
doubly ferrated, their ribs and veins hairy beneath; the
flower-ftalks either villous and briftly, or only villous, with
foft, fpreading, permanent hairs ; rarely fmooth. ‘Thefe
hairs, and the double ferratures, diftinguifh it from collina,
with which its downy /eaf-/lalks agree. The flowers are
{maller and paler than in either of thofe fpecies. The flyles
accord with canina, not with thofe of collina.
43. R. mofehata. Mufk, or Clufter, Rofe. Mill. Di&.
ed. 8. n.13. Willd. n. 23. Ait. n.26. Desfont. Atlant.
v. 1. 400. Lawr. Rof. t. 64. t- 53. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
v. 3. 16. t, 280. Ger. Em. 1265. f. 1 and 2. (R. mofchata
minor, flore fimplici ; Bauh. Hilt. v. 2. 45 ; and flore pleno;
ibid. 47.) — Fruit ovate, villous when young, as well as the
flower-italks. Stem and leaf-ftalks prickly. Leaflets ob-
long, pointed, fmooth. Panicles many-flowered, downy as
well as the calyx.—Desfontaines found this elegant and fra-
grant Rofe growing every where in the hedges of Barbary.
It is cultivated by the inhabitants of Tunis, who obtain
from its petals, by diltillation, a very fragrant effential oil ;
the fame, if we miftake not, which in the Eaft Indies is
called Ottar. The /brub is common in our gardens, and has
been fo from Gerarde’s time, flowering from July to Oc-
tober. The femidouble kind moft ufually occurs. The
Jflems are long and lax, fmooth, befet with fcattered, fhort,
hooked prickles. Leaves of a light, flightly glaucous green,
efpecially beneath, fmooth, except fome downinefs on their
footfalks, and their ribs beneath. Stipulas {mall, narrow,
fringed with glands, and divaricated at the points. Flowers
rather {mall, white, exceedingly numerous, in large terminal
panicles, whofe flalks are flender, downy, detftitute of
prickles or glands, as is likewife the flender, downy, partly
pinnate, calyx. Petals with flender claws. Fruit {mall,
{mooth, orange-coloured.—R. mofchata major, Bauh. Hitt.
V. 2.
ROSA.
y.2. 4%. Lob. Ic. v. 2. 208, quoted by Miller incautioufly
for this, may be R. damafcena. _ A
44. R. rubrifolia. Red-leaved Rofe. Villars Dauph. v. 3.
549. Willd. n. 24. Bellardi Append. ad Fl. Pedem. 23.
t. 4. (Rofier multiflore; Reynier Mem. de la Suiffe, v. 1.
222.—Fruit roundifh-ovate, {mooth as well as the flower-
ftalks. Prickles of the ftem and leaf-ftalks hooked. Loeaf-
lets ovate, {mooth, coloured, fimply ferrated. Flowers co-
rymbofe, with fheathing dilated bra¢teas and ftipulas.—
Native of the mountains of Switzerland, Dauphiny, and
Savoy ; a ftranger to our gardens. The whole plant,
branches, leaves, fialks, and tube of the calyx, are more or
lefs tinged with a vinous red. The fem is ere&t and robutt,
ten to fifteen feet high, armed -with fcattered, diftant, re-
curved prickles. Leaflets {even or nine, large, broadly ovate,
with ftrong fharp ferratures, {mooth on both fides, with nu-
merous, parallel, red veins. Svipulas red, {mooth; the
upper ones, near the flowers, much dilated, and replaced
immediately by fimilar, but fmaller, braéeas. Flowers from
three to five, of a fine pink, forming a fhort {mooth corymb.
Segments of the ca/yx almoft entirely fimple, very long and
flender, downy within, flightly glandular at the edges, each
terminating in a long, lanceolate, leafy point. #ruit oval,
{mall, fmooth. Villars fays the cultivated plant retains the
peculiar red tints of its bar and foliage; only the fize of the
flowers is fomewhat diminifhed.
45- R. lagenaria. Bottle-fruited Rofe. Villars Dauph.
v. 3. 553. Willd. n. 25.—Fruit obovate, beaked, {mooth,
pendulous. Stem without prickles. Leaf-ftalks rather
prickly. Flower-ftalks downy, fomewhat cymofe. Leaf-
lets elliptical, doubly ferrated, fmooth as well as the calyx.
—Native of France, in the diftrid of Embrun, among
the woods of Bofcodon. Villars fays he never met with
this fpecies elfewhere. He defcribes it as akin to the fol-
lowing, but differing in its large leafy calyx, and the greatly
elongated {pindle-fhaped fruit, having a neck like that of a
bottle. The fem is from three to five feet high, without
thorns. Leaflets thin, obtufe. Flower-/lalks three together,
flightly downy, recurved. We have feen no f{pecimen.
46. R. alpina. Alpine Rofe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 703. Willd.
n. 26. Ait. n.27. Villars Dauph. v. 3. 552. Sm. Tour
on the Cont. v. 3. 137. 140. Jacq. Auftr. t. 279.. Lawr.
Rof. t. 30. (R.n. 1107; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 41.)—Fruit
ovate, {mooth. Stem without prickles. Leaf-ftalks and
flower-ftalks briftly. Leaflets elliptic-oblong, doubly fer-
rated, fmooth.—Very common in the alpine thickets of
Switzerland, Savoy, Dauphiny, Auftria, &c. flowering
from June to Auguft. It has long been cultivated in bo-
tanic gardens, but is not one of our popular f{pecies, being,
though an elegant plant, and remarkable for the want of
prickles, lefs ttriking than R. pendulina, which is alfo known
by the name of “the Rofe without a thorn.’? The prefent
has {mooth, fpreading, fometimes procumbent, /fems and
branches, of a fhining deep red, obferved by Jacquin to be
occafionally hairy or briftly, but never thorny. Leaflets
feven or nine, elliptic-oblong, ufually more than an inch in
length, thin, {mooth, doubly and fharply ferrated ; paler
beneath, with fome hairs, now and then, on the midrib.
Flowers generally folitary, of a rich and elegant rofe-colour,
on drooping, red ffalks, clothed with glandular briftles.
Calyx downy, with long, fimple, flender, rather leafy-
pointed fegments; its tube generally fmooth, though we
have from M, Du Cros, a fpecimen with briftles on that
part, as well as on the fegments of the calyx. Fruit pen-
dulous, oval, fomewhat beaked, of a fine fearlet.—Mifs
Lawrance’s t. 75 cannot poffibly have any relationfhip to
this {pecies ; fee Jucida, n. 14.
4
47. R. pyrenaica.
t.19. Willd. n. 27.
@. R. pimpinellifolia ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 553.
glandulofa ; Bellardi Append. ad FJ. Pedem. 24.)
Fruit ovate, hifpid as well as the flower-{talks, and fome-
what prickly leaf-ftalks. Stem without prickles. Leaflets
elliptical, doubly ferrated, f{mooth.—Native of vallies among
the Pyrenean mountains, as well as of Switzerland and Dau-
phiny. We are fully perfuaded that the R. pimpinellifolia
of Villars is, as he himfelf fuggetts, but a variety of Gouan’s
pyrenaica, nor can we trace out fufficient marks to defcribe
it even as a variety. ‘The glandular edging of the /iipulas,
on which our worthy friend Bellardi has founded its charac-
ter and name, is no lefs evident and conftant in pyrenaica,
and even in alpina itfelf ; of which laft indeed we are ftrongly
inclined to confider the fuppofed {pecies, both of Gouan
and Villars, as mere varieties, differing from the ufual kind
in their briltly calyx and fruit. The fegments of the calyx
are fimple, with more or lefs leafy points in all, nor does
Gouan mention any thing that affords a permanent mark of
difcrimination between pyrenatea and alpina.
48. R. pendulina. Smooth Pendulous Rofe. Rofe with-
out athorn. Linn. Sp. Pl. 7o5. Willd. n. 28. Ait. n. 28.
Purfh n. 12. Ehrh. Arb. 105.. Lawr. Rof. t.g. (R. fan-
guiforbe majoris folio, fruétu longo pendulo; Dill. Elth.
325.t. 245. f. 317.)—Fruit ovate, elongated, {mooth, pen-
dulous. Stem and branches {mooth, without prickles.
Fiower-ftalks and leaf-ftalks hifpid. Leaflets elliptical,
doubly ferrated, fmooth, rather numerous. Segments of
the calyx fimple, naked and entire. Dillenius fays this
fpecies was raifed, in the Eltham garden, from New Eng-
land feeds; but Mr. Purfh never met with it wild in any
part of North America; and Ehrhart gives his {fpecimen as
a Swifs plant. We believe however that it is a North
American, not an European fhrub. In our gardens it
bloffoms towards the end of May, ripening fruit in Augult.
The flem is five or fix feet high, bufhy, {mooth, dark red,
nor is there a prickle to be found on any part of the plant.
Leaves bearing a confiderable refemblance to thofe of the
Greater Burnet, Sangaiforba, and compofed of from nine
to thirteen large, elliptical, {mooth /eaflets, paler beneath,
with double glandular ferratures. //owers folitary, crimfon,
on glandular, rather than briftly, /a/és. Tube of the calyx
oblong, very {mooth; its fegments quite fimple, entire,
narrow, downy at the edges, but deftitute of dorfal prickles
or glands. uit pendulous, {carlet, {mooth and fhining,
remarkably elongated, beaked and curved, fufficiently dif-
criminating the {pecies, which neverthelefs is nearly related
to R. alpina, but in every part more robuit.
49. R. montana. Round-leaved Mountain Rofe. Vhilars
Dauph. v. 3. 547. Willd. n. 29.—Fruit oval, briitly as
well as the flower-italks. Leaf-ftalks prickly and glandular.
Stem with hooked folitary prickles, below each leaf.
Leaflets roundifh, abrupt, doubly ferrated, fmooth.—
Native of hills in Dauphiny and Switzerland. A very
diftin& {pecies, of which we have fpecimens from Mr.
Schleicher. The fem is only two or three feet high, but
ftrong, with many {preading, reddifh, {mooth Jdranches.
Prickles pale brown, moderately hooked or deflexed, awl-
fhaped, with a long linear bafe. They ftand folitary, a
little below each branch or leaf. Svipulas broad, fringed
with glands. Leaf-/ta/ks purplifh, flightly prickly and
glandular. Leaflets feven, fomewhat glaucous, much re-
fembling thofe of the Lefler Burnet, Poterium; their termi-
nation generally abrupt, and their ferratures coarfe, {carcely
glandular ; the midrib now and then hairy beneath. Flower-
Jialks terminal, fhort, very briftly and glandular, either fo-
litarys
Pyrenzan Rofe. Gouan. Illuftr. 31.
(R.
|
|
- five, {fmall, ovate, acute.
ROSA.
litary, or two or three together, enveloped in the uppermott
FAipulas. Petals {mall, generally white, fometimes red.
Segments of the calyx, briftly and glandular at the back,
partly pinnate. Fruit red, armed with many itrong brittles.
This {pecies has but a remote affinity to either canina or
arvenfis, with which Villars contrafts it, except that the
fryles are {aid to be elongated, after flowering, as in the
latter.
so. R. multiflora. _Bramble-flowered Chinefe Rofe.
Thunb. Jap. 214. Willd. n. 30. Ait. mn. 29. Curt.
Mag. t. 1059. (R. flava; Donn. Cant. ed. 4. 121.7’)
—Fruit ovate, villous, unarmed. Flower-italks villous,
racemofe. Stem and leaf-italks prickly. Leaflets ovate,
fimply ferrated; downy beneatl.—Native of Japan and
China. Introduced into this country by Thomas Evans, efq.
of Stepney, about the year 1804. Itis hardy, flowering in
June and July, anda great acquifition to the gardens, being
a fbrub of luxuriant growth, eafily trained to a confiderable
height. The /eaves are of a greyifh afpecét ; {mooth above ;
paler and downy beneath ; their ferratures fimple. Flowers
in clufters, fimple or compound, refembling thofe of the
double- flowering Bramble, and not much larger. Thun-
berg defcribes them white; with us they are pink, with
very numerous, {mall, imbricated fefals, a few remains of
ftamens, and fome elongated, dilated, greenith fyles. The
rowers, on the firit introduction of the plant, were reported
to be yellow, but we have not heard of any fuch variety
having made its appearance.
51. R. caucafica. Caucafian Rofe. ‘ Marfch. 'Faurico-
Caucaf. v. 1. 400.” Ait. n. 33.—*¢ Fruit ovate, {mooth
as well as the flower-italks. Leaf-ftalks prickly. Stem
not hairy; its prickles hooked. Leaflets doubly ferrated,
downy. Flowers umbellate.””—Native of mount Caucafus,
from wherce it is faid, in Hort. Kew., to have been brought
to England about the year 1798. It is a hardy fhrub,
flowering in June and July. We have feen neither {pecimen
nor figure. If the plant {till exifts in our colleétions, it
ought to be delineated and given to the public.
52. R. parvifolia. Small-leaved, or Burgundy, Rofe.
Ebrh. Beitr. v. 6. 97. Willd. n. 33.—** Fruit ovate,
nearly {mooth. Flower-ftalks glandular. Leaf-ftalks and
ftem with minute ftraight prickles. Leaflets ovate, rugged ;
fomewhat villous beneath; their ferratures andnb.
Said to be a native of Europe. A dwarf /brub. Leaflets
Flowers {mall. Willdenow. We
know not what is intended under the above defcription, unlefs
it be the Burgundy Rofe, Mifs Lawrance’s t. 44, which
we have, after the example of Hort. Kew. confidered as a
variety of centifolia or gallica, fee n. 28. The characters
anfwer, as far as any thing can be made out by the figure.
We fhould have fufpeéted the Rofe de Meaux, Mifs Law-
rance’s t. 31, might have been Ehrhart’s and Willdenow’s
plant ; but the latter has duly veferred that, as we have
done, to provincialis in its proper place, and having feen
both in a living ftate, mutt be prefumed to have diftinguifhed
them. ‘There feems a great probability that the parvifolia
in queftion is fome garden variety of the gallica, to which
its characters approach fufficiently near to authorize this
opinion. We leave it for the final determination of thofe
who may meet with authentic fpecimens.
53- R. femperflorens. Dark Chinefe Rofe. Curt. Mag.
t. 284. Willd. n. 34. Ait. n. 34. Sm. Exot. Bot.
v. 2. 63.t.91. Lawr. Rof.t. 28. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
v. 3. 17. t. 281. (R. diverfifolia; Venten. Jard. de Cels,
t. 35-)—Fruit ovate, roughifk. Stem, leaf-ftalks, and
flower-{talks, hifpid or prickly. Prickleshooked. Leaflets
three or five, ovate, fmooth ; paler beneath, with a hairy
Vor. XXX.
rib. Calyx reflexed, entire: —Native of China, from whence
it was introduced by the late Mr. Slater, about the year
1789. The fhrub is perfectly ‘uninjured by any of our
frofts, and where the air is pure, grows luxuriantly in the
open ground, flowering moft part of the year. Yet it fome-
times dies off unaccountably, and is not become fo general
an ernament of every cottage garden as the Pale Chinetfe
Rofe, hereafter mentioned, brought to England about the
fame period. The /emperflorens is generally of humble
growth, but in a rich loamy foil, on the outfide of a green-
houfe, may be trained to a confiderable height. The /fem
is much and varioufly branched, armed with {cattered, fhort,
hooked prickles. Leaflets three or five, ovate, acute, rigid,
unequally ferrated ; of a dark fhining green, and f{mooth,
above; paler, and rather glaucous, beneath, with a denfely
hairy nib. Leaf-falks clothed with glandular briftles, and
fome foft hairs, as well as with a few hooked prickles.
Stipulas linear, acute, fringed with ftalked glands: Flower-
Jfealks terminal, ufually folitary, rough with glands or prickles,
fingle-flowered. Segments of the calyx reefixed, lanceolate,
coloured, fimple and entire, downy, more or lefs fringed or
glandular at the edges. Petals deep crimfon, fometimes very
dark, tremulous from the flendernefs of their claws ; paler
at the back. The figures in Ventenat, and our Exotic
Botany, exhibit the fowers in a fingle fate ; the reft have
double flowers, as ufually feen in gardens. Jacquin repre-
fents a fuppofed blufh-coloured variety, which is probably
indica, n. §§. The fruit is moftly roughifh, at leaft when
young ; but fometimes quite fmooth. We have not met
with it ripe. The /hrubis readily increafed by cuttings.
54. R. chinenfis. Slender Chinefe Rofe. Jacq. Obf.
fafc. 3. 7. t. 55.—* Fruit ovate, fmooth as well as the
flower-ftalks. Leaf-ftalks and item prickly. Leaflets
ufually three, ovato-lanceolate, finely ferrated, {mooth.”—
Native of China. Defcribed by Jacquin from fome {fpecimens
belonging to Gronovius. He fpeaks of the /eaves as per-
feétly fmooth and fhining, and the fegments of the calyx
fringed with down. The /eaves were moitly ternate, fome
of them only having a {mall additioual leaflet at one fide.
This is very likely to be, as Willdenow fufpeGed, the fame
{pecies with our vearbespnens: If it fhould fo prove, we
hope the latter name, though of pofterior date, will not be
facrificed to one fo vague and indifcriminate as chinenfis ; ef-
pecially as /emperflorens is now eftablifhed in fy{tematic works
of authority, and Jacquin himfelf, who, in his Hort.
Schoenbr. confidered thefe plants as the fame, has liberally
preferred it.
55- R. indica. Blufh Chinefe Rofe.
7o5. Willd. n. 36. Ait. n. 35. (R. femperflorens 6;
Lawr. Rof. t. 26. R. longifolia; Willd. n. 37.)—Fruit
ovate, {mooth. Flower-ftalks briftly and glandular. Leaf-
{talks glandular and prickly. Leaflets ovate, pointed,
fmooth ; paler beneath. Prickles of the ftem fcattered,
flightly hooked. Flowers fomewhat corymbofe. Calyx
partly pinnate and leafy.—Native of China and the Eaft
Indies. Introduced by fir J. Banks, about the year 1789,
into the gardens of England, where it proves quite hardy,
flowering profufely, almoft throughout the year; and is
undoubtedly one of the meft defirable acquifitions, of the
ornamental kind, that our colle¢tions have for 2 long time
received. The /brub is of rapid and lefty growth, much
{tronger than R. femperflorens. Stem more or lefs armed
with fcattered, very ftrong, reddifh, fharp, hooked or re-
curved prickles, which we have never found entirely wanting.
Leaves of a full, bright, fhining green on the upper fide ;
paler, opaque, and a little glaucous, beneath ; their /ea/fete
far the more part five, ovate, taper-pointed, fharply and
4B pretty
Linn. Sp. PL
ROSA.
retty equally, but not ftrongly, ferrated. Leaf-/falks
End oht glandular briftlee ee furnifhed es
hooked prickles. seiien linear, narrow, reticulated,
fringed with red glandular briftles ; their points acute, diva-
ricated at right angles. Flower-/talks terminal, very nu-
merous and corymbofe in {trong-growing plants ; in ordinary
ones fewer ; in fome folitary and fingle-flowered at the ends
of weak lateral branches. They are always clothed with
minute glandular briftles, even in the original fpecimen of
Linneus, which he defcribed as {mooth. Neither are the
leaves of that {pecimen downy beneath. He feems to have
taken that character from another, which he confounded
therewith, but which we judge to be mo/chata, whofe very
young /eaves bear a few hairs on their ribs and veins. Flowers
moderately large, in a double ftate confilting of numerous,
lax, diforderly petals, varying with every tint of pink or
carnation, and haying a {weet, though light, odour, as in
Jemperflorens, but not exactly the fame. The perfume of
both is very inferior to molt of our garden Rofes, and even
to the wild R. canina. The calyx ot R. indica is variable in
luxuriance, but always in fome degree leafy, pinnate, or
jagged. Fruit large, pale fcarlet. On a careful compa-
rifon of Willdenow’s Jongifolia, (fent by the Rev. Dr. Rott-
ler, and by the late Dr. Koenig, from the Eatt Indies, )
with our garden plant, and the Linnean {pecimen, we can
have no doubt of their perfect identity ; though the prickles
of the /fem feem wanting on the upper part, at leaft, of the
luxuriant Indian fpecimens. Every one, who has attended
to the cultivated R. indica, will be aware that this circum-
ftance is of no importance, in the confideration of fuch
materials as we have before us.
56. R. bradeata. Macartney Rofe, or Sir George
Staunton’s Rofe. Willd. n. 38. Ait. n. 36. Venten.
Jard. de Cels, t. 28. Curt. Mag. t. 1377. (R. lucida ;
Lawr. Rof. t. 84.)—Fruit obovate. Bra¢teas peCtinated,
concealing the flower-ftalk, which is villous like the youn
branches. Prickles in pairs under the prickly leaf-ttalks.
Leaflets obovate, obtufe, crenate, fmooth and fhining.
Stipulas deeply jagged. Calyx filky, taper-pointed.—
Native of China, from whence it was brought by lord Ma-
eartney and fir G. Leonard Staunton, in 1795. It proves
tolerably hardy in England, flowering from Auguit to the
end of autumn; but is often fo much injured by expofure
to our fevere frofts, as feldom to recover fufficiently to
bloffom well in the enfuing fummer. The few is four or
five feet high, downy, armed with a pair of deflexed reddifh
prickles under each /eaf-/a/, and with innumerable minute
ftraight ones over the whole furface. Leaf-flalks hairy,
glandular, and prickly. Leuffets about {even or nine, rigid,
fhining, of a fine green; their ribs minutely prickly.
Stipulas but little attached to the leaf-ftalk, deeply cut, or
pectinated, at one fide. F/oqwers terminal, folitary, large,
cream-coloured, agreeably fcented, on fhort hairy /alks,
which are concealed by feveral large, fheathing, deeply
pectinate, or pinnatifid, braGeas. Calyx coriaceous, taper-
pointed, very filky externally. Ventenat mentions a {mall
central point, in the finus of each petal, which we do not
find conftant. The /tpulas, and efpecially the bradeas, are
fo peculiar, that this fpecies can be confounded with no
other.
57. R. alba. White Garden Rofe.
Willd. n. 39. Ait. n. 37. Lawr. Rof. t. 37. t. 25.
t. 23. t. 32. Ger. Em. 1260, with the fame cut which
Lobel ufes for R. damafcena. — Fruit ovate, fmooth.
Flower-ftalks and calyx briftly. Leaf-ftalks downy, armed
like the {tem with hooked prickles. Leaflets roundifh-ovate,
tharply ferrated, downy beneath. Calyx partly pinnate.
9
Linn. Sp. Pl. 705.
—Native of Europe; in the hedges and thickets of Hefle
and Saxony, according to Roth. Common in our gardens
from the days of Gerarde, flowering in June and. July.
The bufh is five or fix feet high. Leaves dark green, of
five or feven large, broad /eaflets, tharply and copioufly fer-
rated, veiny; paler, and more or lefs downy, beneath.
Stipulas paler, broad, dilated upwards, with glandular fer-
ratures, and obliquely fpreading points. Flowers large,
fomewhat corymbofe, pleafantly but weakly fcented, ufually
pure white, but often tinged with a moft delicate blufh, as
in Mifs Lawrance’s t. 23 and t. 32. Segments of the calyx
partly bordered with long leafy appendages, glandular at
the edges. Bradeas like the /fipulas, but more ovate.
Fruit tawny, rarely perfeGedin gardens. We can give no
good reafon for placing the prefent {pecies here, at a diftance
from gallica, n. 28, to which it is moit naturally allied? No
difficulty or confufion indeed can arife refpecting a plant fo
well known, and fo clearly defined. The White Rofe was
formerly an article of the Materia Medica, its diftilled
water, which poffeffes a flight aftrmgency, being fuppofed
good for inflammations and weaknefles of the eyes. A
more fragrant water, equally colourlefs and efficacious, is
diftilled from the Provins rofe, n. 26; which, we believe, is
ufually kept in the fhops. In fome of this, after long
keeping, we have feen a floating oilinefs, as delicioufly and
powerfully fragrant as the oriental ottar of rofes.
Our catalogue of {pecies thus amounts to 18 more than
Willdenow’s, notwithftanding fome retrenchments. The
drawings of the Chinefe afford reafon to fuppofe we are
not yet acquainted with all their {pecies, and we bave already
hinted that fome Irifh ones are itill waiting for more com-
plete elucidation than they have hitherto received. The
diftribution of the {pecies in general requires revifion ; nor
have botanifts fufficiently adverted to fome characters, that
appear to us more important thar feveral they have depended
upon. The number, and precife fituation, of the fub-
ftipulary prickles, the form of the {tipulas, and the ftru€ture
of the calyx, appear to us-more conitant, than the abfence
or prefence of glands, or of pubefcence, in certain parts.
The nature of the ferratures of the leaves, whether fimple or
double, glandular or not, is likewife occafionally worthy of
notice.
Rosa, in Gardening, contains plants of the deciduous
flowering, fhrub, and evergreen kind, of which the {pecies
cultivated are: the fingle yellow rofe (R. lutea); the
double yellow rofe (R. fulphurea) ; the Hudfon’s-bay rofe
(R. blanda) ; the cinnamon rofe (R. cinnamomea) ; the
white dog rofe (R. arvenfis) ; the {mall burnet-leaved rofe
(R. pimpinellifolia) ; the Scotch rofe (R. {pinofiflima) ;
the {mall-flowered American rofe (R. parviflora) ; the
fhining-leaved American rofe (R. lucida) ; the Carolina
rofe (R. carolina) ; the apple rofe (R. villofa) ; the Pro-
vence rofe (R. provinclalis) ; the hundred-leaved rofe
(R. centifolia) ; the red rofe (R. gallica) ; the damafk rofe
(R: damafcena) ; the evergreen rofe (R. fempervirens) ;
the dwarf Auftrian rofe (R. pumila) ; the Frankfort rofe
(R. turbinata) ; the {weet-briar rofe (R. rubiginofa) ; the
mofs Provence rofe (R.mufcofa) ; the mufk rofe (R. mof-
chata) ; the Alpine rofe (R. alpina) ; the deep red China
rofe (R. femperflorens) ; and the white rofe (R. alba).
Of the firft there is a variety termed the Auttrian rofe,
which has the ftalks, branches, and leaves, like thofe of the
fingle yellow rofe, but the leaves are rounder. The flowers
are alfo larger; the petals have deep indentures at their
points; are of a pale yellow on the outfide, and of a reddifh
copper colour, orange {carlet, or barré colour within; are
fingle, have no {eent, or a difagreeable one, and foon fall
away-
ROSA.
away. It has fometimes flowers entirely yellow on one
branch, and copper-coloured on another.
In the fourth fpecies there is a double variety, in which
the fhoots are redder; the flowers {mall, fhort, thick, and
double, of a pale red colour at the end of the leaves (petals),
fomewhat redder and brighter towards the middle. It is the
f{malleft and earlieft of the double garden rofes, flowering in
M
flowered, or with variegated flowers, red ftriped with white.
The red Scotch rofe, which feldom rifes more than a foot
high ; the ftalks are covered with a brown bark, and are
clofely armed with {mall {pines ; the leaves are very {mall ;
the flowers are alfo {mall, feffile, and of a livid red colour ;
the fruit is round, of a deep purple colour, inclining to
black when ripe. And according to Withering, there is
alfo a variety with prickly peduncles, and cream-coloured
flowers, changing towhite. Lawrance likewife mentions a
double Scotch rofe.
In the eighth kind there is a variety with a double
flower.
Of the twelfth fpecies there are feveral varieties, as the
red Provence rofe ; the ftem and branches are not fo great
as thofe of the other, but greener, the bark not being fo
red ; the flowers are not fo large, thick and double, but
of a little deeper damafk or blufh colour, turning to red,
but not coming near the full colour of the beft red rofe;
nor is the fcent fo {weet as that of the damafk Provence, but
coming near that of the ordinary red rofe. It is not fo
plentiful in bearing as the damafk Provence. The blufh
Provence rofe, in which the ftalks rife from three to four
feet high, and are unarmed ; the leaves are hairy on their
under fide ; the peduncles have fome {mall {pines ; the feg-
ments of the calyx are femi-pinnate ; the corolla has five or
fix rows of petals, which are large, and fpread open; they
are of a pale blufh colour, and have a mufky fcent. The
white Provence rofe, which differs only in the colour of the
flowers. The great and {mall dwarf Provence rofes, called
rofe de Meaux, differ from each other in little except fize ;
the fmaller of the two is generally known by the nurfery-men
and gardeners by the name of Pompone rofe. It throws
out numerous ftems, which rarely exceed a foot, or a foot and
half, in height ; ufually ftraight, rigid, and very prickly ;
the flowers very fmall, and diftinguifhed by the brilliant
colour of the central petals, appearing in June. All the
forts flower from July to Augutt.
Inthe thirteenth fpecies the varieties are very numerous ;
as the Dutch hundred-leaved rofe ; the blufh hundred-leaved
rofe ; the Singleton’s hundred-leaved rofe.
The fingle and double velvet rofe, which, according to
Parkinfon, has the old ftem covered with dark-coloured
bark, but the young fhoots of a fad green, with few or no
thorns ; the leaves are of a fadder green than in moft rofes,
and very often feven on a ftalk; the flower is fingle; or
double, with two rows of petals, the outer larger, of a deep
red, like crimfon velvet ; or more double, with fixteen petals
or more in a flower, moft of them equal: they have all lefs
feent than the ordinary red rofe. The Burgundy rofe,
which is an elegant little plant, not more than a foot or
eighteen inches in height. The fultan rofe, the Stepney
refe, the gurnet rofe, the bifhop rofe, and the Lifbon rofe.
In the fourteenth fort there are feveral varieties; as the
red officinal rofe, the Mundi rofe, which has the flowers
very elegantly ftriped or variegated with red and white: in
other circumftances it fo perky refembles the red rofe,
that there can be no doubt of its being a variety of that;
ay.
In the feventh fort there are feveral varieties, as the ftriped-
indeed it frequently happens that a red roie or two appears
on the fame plant with the variegated flowers. The Child-
ing rofe, the marbled rofe, and the double virgin rofe,
which have great affinity with each other, according to
Miller.
OF the fifteenth fort there are alfo feveral varieties, as the
red damafk rofe, the blufh damafk rofe, which differ only in
the fhade and colour. The York and Lancatter rofe, which
agrees with the damafk in ftalk, leaf, &c. differing only, in
the flower being variegated with white ftripes. Mr. Hart’s
rofe has the white itripes more diftin@ ; the flowers in thefe
being lefs double than in feveral others, are frequently fuc-
ceeded by fruit, and have ripe feeds, from which other
varieties may be obtained. Eee: to Parkinfon, fome-
times one half of the petal is of a pale whitifh colour, and
the other half of a paler damafk than common ; or one petal
is white or ftriped with white, and the other half bluth or
{triped with blufh ; fometimes alfo ftriped or {potted over,
and at other times little or no itripes or marks, and the
longer it remains blown open in the fun, the paler and the
fewer ftripes, marks, or {pots will be feen in it. The fmell
is of a {weet damafk rofe icent. The red monthly rofe, the
white monthly rofe, which are fo called from their continuing
to blow in fucceffion during the greater part of the fummer ;
not that they blow in every month, as the name implies.
They are, in every refpeét, like the damafk rofe, unlefs it
be that they are more full of prickles than that. The blufh
Belgic rofe, which rifes about three feet high, with prickly
ftalks; the leaves are compofed of five or feven leaflets,
which are oval, hairy on their under fide; and flightly fer-
rate; the peduncles and calyxes are large and femi-pinnate ;
the flowers very double, of a pale flefh colour, with little
{cent, generally in great quantities. The red Belgic rofe,
which differs only in having the colour of the flower a deep
red. The great royal rofe, and the imperial blufh damafk
rofe.
In the nineteenth fort the cultivated plant grows larger
and more ere&t ; the leaves are big and much {fweeter
than in the wild one, the ruity colour of them difappears,
and the whole puts on a more vigorous appearance; the
{weet {cent is fuppofed to proceed from the gland. There
are varieties with double flowers; as the common double
{weet-briar, the moffy double fweet-briar, the evergreen
double fweet-briar, the red double f{weet-briar, the royal
{weet-briar, and the yellow {weet-briar.
Of the twenty-firft kind there is a variety with double
flowers. And the editor of Miller’s diQionary confiders the
evergreen mufk rofe of Miller to be the fame with this.
Of the twenty-fourth fort, according to Parkinfon, there
are two varieties of the white garden rofe ; one attaining
fometimes the height of eight or ten feet, with a ftock of a
great bignefs, the other feldom higher than a damafk rofe.
Both have fomewhat {maller and whiter-green leaves than in
many other rofes, five moft ufually on a ftalk, and paler
underneath ; as alfo a whiter-green bark, armed with fhort
prickles. The flowers in the one are whitifh, with ar eye
of blufh, efpecially towards the bottom, very double, and
for the moft part not opening fo fully as the red or damafk
rofe. In the other more white, lefs double, and opening
more. Some have only two or three rows of petals; and
all have little or no fmell.
Method of Culture.—In all the forts the increafe may be
effe€ted by fuckers, layers, or by budding upon ftocks of
other forts of rofes ; but this laft method is only prattifed
for fome peculiar forts, which do not grow well upon their
own ftocks, and fend forth fuckers fparingly. Where more
4B2 forts
ROSA.
forts than one are to be had upon the fame plant, fuch forts
only fhould be budded upon the fame ftock as are nearly
equal in their manner of growth, otherwife the ftrong one
will draw all the nourifhment from the weaker.
The fuckers fhould be taken off in O&ober, and planted
out either in nurfery-rows, or in the places where they are to
remain ; as where they are permitted to fland upon the roots
of the old plants more than one year, they grow woody,
and do not form fo good roots as if planted out the firkt
year._ The bet method to obtain abated plants is to
lay down the young branches in autumn, which will take
good root by the autumn following ; efpecially when watered
in dry weather ; when they may be taken off from the old
plants, and be planted out where they are to remain. The
feeds are fometimes fown in the autumn, to produce new
varieties, in beds of light mellow earth, or in drills, efpe-
cially for the common fweet-briar kinds, and for raifing
hedges of them.
But although new varieties and fome particular permanent
forts, fuch as continue the fame by feeds, may occafionally
be raifed in this way ; all the double kinds and peculiar
varieties, are by no means, in general, to be produced in
this manner, as they cannot be continued, with certainty,
the fame by feeds, but conftantly require, in this intention,
to be raifed from layers or fuckers.
The moft proper feafon for planting all the forts is the
autumn or winter, when the weather is mild and open, when
they will, for the moft part, flower in full perfeGion during
the {ucceeding fummer, but, fhould there be a neceffity, they
may be replanted out even fo late as the beginning of the
{pring months without much danger. And it is often an
ufeful practice to fet out a few plants in this late manner
for the fake of a late long continued blow in the autumnal
feafon. in general, however, the fooner the work of
planting them out is performed, the ftronger and more fully
will the plants afford their flowers.
In planting them out in the common or fhrubbery borders,
it fhould mottly be done in a fingle manner ; and they may
be trained with fingle ftems to the height of one, two, or
more feet, and then managed fo asto branch out into bufhy
heads ; and it is commonly advifeable to have them in this
form; though fome, for the fake of a more bufhy growth,
fuffer them to branch away immediately from the bottom, as
they will flower wellin any mode of training.
Some, for curiofity, may alfo be run up with fingle {tems
to the height of from five or fix to ten feet, and be kept in
erect pofitions by means of proper fupports, being made to
form branchy heads at thefe heights, fome running up more
or lefs for the fake of greater variety. The large growing
forts may hkewife, in fome cafes, be planted out againit
walls, pales, &c. and be trained laterally as well as in an up-
right manner to fome confiderable extent.
Some plants of the early forts, as the monthly, &c. may
alfo be fet ont in warm fituations for more early blowing,
and be treated in the fame way.
But in the gardens about the metropolis, where large
quantities of flowers of this kind are wanted for fale, the
plants are generally fet out in clofe rows, being put into the
ground, in a fort of trench planting manner, at the diftance
of about a foot from eachother, and afterwards kept down
to the height of from not more than one to three feet, ac-
cording to the forts and circumftances by cutting them over,
or chipping them, every autumn or winter, at the top and on
the fides, by which lateral branches are fent off in greater
abundance for future flowering.
All good gardens fhould moftly be poffefled of the dif-
I
ferent forts of thefe flowers, as they are eafily procured, and
multiply in an expeditious manner.
Some of the beft forts of thefe plants may further alfo
occafionally be put in pots for the purpofe of being fet out
conveniently in different parts for the fake of ornament.
And where there are the conveniencies of hot-houfes and
forcing-frames, it may, in many cafes, be defirable and
proper to place fome of the prime forts in pots for the pur-
pole of being forced in fuch places for an early blow by
means of artificial heat. In this way they may be made to
flower either in the winter or early {pring months. In which
intention fome potted plants of the monthly, common, or
mofs Proverice, or other choice forts of rofes, mutt, in the
winter, be fet in the above fort of frame, wrought by dung,
bark, or fire heat, or in a hot-houfe, which is by much the
beft, and be, by fuch means properly applied, forced into
blow in the begmning of the new year and in fucceffion for
the two following months, and until the plants in the
natural open ground begin to flower, different fucceffional
{upplies of plants being fo placed at the diftance of every
two or three weeks.
For this ufe a quantity of plants fhould, in general, be an-
nually potted, which, if they have bad a fummer’s growth
in the pots, plunged in the ground, before they are em-
ployed in this way, it will be the better, as they will be
more firmly rooted, and confequently blow in greater per-
fection and beauty. See Forcine, and Forcinc-Frame.
It is not unufual for the gardeners in the vicinity of the
metropolis to form conveniencies of the above kinds in order
to force flower-plants of this nature, as there is almo{t con-
ftantly a great demand and ready fale for them, at an early
feafon, while they are in flower in the pots, as well as when
the flowers are gathered in nofegays and other ways. They
often pay extremely well in this manner of cultivating them.
Almoit all the open ground forts delight in a rich moift
foil and an open fituation, in which they produce a greater
quantity of flowers, and thofe much fairer, than when they
are upon a dry foil, or in a fhady fituation. The pruning
which they afterwards require, is only to cut out their dead
wood, and take off all their fuckers, which fhould be done
every autumn ; and if there are any very luxuriant branches,
which draw the nourifhment from the other parts of the
plant, they fhould be taken out, or fhortened, to caufe
them to produce more branches, if there be occafion for
them to fupply a vacancy ; but it is beft to avoid crowding
them with branches, which is as injurious to thefe plants as
to fruit-trees; for if the branches have not equal benefit
from the fun and air, they will nat produce their flowers
fo ftrong, or in fo great plenty, as when they are. more
open, and better expofed to the fun, fo as to have a more
free circulation of air. As the mofs Provence rofe feldom
fends out fuckers, and does not itrike very freely by layers,
it is often increafed by budding it upon flocks of the other
forts; but the plants are beft when raifed from layers.
In general the bet fort for flowering early and late is the
monthly, next to which in flowering in the open air is the
cinnamon, which is immediately followed by the damafl
rofe, then the blufh, York, and Lancatter ; after which,
the Provence, Dutch hundred-leaved, white, and molt
other forts ; and the lateft forts are the Virginian and mufk
rofes, which, if planted in a fhady fituation, feldom flower
until September, and if the autumn proves mild, continue
often till the middle of OGtober. And the plants of the
two forts of mufk rofes fhould be placed againit a wall,
pale, or other building, that their branches may be fup-
ported, otherwife they are fo flender and weak as to trail
upor
ROS
upon the ground. Thefe plants fhould not be pruned until
fpring, becaufe their branches are fomewhat tender; fo
that when they are cut in winter, they often die after the
knife ; thefe produce their flowers at the extremity of the
fame year’s fhoots in large bunches, fo that their branches
mutt not be fhortened in the fummer, leit the flowers fhould
be cut off. ‘The fhrubs will grow to be ten or twelve feet
high, and mutt not be checked in their growth, if intended to
flower well. They are all highly ornamental plants, moftly
for the fhrubbery borders and clumps, being planted accord-
ing to their habits of growth.
Rosa, Satvator, in Biography, fo well known among
the cognofcenti as the author of fpirited and extravagant
pictures of banditti, &e., was born at Naples in 1614,
and received his firft’ knowledge of defign from his kial-
man, FI’. Francazano ; but by the death of his father, being
reduced to extreme poverty, he was conltrained to provide
himfelf a maintenance by fketching defigns upon paper,
and felling them at any price he could obtain.
In that wretched fituation he laboured for fome time,
till one of his defigns, an hiftorical fubje& of Hagar and
Ifhmael, accidentally happened to fall into the hands of
Lanfranc. Pleafed with the ability it difplayed, he eagerly
enquired for the artift ; and as foon as he became acquainted
with him, took him under his proteétion, and provided for
him generoufly. This unexpeéted and happy change in his
circumitances, enabled Salvator to purfue his ftudies with
more effect ; and he foon acquired confiderable eminence,
and his works were eagerly fought after.
The ftyle which he formed is ‘peculiarly his own, and
his beft produCtions are beautiful imitations of nature; but
in general his works are artificial combinations, and wrought
with extravagance; the fpirit and fire with which they are
- executed, too frequently giving them a confequence and a
name they do not deferve. This, indeed, may perhaps be
faid, that half the pictures which go under his name, are
fpurious or heavy imitations, and he pays the tax which
all mannerifts, like him, mutt fubmit to.
He certainly poflefled a comprehenfive genius; and was
an excellent fatirical poet, as well as an ingenious painter.
In landfcape painting he was entirely original, delight-
ing in fcenes of defolation and terror; thefe he peopled
with banditti repofing, or lurking for their prey, or dividing
their fpoils ; lonely fhepherds, or forlorn traveilers. Some-
times he attempted to create an interett by filling the fcene
he drew with fome facred or hiftoric fubje&, but in this he
feldom fucceeded ; his figures being ill proportioned, falfely
attired, and void of expreflion. In colour he fometimes
attained excellence. The dull, low, or lurid tone, which
fo juftly becomes the charaéter of lenelinefs, of foretts
almoft impenetrable, or dreadful to fee, and conveying
ideas of danger in their afpet, he frequently prefented
moft perfe&tly ; and wrought the various parts with the
greateft freedom of touch, and the utmoft readinefs of in-
vention. His pictures are not unfrequent in our collections
in this country ; and genuine ones of the firft quality are
fold at extravagant prices. He died at the age of 59, in
the year 1673.
Among mufical MSS. purchafed at Rome in 1770, was
the mufic-book of Salvator Rofa, the painter, in which are
contained, not only airs and cantatas fet by Cariflimi, Cetti,
Luigi, Cavalli, Legrenzi, Capellini, Pafqualini, and Ban-
dini, of which the words of feveral are by Salvator Rofa;
but eight entire cantatas written, fet, and tranfcribed by
this celebrated painter himfelf. The book was purchafed
of his great grand-daughter, who inhabited the houfe in
which her anceftor lived and died. The hand-writing was
ROS
alcertained by collation with his letters and fatires, of which
the originals are {till preferved by his defcendants. The
hiftorians of Italian poetry, though they often mention
Salvator as a fatirift, feem never to have heard of his lyrical -
productions ; and as this book is not only curious for the
mulic it contains, but the poetry, we fhall be fomewhat
minute in our account of its contents.
The firft compofition in this MS. was luckily a fcene in
Cefti’s opera of Orontea, which it would have been difficult
to have Band elfewhere ; for of the many hundred operas
that were compofed for the different theatres of Italy,
during the lait century, except two or three that have been
printed, an entire copy, in {core, it would be difficult to find,
if not impoffible.
If. Is a cantata by Capellini, a compofer of no great
eminence ;. yet there is in it a very pleafing air in triple
time of 3, in which the crotchets are exprefled by minims
hooked or tied like quavers.
III. Is an elegant fimple air, by Legrenzi, fung to two
different ftanzas. See Lrcrenzi.
IV. Is a beautiful Siciliana by Cavalli, the compofer of
Erifmena. See CAVALLI.
V. Is a cantata written by Salvator Rofa, and fet by
Cefti. Recitative had not, as yet, banifhed formal clofes,
or regular modulation, which encroached too much upon
air, and deftroyed its narrative and declamatory plainnefs
and fimplicity.
Salvator was either the moft miferable or the moft dif-
contented of men. Molt of his cantatas are filled with
the bittereft complaints, either againft his miftrefs, or man-
kind in general. In this he fays, that he has had more
misfortunes than there are ttars in the firmament, and that
he has lived fix luttres (thirty years) without the enjoy-
ment of one happy day.
VI. Isacantata fet by Luigi, almoft wholly in recitative,
which, but for the formality of the clofes, would be ad-
mirable. See Luiat.
VII, Another cantata by the fame compofer, of which
the words are very beautiful.
VIII. A cantata fet by Cariflimi, in which the melody
is impaffioned, and the recitative admirable. See Caris+
SIMI.
IX. Isa pleafing and natural air by Mare Antonio Paf-
qualini, which is repeated to different ftanzas. The compofer
of this air was admitted into the Papal chapel in 16305
and from the year 1643 to 1670, he was a favourite ftage-
finger, with a foprano voice. Many of his compofitions
are preferved in the colleétions of the time, in which more
grace and facility appear than force and Fae.
X. A cantata, of which the words are by Salvator Rofa,
and the mufic by Cefti. There are great ftrength and ima-
gination in this poetry.
In the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli de’ PP.
Certofini, at Rome, where Salvator Rofa was buried, there
is an infcription on his tomb, at which Crefcimbeni, a Flo-
rentine, is angry; as it gives him i primato fopra tutti t
Rimaitori Tofcani. This, like almoft all monumental praife,
is certainly hyperbolical; but Salvator’s poetry feems to
have great merit for its boldnefs and originality ; it is in-
deed fomewhat rough, even in his lyrics; and his fatires
are often coarfe ; but he appears to us always more pithy
than his contemporaries, whom Marini’s atfeétation had
perhaps enervated and corrupted. 5
Salvator’s cantata, of which we are now fpeaking, is
the incantation of a female, diftratted with love, difappoint-
ment, and revenge. This lyric poem feems to have fur-
nifhed ideas to the ‘author of Purcell’s Mad Befs.—*« 2
ROS
the croaking of the toad,” &c. And in Salvator all
the charms and fpells of the witches in Macbeth are
mvoked. :
XI. Isa gloomy, grumbling hiftory of this painter and
poet-mufician’s life, in which the comic exaggeration is not
unpleafant ; but it is rather a fatire on the times in which
he lived, than a lyric compofition.. However, it is fet by
Bandini; but being chiefly narrative, the mufic is almoft
wholly recitative ; {carcely any meafured melody being intro-
duced, except to the firft line, which ferves as a refrein, or
‘burden.
XII. Is an excellent cantata on the torments of jealou/y,
fet by Luigi, in which there is more air and lefs recitative
than ufual at this period.
XIII. Is a fingle air by Aleflandro Scarlatti, which
muit have been produced early in that great compofer’s life ;
as Salvator, in whofe hand-writing it is entered in his book,
died in 1675 (Orlandi Abcdario Pittorico) ; fome writers
fay in 1673. See SCARLATTI.
XIV. and XV. Are two fingle airs by Legrenzi, of
which the melody is pleafing ; they were perhaps fung in
operas. ‘The mufic of all the reft of the cantatas and fongs
in this book, amounting to eight, is of Salvator’s own com-
pofition, and is not only admirabie for a dilettante, but in
point of melody fuperior to that of moft of the matters of
his time.
The two firft are cantatas, but fo ill written as to be
difficult to read. The third begins with a pleafing air;
and the fourth with fuch a fpirited mevement as the feven-
teenth century feldom produced. T'wo other airs in the
fame cantata are well accented, and pleafing. In the reci-
tative of the fafth cantata, fome of the firft true clofes
secur that we have met with in narrative melody. There
are feveral airs in this and the reft of Salvator’s cantatas
on pleafing fubjects, and treated in a manner above medio-
crity. The lait of his airs is chiefly remarkable for its
moving bafe: and if we only fuppofe this cantata to have
been compofed juft before the author’s death, it will be of
a higher date than the publication, or perhaps the exiltence
of any of Corelli’s works, who is fuppofed to have been the
inventor of this kind of pendulum bafe ; which, however,
frequently occurs in the cantatas of Cefti.
Whoever is curious to fee fpecimens of Salvator Rofa’s
mufical compofitions, may find in the fourth volume of
Burney’s Gen. Hitt. Muf. fragments, not only of his
own produétions, but of his contemporary compofers of
eminence, whofe works he thought worth entering in his
mufic-book. Signorelli, tom. v. p. 338.
Rosa pa Tivotr. See Roos.
Rosa, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the E. coatt of
Sardinia. N. lat. 39° 5’. E. long. 9° 3!.—Alfo, a town
of Germany, in the county of Henneberg ; five miles S.
of Saltzungen.—Alfo, a town of Spain, in the province
of Seville ; eight miles S. of San Lucar. i
Rosa. See St. Rofa.
Rosa, Cape, a cape on the coaft of Algiers. N. lat.
37° 2!. E. long. 8° 5!.
Rosa, Mount, an eminence of the Alps, reckoned the
fecond mountain of that famous ridge, lying about midway
between Great St. Bernard and the lake of Locarno. M.
Sauflure vifited this mountain, which has been reckoned
only 60 feet inferior in height to Mont Blanc, this
being eftimated about 14,700 feet above the level of
the fea. But in fir George Shuckburgh’s table of heights
taken. by the barometer, &c. (Phil. Tranf. vol. lxvi.
p- 592.) Mont Blanc is elevated 14,432 feet above the
lake of Geneva, and 15,662 feet above the Mediterranean ;
ROS
and mount Rofa, as meafured geometrically by Father
Beccaria, is 15,084 feet above the fame fea.
Rosa Crucis, in Church Hiftory. See Rosycructans.
Rosa Fatuina, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the piony.
a Rosa Junonis, a name given by fome authors to the
ily.
ROSACE#, the g2d natural order in Juffieu’s fyftem,
the roth of his r4th clafs. See FicorpEes, for the diftinc-
tions of that clafs. The charaéters of this large and im-
portant order, named from the Rofe, and rofe-like flowers,
which compofe it, are the following.
Calyx either fuperior, and tubular; or inferior, pitcher
or wheel-fhaped; its limb moftly divided, and generally
permanent. Petals definite, ufually five, inferted into the
upper part of the calyx and alternate with its divifions ;
fometimes-wanting. Stamens indefinite, rarely definite,’in-
ferted into the fame part below the petals; anthers often
roundifh. Germen in fome cafes fimple, inferior, the fiyles
and ftigmas moftly numerous; in others fuperior, fimple,
with one ftyle, or manifold with many ftyles; the ftyles in
every inftance lateral, or proceeding from the fide of each
germen. Structure of the fruit various; in fome an in-
ferior apple, of many cells, or a fort of cup or urn, ap-
parently inferior, bearing many feeds, over which it clofes;
in others the feeds, or feed-veflels, each of one cell, and
moftly fingle-feeded, indefinite or definite, are fuperior,
ftanding on a common receptacle; in others, again, there
is either a folitary fuperior capfule of one cell ; or a fuperior
nut, with one or two feeds, which is either naked, or in-
vefted with a drupaceous coat. The {car of each /eed is
lateral, juft below the fummit, connected by a thread, or
umbilical cord, with the lower part of the feed-veflel. Cor-
culum ftraight, without an albumen. Stem herbaceous,
fhrubby, or arboreous. Leaves either fimple or compound,
alternate, accompanied by /fipulas.
SeGtion 1. Pomace®. Germen fimple, inferior, with
many ftyles. Apple umbilicated, or bordered, with the limb of
the calyx, of many cells. ‘Trees or fhrubs.—This feétion
contains the Linnzan genera of Pyrus, (from which Juffieu
Sete Malus and Cydonia,) Mefpilus, Crataegus, and
orbus.
Sect. 2. Rosx properly fo called. Germens feveral,
indefinite, invefted with the urn-like calyx contraded at the top,
Jo that they feem inferior ; each accompanied by one fiyle. Seeds
as many. Shrubs.—Ro/a here {tands alone.
Se&t. 3. SaxGuisorsz. Germens feveral, definite, rarely
folitary, invefted with cup-like calyu contraéed at the top, fo
that they Jeem inferior 3 each with one fiyle. Seeds as many.
Moftly herbaceous, many of them without petals, many
with a definite number of ftamens, fome with {ftamens and
piltils in feparate flowers.
Poterium, Sanguiforba, Ancifirum, Acena, Agrimonia, Neu-
rada, Cliffortia, Aphanes, Alchimilla, and Sibbaldia.
Se&. 4. Porentinte. Germens feveral, indefinite, truly
Superior, flanding on a common receptacle, each with one
Jyle. Seeds as many, naked, rarely pulby.—Herbs, rarely
fhrubs.
Tormentilla, Potentilla, Fragaria, Comarum, Geum, Dryas,
Rubus ; to which is to be added our Duche/nea, (fee Fra-
GARIA, at the conclufion) now defcribed in Tr. of Linn.
Soc. v. 10. 372.
Se&. 5. Sprrem. Germens feveral, definite, fuperior,
each with one fiyle. Capfules as many, with one or more feeds.
—Shrubs, rarely herbs.
Spiraea, Suriana, and Tetracera.
Se@. 6. Procxim, Germen jingle, fuperior, with one
Sfayle.
ROS
Sfyle. Fruit of one cell, with one or more Seeds. —Trees or
fhrubs, fometimes deftitute of petals.
Tigarea of Aublet; Delima, Prockia, and Hirtella of,
Linneus.
Se&. 7. AmyaGpaLe®. Germen fingle, fuperior, with
one fiyle. Nut either naked, or more ufually invefted with a
pulpy coat, and containing one or two feeds.
_ Hedycrea of Schreber, which is Aublet’s Licania ; Gran-
geria of Commerfon ; Chry/obalanus of Linneus; Cera/us,
Prunus and Armeniaca of ‘Vournefort, all three included in
the Linnean Prunus ; Amygdalus of Tournefort and Lin-
nezus, including Perfica of the former ; Moguilea, Couepia,
and Acioa of Aublet, (the latter Schreber’s Acia); and
Parinari of Aublet, which is Schreber’s Petrocarya.
Se&. 8. Genera akin to the Rofacee.
Plinia of Plumier and Linnzus, the uncertainty of whofe
hiftory we have fully explained ; fee Prinia.
Calycanthus, allied by its fruit to Rofa, but the leaves
are oppofite and fimple, and the flower in a manner
apetalous.
Ludia of Commerfon ; Blackwellia of the fame author ;
Homalium of Jacquin and Linneus; and Napimoga of
Aublet.. The three laft appear to conftitute one genus ;
fee HoMALium.
ROSACEOUS Corotta, is one which confilts of
feveral petals ranged in a circle; fo that, according to
Tournefort’s acceptation of the word, it includes, not only
the natural order of Rosace®, (fee that article,) and other
flowers agreeing therewith in having moftly five petals, as
Ranunculus ; but even fuch as have only two, like Circea.
The author is obliged to exclude the Cruciform and Um-
belliferous plants from this order by a particular and
arbitrary exception; for according to his primary idea,
it would admit every polypetalous regular flower, as
well as fome that are irregular, as Caffia, &c. See Co-
ROLLA.
ROSACLORUM, or, according to fome authors, Rof-
chiero, a fine red ufed to enamel on gold with. It is pre-
pared in this manner: take ten pounds of cryttal-glafs,
put it into 2 pot, and when it is well melted, add to it, at
twice, a pound of the belt red-lead; ftir the mafs well
together, and afterwards caft it mto water. Repeat this
procefs three times, then when the matter is again in fufion,
mix with it five ounces of calcined brafs, and the fame
quantity of the deepeft cinnabar ; ftir the whole well to-
gether, and let it fettle three hours; then add of glafs of
tin three ounces, mix the whole, and it will be of a fine
rofe-colour. Merret’s Notes on Neri, p. 350.
ROSADE, a kind of liquor, prepared of pounded
almonds and milk, mixed with clarified fugar.
ROSALBA, Carrirra, in Biography, was of Chiozza,
and carried crayon painting to a high degree of perfection.
Orlandi celebrates her miniatures. Her crayon painting
arrives, not feldom, at the ftrength of painting in oil. Her
portraits fpread all over Europe, are as elegant and graceful
in conception and attitude, as frefh, neat, and alluring in
colour. Her Madonnas, and other facred fubje&s, rife from
grace to dignity, and even majefty. Equal and inceffant
application deprived her of fight during the lait ten years
of her life. She died in 1757, at the age of 82.
Rofalba is celebrated by Walther for her mufical talents
and exquifite ta{te in finging.
ROSALE, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Fars, or Fartiftan; 15 miles W. of Kazeron.
ROSALGATE, Carr. See RasatcGara.
ROSALIA, a name ufed by authors for the meafles, or
ROS
a difeafe very like the meafles, confifting of a number of afpe-
rities and protuberances of the fkin, which foen die away.
Rosaria, in Mufic. See Repetirions.
ROSALIND, a mafk, written by Lockman, fet b
Smith for Hickford’s rooms, and performed there in fill
life, oratorio wife, in 1740. This little drama would not
be mentioned here, as the poetry is upon a level with Mr.
Lockman’s other produétions ; and of the mufic we know
nothing, as it was never publifhed. But as, “to raife
the pamphlet price a fhilling,” the poetry is preceded by
“¢ inquiries into the origin of operas.”’
ROSAMARINA, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in
the valley of Demona, at the mouth of a river of the
fame name, which runs into the fea, 10 miles N.E. of
Mittretta.
ROSAMOND, in Biography, daughter of lord Clif.
ford, was a young lady of great beauty, fine accomplifh-
ments, and endowed with the moit engaging wit and fweet-
nefs of temper. She had been educated, according to the
cuftom of the times, in the nunnery of Godftow, and the
popular hiftory of her is as follows. Henry II. of England
faw her, was {mitten with her:beauty, and triumphed over
her honour. To avoid the jealoufy of his queen, Eleanor,
he kept her in a labyrinth at Woodftock, and by his con-
neCtion with her had two children, who were afterwards
William Longfword, earl of Salifbury, and Geoffrey,
bifhop of Lincoln. On Henry’s abfence in France, the
queen found means to difcover her, and, jealous of her great
beauty, caufed her to be poifoned. This flory is not well
fupported by hiftorical documents. Several writers men-
tion no more of her, than that the queen caufed her to be
fo haraffed, that fhe did not long furvive after fhe was
difcovered. Other writers affert, that fhe died a natural
death, and the ftory of her being pvifoned is fuppofed to
haye arifen from the figure of a cup being placed on her
tomb. She was buried in the church of Godttow, op-
pofite to the high altar, where her body remained till it
was ordered to be removed with every mark of difgrace by
Hugh, bifhop of Lincoln, in 1191. By many, however,
fhe has been regarded as a faint, but her hiftory is in every
refpeét very uncertain. See Grofe’s Antiq. of Eng. and
Wales.
Rosamonp, an Englifh opera, written by Addifon on
the Italian model. After the great fuccefs of Arfinoe and
Camilla in 1705 and 1706, in which the dialogue was
wholly {poken in recitative, and the performers all Englifh
fingers ; in 1707, notwithitanding the deficiencies of thofe
dramas in poetry, mulic, and performance (for as yet no
foreign compofer or captivating finger was arrived) this
kind of exhibition became fo formidable to our own ators,
that a fubfcription was opened the beginning of this year,
“‘ for the encouragement of the comedians aéting in the
Tiaymarket, and to enable them to keep the diverfion of
plays under a feparate intereft from operas.”? Daily
Courant, January 14th, Cibber gives a circumftantial ac-
count of this humiliating tranfa€tion, and {peaks of its fuc-
cefs with confiderable triumph. See Crayton.
The verfes of Rofamond are highly polifhed, and more
lyrical perhaps than in any poem of the fame kind in our
language. And yet this drama is not wholly free from
opera abfurdities, on which Addifon was afterwards fo
feverely pleafant. For inftance, the king’s approach to
the fecret bower of blifs, where his fair Rofamond was
treafured up from the refentment of his jealous queen, is
always announced and publifhed by a loud concert of milh-
tary inftruments: AG 1. fe, 1.
** Hark,
ROS
s¢ Hark, hark! what found invades my ear?
The conqueror’s approach I hear.
He comes, victorious Henry comes!
Hautbois, trumpets, fifes, and drums,
In dreadful concert join’d,
Send from afar the found of war,
<ind fill with horror ev’ry wind.”
It was the fafhion in almoft all the ferious operas that
were written in Italy, before the time of Apoftolo Zeno
and Metattafio, to mix comic and buffoon characters with
the tragic, even in dramme facri, notwith{tanding the feverity
of fome Italian critics upon our Shakfpeare for the fame
practice.
And Mr. Addifon has fully complied with this cuftom,
in the charaéters of fir Trufty and Grideline, which are of
the loweft {pecies of comic.
If it can be proved that gunpowder was invented, and
in military ufe in the time of Henry II. Mr. Addifon was
guilty of an anachronifm in making him afk,
«© Why did I not in battle fall
Crufn’d by the thunder of the Gaul 2”?
The lofs of Rofamond in the fecond aé& of this drama
is not compentated by a fingle interefting event in the third,
which drags and languifhes for want of her fo much, that
neither the flat and forced humour of fir Trufty and Gride-
line, nor the elegant compliments made to the duke of
Marlborough and Blenheim, ever kept the audience awake
in the performance. -
In 1733, Rofamond was fet by Mr. (afterwards Dr.)
Arne, his: firft attempt at dramatic mufic, in the per-
formance of which his fifter, Mifs Arne, afterwards
the juftly celebrated a¢trefs Mrs. Cibber, performed the
part of Rofamond. The airs in this coup d’effai of Arne,
were extremely pleafing, and far fuperior to thofe of any
Englifh compofer of that period. Many of them were
afterwards fung at Vauxhall by Mrs. Arne and Low with
great applaufe. «* Was ever Nymph like Rofamond,”’
was long in univerfal favour all over the kingdom.
ROSAN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of War-
faw, on the Narew; 110 miles E. of Thorn.
ROSANA, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Inn, near Landeck, in the county of Tyrol.
ROSANI, Cape, a cape onthe coaft of Romania, in the
Grecian Archipelago. N. lat. 40° 35’. E.long. 24° 14’.
ROSANNA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 36 miles W. of Novogrodek.
ROSARBA, in Botany, the name of an imaginary
plant, which has given great trouble to the commentators
on the works of the ancients.
The Arabian writers, Avicenna, Serapion, and others,
have mentioned two kinds of carob or ceration; the one
efculent, and endowed with the virtue of a gentle purga-
tive, the other an aftringent.
This laft they have diftinguifhed from the other by the
name of the nabathean pod or aljembut. They fay in
their defcriptions, that the aljembut is like the rofarba ;
fo run the old tranflations, but the true meaning of the
original is rofa vinez. This was a name given to the com-
mon wild acacia-tree, and the tree which produced the
nabathzan pod, might be very well likened to this; it be-
ing, in reality, only a {pecies of the acacia, and the fuccus
acaciz, or infpiffated acacia juice of the fhops, being, ac-
cording to Ifidore, made oftentimes from the unripe fruit
of this very fpecies.
ROS
ROSARIA, among the Romans, a kind of perfumes,
fo called either from their being chiefly made of rofes, or
becaufe they had a moft exquifite odour.
ROSARIO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh
main, near the coaft of Carthagena. N. lat. 10° 5’. W.
long. 75° 56'.—Alfo, a town of New Navarre; 30 miles
S.W. of Cafa Grande.—Alfo, a town of South America,
in the province of Tucuman ; 78 miles N. of St. Miguel
de Tucuman.—Alfo, a town of Brazil, in the government
of Minas Geraes; 220 miles N. of Villa Rica.—Alfo,
a town of North America, in the county of California;
30 miles S.W. of Loreto.—Alfo, a town of the ifland of
Cuba; 45 miles S. of Havannah.
Rosario, £/, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Chiapa; 140 miles S.E. of Chiapa dos Efpagnols.
Rosario, or Neuffra Senhora del Rofario, a canal of a
ftrait in the gulf of Georgia, which feparates the ifland of
Florida from America; about 30 miles in length. At the
S.E. extremity the 5 is fix miles broad; but towards
the N.W. its breadth is gradually diminifhed to two miles,
in its narrowelt part.
ROSARUM Acetum. See Acrrum.
ROSARUOLO, in Geography, a town of LIftria;
8 miles E. of Capo d’Iittria.
ROSARY, inthe Romi/b Church, a chaplet confifting
of five or fifteen decads of beads, to dire& the recitation of
fo many Ave Maria’s, in honour of the Virgin.
Rosary alfo denotes a particular mafs or form of devo-
tion addrefled to the Virgin, to which the chaplet of that
name is accommodated. It confifts of fifteen repetitions of
the Lord’s prayer, and an hundred and fifty falutations of
the blefled Virgin; whilft the crown, as it is called, ac-
cording to the different opinions of the learned concerning
the age of the Virgin, confifts of fix or feven repetitions
of the Lord’s prayer, and fix or feven times ten falutations
or Ave Maria’s.
Some attribute the inftitution of the rofary to St. Do-
minic ; but F. d’Achery fhews it was in ufe the year 1100;
fo that St. Dominic could only make it more celebrated.
Others attribute it to Paulus Libycus, and others to St.
Benedié& ; others to the Chartreux; others to Venerable
Bede; and, finally, others to Peter the Hermit. Thofe
who afcribe it to St: Dominic, differ as to the particular
time of its inftitution ; fome referring it to the year 1208,
when he preached againft the Albigenfes ; others will have
him to have fet it on foot in the courfe of his miffions in
Spain, before he paffed into France.
Rosary, Order of the, or of cur Lady ef the Rofary, is
an order of knights, fuppofed by Schoonebeck, and the
Jefuit Bonanni, to have been initituted by St. Dominic,
but by miltake; for that faint never inftituted any order,
under this name, and thefe authors apparently make a mili-
tary order of an army of croifes, who, under the command
of the count de Montfort, fought againit the Albigenfes.
The abbot Juftiniani, and. M. Hermant, .will have this
order to have been eftablifhed by an archbifhop of Toledo,
named Frederic, after St. Dominic’s death; and to have
borne for a badge a black and white crofs, in the middle of
which was reprefented our Lady, holding her little fon in
one hand, and in the other a rofary. F. Mendo adds, that
they were obliged to rehearfe the rofary on certain days.
After all, F. Helyot doubts whether or no fuch an order
in reality ever exilted. Edmondfon refers the inflitution of
this order to the year 1212; and he fays, the badge of the
order was a crofs patonce per crofs countercharged argent
and fable, furmounted on the centre with a medal or, ena-
: melle¢
ROS
melled with the image of the Virgin, fupporting the infant
in one hand, and holding a rofary in the other, all proper.
The order of the « Celettial Collar of the Holy Rofary”’ is
a religious order for ladies, inftituted at the requeit of father
Francis Arnoul, a Dominican, by queen Anne of Auttria,
widow of the French king Lewis XIII., and mother of
Lewis XIV., for fifty young ladies of the firft families in
_ France. The collar of the order was compofed of a blue
ribbon, enriched with white, red, and maiden’s blufh rofes,
interlaced with the capital letters a. v. in cypher affixed
to it; and pendent at the breaft by a filk cordon, a crofs
of eight points pomettée, and in each angle a fleur-de-lis :
on the centre the image of the Virgin Mary, and on the
reverfe the image of St. Dominic, enamelled.
Rosary is a word frequently met with in the ancient
hiftories of Ireland, and-ufed to exprefs a peculiar fort of
bafe money coined abroad, in the form of the penny, cur-
rent in that kingdom; but of fo much bafer an alloy, that
it was not worth quite half the real value of the penny.
This and many other fuch coins were decried, and it was
made death to import any of them, by Edward I., in 1300.
Rosary, Perfian, a beautiful compendium of oriental
ethics, written by a Perfian poet, whofe name was Eddin
Sadi; who, about the middle of the 13th century, when
the Turks invaded Perfia, withdrew from his own country,
and fettled at Bagdad, for the purpofe of profecuting his
ftudies. After experiencing much viciflitude of fortune,
he returned home, and compiled the book juft mentioned,
which he completed in the year 1257. This book, we are
informed, has been univerfally read in the Eatt; and has
been tranflated into Latin, and into feveral modern languages.
Ass our readers in general may not have accefs to the ori-
ginal work, which is divided into eight chapters, nor to
extraéts from it, we fhall here fwbjoin, both for their in-
formation and amufement, the following citations.
1. Paradife will be the reward of thofe kings who re-
ftrain their refentment, and know how to forgive. A king,
who inftitutes unjuft laws, undermines the foundation of his
kingdom. Let him, who negleéts to raife the fallen, tear,
left when he himfelf falls, no one will ftretch out his hand
to lift him up. Adminifter juftice to your people, for a
day of judgment is at hand. The difhoneft fteward’s hand
will fhake, when he comes to render an account ef his truft.
Be juit, and fear not. Opprefs not thy fubjects, left the
fighing of the oppreffed fhould afcend to heaven. If you
with to be great, be liberal; for, unlefs you fow the feed,
there can be no increafe. A/ffift and relieve the wretched,
for misfortunes may happen to yourfelf. Wound no man
unneceflarily ; there are thorns enough in the path of human
life. If a king take an apple from the garden of a fub-
ject, his fervants will foon cut down the tree. The flock
is not made for the fhepherd, but the fhepherd for’ the
flock.
2. Excel in good works, and wear what you pleafe: in-
nocence and piety do not confiit in wearing an old or coarfe
garment. Learn virtue from the vicious ; and what offends
you in their conduét, avoid in your own. If you have re-
ceived an injury, bear it patiently: by pardoning the of-
fences of others, you will wafh away your own. Him,
who has been every day conferring upon you new favours,
pardon, if, in the {pace of a long life, he fhould have once
done youaninjury. Refpeét the memory of the good, that
your good name may live for ever.
3. In your adverfity, do not vifit your friend with a fad
countenance ; for you will embitter his cup: relate even
your misfortunes with a {mile ; for wretchednefs will never
reach the heart of a cheerful man. He who lives upon the
VoL. XXX. ;
ROS
fruits of his own labour, efcapes the contempt of haughty
benefactors. Always encounter petulance with gentlenefs,
and perverfenefs with kindnefs: a gentle hand will lead the
elephant itfelf by a hair. When once you have offended a
man, do not prefume that a hundred benefits will fecure you
from revenge: an arrow may be drawn out of a wound, but
an injury is never forgotten. Worfe than the venom of a
ferpent is the tongue of an enemy, who pretends to be
your friend.
4. It is better to be filent upon points we underftand,
than to be put to fhame by being queitioned upon things of
which we are ignorant. A wife man will not contend with
a fool. It isa certain mark of folly, as well as rudenefs, to
{peak whilft another is fpeaking. If you are wife, you will
{peak lefs than you know.
5. Although you can repeat every word of the Koran,
if you fuffer yourfelf to be enflaved by love, you have not
yet learned your alphabet. The immature grape is four ;
wait a few days, and it will become fweet. If you refift
temptation, do not affure yourfelf that you fhall efcape
flander. ‘The reputation, which has been fifty years in
building, may be thrown down by one blaft of calumny.
Liiten not to the tale of friendfhip, from the man who has
been capable of forgetting his friend in adverfity.
6. Perfeverance accomplifhes more than precipitation ;
the patient mule, which travels flowly night and day, will
in the end go further than an Arabian courfer. If you are
old, leave Parts and jelts to the young: the ftream, which
has pafled away, will not return into its channel.
' 7. InftruGion is only profitable to thofe who are capable
of receiving it: bring an afs to Mecca, and it will {till re-
turn an afs. If you would be your father’s heir, learn his
wifdom: his wealth you may expend in ten days. He who
is tin@tured with good principles while he is young, when
he is grown old will not be deftitute of virtue. If a man
be deftitute of knowledge, prudence, and virtue, his door-
keeper may fay, Nobody is at home. Give advice where
you ought ; if it be not regarded, the fault is not yours.
8. Two kinds of men labour in vain: they who get
riches, and do not enjoy them; and they who learn wif-
dom, and do not apply it to the condu& of life. A wife
man, whois not at the fame time virtuous, is a blind man
carrying a lamp: he gives light to others, whilft he himfelf
remains in darknefs. If you wifh to fleep foundly, provide
for to-morrow. Truftno man, even your belt friend, with
a fecret ; you will never find a more faithful guardian of the
truft than yourfelf. Let your misfortunes teach you com-
paffion: he knows the condition of the wretched, who has
himfelf been wretched. Exceflive vehemence creates en-
mity ; exceflive gentlenefs, contempt: be neither fo fevere,
as to be hated; nor fo mild, as to be infulted. He who
throws away advice upon a conceited man, himfelf wants an
advifer. Ina fingle hour you may difcover, whether a man
has good fenfe; but it will require many years to difcover
whether he has good temper. Three things are unattain-
able ; riches without trouble, fcience without controverfy,
and government without punifhment. Clemency to the
wicked is an injury to the good. If learning were banifhed
from the earth, there would, notwithitanditg, be no one
who would think himfelf ignorant. Brucker’s Hitt. of
Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii.
ROSAS, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain, in
Catalonia, on the north fide of a gulf of the Mediterranean,
to which it gives name, with a good harbour, defended by
a fort. It was anciently called “ Rhoda,” and * Rho-
dope ;”’ 22 miles N.E. of Gerona. N. lat. 42° 17/. E.
long. 3° o!.
4C€ ROSATA
ROS
ROSATA Ator. See Atoz.
ROSATE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Olona; g miles S.W. of Milan.
ROSATUM Acretrum. See Acretum.
Rosatum Vinum. See Vinum.
ROSAZZO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Friuli;
6 miles S. of Friuli. é
ROSBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Sayn; 8 miles E. of Hachenburg. See Rosspacn.
ROSBEGH Point, a cape on the welt coait of Ire-
land. N. lat. 52° 6'. W. long. 9° 52’.
ROSBOTH, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs
a foft excrefcence from any part.
ROSCHINTZE, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Natangen; 12 miles S. of Lick. :
ROSCHITZ, a town of Auftria; 2 miles S.W. of
Schrattentaal.——Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Bronn; 8 miles W. of Brunn.
ROSCIUS, Quintus, in Biography, a Roman actor of
great celebrity, was a native of Gaul. He was contem-
porary at Rome with the celebrated actor Efopus. So
great were his talents for the ftage, and fuch was the
degree of perfection to which he carried his art, that, ac-
cording to Cicero, a complete mafter in any other art was
popularly called the Roscrus of it. Rofcius was not lefs
efteemed for his morals and good conduét, than admired for
his profeffional talents. The greate{ft men in the {tate were
his intimate friends, and the lofs of him was univerfally la-
mented. ‘ Which of us,’”? fays Cicero, alluding to Rofcius
in his oration for the poet Archias, ‘* was fo rude and unfeel-
ing as not to be affected by the recent death of Rofcius, who,
though he died at an advanced age, appeared, on account
of his excellence in his art, worthy of immortal life.’? His
death took place in the year 61 B.C. He compofed a
parallel between theatrical and oratorical a¢tion, which is
loft.
There are feveral paflages in Cicero concerning Rofcius,
which, if the ancient actors, Romans as well as Greeks, did
not declaim in mufical notes, would be wholly unintelligible.
He tells us (de Orat.), that Rofcius had always faid, when
age fhould diminifh his force, he would not abandon the
{tage, but would proportion his performance to his powers,
and make mufic conform to the weaknefs of his voice;
which really happened: for the fame author informs us
(de Leg.), that in his old age he fung in a lower pitch of
voice, and made the tibicines play flower.
As there were combats, or contefts, eftablifhed by the
ancients for the voice, as well as for other parts of the Gym-
naftice, thofe who taught the management of the voice were
called Quvxcxoi, phonafci ; and under their inttructions were
put all thofe who were deftined to be orators, fingers,
and comedians. Rofcius had an academy for declamation,
at which he taught feveral perfons, preparatory to their
fpeaking in public, or going on the ftage. He had a
law-fuit with one of them, in which Cicero pleaded his
caufe.
Thefe are proofs fufficient of the dramatic declamation
ef the ancients being uttered in mufical tones, agreeing
with thofe of the mufical intlruments by which they were
accompanied. See Decramation and REciTarive.
ROSCOEA, in Botany, being a new and very diftiné&
genus of the natural order of Scitaminee, was dedicated, by
the writer of the prefent article, to his diftinguithed friend
William Rofcoe, efq. F.L.S., whofe papers in the Lin-
nean Society’s TranfaCtions, and efpecially his New Ar-
rangement of the order in queftion, printed in their eighth
volume, richly entitle him to this botanical honour. Of his
ite)
hOS
particular obfervations and difcoveries re{peéting this order,
by which he has reduced to clear f{cientific principles, what
had hitherto been an indigefted chaos, we fhall {peak under
the article ScrirAMINE#, in its proper place.—Sm. Exot.
Bot. v. 2. 97.—Clafs and order, Menandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Scitaminee, Linn. Canna, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular,
cylindrical, its limb fheathing, ere¢t, undivided, mem-
branous at the edge. Cor. of one petal, irregular; tube
fcarcely longer than the calyx, erect, ftraight, triangular
upwards: outer limb ringent, two-lipped; its upper lip
broadeft, erect, obovate, acute, concave; lower about as
long, in two deep, linear-lanceolate, acute, reflexed lobes:
inner limb ringent, two-lipped ; the upper lip ere&t, fhorter
than the outer limb, of two cohering, half-ovate lobes, ta-
pering at the bafe, and embracing the organs of fruétifica-
tion; lower much longer and broader, {preading, cloven.
Stam. Filament one, inferted into the top of the tube, fhort,
linear, channelled, ereét ; anther much longer than the fila-
ment, linear, channelled, greatly incurved, bearing pollen
in the upper part only, its bafe extended in the form of two
lanceolate, horizontal, afcending, acute, membranous,
lobes. Pi. Germen inferior, oval, very fmall; ftyle
thread-fhaped, lodged in the groove of the filament, and of
the anther, to whofe curvature it conforms; ftigma obtufe, .
concave, downy, juft projecting beyond the anther. Peric.
Capfule? we prefume it to be analogous to that of other
Scitaminea.
Eff. Ch. Anther two-lobed, incurved, terminal, em-
bracing the ftyle, with a cloven appendage at its bafe.
Outer limb of the corolla irregular; upper lip vaulted ;
lower deeply divided: inner limb in three parts, two-
lipped.
1. R. purpurea. Purple Rofcoea. Sm. Exot. Bot.
v. 2.97. t. 108. (Hatucon Swa of the Nawars of Ne-
paul. )—This plant was found at Narainhetty, in the moun-
tains of Upper Nepaul, by Dr. Francis Buchanan, flower-
ing in April 1802. _ It is the only fpecies, hitherto dif-
covered, of this very well-defined genus, which fhould be
arranged near Hepycurum and Kammprerta, (fee thofe
articles,) to both of which genera it has fome points of af-
finity ; but Rofcoea is diftinguifhed from every other known
plant of the Scitaminee, by the irregularity of its two-lipped
outer limb, and the peculiar appendages to the bafe of the
anther.
The root is perennial, of feveral, cluftered, fpreading,
oblong, tapering knobs, producing branched fibres. No
aromatic or pungent flavour is perceptible in our {pecimens.
Stem folitary, erect, a foot or more in height, fimple, leafy,
comprefled. Leaves {preading in two ranks, alternate, ob-
long, pointed, folded, wavy, entire, {mooth, with many
oblique parallel veins; pale at the under fide; fomewhat
rounded and heart-fhaped at the bafe, running down into
broad, fheathing, compreffed, furrowed, purplifh foot/alks,
which embrace and conceal the ftem. Stpula crowning the
infide of the footftalk, very fhort, entire. FJoqwers feveral,
opening in fucceffion, terminal, cluftered, feffile, erect,
large, and handfome, of a violet-purple, with whitifh or-
gans of impregnation; the tube of the calyx of each con-
cealed-by the fheaths of the upper leaves.
ROSCOFF, or Roscou, in Geography, a fea-port town
of France, in the department of Finitterre; 4 miles N. of
St. Pol de Leon. As a fea-port it is much frequented by
thofe who carry on a contraband trade with England, efpe-
cially in wine and brandy. The inhabitants ufed formerly
to import linfeed, and export linen manufactured in the
country annually to the amount of 500,000 livres. Since
the
e
ROS
the revolution this trade has been interrupted, but with the
return of peace may be eafily revived. The harbour, how-
ever, without timely precaution, is in danger of being
choaked up with fand. In the neighbourhood of the town,
and throughout the department of Finifterre, the fields are
manured with fea-weed. Wood is very fearce, and their
fruit-trees occafionally ferve for fuel. In the ifland of Bas
they burn cow-dung and fea-weed. Rofcoff contains 1000
inhabitants ; neverthelefs, the depopulation from its lofs of
trade, the arid fandy ground on which it is built, and the
defolated ruins of former eftablifhments, give the place a
melancholy appearance of defolation. In this place there is
not a fingle fountain, nor any inftitution for the inftruction
of youth, nor any regulation for preferving the health of the
inhabitants. This is faid to be the place where the che-
valier St. George landed, after his unfuccefsful attempt
in 1745.
ROSCOLA, a name given by fome medical writers to
the meafles.
ROSCOMMON, Ear! of, in Biography. See Ditton.
Roscommon, in Geography, a county of Ireland, in the
province of Connaught, is bounded on the eaft by the
river Shannon, which feparates it from the King’s county,
Weit-Meath, Longford, and Leitrim; and on the weit by
Galway, Mayo, and Sligo. Towards the north and fouth
it is contraéted into narrow necks of land, between the eait
and weft confines. According to Dr. Beaufort, its length
from north to fouth is 47 miles (60 Englifh), and its breadth,
about the middle of the county 29 (37 Englifh) miles.
The latter varies confiderably, being in fome parts lefs than
1o miles. The area meafures 346,650 acres, or 541 fquare
miles, equal to 556,847 acres, or 869 f{quare miles, Englifh
meafure. This county contains 56 parifhes, 22 of which
have churches. Of thefe the greater part are under the
fee of Elphin. When Dr. Beaufort wrote, the population
was eltimated at 86,000; what it is at prefent cannot be
afcertained. Rofcommon is a flat open country, in fome
places fprinkled with rocks, in many interrupted by exten-
‘five bogs, and but little diverfified with hills. The only
mcuntains within the county are in a narrow part between
Lough Arrow and Lough Allen; and thefe are become
valuable, on account of the coal and iron which they are
found to contain. The lofty Curlew mountains, which join
Lough Arrow, feparate this county from Sligo. The
Shannon beautifully delineates the eaftern confines, branch-
ing ina courfe of 50 miles into feveral fine lakes, of which
Lough Ree, Lough Baffin, and Lough Allen, are the largett.
The Suck divides it from Galway for a great length of way,
till it lofes its name and waters in the Shannon. A number
of {mall ftreams from the interior interfeét the county, fer-
tilizing and enlivening the fields. The largeit of the lakes
is Lough Key, in the north of the county, which is’ ren-
dered delightful by wooded iflands and furrounding groves.
The foil is fertile; lime-{tone and marle are abundant, and
the climate not fevere. The county has long been famed
for its paftures; but as population increafes, wants and
cares. are augmented, and pafturage gives way to tillage, as
a more abundant fource of bane Hence we find, that
although pafturage is calculated to cramp population, yet,
by the introdu¢tion of manufactures, it may be fo increafed,
that paftures muft be broken up and tilled. This natural
courfe of events has operated very powerfully in Rofcom-
mon. The manufacture of linen and woollen ftuffs has
been. diffuled; bounties have alfo been offered for fari-
naceous produce; and under thefe necefflities and incite-
ments, pafturage has confiderably decreafed. It has been
contended, that conyerting fuch rich paltures to tillage
ROS
mult prove a great lofs to the country; but although the
land cannot, for a confiderable time, fo fully repay the la-
bours of the hufbandman, as when ina the zenith of their
pattoral utility, yet in the end there cannot furely be a doubt
of their more amply remunerating the country. In the paf-
toral economy of this diftri& we find fheep the largeft pro-
portion of the farm-ftock : bullocks and cows form a leffer
fhares Mr. Wakefield commends the quality of both.
The farms are generally divided by ttone-walls. Agricul-
ture is in its infancy, but the abundance of lime-ftone has
contributed, in a great degree, to promote the extenfion of
tillage. This is conducted on the fame plan as in other
parts of Connaught, and is thus deferibed by Dr. M‘Parlan.
“The mode of culture is with a long narrow {pade, com-
monly called a loy. This machine they prefer to ploughs,
and affign many reafons for doing fo. The hills are very
fteep, ({peaking of Leitrim,) befet with {tones ; and not-
withftanding the foil being generally gravelly, fo tough and
retentive af wet, as to render ploughing objectionable.
They alfo complain of a fearcity of horfes: but, above all,
they affign, as a peculiar inducement, the abundance of crop
produced by the loy culture compared to that of the
plough. In fome of the more level parts, ploughing is in
practice ; and in fome others they unite both, firit plough-
ing, then mincing and dreffing with the loy. The foil
being in general of the {tiff argillaceous kind, wherever it is
fo, the potatoes are planted by dibbling with the feveen.
In a few places they plant, by f{preading the cuts on the
dung or green turf, and then digging up the furrows; and
in ftill fewer, where the foil is light and friable, they plant
potatoes by drilling with a one-horfe plough, particularly
in ftubble and old potatoe ground.’? Mr. Wakefield calls
this a faithful pi€ture cf the cultivation of this diftrié.
Rofcommon is the fhire-town, but Boyle is more thriving.
Nene of the towns are large. The county is reprefented in
parliament by two members only. Beaufort. Wakefield.
Robertfon.
Roscommon, a poft-town of Ireland, and the fhire-town
of the county of the fame name, where the affizes are held.
It is fituated about three miles from the Shannon, where it
expands into Lough Ree: It isa {mall place, agreeably
fituated, but has little trade. The ruins of a Dominicas
friary exhibit fome remains of elegant architeéture, efpe-
cially a tomb of Felim O’Connor, king of Connaught,
adorned with a number of emblematical devices. Rofcom-
mon is 69 miles W.N.W. from Dublin.
ROSCOTTY, a town of Thibet; 18 miles W. of
Sirinagur.
ROSCREA, a poft-town of the county of Tipperary,
Ireland, on the border of the King’s county. It is a neat
and thriving town. The church is very ancient, and has a
curious frontifpiece at the weft end. Near it ftands one of
the largeft round towers in Ireland, all built with fquare
ftone, which is unufual in thefe edifices. Rofcrea was once
a bifhopric, but was united with Killaloe in the twelfth
century. The large old caftle was built by the Ormond
family. It is 59 miles S.W. from Dublin.
ROSE, in Botany and Gardening. See Rosa.
It is a tradition among the ancients, that the god of love
made a prefent to Harpocrates, the god of filence, of a
beautiful rofe, the firft that had been known, to engage him
not to difcover any of the private practices of his mother
Venus. And hence it became a cuftom to have a rofe placed
in their rooms of mirth and entertainment, that under the
affurance thereof they might be induced to lay afide all con-
ftraint, and fpeak what they pleafed. Thus did the rofe
become a fymbol of filence ; fo that to be /ub rofa, under the
4C 2 rofe,
ROS
rofe, denotes as much as to be out of danger of having any
converfation divulged.
Rosr Bay. See Nerium.
Rosr, Campion. See AGROSTEMMA.
Ros, China, the name by which fome call the ketmia of
botanifts. See Hrsiscus.
Ross, Chrifimas. See HeLttEgorvus.
Ross, Corn. See Papaver.
Rose, Mountain-bay, or Dwarf-bay, a name by which
the chamerhodendros of botanifts is fometimes called. See
Kania, and RHopoDENDRUM.
Ross, Guelder, a name fometimes given to the opulus, or
water-elder. See VinurRNuUM.
Rose, Virginian Guelder. See SPiIrR#A.
Rost, Martinico. See Hreiscus. —
Ross of Jericho, a name by which fome call the hefperis.
See ANASTATICA.
Ross Mallow. See Ariza.
Rose, South Sea, a name fometimes given to the Nerium
of botanifts ; which fee.
Ross, Rock. See Cistus.
Ross-Roof. See RHODIOLA.
Ross, in the Materia Medica. The flowers of the Rofa
canina, dog-rofe, or hep, are faid by fome botanifts to be
inodorous, and yet their fragrance is often very perceptible.
The fruit called heps, or hips, has a pleafant acidulous tatte,
depending on the uncombined citric acid and fugar which
it contains. This pulpy fruit is cooling, but pofleffes no
{pecific medicinal virtue. It is ufed in the preparation of a
conferve or confection. For this purpofe the London phar-
macopeia dire¢ts a pound of the pulp and 20 ounces of re-
fined fugar, in powder, to be rubbed together until they be
well incorporated ; and in the Edinburgh Difpenfatory, it is
ordered, that the frefh fruit of the dog-rofe, carefully freed
from the feeds and inclofed {picule, be beaten into a pulp,
and, while beating, that three times its weight of double
refined fugar be gradually added. (See Conserve). Former-
ly, fays Woodville, it was efteemed ufeful in many diforders,
as dropfies, calculous complaints, dyfenteries, hemorrhages,
&c. A mofs-like excrefcence, called «* Badeguar,” ‘ Rofe-
fponge,”? and by the French “ Galle chevelué,’’ is fre-
quently found upon the branches of this tree, and is the
habitation of the infe&t called «* cynips rofe.’? This ex-
crefcence was formerly in great repute as a remedy for
various difeafes.
The Rofa centifolia, or hundred-leaved rofe, of which there
are many varieties, is improperly confounded in the Dublin
pharmacopeia with the damafk rofe, Ro/a damafcena, which
is altogether a different fpecies. The petals of this fpecies
are directed for medicinal ufe. They are of a pale red colour,
and of a very fragrant odour, which is to many people very
agreeable, and therefore this as well as mott of the other
rofes, are made up into nofegays: and thefe, in fome cir-
cumftances, have produced alarming fymptoms, fuch as
{neezing, inflammation of the eyes, faintings, hytfterical affec-
tions, abortion, &c.: and perfons confined in a clofe room,
with a large quantity of rofes, have been in danger of im-
mediate extinGtion of life. The petals impart their odorous
matter to watery liquors, both by infufion and diftillation.
Six pounds of frefh roots impregnate, by diftillation, a
allon or more of water ftrongly with their fine flavour.
On diftilling large quantities, there feparates from the wa-
tery fluid a {mall portion of a fragrant butyraceous oil,
which liquefies by heat, and appears yellow, but concretes
in the cold into a white mafs: 1oo pounds of the flowers,
according to the experiments of Tachenius and Hoffman,
afforded {carcely half an ounce of oil. The {mell of this
3
ROS
oil exactly refembles that of the rofes, and is therefore much
ufed as a perfume.
The oil of rofes pofleffes very little pungency, and has
been highly recommended for its cordial and analeptic qua-
lities. The flower alfo contains a bitterifh fubftance, which
is extra€ted by water along’ with the odorous principle, and
remains entire in the decoétion after the latter has been fe-
parated by diftillation or evaporation. This fixed fapid
matter of the petals manifefts a purgative quality, and it is
on this account that the flowers are received in the materia
medica. ‘The pharmacopeias direct a fyrup to be prepared
of this rofe, which is ordered as an adjunét to oil and other
purgatives in the difeafes of infants; but they are chiefly
employed for the diftillation of rofe-water. The London
pharmacopeia dire€ts feven ounces of the petals of the hun-
dred-leaved rofe dried to be macerated in four pints of boiling
water for 12 hours, and to itrain it ; and then to evaporate
the {trained liquor in a water-bath down to 23 pounds,
and to add fix pounds of refined fugar, fo as to make a fyrup.
This fyrup is prepared, according to the Edin. Pharm. by
macerating one pound of the frefh petals of the rof/a ceuti-
folia, or, as it is erroneoufly denominated, damafk refe, in
four pounds of boiling water for 12 hours, and adding three
pounds of refined fugar to the ftrained liquor, and boiling
fo as to forma fyrup. This fyrup, in dofes of afpoonful, or
from f 3ij to f 3xij or more, is found to be pleafant and ufe-
ful as a laxative for children, or to obviate coftivenefs in
adults.
The Ross-Water, Aqua rofe, (Lond. and Dub. Ph.),
Aqua rofe centifolie (din.) is prepared by taking 8lbs.
(Lond.), 6lbs. (Edin. and Dub.), of the petals, and pour-
ing over them as much water as will prevent empyreuma
during the diftillation ; and then diftilling a gallon (Lond.
and Dub.), or ro pounds (Edin.) This water has the agree-
able odour of the rofe in great perfeGtion, when properly
prepared ; but it is very apt to {poil, unlefs it be rectified
by a fecond diftillation. As it is free from acrimony, and,
except in point of odour, does not differ from diftilled water,
it is generally employed in collyria, with acetate and fuper-
acetate of lead, and acetate and fulphate of zinc. The-oil
and water, obtained by diftillation, and ufed chiefly in per-
fumes and flavouring materials, are recommended by Hoffman
as excellent cordials for raifing the ftrength and {pirits,
and allaying pain. They appear to be of a mild nature,
and not liable to heat or irritate the conititution. Rofe-
water is, however, in great efteem throughout the Eatt,
particularly in China and Perfia, where the trade of it is
very confiderable. The rofe-leaves, remaining at the bot-
tom of the ftill, are kept under the name of rofe cakes for
a perfume.
The flowers of the Ro/@ gallica, or red officinal rofe,
give out their virtue both to water and re¢tified fpirit, and
tinge the former of a fine red colour, but the latter of a very
pale one. The extraét obtained by infpiflating the watery
infufion is moderately auftere, bitterifh, and fubfaline. The
{pirituous extraé is confiderably ftronger both in aftringency
and bitternefs. Water at 212° extracts both its odour and
tafte ; and the infufion ftrikes a black with fulphate of iron ;
and alfo forms a precipitate of a dark colour with fulphate
of zinc. The red rofe is aftringent and tonic. It forms
an ufeful and elegant vehicle for the exhibition of mineral
acids, nitrate of potafs, and other neutral falts, in hemor-
rhages and fome other difeafes. It has been faid, that the
flowers of this {pecies poffefs neither the fragrance nor the
laxative power of thofe of the centifolia ; but Poterius, cited
by Lewis, relates, that he found a drachm of powdered red
rofes occafion three or four ftools, and this not in a few
inftances,
ROS
inftances, but conftantly in feveral. Its fragrance is im-
proved by drying ; and both the en and the colour
of the petals are belt preferved by halty exficcation. Its
flowers are chiefly valued for their aftringent qualities, which
are moft confiderable before the petals expand, and, there-
fore, in this ftate they are chofen for medicinal ufe, and
ordered by the pharmacopeias in different preparations, as
thofe of a conferve, a honey, an infufion, and a fyrup. Thefe
preparations, ef{pecially the firit and fecond, have been highly
efteemed in phthifical cafes, particularly by the Arabian phy-
ficians ; who mention fome in which they were effe€tual reme-
dies. The cafe of Kruger, related in the German Ephemerides,
has been thought a more evident proof of the efficacy of the
conferve of rofes in phthifis pulmonalis ; but as the ufe of the
conferve was commonly joined with that of milk and farina-
cea, together with proper exercife in the open air, it has
been doubted if thefe recoveries could be wholly imputed to
the rofes, though their mild aftringent and corroborant
virtues certainly contributed much. In fome of the cafes
above alluded to, 20 or 30 pounds of the conferve were
taken in the courfe of a month.
The Confeéia rofe gallice, confection of the red rofes of
the Lond. Pharm. is prepared by beating a pound of the
unblown petals of the red rofe, freed from the claws, in a
ftone mortar, and adding three pounds of refined fugar,
and then beating again until the whole be thoroughly in-
corporated. The Edin. Pharm, direéts the unblown petals
of the red rofe to be beaten to a pulp, and during the beat-
ing to add three times their weight of refined fugar. The
Conferva rofe, or conferve of rofes of the Dubl. Pharm.
is prepared by beating the unblown petals of the red rofe,
freed from their claws, and adding gradually three times their
weight of refined fugar. The confection of the red rofe
poflefles a {mall degree of aftringency, and is fometimes
given diffolved in new milk as a tonic in early convalefcence
from acute difeafes ; but its chief ufe §s to form a pleafant
vehicle for more active medicines.
Mel Rofe, or rofe honey. See Honey.
Infufion of Rofes. See Inruston.
Syrup of red rofes, Syrupus rofe gallice, is prepared, ac-
cording to the Edin. Pharm. by macerating feven ounces
of the dried petals of the red rofe in five pounds of boiling
water for 12 hours, then boiling a little and ftraining ; and
adding fix pounds of refined fugar to the {trained liquor,
and again boiling a little fo as to form a fyrup. This
fyrup is a weak aftringent ; and as fuch is added to af-
tringent and ftomachic infufions and gargles: it is ufeful
in hemoptyfis and fome other hamorrhagic complaints as
a gargle, and its efficacy chiefly depends on the acid ; but it
is principaly valued on account of its flavour and colour.
Lewis Mat. Med. Woodville Med. Bot. Thomfon
Lond. Difp. p
Roses, Efence of. There is fcarcely a more valuable
perfume in the world, than the effence of damafk rofes, and
{carcely any thing is obtained from its fubje@t with more
difficulty, and in lefs quantity. All effences or effential
oils are, while in the plant, contained in certain veficles
-lodged in different parts, and of different ftru€ture ; thefe
veficles are in the rofe particularly {mall and tender, and
are placed very fuperficially ; the confequence of this is, that
there is originally but a very little of this effence in the
flower, and this is the very fubjet that will be diffipated
and loft when the flowers are gathered and thrown in a heap
together, as they are fucculent, and very quickly heat in
lying together. To avoid all diflipation and wafte of this
choice effence, the rofes fhould be thrown into the itill as
foon as gathered, and diftilled with very little water, and
ROS
that ina balneum Mariz ; then the fire is to be continued
fo long as the flowers float feparate about in the water ; but
as foon as ever they form themfelves into a cake, and {tick
to the bottom, the diftillation fhould be finifhed, as they
then yield no more effence. With ail thefe precautions,
however, it is with great difficulty we can procure any
effence of rofes. What we obtain by this diftillation being
chiefly a very odoriferous and fragrant water. In the
warmer countries the fame caution affords a larger quantity
of oil, which may be feparated and preferved under the
name of the eflence. In Italy, they make fome quantity
of it, but there it is very dear; a vaft quantity of the
flowers yielding only a very little effence, and that being
thick and troublefome in the procuring, as it every where
{ticks to the veflels.
It is to be obferved, that the feafon of the year as to wet
or dry, makes a very great difference in the effential oils of
all plants ; they are always much finer in dry and hot feafons,
than in cold and moift ; we find our rofe-water in England
much finer, and more fragrant, though diftilled in the fame
proportion, in hot and dry fummers, than in cold and rainy
ones; and Mr. Geoffroy gives an account that he fuc-
ceeded, one very hot and dry year, in the making eflence of
rofes in France in the following manner.
As the rofes were brought to him frefh gathered, he
turned them immediately into the ftill; and drawing over
the water into a glafs matrafs, when it had ftood by feme
time, and was perfe&tly cold, he difcovered fome of the
effence fixed to the fides of the matrafs, and the furface of
the water covered with a thin reticular pellicle. All the
contents of the matrafs were put to filter through a paper,
fupported by a fine linen cloth ; and the filtrated water was
added to new rofes for many fucceeding diftillations, the
produce of which was all filtered through the fame paper.
After a long courfe of diftillations, with frefh flowers every
time, but {till with the fame veflels and the fame water,
there was found in the paper of the filtre a quantity of thick
effence ; this being carefully wafhed out of the paper, with
a {mall quantity of the moft fragrant of the water, and after-
wards feparated pure from its furface, was very white and
extremely fragrant, and asthick as fine butter. This is not
the only effential oil which naturally concretes into this firm
ftate ; oil of anifeed, though fluid when diftilled, always
concretes in the fame manner on the firlt approach of cold;
and another oil of this kind is that of the laurel, which is
ufed in fome places, though very improperly, to give the
{cent and tafte of bitter almonds, or apricot kernels, to
foods of different kinds.
Monfieur Homberg has taught us how to gain a larger
quantity of the effential oil of rofes than in the ufual
diftillation, by the previous addition of mineral acids, as the
fpirit of falt, vitriol, &c. thereto ; which increafe the fer-
mentation, and joining with the oil, render it more liquid,
and eafier to be raifed by heat. He advifes a perfumer (who
before fearcely obtained an ounce of oil from a hundred
weight of rofes) to fteep his flowers, for fifteen days, in
water made fharp with the {pirit of vitriol ; by which means -
the perfumer, upon diftillation, found his quantity of oil in-
creafed almoft a third.
‘ The perfumers keep the ftruture of the vefll they em-
ploy in this diftillation a great fecret. M. Homberg tells
us, it is a large convenient ftill, that opens in a tube at the
top to receive the water, which mutt often be poured upon
the rofes, to bring over the oil with it; this it does but
very flowly, and fo requires that its quantity be large ; the
fill alfo opens below, that the flowers, when they will yield
no more oil, may be eafily taken out; but the principal
contrivance
ROS
contrivance is the figure of the veflel which receives the oil ;
this is made like an ordinary matrafs, from the lower part
of the belly of which comes a tube, as from an old-
fafhioned cruet, and rifing to the bottom of the neck of the
receiver, it bends outward ; fo that though the veffel ufually
contains but two or three French pints, it conveniently
receives and lets pafs many hundred pints of the rofe-water,
without any neceflity of being changed ; for a change would
lofe the {mall quantity of the oil obtained. The water
diftilled runs through a pipe into a fecond receiver ; the oil,
being lighter than the water, floats upon its furface, and ad-
heres to the neck of the veflel, as high as the aperture of
the little pipe, while the water runs from the bottom of the
firit receiver into the fecond. See Mém. de l’Acad. des
Sciences, 1700.
M. Homberg obferves, that this ftill may be ufeful to
draw off any kind of precious effential oils.
The procefs for making attar, or eflential oil of rofes,
fo much efteemed as a perfume, is related in the “ Afiatic
Refearches,”’ (vol. i. p. 332.) by lieutenant-colonel Polier,
and is as follows. *¢ Forty pounds of freth rofes, with their
calyces, but the {tems cut clofe, are put in a full with 60
pounds of water. ‘The mafs is then well mixed together
with the hands, anda gentle fire is made under the {ftill.
When the water begins to grow hot, and fumes to rife, the
cap of the {till is put on, and the pipe fixed; the chinks
are then well luted with pafte, and cold water put on the re-
frigeratory at the top. ‘The receiver is alfo adapted at the
end of the pipe; and the fire is continued under the {till,
neither too violent nor too weak. When the impregnated
water begins to come over, and the {till is very hot, the fire
is leffened by gentle degrees, and the diftillation continued
till thirty pounds of water are come over, which is generally
done in about four or five hours, This rofe-water is to be
poured again on a frefh quantity (forty pounds) of roles;
and from fifteen to twenty pounds of water are to be drawn
by diftillation, following the fame procefs as before. The
rofe-water thus made and cohobated, will be found, if the
rofes were good and frefh, and the diftillation carefully per-
formed, highly {cented with the rofes. It is then poured
into pans either of earthen-ware or of tinned metal, and left
expofed to the frefh air for the night. ‘The aftar, or effence,
will be found in the morning congealed, and {wimming on
the top of the water. This is to be carefully feparated,
and collected, either with a thin fhell or a fkimmer, and
poured into a vial. When a certain quantity has thus been
obtained, the water and feces mutt be feparated from the
clear effence, which, with refpeét to the firft, will not be
difficult to do, as the eflence congeals with a flight cold, and
the water may then be made to run off. If, after that, the
eflence is kept fluid by heat, the feces will fubfide, and may
be feparated; but if the operation has been neatly per-
formed, thefe will be little or none. The feces are as
highly perfumed as the eflence, and muft be kept after as
much of the effence has been fkimmed from the rofe-water
as could be. The remaining water fhould be ufed for frefh
diftillations, inftead of common water ; at leaft as far as it
will go.
‘‘'The above is the whole procefs of making genuine attar
of rofes. But, as the rofes of this country give but a very
{mall quantity of effence, and it is in high etteem, various
ways have been thought of to augment the quantity, though
at the expence of the quality. In this country it is ufual
to add to the rofes, when put in the ftill, a quantity of
fandal-wood rafpings, fome more, fome lefs, from one to
five tolahs, or half ounces. The fandal contains a deal of
effential oil, which comes over freely in the common diftilla-
ROS
tion, and mixing with the rofe-water and efflence, becomes
{trongly impregnated with their perfume. The impofition,
however, cannot be concealed; the eflential oil of fandal
will not congeal in common cold; and its {mell cannot be
kept under, but will be apparent and predominate, in fpite
of every art. In Cafhemire they feldom ufe fandal to adul-
terate the attar ; but I have been informed, to increafe the
quantity, they diftil with the rofes a {weet-fcented grafs,
whick does not communicate any unpleafant fcent, and gives
the attar a high clear green colour. This eflence alfo does
not congeal in a flight cold, as that of rofes.’’
The quantity of effential oil to be obtained from the rofes
is very precarious, as it depends not only on the {kill of the
diftiller, but alfo on the quality of the rofes, and the fa-
vourablenefs of the feafon. In order to obtain 4 mafhas
(about 14 drachm) from 80 pounds, which, dedu€ting the
calyces, amounts to fomething lefs than 3 drachms per toc
pounds of rofe-leaves, the feafon muft be very favourable,
and the operation carefully performed. The colour of the
attar of rofes is no criterion of its goodnefs, quality, or
country. In the year 1787, Col. Polier had attar of a fine
emerald green, of a bright yellow, and of a reddifh hue,
from the fame ground, and obtained by the fame procefs,
only of rofes collected at different days. The calyces, he
obferves, do not in any degree diminifh the quality of the
attar, nor impart any green colour to it; though perhaps
they may augment the quantity ; but the trouble neceflary
for {tripping them muft, and ought, to prevent its being
ever put in practice.
Rosss, Qil of. See Ross, and the preceding article.
Ross-F/y, in Natural Hiftory, the name given by authors
to a peculiar f{pecies of fly, found very frequent on rofe-
bufhes, and produced out of a baftard caterpillar, which
feeds on the leaves of that tree. See Cynips.
The male of this fly has a long body, the female a fhort
and thick one; fhe depofits her eggs in {mall holes, which
fhe makes in the bark of the young branches, and for this
purpofe is furnifhed with a very remarkable inftrument,
placed at the hinder part of the body, which isa kind of
faw.
This is a four-winged fly, and is fo common on rofe-
bufhes, that it is fearcely poflible to mifs it in any of the
fummer months ; and the parts of the branches where it has
depofited its eggs are fo vitiated by it, that they alfo are
eafily known. ‘They are ufually {welled to a greater bignefs
than either the part above or below them, and are ufually
fomewhat bent ; they are often black on the under fide, and
among this blacknefs the holes made for the eggs, and often
the eggsin them, may be feen. The head and breait of this
fly are black ; its wings alfo are edged with black, its body
is yellow, and its legs yellow, with a few black fpots.
If thefe flies be obferved in a fummer morning, as they
are crawling on the branches of a rofe-tree, they will foon
be found at work for the depofiting of their eggs. Thefe
creatures give us a very good opportunity of obferving the
manner in which they perform this, as they are of a very -
fluggifh difpofition, and will ftand {till even to be taken
between the fingers; fo that when one of them is in a
proper fituation, it may be examined by bringing the eye
near it, and by ufing the common magnifying glafles, with-
out quitting its place or its work ; andif there be leaves of
the tree, or {mall branches of it in the way, they may be
removed without difturbing the creature. Reaumur’s Hilt,
Inf. vol. ix. p. 145.
There is, befides this fpecies, another fly of the fame
genus, produced from a baitard caterpillar of the rofe-tree,
and of the fame fhape and flru€ture of parts with this, but
different
ROS
different in colour. The head and brealt of this fly are of
adeep violet colour, the body is yellow, and the legs and
wings are of a fomewhat paler violet tinge. This creature
alfo depofits its eggs in holes made in the branches of the
rofe-tree, by means of a double faw, placed at the hinder
part of the body ; but, as the former {pecies lays them in a
fingle ftraight line, this difpofes them in a very beautiful
and yery regular manner in two rows.
Rose-Galls, a name given by authors to certain unnatural
productions of the rofa fylveffris, or dog-rofe, occafioned
by the bites of infeéts. There are two kinds of thefe, the
one very common, the other more rare.
The fearcer kind is ufually found on the young fhoots,
and on the heps, or fruit, and is of a woody {ubftance; the
other is hairy and {pongy, and is found on the old branches.
The woody kind ufually appears in the months of June and
July, and is always found in clufters. Thefe are compofed
of ten, twelve, or more galls of different fizes and figures,
fome round, others eblong, fome of the fize of an olive,
and others not larger than a pea. They are of the common
fubftance of the white wood, or blea, of trees, and when
fituated on the fruit, they prevent its ripening, and make a
very fingular figure. They are of a reddifh colour, and are
ufually {mooth and glofly, but fometimes they are befet with
fhort and fine prickles.
The hairy rofe-gall is too common, and too fingular a
figure to have efcaped the obfervation of perfons in seca
it has been introduced into medicine in many parts of the
world, and is at this time prefcribed in Germany, when re-
duced to powder, in diarrhceas, dyfenteries, and other
diforders of the bowels, and to promote urine and break
the ftone.
Thefe rofe-galls, though they appear at firft fight com-
poled of tufts of hair, are, however, in reality, made up
of feveral {mall galls, growing from a bud on the branch,
and forming a cluiter onthe part. They are of an oblong
figure, and refemble the fhape of a plum-ftone. Each of
them is the habitation of a fingle worm, each having one cell
in the centre. :
All thefe galls of the rofe-tree afford the fame {pecies
of worms and flies. The proper inhabitants, however, are
hardly to be diftinguifhed by the molt curious obferver from
the great variety of {pecies which are found in them, all pro-
duced of the eggs of other flies, whofe worms are of the
carnivorous kind, and are lodged in the gall, not to feed on
the juices of the tree, but on the flefh of the proper inha-
bitant. When the parent-fly, who gives origin to the galls,
has depofited her eggs, and the tumour, in confequence,
_ begins to be formed, an enemy of this kind pierces the
covering, and fends in her offspring to feed on the inha-
bitant. Thefe are flies of the ichneumon kind, and feveral
fpecies of them are of great beauty. All the flies defcribed
by authors as ifluing out of this gall feem to have been of
this kind; the proper inhabitant, being a fmall black fly of
no great beauty, is difregarded, while the others have been
particularly deferibed.
Mentzelius has given an elegant account of a {pecies
whofe back is of a fine blue, and its belly purple; and
others have figured and defcribed greenifh and gold-coloured
ones; but thefe are all ichneumons, all bred of devouring
enemies which have fed on the proper inhabitants of the
galls, and lived and transformed themfelves in their cells.
Rose-Wood, lignum rhodium, or afpalathum. See Asra-
LATH.
Rose Pink. See Pink.
Rosg, Golden, is a rofe which the pope bleffes at mafs,
on the firft Sunday in Lent, while they fing Letare Jeru-
ROS
falem ; and which, after mafs, he carries in proceflion; and
then fends as a prefent to fome fovereign prince.
Rose, the fa@ions of the red and white, are famous in our
Englifh hiftories. They had their rife in 1454, under
Henry VIk between the houfes of York and Lancafter, and
ended in Henry VII. who united the two branches. The
houfe of Lancafter had for its badge a red rofe; that of
York a white one.
Rosr, in Archite@ure and Sculpture, an ornament cut in
refemblance of a rofe.
It is chiefly ufed in friezes, corniches, and vaults of
churches, and particularly in the middle of each face of the
Corinthian abacus. And in the {paces between the mo-
dillions, under the plafonds of corniches.
Roses, in Heraldry, is a difference denoting the feventh
fon of a family. '
Rose-Nails. See Nain.
Rosr-Diamond. See DIAMonp.
Rose-Nob/e, an ancient Englifh gold coin, firft ftruck in
the reign of Edward III. when the feries of gold coinage
commences, and then called the penny of gold; fince called
rofe-noble, becaufe ftamped with a rofe. It was current at
6s. 8d., and confequently formed half a ‘mark,’’ fo called
as being a grand limited fum in account (Marc, dimes, Goth.),
3 oz. in weight, and :ds of the money pound. This, as
one half of the commercial pound of 16 ounces, is fome-
times called ‘felibra.”?” The noble (which iee) was fo
called from the nobility of the metal, being of the fineft
gold thea, or now, ufed in the world for coinage; and it
was attended by its half and quarter; the proportion of
filver te gold beg then 1 to11. This coin was fometimes
called the “ rofe-noble,’”? from both fides being impaled in
an undulating circle, refembling the outline of an expanded
rofe, together with its half and quarter; and thefe con-
tinued the only gold coins till the angels of Edward IV.
1465, ftamped with the angel Michael and the dragon, and
the angelets, equal to half the angel, or 3s. 4d. were fub-
ftituted in their place. Antiquaries likewife affert, that
gold being fcarce in Henry Vth’s time, that prince di-
minifhed the noble, retaining its former value; but that
Henry VI. reftored it to its fize, and caufed it to pafs
for ros. under the new name of ryal. Accordingly, the
noble of Henry V. weighs only 108 grains now, while thofe
preceding his reign weigh 120. This {peaks gold to have
increafed in value about 10 fer cent. The old noble of
Edward ILI. and Richard II. at 120 grains, pafled but
for 6s. Sd. ; but in the fifth year of Edward IV. 1465, the
angel was of equal value, though but So grains in weight ;
which fhews gold to have increafed in value then no lefs than
30 per cent. Certain it is that the ryal of tos. and the
angel of 6s. 8d. with their divifions of half and quarter,
were the fole gold coins till, in 1485, Henry WII. publifhed
the double ryal, or fovereign, of 20s. accompanied by the
double fovereign, of gos. See Money.
Rose Engine, Rofe lathe, or Figure lathe, inthe Mechanic
Arts, is a machine ufed for turning any articles in wood,
ivory, or metal, in the fame manner as a common lathe, but
it has additional parts, by which the furface of the fubjeét
which has been turned, can afterwards be engraved with a
great variety of patterns of curved lines, which, in general,
are denominated from the French rofétte, from a flight general
refemblance which they have to a full-blown rofe, and
hence the machine is called a rofe engine.
This machine, as we have faid, contains all the parts of
the /athe, (fee that article) and in the fame manner as in
turning, the work is caufed to revolve, whilft the ee 2
tool is kept ftationary ; but the difference between the role
lathe
ROSE-ENGINE.
lathe and the common latheis, that inthe former the centre
of the circle, in which the work revolves, is not a ftationary
point, but a flight motion is given to the centre whilft the
work is revolving upon it, the tool being all the while
‘flationary ; the furface of the figure which it forms will be,
of courfe, out of round, 7. e¢. it will deviate from the circular
figure as much, and as often, as the motion is given to the
centre.
The art of turning curiofities in wood or ivory, is one of
thofe which is beft adapted, of any of the mechanic arts,
as an amufement for perfons who either have leifure to apply
to fuch fubjeéts, or who require relaxation from mental
ftudies : it has long been a favourite purfuit of many gentle-
men, and the machines they employ are very ingenioufly con-
ftruGted. The curious in this art reckon two points of per-
fection in their works, one where the extreme delicacy, or
elegance, of the object renders it admirable, and the other is
confidered from the difficulties of the execution ; the former
may be judged by all perfons poffeffed of good talte, but to
judge of the latter requires fome knowledge of the art, or, at
leaft, fo far as to know that the lathe will form only fuch arti-
cles as are perfeéily circular, all the parts having a common
axis ; therefore the fpecimens of turning are to be more or
lefs efteemed, in proportion as they are more oppofed to the
circular figure. This art was more cultivated a hundred
years ago than at prefent, and more curious {pecimens were
then produced, fuch as hollow balls of ivory, containing
many excentric figures, formed within each other, all being
cut from the fame folid piece, and every one beautifully
ornamented upon the furiace, although only fmall holes
were left through them to gain accefs to the interior ones:
this was carried fo far as to form twelve balls of ivory one
within the other. A great colleCtion of curiofities of this
kind will be found in a French work entitled «* Récueil d’Ou-
vrages Curieux dans le Cabinet de M. Grollier de Servir,’’ ato.
Lyons, 1719. This contains drawings of fome very curious
articles; but although the art is not fo generally pra¢tifed
at the prefent day as formerly, the machines which are now
invented are vaitly fuperior, and, with the fame attention,
would doubtlefs admit of the curiofities being equally ex-
tended. Meflrs. Holtzapffel and Deyerlien, of Cockfpur-
ftreet, London, have made many improvements in the conftruc-
tion of rofe engines, whichthey execute, as wellasallother tools,
for ornamental turning, in the moft finifhed ftyle. We have ob-
tained drawings of one of thefe, fee Plate LI1. Engines, inwhich
jig. ©. 1s an elevation in front of the machine. A ABB is
the wooden frame; D, the large foot-wheel, te give motion
to the mandrel, or fpindle, T T, by the band and pulley F.
The work is fixed in a chuck I, at the extremity of the
mandrel; and the tool is held by the flide-reft K, which,
though it has the means of moving the tool a {mall quantity,
to adjuit it to the radius of the rofe, or figure intended to
be cut, ftill it will firmly retain the pofition in which it is
placed. The upper part, A, of the frame of the machine
is made of mahogany, but has within it a caft-iron frame,
confifting of two bars, or bearers, which being placed pa-
rallel, and at a {mall diftance afunder, leave a groove or
opening between them, in the fame manner as the cheeks of
any other lathe, for the reception of the tenon, at the
lower end of the back puppet (fhewn by the dotted lines) L,
which is ufed to fupport the end of a long piece of work ;
though this is feldom ufed, becaufe the work can only
be turned circular, when the back centre fupports it. All
work which is to be figure-turned mutt be held in a chuck,
{crewed on to the end of the mandrel T ; becaufe it is only
the: mandrel which is moveable, to give thofe deviations
from the circular figure, which are neceflary to form the
figured work. For this purpofe, the two ftandards, G and
H, which fupport the mandrel, are not firmly fixed to the
bed, A, of the machine, as in other turning-lathes; but
they defcend between the cheeks or caft-iron bed, almoft as
low as the bottom of the mahogany bed A, and have there
an axis P (dotted), which is parallel to the mandrel, and
fupported on pivots at its ends; thefe pivots being received
in pieces of caft-iron, defcending from the cheeks, and
ftrengthened by the iron bar, Q, extended between them.
The two ftandards, G, H, are formed of one piece, and
have a ftrong bracing of iron between them, in addition to
the axis P; but this cannot be feen in the figure, becaufe it
is concealed between the cheeks of the bed O. The ofcil-
lating motion is given to the mandrel by means of metal
rofettes M: thefe are wheels, fixed upon the mandrel, each
having its periphery indented and curved with a waving
line, as fhewn at M, fig. 7. The rofettes are aéted upon by
a {mall roller, placed at the end of a piece 2, which is fup-
ported by atriangular bar m, fixed parallel to the mandrel,
upon the upper ends of curved arms, as fhewn in both
figures. Now it 1s evident that when the mandrel revolves,
the eminences and depreflions of the rofette, applying them-
felves to the roller of the piece 2, which is ftationary, will
caufe a vibrating or ofcillating motion of the mandrel, and
the frame, GH, which contains it. A ftrong {pring is
placed within the cavity of the bed A, and applied to the
frame of the mandrel; fo that it inclines the latter always
towards the central or vertical pofition, that is, the pofition,
when the line of the mandrel is produced, would pafs ex-
aly through the point of the {crew of the back puppet L ;
therefore, when the protuberant or waved parts of the
rofette caufes the mandrel to depart from this fituation, the
{pring will be bent, and ready to force it back, the inftant
the curvature of the rofette will permit. The fpring is
flightly curved, and placed in the {pace between the infides
of the iron cheeks of the bed and the frame of the mandrel,
fo that the middle of the curved part aéts thereupon, and
the two ends bear againit the infide of the frame, to give
‘the re-action. Seventeen different rofettes are placed upon
the mandrel, as fhewn in a clufter at M, each being of a
different pattern. Several are of the kind fHewn in fg. 7,
that is, fcolloped out with waves or concave depreflions,
but differing in the number of waves from 12, as in the
figure, to 144, which will, therefore, be very minute.
The focket for the piece » can be fixed, by its clamp ferew,
upon any part of the triangular bar m, to bring it oppofite
any one of the rofettes which is required to be ufed. Other
rofettes, inftead of having waves or concave depreffions, as
fhewn in fig.7, have convex protuberances. In either cafe,
when the pattern is very fine, the roller upon the end of the
bearing-piece, 7, cannot be admitted, becaufe its curvature
would not be fufficiently rapid to fuffer it to fall into the
depreffions. In thefe cafes, therefore, the end of the
piece 2 is ufed for the contaét, being rounded, and well
hardened and polifhed, to diminifh as much as poffible the
friGtion of the rofette revolving, whilft in contaé with it.
The flide-reft, which fupports the tool, is next to be de-
fcribed : the manner in which it apples to a piece of work,
when fixed in a chuck at the end of the mandrel, is fhewn in
Jig: 6, whillt figs. 11 and rz are on alarger fcale to defcribe
it minutely. The reft can be fattened at any part of the bed,
by the lower part of the foot, which is f{upported on the bed,
A, of the lathe, and is divided with a dove-tailed groove in
the under fide, to receive the head of a fcrew-bolt, going down
through the lathe-bed, and fixing it at any place by a thumb-
nut, as fhewn at 4, fig. 6; the groove in the foot is for the
purpofe of allowing the reff to be moved to and from the
centre
ROSE-ENGINE.
centre of the lathe, to adjuit it to the diameter of the work
which is turning. The foot has a {trong cylindrical pin
fixed upright in the end of it, and this is fitted into a corre-
{ponding focket S, formed out of a folid piece, with the
lower flider K of the reft ; a clamp-fcrew in the fide fixes the
focket faft upon the pin, and there is a wheel s, cut with
notches, at the bottom of the focket, with a catch ¢, fixed
upon the foot R, to engage its teeth and hold it faft ; by
which means the fliders, K, can be fixed, and held fait at any
required angle with the mandrel, for purpofes we fhall here-
after mention.
The upper part of the flide-reft confifts of two hori-
zontal fliders, K and g, placed in dire¢tions perpendicular to
each other ; to one of thefe the tool is firmly attached, and
by means of {crews with handles, the fliders'and the tool
can be moved in any direction, to follow the tool to the
work ; K, in both figures, is a frame of metal, formed from
the fame piece as the focket S; its upper furface is made
flat, and upon this a flider, or flat plate, ee, is fitted, to move
with freedom and precifion. A {crew is mounted in the open-
ing of the frame, and is tapped into a piece of metal, projeét-
ing from the lower fide of the flider, fo that the ferew, when
turned round by a handle d, fitted on its {quare end, advances,
or draws back the flider, which is guided in a right line by
two pieces of brafs, {crewed to the under fide of it, to form
a dove-tailed groove, to which the edges of the frame K
are fitted very accurately : upon this flider a frame, or two
rulers, are {crewed, having a fecond fteel flider g, fitted in the
dove-tailed yroove formed between them, and provided with
afcrew i, as the former, to move it. This upper flider
carries a piece of metal, with a {quare hole through it, in the
direétion of its length, to receive the tool é£, and a {crew
at top to faften it in. The flide-reft being mounted in the
manner of fig. 6, upon the bed of the lathe, the upper flider,
2, is parallel with the mandrel, and the lower one perpen-
dicular thereto. For turning flat or face work, the tool
is put as there fhewn. Now, by turning the fcrew, #, of
the upper flider, the tool advances to a contact with the
work, which is mounted in a chuck, as in the figure ; then
by the other fcrew, d, it is moved acrofs the face of the
work, turning it as it proceeds to a perfeétly flat furface.
For turning a cylinder, mounted between centers, the flide-
reft is to be turned one quarter round upon the pin in the
focket S, fo that the upper flider will be perpendicular to the
mandrel, and the lower one parallel thereto ; in this cafe,
the upper flider muft be moved, to adjuft the tool to the dia-
meter of the intended work, and the lower flider is moved by
its handle d, to carry the tool along the length of the cylinder,
and cut it asit goes. The whole rett can be fixed at any part
- of the bed, and can be moved inftantly if required. The flide-
reft will alfo turn cones by the following contrivance: the
plate, or dove-tailed groove fupporting the upper flider, g,
may be turned round upon the plate ee, and faltened at any
inclination by a {crew pafling through a circular groove in
the plate. By this means, the upper flider is inclined, in
any required angle, to the mandrel, and will then turn a
cone, either hollow or folid. The flide-rett prefents the
tool fo firmly to the work, that it will not retreat in the
leait when any protuberance comes by, but cuts it away,
if the ftrain is not fo great as to break the tool: but of this
there is no danger if it be properly managed, becaufe the
{crews advance the tool fo flowly, that there is no need to
puth it forwards fuddenly, as it is often unavoidable in turn-
ing by hand. The fliders are often divided into inches and
fubdivifions, by which the work can be made exaétly to any
dimenfions without trouble, or two things may be fitted
exadtly together. The upper lider, g, has a graduated arc to
Vor. XXX.
fhew the angle of inclination which it makes with the lower
one, when fet for turning cones, fo that a hollow cone
being bored out in a chuck, a folid plug may at once be
turned to fit it, without trial, the reft making it certainly
of the true angle.
The lathe is put in motion either by the hand, or by the
foot of the ‘turner. The latter, when the work is to be
turned or reduced to the circular figure, as in any common
lathe ; and the former, when the work, after being turned,
is to be ornamented, an @peration which, from its delicacy,
requires a very regular motion.
When the machine is turned by the foot, it is done by the
preflure upon the treadle E, which a&s upon the crank C,
on the axis of the foot-wheel, or fy-wheel, D. The motion is
communicated from the treadle by a crank-hook, or con-
necting rod, a, faftened to the crank of the wheel, by a collar
embracing and turning round at the upper end. When the
foot puthes down the treadle, it gives the wheel a rotative
motion ; and when the crank has been drawn to the loweft
point, the momentum which the wheel has thus acquired,
draws up the treadle, and thus, by the alternate preflure of
the foot, and the momentum of the wheel, the motion is
regularly continued. The wheel is made of caft iron, and
fixed on the extreme end of the axis; it has two rims of
different fizes, and the furface of each is made conical, and
cut with three annular grooves, which are recefled, with an
angle at the bottom, fo as not to have a flat bottom. This
form is advantageous, on account of the band having more
power to turn the wheel F. Thefe different grooves are
made, in order to give different degrees of velocity to the
lathe, or to increafe the power. ‘The axle of the wheel is
made of wrought-iron, except the pivots or centers, and it
is bent in the middle to form the crank C: the pivots at the
ends are made of hard fteel, welded to the iron parts of the
axle. The band which conneéts the fly and mandrel is made
of catgut, of fuch thicknefs as the nature of the work may
require, and is either {pliced at the joining of the two ends,
or they are faltened together bya fteel hook and eye. The
band may be either tightened, by fhifting it to other grooves
in the great wheel, or in the pulley F, of the mandrel ; or
otherwife by a fliding-piece in the leg B, which is regulated
by a fcrew x.
The motion for the hand is given by a fmall handle O, fig. 6;
this is fixed upon the end of a fpindle, which at the other
end carries a {mall wheel N, communicating by a band with
the great wheel D. The f{pindle is fupported in a frame,
which is attached to the lathe-frame, by a centre or joint, on
which it can be raifed up, and fixed by a toothed feétor, to
tighten the band when it is required.
The pulley F has three or four grooves, of different fizes,
to receive the band, and by this means the mandrel may be
turned with different degrees of velocity, and made to ac-
commodate itfelf to the length ef the band. The wheel
N is made in the fame manner.
When a piece of work is to be made in the rofe engine,
it is firft turned true to the fize and figure, and then
polifhed, before it is ornamented: therefore the machine is
firft fet to turn circular. For this purpofe, the piece n, fig. 7,
is withdrawn, fo as to be beyond the reach of the rofette, and
ahead at 2, fig. 6, being turned, it fhoots a double bolt,
which locks the frame G i fait in its perpendicular pofition ;
that is, when the point of the back centre-ferew L will be
exaétly in the line of the mandrel, the frame being thus ren-
dered immoveable, the machine will turn the fame as any
common lathe. If the work is of condiderable length, it
muft be fupported at the end by the back centre L, at
leaft whilft it is turned circular, previous to being ornamented.
4D The
ROSE-ENGINE.
The back puppet, L, is made of caft-iron, and is fitted upon
the caft-iron bearers, on which it can be fixed at the re-
quired diftance from the mandrel by a vertical {crew under-
neath, and a nut, which comes in contaé& with a horizontal
plate or wafher below the faid bearers. Its centre-fcrew has a
fharp conical point to {upport the work, and there is a clamp-
{crew at top to faften the centre-fcrew, to prevent it from
running baek.
The methods of fixing the work to the end of the mandrel
whilit it 1s turned are very numerous, and vary in almoft every
inftance: in general, it is held ina piece of wood, I, called a
chuck, which is ferewed upon the nofe of the mandrel T,
and being bored, or turned out in the manner of a cup, the
piece of wood or ivory which is to be turned is driven into
it by a mallet till it is firmly fixed: the woodis, of courfe,
cut nearly to a circular figure, before it is fixed in the chuck ;
it is then wrought with a fharp triangular pointed tool, 4,
which being fixed in the reft, and advanced to the work by
the ferew 2, cuts {mall contiguous grooves on the furface,
till it has broken the grain of the wood, and removed all
exuberances. The tool being gradually advanced by its
{crews d andi, as is required, the work is reduced at
length nearly to its intended fize and figure, but will be
wholly covered with {mall grooves: to remove thefe, and
render the work even, another tool is next ufed this is
formed like 2 narrow chiffel, but made very thick, and with
an obtufe edge, which is only bevelled on the under fide :
its edge will remove the eminences between the grooves left
by the firft tool. The work is then {moothed, by applying to
it the edge of a piece of the blade of a broken knife bevelled
away ; this is held in the hand, and the work is followed up
with it, that its fharp edge may fcrape away any roughnefs
left by the tools. ‘To polifh the wood, a piece of feal-fkin,
Dutch reed, or glafs paper, is held by the hand upon the
work as it runs round, and it cuts away a fine powder, mak-
ing the work f{mooth enough to receive a polifh. This is
raifed by firft applying a piece of bees-wax, till the work is
flightly covered with it, then afterwards burnifhin g or
polifhing it, by holding a flat piece of hard wood upon it.
The finifh can be given by the fri&tion of a coarfe woollen
rag, lightly fmeared with olive oil.
Ivory is turned nearly in the fame manner, but is polifhed
with chalk and water, and afterwards by the friction of a
woollen cloth ; or, if it is firft touched with an oily rag, and
rubbed off with a dry woollen cloth, it will have a very fine
furface.
This is only the fame procefs as is ufed for ordinary turn-
ing ; but when the work is finifhed in this manner, the orna-
menting is began by releafing the bolt, 2, of the mandrel-
frame G H, and chufing the rofette beft adapted to the
pattern which is required. The piece, 2, is fet upon the tri-
angular bar, to be in contaét with its wave, and will thus give
the ofcillating motion, as before defcribed ; fo that when the
tool is applied to the work, it will produce a waved or in-
dented furface, or outline, correfponding with the figure
of the rofette, inftead of the circular figure produced by the
common lathe.
Ifthe ornamenting is to be performed upon a flat furface,
fuch, for inftance, as the lid or top of a box, it is chucked,
as fhewn in fig. 6, and the point of the tool being applied to
it, will cut a waved line. To do this more conveniently,
the flider, g, is advanced to the work, by preffing it with
the hand inftead of the fcrew 7; for, by lifting up a {mall
{pring catch, of which the tail is feen plainly at 3, fy. 6,
the flider is releafed from the nut of the ferew 7, which has
no other attachment to the flider than by a tooth on this
catch entering into a notch in the nut, and it is prefled into
the notch by afcrew /. Now, by releafing the {crew /,
lifting up the catch 3, and drawing back the flider, the
tooth of the catch falls behind the nut of the ferew, in-
{tead of being in the notch; it will, therefore, form a
ftop, to check the advance of the tool, though it allows it
to be drawn back to clear the work, and alfo to be pufhed
up towards it by the hand, to cut the line, the itop regu-
lating the depth of the line, as the hand can advance the
flider no farther when it meets the nut.
In this manner, a waved line is engraved round the edge
of it, fuch as is fhewn in fig. 9, the breadth of the line being
determined by the depth to which the point of the tool is
regulated to penetrate, by turning the {crew 7. he outer
line being thus finifhed, the tool is now withdrawn to clear
the work, and the {crew, d, of the great flider being turned
a {mall quantity, the point of the tool is brought nearer to
the centre of the work; here, by pufhing up the tool, an-
other line is defcribed; then a third within the fecond, and
fo on, at equal diftances, until they reach the centre: this
makes a very pretty ornament, as in fig.g. It fhould be
obferved, that as each line has the fame number of waves,
or indentations, they will neceflarily grow very fine as they
approach towards the centre; but at the fame time as the
deviation from the circular figure is equal in the {malleft as
well as the largeft’ rings, it follows, that the curves of the
waves of each ring, or line, will vary in a very gradual and
pleafing manner, being flightly curved at the circumference,
and more rapidly towards the centre. This pattern admits of
great variety, by employing different rofettes, fine or coarfe,
concave or convex; but it will always have the waves included
in ttraight lines direGted to the centre. A very pretty varia-
tion is made by turning the rofette round upon the mandrel a
very {mall quantity every time before a frefh line is defcribed.
For this purpofe, the rofettes are not fixed faft upon the
mandrel, but are fitted thereupon, fo as to admit of turning?
round, being moved by a {mall fcrew at the end towards
H. Asan example of the ufe of this movement, fig. 1o. is
given, which confifts of a rofe of twenty-four waves. In
this, after drawing the exterior line, in the fame manner as
the former, when the flider is fet for the fecond, the rofette is
turned round upon the mandrel a quantity equal to one-
fourth of a wave, or one-ninty-fixth part of the whole cir-
cle: the circle is now defcribed, and its waves will not fall
exa€tly within thofe of the former, but a little advanced
therefrom. The next time a circle is to be drawn, the ro-
fette is again fhifted, and foon. As this is a quantity equal
to one-fourth of the fpace between the waves, it is plain
that at every fourth line the waves will fall in lmes drawn
towards the centre. Still this will not affe&t the ap-
pearance, which will be totally different from the former,
(fg. 9.) and very fuperior to it. The concentric lines, in
either of thefe patterns, are made exaétly at equal diftances,
by means of the divifions before-mentioned, upon the flider
Kk, or otherwife by divifions made upon a head, which is
fitted upon the end of the fcrew d; and the rofettes are fet
exa@tly to the quantity they are intended to be’ turned
round, by means of divilions made upon the edge of a cir-
cular plate, which is fixed faft upon the mandrel, towards
the end H, and a line or mark upon the laft rofette applies
to it. The fcrew which effeéts the movement-is fup-
ported in bearings upon this plate, and acts in the teeth of
a wheel, fixed within the hollow of the laft rofette. By this
means, when the {crew is turned round by a key, it
caufes all the rofettes to turn round together any quantity
which the divifions on the circle indicate. On this. prin-
ciple, great varieties of patterns may be made, and they
may be greatly diverfified by fhifting the rofettes alter-
I nately
.
ROSE-ENGINE.
nately in contrary dire€tions : thus, after eight, twelve, or
any other number of rings have been drawn, by gradually fhift-
ing them each time, as before defcribed. By reverfing the
fhifting movement to the oppofite direction, a total change
will be produced ; and continuing’ in this manner for eight
or twelve more circles, the rofettes are again to be advanced
in the firlt-mentioned direétion, and continued for eight or
twelve. This method produces a curious effect, and admits
of much variety im the patterns.
After having drawn a waved line, the rofette may be ad-
vanced half a divifion, and then another line drawn, without
altering the flide-reft. By this means, the two waved lines
will interfe¢t each other, and make a number of loops like
a chain of beads. A number of concentric lines of this fort,
drawn upon a circle, is very handfome.
We have now fhewn the principal diftinétions of the
patterns which can be defcribed upon a flat furface ; but it
is evident, that from the number of the rofettes, a very nu-
merous {uit of curious combinations can be made. An ellip-
tical and an excentric chuck are adapted to this machine,
te ferew on at T’: a new field is thus opened, which 1s fo
extenfive as to exercife conftantly the talte and fancy of the
operator, in producing new combinations, and renders the
machine a fource of the moft interefting amufement. The
elliptical and excentric chucks, when applied to a common
lathe, will form a great many interefting patterns, but are
vattly more extenfive with the rofe engine. Their conftruc-
tion will be defcribed under Turnine. It is fufficient here
to fay, that by the elliptical chuck, the waved lines may be
drawn in ellipfes, inftead of circles; and by the excentric,
feveral {mall waved circles, or ellipfes, can be arranged
round the circumference of .a larger circle, and their inter-
feétions produce a very pretty effea.
Another fpecies of rofe-turning is performed upon the
furface of a cylinder, globe, or cone; whereas that which
we have deferibed is only upon the flat furface of a circular
piece, or end of the cylinder. To ornament the furface of
the cylinder, the flide-reft is turned round ene-fourth of a
circle, as before defcribed, for forming the cylinder; fo
that the long flider becomes parallel to the mandrel. In
this way the whole furface of the cylinder may be waved ;
but great care muft be taken to advance the tool very gra-
dually, becaufe it will not cut fo readily as when turning
circular work. By dividing the length of the cylinder into
fmall equal portions, and by fhifting the rofettes every time
one of thefe is finifhed, the waves may be made to follow
each other in a {piral dire&tion round the cylinder; or, by
a proper rofette ufed in this manner, very elegant patterns
of baflket-work may be formed.
There is another movement of the rofe lathe, which we
have not yet deferibed: this is called the pumping. _ It is
principally ufed for defcribing waved lines upon the furface
of a cylinder; that is, the furface is left cylindrical, but
the lines are waved in the direCtion of the length of the cy-
linder, or alternately towards its ends. This is effected by
making the mandrel move end-ways in its bearings: for
which purpofe, the necks upon which it turns are made ex-
aétly cylindrical, and fitted very corre@ly to fteel collars,
which are fixed into the flandards, G,H. It has, there-
fore, liberty to flide end-ways in its collars, when the
pumping motion is required. This is given by rofettes
waved upon the edge or fide, and acting againft the fide of
a piece of fteel, fuch as n, fg. 7. A {pring, p, fig. 6, is
fixed at the end of the frame, and acts againft the fhoulder
of the mandrel, to force it end-ways, and keep the rofette
always in contact with the piece of tteel. The rofettes, M,
are cut in a waved manner upon their fides, as well as upon
’
their circumferences; and thus a variety of pumping ro-
fettes are obtained. By this means, curious waving lines
may be drawn round a cylinder; or, if the motions firft
defcribed are ufed in combination with the pumping, the
furface of the cylinder may be waved, at the fme time that
waved lines are drawn upon it. In this cafe, the two ro-
fettes employed. muft have the fame number of waves.
When the pumping motion is ufed upon face or flat
work, fuch as is fhewa in Jig. 6, it produces very agreeable
effets, by rendering the waves of the line, which the tool
cuts, alternately deeper and fhallower, fo as to give fine
and {trong {trokes alternately, in the manner of fine writing ;
or, if the tool is not fet fo deep, they will only be cut on
one fide of the wave, and diminifhing gradually, will not be
feen on the other, and thus produce a number of new
patterns ; as the waved lines will confift of detached ftrokes,
cut fine at each end, and deep in the middle.
Many patterns may be cut very expeditioufly in the rofe
engine by means of {crew tools: thefe tools are formed like
a broad chiffel, but the edge is cut with notches, fo as to
prefent a number of points inftead of one continued edge.
Thefe points are very exactly equidiftant, being intended to
cut f{erews ; and therefore the teeth are of the proper figure
to form the threads thereof. By a tool of this kind fix or
eight lines may be cut at one operation, inftead of the trouble
of altering the flide-reft, and cutting each feparately ; and
there will be a greater certainty of cutting them all to the
fame depth, and exattly equidittant. The mode of cutting
ferews by this tool is called cutting flying, and is thus per-
formed in the rofe, or in any common lathe, without a flide-
re{t, The intended {crew being turned cylindrical, the pointe
of the tool are applied to its furface, fo that they will cut,
and the tool is regularly advanced up towards the mandrel as
it turns round : its teeth will, therefore, inftead of defcribing
circles, trace the {pirals of a {crew on the work ; and if the
advancement is timed fo exaétly that in one revolution the
too] is advanced the exaét quantity of a {pace between two
adjacent teeth, then the fecond tooth will, at the end of a
revolution, fall intu the {piral cut by the firft tooth, and one
complete fpiral being thus obtained, it guides the whole tool,
by means of the fecond tooth, regularly along, the firft
tooth continuing to cut the fpiral forwards till a third tooth
lays hold, then a fourth, and fo on, till the required length
of afcrew is cut. The trace of a {crew being thus made, the
tool is preffed deeper, till the threads are fully formed, the
turner taking care, every time, that the end-tooth of the
tool gets to the end of the f{crew, to difengage it, and draw
it back, for as it could not advance any further than the
fhoulder, it would fpoil all the threads by cutting them to
circular rings.
This method requires great habit and dexterity to give the
motion {fo exatly that it will caufe the teeth to fall properly
into the fpirals cut by their predeceflors, and that without
any fudden advance at the place, for the ferew would then
be> what is called drunken, that is, its threads would be
more inclined at one part of its revolution than at another, and
fuch a ferew can never be fitted exactly with its fellow. The
habit of cutting {crews accurately with the ferew-tool, can
only be acquired by praétice and experience, the only pre-
caution which is taken being to get the lathe-wheel. into 2
regular motion, and at fuch a rate as has been found, by ex-
perience, will be proper for the fize of the thread intended to
be cut. The rofe engine before us bas a very complete appa-
ratus for cutting fcrews, which deferves a particular deferip-
tion. A tube is fitted on the end of the mandrel at 0, its
circumference being cut witha {piral, or ferew-thread of the
degree of finenefs required ; this is called the regulator fcrew.
4D 2 H is
ROS
H isa fhider, fitted to the ftandard H, and moved by a ferew:
z is a wheel fixed to this flider, and having feveral half-circle
cavities cut in it, which embrace the {crew, as fhewn in fig. 10:
each cavity or focket has a thread in it, correfponding with
the regulator ferew. The mandrel being made, as before-
mentioned, with cylindrical collars at each end, is at liberty
to flide endways by the movement of the regulator, when
the {crew H draws up the focket r; therefore, every thing
being prepared for cutting the thread, the ferew H is turned;
this raifes up the flider, and focket 7, to touch the regulator ;
the tool is then applied by the flide-reft, and the lathe being
put in motion, the mandrel will move along endways, and
alfo the work with it, fo that the tool will cut a {crew, al-
though it is held faft by the reft. In this cafe the fcrew
may be cut by a fingle pointed tool, but it will be better to
ufe a fcrew tool which is of exaétly the fame thread as the
regulator. The turner fhould be provided with a variety of
fets of {crew tools, andas many regulators, 0, correfponding
to them, which are made like atube, and fitted on the man-
drel, being held by anut. The focket r, which is made like a
wheel, fig. 10, can be turned round on its centre, and has
fix different half-circle notches cut in it, each adapted to a
particular regulator; therefore, by turning this wheel, +, any
of the notches can be applied to the regulator 0, when the
flider is raifed up by the {crew H. This {crew regulator may
be fometimes ufed to advantage when ornamenting the cir-
cumference of a cylinder of wood or ivory, as contiguous
circles, or waved lines, may then be cut ina {piral direétion,
without moving the flide-reft to cut each one feparately.
Another part of the rofe engine is for the purpofe of
turning fwafh work ; this is circular work, but the mouldings
or other lines traced round the cylinder are inclined to the
axis. An inftance is {een in the baluftrades of old-fafhioned
ftair-cafes, where the mouldings are made to fuit the in-
clination of the ftairs. To turn this kind of work, a fteel
circle, or hoop, V, is fitted onthe end rofette of the man-
drel, fo that it can be inclined from the perpendicular thereto
at pleafure: by this means it forms a guide for the pumping
motion, which will fo regulate it as to turn any work of this
kind, viz. with the mouldings, or other ornaments, arranged
in lines round the cylinder, but thefe lines will incline to the
axis of the cylinder inftead of being perpendicular to it.
RosE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra; nine miles N.N.E. of Cofenza.—Alfo, a town of
Virginia ; 20 miles S.W. of Charlotteville.
Rose Lflands, Great and Little, two {mall iflands among
the Bahamas ; 12 miles N. of Providence.
Rose J/land, an ifland in the North Pacific ocean, near
the W. coaft of America. N. lat. 59° 35’. W. long.
146° 30!.
ROSEA, a name given by fome authors to the eryfipelas,
or St. Anthony’s fire.
ROSEAU, in Geography, now “ Charlotte-town,”? the
capital of the ifland of Dominica, fituated in St. George’s
parifh ; about feven leagues from Prince Rupert’s bay ; on
a point of land on the S.W. fide of the ifland, which forms
two bays, viz. Woodbridge’s bay N., and Charlotteville
bay S. Rofeau is about half a mile in length from Charlotte-
ville to Rofeau, and moftly two furlongs in length, but of
an irregular fhape. It contains more than 500 houfes, be-
fides cottages occupied by negroes. N. lat. 15° 25'.. W.
long. 61° 27’.
ROSECK, a town of the duchy of Carniola; eight
miles E. of Gottfchee.
ROSEHEARTY, a Afhing town and fea-port of Scot-
land, in Aberdeenshire, with a tolerable harbour ; for the
improvement of which lord Gardenitone bequeathed by will
ROS
a confiderable fum of money; four miles W. of Frafer-
burgh. N. lat. 57° 38’. W. long. 2°.
ROSEINGRAVE, Tuomas, in Biography, an en-
thufiaftic, ingenious, and worthy mufician, of confiderable
eminence in his youth for his performance on the harp-
fichord and organ, both as a fightfman and voluntary
player. His intellects, in the latter part of his life, being
fomewhat deranged, rendered his charaéter fo fingular, that
he merits fome notice for his eccentricities, as well as pro-
feffional abilities.
He was the fon of Daniel Rofeingrave, who having been
brought up in the king’s chapel at the fame time with
Purcell, was firft promoted to the place of organift of
Salifbury cathedral, and afterwards of St. Patrick’s, Dublin.
Daniel had two fons,.both muficians: one of them, Ralph,
fucceeded his father at St. Patrick’s; the other, Thomas,
being regarded as a young man of uncommon difpofitions
for the {tudy of his art, was honoured-by the chapter of St.
Patrick’s with a penfion, to enable him to travel for im-
provement ; and about the year 1710 he fet off for Italy.
Being arrived at Venice in his way to Rome, as he himfelf
fays, he was Invited, as a flranger and a virtuofo, to an
academia at the houfe of a nobleman, where, among others,
he was requetted to fit down to the harpfichord, and favour
the company with a toccata, as a fpecimen della fua virti.
And, fays he, “ finding myfelf rather better in courage
and finger than ufual, I exerted myfelf, my dear friend,
and fancied, by the applaufe I received, that my perform-
ance had made fome impreffion on the company.” After a
cantata had been fung by a fcholar of Fr. Gafparini, who
was there to accompany her, a grave young man drefled in
black, and in a black wig, who had ftood in one corner of
the room, very quiet and attentive while Rofeingrave
played, being afked to fit down to the harpfichord, when
he began to play, Rofy faid, he thought ten hundred d—Is
had been at the inftrument ; he never had heard fuch paf-
fages of execution and effect before. The performance fe
far furpafled his own, and every degree of perfection to
which he thought it poffible he fhould ever arrive, that, if
he had been in fight of any inftrument with which to have
done the deed, he fhould have cut off his own fingers.
Upon inquiring the name of this extraordinary performer,
he was told that it was Domenico Scarlatti, fon of the
celebrated cavalier Aleffandro Scarlatti. Rofeingrave de-
clared, he did not touch an inftrument himfelf for a month.
After this rencontre, however, he became very intimate
with the young. Scarlatti, followed him to Rome and
Naples, and hardly ever quitted him while he remained in
Italy, which was not till after the peace of Utrecht, as ap-
pears by an anthem which he compofed at Venice in 1713,
and which Dr. Tudway has inferted in the fifth volume
of his Manufcript Colleétion of Enghfh Mutic, p. 149:
« Arife, fhine, for thy light is come,’’ Ifaiah, chap. lx.
There is much fire and fpirit in the introduétory fymphony
of a very modern caft. Rofeingrave is here erroneoufly
called a ftudent of Chrift-church, Oxford, inftead of Dublin,
whence he had his exhibition.
On his return from Italy in 1720, he fettled in London,
and brought on the ftage and conducted the performance of
the opera of ‘ Narcifo,”? or « Narciffus,’’ fet by his friend
Domenico Scarlatti; being the third opera that was per-
formed in our lyric theatre, after the eftablifhment of the
Royal Academy of Mufic.. He compofed feveral addi-
tional fongs for this opera, in which the fingers were fignor
Benedetto Baldafflarri, Mr. Gordon, fignora Duraftanti,
Mrs. Anaitafia Robinfon, Mrs. Turner Robinfon, daugh-
ter of Dr. Turner, and wife of Mr. Robinfon, organift of
12 Welftminfter-
ROS
Welt minfter-Abbey. Rofeingrave’s additional fongs were
comp ofed in the ftyle of his friend Mimo Scarlatti, in whofe
mufic of Narciffus, though there were many new and pleaf-
ing paflages and effeéts, yet thofe acquainted with the ori-
ginal and happy freaks of this compofer in his harpfichord
pieces, would be furprifed at the fobriety and almoft dulnefs
of his fongs. His genius was not yet expanded, and he was
was not fo much fed to write for the voice as his father,
who was the greateft vocal compofer of his time, as the fon
afterwards became the moft original and wonderful per-
former on the harpfichord, as well as compofer for that
infrument. But it feems impoffible for any individual
to be equally great in any two things of difficult attain-
ment.
Rofeingrave was likewife the editor of the firft edition of
Scarlatti’s Harpfichord Leflons, in 2 vols. long 4to.
His eleétion to the place of organift of St. George’s,
Hanover-fquare, was attended with very honourable cir-
cumitances. The parifhioners, confifting chiefly of perfons
of rank and fortune, being very defirous of having a good
organift, and unwilling to tru{t to their own judgment, or
be teazed by the folicitations of candidates of mean abilities,
requefted Mr. Handel, Dr. Pepufch, Dr. Greene, and Mr.
Galliard, to hear the competitors play, and determine their
degree of merit.
The candidates were allowed half an hour each to mani-
feft their abilities on the organ, in whatever way they
pleafed, and then were feverally required to play extempsre
on fubjeéts given by the judges. Mr. Handel did not at-
tend in perfon, but fent his fubje&. Among the numerous
candidates for this place there were feveral who acquitted
themfelves very well, during the half-hour of free-agency,
by playing with great neatnefs pieces they had probably
ftudied for the occafion; but when fubjeéts of fugue were
prefented to them for extemporaneous treatment, they
neither knew how nor when to bring in the anfwer, or even
to find harmony for the themes with either hand when they
were brought in. Rofeingrave, on the contrary, whofe
ftyle, though too crude and learned for the generality of
hearers, when left to himfelf, treated the fubjeéts given
with fuch {cienee and dexterity, inverting the order of notes,
augmenting and diminifhing their value, introducing counter-
fubjeéts, and turning the themes to fo many ingenious pur-
poles, that the judges were unanimous in declaring him the
victorious candidate. The late Dr. Arne and Mr. Mich.
Chrift. Fefting, who were both prefent at this contention,
informed us of thefe particulars, which happened im the
year 1726, and {poke with wonder of Rofeingrave as an
extempore fughiit ; but confirmed the general cenfure of his
crude harmony and extravagant modulation, which indeed
his printed compofitions imply. ;
Rofzingrave having, a few years after this election, fixed
his affe€tions on a lady of no dove-like conftancy, was re-
jected by her at the time he thought himfelf moft fecure of
being united to her for ever. This difappointment was fo
feverely felt by the unfortunate lover, as to occafion a tem-
porary and whimfical infanity. He ufed to fay, that the
lady’s cruelty had fo literally and completely broke his
heart, that he heard the ftrings of it crack at the time he
received his fentence ; and on that account ever after called
the diforder ef his intelle&ts his crepation, from the Italian
verb crepare, to crack. After this misfortune, poor Ro-
feingrave was never able to bear any kind of noife, without
great emotion. If, during his performance on the organ at
church, any one near him coughed, f{neezed, or blew his
nofe with violence, he would inftantly quit the inftrument,
and run out of church, feemingly in the greateft pain and
ROS
terror, crying out that it was old /eratch who tormented
him, and played on his crepation.
About the year 1737, on account of his occafional in-
fanity, he was fuperfeded at St. George’s church by the
late Mr. Keeble, an excellent organift, intelligent teacher,
and a worthy man, who, during the life of Rofeingrave,
divided with him the falary. We prevailed on him once to
touch an organ at Byfield’s, the organ-builder; but his
nerves were then fo unftrung, that he could execute but
few of the learned ideas which his mental diforder had left
him. His fweetnefs of temper and willingnefs to inftru&
young perfons, who were eager in the purfuit of know-
ledge, tempted us frequently to vifit him at Mrs. Bray’s,
Hampitead, where he refided. His converfation was very
entertaining and inftructive, particularly on mufical fubjeéts.
Indeed, his paffion for the art never quitted him to the time.
of his death, which happened in Ireland about the year
1750. The inftrument on which he had exercifed himfelf,
in the moft enthufiaftic part of his life, bore very uncommon
marks of diligence and perfeverance ; for he had worn the
ivory covering of many of the keys quite through to the
wood. In his younger days, when he enjoyed the mens
fana in corpore Jano, he was regarded as having a power of
feizing the parts and fpirit of a fcore, and executing the
moft difficult mufic at fight beyond any mufician in Europe.
Indeed, it was faid that he could read a mufic-book, if
turned topfy-turvy ; but this feems exaggeration of praife.
which few can believe, who know the difficulty, without
ocular and auricular demonftration. The harmony in the
voluntaries, which Rofeingrave publifhed, is rendered in-
tolerably harfh and ungrateful by a licentious and extrava-
gant modulation, and a more frequent ufe of the fharp third
and flat fixth than any compofer with whofe works we are
at all acquainted, not excepting Dr. Blow ; and his double
fugues are fo confufed by the too clofe fucceflion of un-
marked fubjeéts, that it is impoffible, at the end of the per-
formance, to remember what they are. His cantatas,
which he publifhed by fubfcription, being compofed on the
model of the elder Scarlatti, are the moft pleafing of his
works; but they were ftill-born, and never lived to {peak
in public.
ROSELLE, in Geography, a town of Etruria ; two miles
N. of Grofleto.
ROSEMARKIE, a royal borough town in a parifh of
the fame name, in the county of Rofs, Scotland, is fituated
on the northern fhore of the Moray-frith, nearly oppofite
to fort George. It was conftituted a royal hee by
Alexander II. king of Scotland; but in the reign of king
James II. it was united with the town of Chanonry,' (fo
called from its having been the chanonry of Rofs, and the
refidence of the bifhop,) and re-incorporated by charter
under the name of Fortrofs, fince foftened to Fortrofe.
For fome further particulars refpe€ting this town, fee
Fortrose. Carlifle’s Topographical Dictionary of Scot-
land, 4to. 1813.
ROSEMARY, in Botany. See Rosmarinus.
Rosemary, Poet’s. See Osyris.
Rosemary, Wild, Marfh Ciflus. See Lepum.
Rosemary, in the Materia Medica. Rofemary has a
fragrant aromatic {mell, and a bitterifh pungent tafte. The
leaves and tops of this plant are the ftrongeft with regard
to their fenfible qualities ; the flowers are not to be feparated
from their calyces or cups, as the active matter principally,
if not wholly, refides in the latter.
Rofemary gives out its virtues completely to reétified
fpirit, but only partially to water. The leaves and tops,
diftilled with water, yield athin, light, pale-coloured Pllentia
ol
ROS
oil of great fragrancy, though not quite fo agreeable as the
rofemary itfelf; from one hundred pounds of the herb in
flower were obtained eight ounces of oil; the decoétion,
thus divefted of the aromatic part of the plant, yields, on
being infpiffated, an unpleafant bitterifh extra&. Rectified
fpirit likewife, diftilled from rofemary leaves, becomes con-
fiderably impregnated with their fragrance, leaving, how-
ever, in the extract the greateft fhare both of their flavour
and pungency. The aCtive matter of the flowers is fomewhat
more volatile than that of the leaves, the greateft part of
it arifing with fpirit. Tournefort obferves, that thofe forts
of rofemary, which produce neither flowers nor feeds, and
which have very hard fhrubby ftalks, and long narrow
leaves, {mell ftrongly like camphor, and yield on diftilling
a large quantity, for the purpofe of obtaining their oil, a
portion alfo of real camphor.
' Rofemary is reckoned one of the moft powerful of thofe
plants which ftimulate and corroborate the nervous fy{tem;
it has, therefore, been recommended in various afleGtions,
fuppofed to proceed from debilities, or defective excitement
of the brain and nerves ; as in certain head-aches, deafnefles,
giddinefles, palfies, &c. and in fome hyfterical and dy{peptic
fymptoms. Dr. Cullen fuppofes the ttimulant power of
rofemary infufficient to reach the fanguiferous fyftem; it
has however the character of being an emmenagogue, and
the only difeafe, in which Bergius {tates it to be ufeful, is
the chlorofis. In diforders of this kind it has been given
in the form of infufion; but it is now fcarcely ever pre-
{cribed, unlefs as an odorous additament to fternutatory
powders. The dofe in fubftance may be from grs. x to
5ij, and from 3j to 3ifs in infufion. The officinal pre-
parations are the “* oleum rof{marini,’”? and « fpiritus rof-
marini.”’ It is alfo a principal ingredient in what is known
by the name of Huncary Water ; which fee.
Rosemary, Oi/ of, Oleum rofmarini, Lond.; Oleum
fummitatum florentium rorifmarini officinalis, Edinb. ; Oleum
herbe florefcentis roris marini, Dub., is prepared by dif-
tilling twenty-four pounds of the plant, which yield one
ounce of a fluid colourlefs oil, the odour of which is lefs
agreeable than that of the plant. It depofits cryftals of
camphor when long kept. Its {pecific gravity is .934.
(See Orr.) This oil is ftimulant; and frequently enters
into the compoiition of liniments. The dofe, as an inter-
nal remedy, may be from n]ij to Nvi; but it is {earcely
ever ordered.
RosEMARY, Spirit of; Spiritus rofmarini (Lond. ) is ob-
tained by macerating two pounds of frefh rofemary tops in
a gallon of proof {pirit, with water fufficient for prevent-
ing empyreuma, for twenty-four hours, and then diftilling a
gallon in a gentle heat. Spiritus rorif{marini officinalis
(Edinb.) is prepared by taking two pounds of frefh rofe-
mary tops and eight pounds of alcohol ({pec. grav. .335)>,
and drawing off feven pounds by diitillation m a water
bath. Spiritus rori{marini (Dub.) is obtained by diftilling
with a moderate fire five pints from a pound and a half of
frefh rofemary tops and a gallon of proof fpirit. Oil of
rofemary is fufficiently volatile to rife in diftillation with
reGtified fpirit, which the Edinb. college has, therefore,
dire&ted to be ufed. It is a fragrant perfume; and is
chiefly ufed in the compound foap liniment or the com-
pound fpirit of lavender. Lewis Mat. Med. Woody.
Med. Bot. Thomfon’s Difp.
ROSEMBERG, in Geography, a town of Pomerelia;
x0 miles S. of Dantzic.
ROSENAU, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland; 16 miles
E. of Marienwerder.—Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the
ercle of Prerau; eight miles E. of Meferitfch.—Alfo, a
ROS
town of Hungary, near which are mines of gold, copper.
quickfilver, and cinnabar; 24 miles W. of Cafchau. ~
ROSENBERG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 17 miles E. of Marienwerder. N. lat. 53° 39!-
E. long. 19° 10!.—Alfo, a town of Hungary, on the -
Waag, trading chiefly in falt; 18 miles N..of Libeten.—
Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin; 37
miles S. of Bechin. N. lat. 48°40'. E. long. 14° 18.
RosENBERG, or Ole/no, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Oppeln; 26 miles N.E. of Oppela. N. lat.
o° 52'. E. long. 18° 28).
ROSENBURG, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg ;
24 miles S. of Magdeburg.—Alfo, a {mall Dutch ifland,
at the mouth of the Meufe ; three miles E. of Briel.
ROSENDAL, >a town of Brabant; 15 miles W. of
Breda.
ROSENDORYF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; fix miles W. of Kamnitz. ;
ROSENEATH, a town of Scotland, in Dumbarton-
fhire ; nine miles W.N.W. of Dumbarton.
ROSENESS, a cape on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Pomona. N. lat. 58° 45'. W. long. 2° 42’.
ROSENFELD, a town of Wurtemberg; eight miles
S.E. of Sulz. N. Jat. 48° 14/. E. long. 8° 43’.
ROSENGAT, a town of Germany, oppofite to
Worms.
ROSENHEIM, atown of Bavaria, at the conflux ot
the Inn and the Manguald; 38 miles W. of Salzburg.
ROSENHOF, atown of the duchy of Holitein; five
miles N. of Cifmar.
ROSENIA, in Botany, fo called by Thunberg, in
honour of two brothers of the name of Rofen, both emi-
nent’ as phyficians and botaniits, one of whom is well
known as the determined and jealous rival of the early
fame of Linneus, though afterwards his friend. (See
Lixyzus.) This gentleman, who died in 1773, aged 67,
was profeflor of Medicine at Upfal: the other at Lund.
They were natives of Sweden, and knights of the Polar
Star.—Thunb. Prodr. pref. n. 59. Nov. Gen. diff. 12.
161. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2134.—Clafs and order, Syn-
genefia Polygamia Superflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite Di/-
coidee, Linn. Corymbifere, Juli.
Gen. Ch. Common calyx of many leaves, imbricated ;
fcales ovate, obtufe, undivided, fmooth, tranfparent, with
a brown, opaque, longitudinal line. Cor. compound,
radiated ; florets of the difk perfe&t, tubular, five-cleft ;
thofe of the radius female, ligulate, convolute, arched.
Stam. (in the perfeét florets) Filaments five, very fhort;
anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Py/?. (both m the
difk and radius) Germen {mall, {tyle thread-fhaped; ftigma
cloven. eric. none, except the unchanged calyx. Sved
(in both kinds of florets) angular, {mooth ; down, of two
kinds of capillary fcales; the two innermoft of the radius
generally fetaceous and longeft; the outermott capillary,
united at the bafe into feveral parcels. Recept. compofed
of lanceolate, membranaceous {cales.
Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down of two kinds,
chaffy. Corolla radiated. Calyx {cariofe. ; C
t. R. glandulefa. Thunb. and Willd.—Native of the in-
terior of the Cape of Good’ Hope. For all that is known of
this folitary {pecies of Ro/enia, we are indebted to the follow-
ing defcription of Thunberg. ‘ Stem fhrubby, round, {mooth,
wavy, erect, much branched, generally more than two feet
high. Branches and branchlets alternate, three or four to-
gether, ina clufter, fpreading, ftriated: the branchlets
lateral, very fhort, leafy. Leaves fomewhat cluftered, ap-
proximating, feflile, ovate, obtufe, undivided, flightly con-
‘ cave,
ROS
eave, chiefly glandular at the margin, downy, thickifh, im-
bricated, half as long as the nail. Flowers capitate, ter-
minal,’ ;
ROSENOU, in Geography, a town of Pomerania; eight
miles §.S.E. of Cofslin,
ROSENTHAL, a town of the principality of Heffe ;
eight miles N.N.W. of Marburg.—Alfo, a town of Welt-
phalia, in the bifhopric of Hildefheim; three miles S.W.
~ of Peina,—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm; eight miles N.E. of Bretchen.—Alfo, a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin; three miles N. of Rofen-
berg.
ROSEOLA, in Medicine, a term appropriated, in the
nomenclature of cutaneous difeafes devifed by the late Dr.
Willan, to a rofe-coloured rafh or eflorefcence upon the
fin, which is varioufly figured, without any elevation of
the furface, and not communicable by contagion.
This rath is of little importance in a pradtical view, be-
caufe it is moftly a mere concomitant of different febrile
complaints, and requires no deviation from the treatment
adapted to their relief ; but as it is fometimes miftaken both
for fcarlet fever and meafles, which are contagious and
often dangerous difeafes, fo it ought to be known, and its
varieties difcriminated. The appellation of rofeola is to be
found in the works of fome of the early modern writers ; but
it was applied fomewhat indifcriminately to every red rafh,
to {carlet fever, meafles, &c. Fuller, in his Exanthema-
tologia, p. 128, fpeaks of a fort of rofe-rafh, as a flufh-
ing all over the body, like fine crimfon, which, he fays,
is void of danger, and ¢ rather a ludicrous fpe€tacle, than
an ill fymptom.””
Seven varieties of rofeola were diftinguifhed by Dr.
Willan under the following appellations.
1. The rofeola ¢fiva, fo called from its ufual occurrence
in fummer, is fometimes preceded for a few days by flight
feverifh fymptoms, fuch as pains in the head and limbs,
laffitude, and liftlefsnefs. The rafh appears firft on the
face and neck, and, in the courfe of a day or two, is dif-
tributed over the reft of the body, producing a confider-
able degree of itching and tingling. The mode of dif-
tribution is into feparate {mall patches of various figure,
but of larger and more irregular forms than in the meafles,
with numerous interftices of the natural fkin. It is at firft
red, but foon affumes the deep rofeate hue peculiar to it.
The fauces are tinged with the fame colour, and a flight
roughnefs of the tonfils is felt in fwallowing. The rath
continues vivid through the fecond day ; after which it de-
clines in brightnefs, flight fpecks only of a dark red hue
remaining on the fourth day, which, together with the con-
ftitutional affeétion, wholly difappear on the fifth.
Not unfrequently, however, the rafh is partial, extend-
ing only over portions of the face, neck, and upper part
of the breaft and fhoulders, in patches, very flightly elevated,
and itching confiderably. In this form the complaint con-
tinues a week or longer, the rafh appearing and difappear-
ing feveral times; fometimes without any apparent caufe,
and fometimes from fudden mental emotions, or from tak-
ing wine, {pices, or warm liquors.. The retroceffion of the
rafh is ufually accompanied with diforder of the ftomach,
head-ache, and faintnefs, which are immediately relieved on
its re-appearance.
This {pecies of rofeola ufually occurs in the fummer
feafon, and particularly in females of an irritable conftitu-
tion. The patients commonly afcribe it to fudden alterna-
tions of heat and cold, and efpecially to having drank
cold liquors, when perfpiring after exercife. Sometimes
it occurs in connection with bilious diarrhea, cholera, dy-
ROS
fentery, or other bowel complaints of the hot feafon; and
fometimes it appears after much fatigue.
Very little medical treatment is required for this eruption,
which is generally alleviated by moderate diet, from which
every thing heating is excluded ; and by the ufe of acidu-
lated drinks, with occafional laxative medicines. The com-
plaint is never dangerous, except from the fudden repul-
fion of the eruption, in confequence of expofure to very
chill air, or of the application of cold water; in which
cafe violent diforder has taken place in the head, ftomach,
or bowels of the patient, as happens under fimilar circum-
{tances in other eruptive difeafes, fuch as meafles, the red
gum, &c.
2. The rofeola autumnalis is not uncommon in children
of five, or from that to ten years of age, in the autumn.
It occurs in diftin& patches, of an oar or circular fhape,
which occafion no elevation of the cuticle, and gradually
increafe to about the fize of a fhilling. Their hue is of a
dark damafk red; fo that at a diltance the fkin appears as
if ftained with the juice of black cherries or mulberries,
They are ufually diffufed over the arms, feldom on the face
and body; and they continue about a week, being fome-
times, but not always, fucceeded by defquamation. This
eruption is not accompanied by much itching or tingling,
nor is there any fymptom of general diforder, except a
whitenefs of the tongue. It is generally removed in a
fhort time by the exhibition of the diluted fulphuric acid
internally.
3+ The rofeola annulata appears on almoft every part of
the furface of the body in rofe-coloured rings, which have
central areas of the ufual colour of the fkin; and it like-
wife flightly affects the throat. The rings are at firft from
a line to two lines in diameter ; but they gradually dilate,
leaving a larger central {pace, fometimes to the diameter of
half an inch; and excite, efpecially in the night, a trouble-
fome fenfation of heat, and of itching or prickling, The
duration of the eruption is very uncertain ; in fome cafes it
commences with fhivering fucceeded by heat, and is at-
tended with head-ache, flufhing of the face, ficknefs at the
{tomach, and pains in the limbs; it then continues four or
five days, and difappears as. the febrile fymptoms decline.
In other cafes, which are without fever, the complaint is
of long duration; the efflorefcence ufually fades in the
morning, and returns in the evening or night, the rings
becoming vivid, and fometimes a little elevated. If the
rings fhould difappear, or be very faint in colour for feveral
fucceflive days, the patient becomes affected with pain in
the ftomach, ficknefs, vomiting of bile, great languor, giddi-
nefs and aching in the limbs. Thefe Taptone are allevi-
ated or removed by the ufe of the warm bath, after which
the efflorefcence generally returns, Sea-bathing and the
mineral acids afford much relief to the more chronic forms
of this {pecies of rofeola.
The annular rofeola appears to be fometimes conneéted
with an irregular ftate of the catamenia in women, and
with gouty and rhewmatic complaints in both fexes. It
fometimes fucceeds to a fit of the gout, and we have feen
it appear as the precurfor of a fit, which immediately fol-
lowed its difappearance.
4- The rofeola infantilis affeéts children during the period
of teething, in fevers, and in diforders of the bowels, and
the rafh is ufually fo clofe and full as to leave very {mall
interftices of the natural hue of the fkin. It is very irre-
gular, however, in its appearance and progrefs, fometimes
continuing only for a night ; fometimes appearing and dif-
appearing for feveral fucceflive days, being attended with
fymptoms of violent irritation; and fometimes arifing in
fingle,
ROS
fingle, but numerous and coalefcing, patches, of about
the fize of a fixpence, which continue for feveral days,
and terminate in f{curf. This rafh, where it is pretty
generally diffufed, ts often miltaken, as Dr. Underwood
has remarked, for meafles and fcarlet fever. Whence it is
neceflary, that its charaéter fhould be well known to medi-
cal practitioners ; although it requires no {pecific treatment,
but ufually difappears under the employment of remedies
calculated to relieve the bowel complaints, painful dentition,
and other febrile affe@tions, with which it is fo frequently
connected.
5. The rofeola variolofa occurs previous to the.eruption
of the {mall-pox, when produced by an inoculation, in the
proportion of about one cafe in fifteen, according to obferva-
tions made at the Small-Pox Hofpital. It ufually appears
on the fecond day of the eruptive fever, which is generally
the ninth or tenth after inoculation, and is deemed by ino-
culators a certain prognoftic of a {mall and favourable
eruption of the {mall-pox. It does alfo occafionally occur
in the natural fmall-pox, on the third or fourth day, and
with a moderate and favourable eruption of puftules; but
it is much more rare than in the inoculated difeafe.
This rafh is firft obfervable on the arms, breaft, and face :
on the following day it extends over the trunk of the body
and the extremities. Its diftribution is various ; fometimes
in contiguous femicircles; fometimes in longitudinal irre-
gular patches, with {mall diftin@ dots intermixed ; and in
a few cafes, all thefeeappearances being combined, it forms
an almoft continuous rednefs over the body, and is in feveral
parts flightly elevated above the furface, as in the meafles.
It is not eafily repelled by cold air, or cold drinks, as the
early inoculators apprehended; and is aggravated by the
confinement and fudorific medicines which they recom-
mended.
Thefe rofeolous eflorefcences, antecedent to the eruption
of {mall-pox, were occafionally obferved by the firft writers
on the difeafe ; and both by them and fubfequent authors
were deemed to be meafles, which were faid to be converted
ito {mall-pox.
6. Rofeola vaccina. An efflorefcence which is fome-
what diffufe, like the variolous rafh, but appears generally
in congeries of dots and fmall patches, a little elevated,
takes place in fome children on the ninth and tenth day of
vaccination, at the place of inoculation, and at the fame
time with the areola that is formed round the veficle; and
from thence it {preads irregularly over the whole furface of
the body. But this does not occur nearly fo often as after
variolous inoculation. It does not continue vivid above
forty-eight hours; and is ufually attended with a very
quick pulfe, a white tongue, and great reftlefsnefs. Some
vaccinators attach little importance to it; others think it a
favourable circumftance, as denoting that the fkin and con-
ftitution have been fully affeted by the cow-pock.
7. Rofeola miliaris, This rafh often accompanies an
eruption of miliary veficles, with fever, where much heat
and fweating have been excited. (See Miziary Fever.)
it occurs occafionally, however, in the continued fevers
of this country, where neither a miliary eruption nor pro-
fufe {weating had preceded it, and does not appear to be
an unfavourable fymptom. See Willan on Cutaneous Dif-
eafes, p. 433, et feq., and Bateman’s Praét. Synopfis of
Cutan. Dif. p. 96. 3d edit. See alfo Underwood, on the
Dif. of Children, vol. i. p. 87.
ROSES, Jflands of Two, in Geography, two {mall
iflands in the Indian fea, near the coaft of Africa. S.
Jat. 17°.
Roses. See Rosas.
ROS
ROSETO, a river of Naples, which runs into the guif
of Tarento, N. lat. 4o° 2!. E. long. 16° 40’.
ROSETTA, Rosserra, or Ra/chid, a town of Egypt,
of confiderable fize and population, founded in the eighth
century, as fome have faid ; though Elmacin informs us, that
it was built during the reign of Elmetouakkel, caliph of
Bagdad, towards the year 870 of our era, and under the
pontificate of Cofma, patriarch of the Jacobites at Alex-
andria. Others date its foundation at a much later period ;
and Belon, who travelled in Egypt in 1530, fays that
this town was much f{maller than Faoué, but at prefent it
is much larger. It has borne the Arabic name Rafchid
ever fince the time of Edriffi the geographer, in 1153,
and of this the Europeans have made Rofetta or Roffetta.
Some have erroneoufly afferted, that it was built on
the fpot where Canopus was fituated; whereas the
Canopic branch of the Nile is the lagoon of Maadié, and
the ruins of Canopus are at Aboukir. Rofetta affords
no trace of antiquity ; neverthelefs it is certain, fays Son-
nini, that it cannot be far from the place where ftood
Metelis or Metilis, of which Strabo and Ptolemy make
mention, and which was on the weftern bank, and near
the mouth of the Bolbitic branch of the Nile. The heaps
of fand, which this river is continually accumulating, no
longer permit veffels to reach as far as Faoué. Although
Rofetta was built at the mouth of the river, it is already
two leagues from it. According to Abulfeda it was very
inconfiderable in the 13th century ; nor was it much in-
creafed for 200 years after this time. . But when the Otto-
mans added Egypt to their conquefts, they negle¢ted the
fupport of the canals. Thus, the canal of Faoué ceafing
to be navigable, Rofetta became the emporium of the
merchandize of Alexandria and Cairo. Commerce foon
made it flourifh, and it is at this day one of the handfomeft
towns in Egypt. It extends along the weftern bank of
the Nile, and is above a league in length, by a quarter’ of
a mile in breadth. Although it has no remarkable place,
nor any one itreet quite regular, yet all the houfes, being
built with terraces, and well difpofed, have, by Savary’s
defcription of it, an air of cleanlimefs and elegance, which
is very agreeable ; to which Sonnini adds, that here are
feen long ftreets formed by two rows of fhops, in which
are found all forts of goods; the neceflaries of life being
very plentiful, and procured at a low price. Within the
houfes are {pacious apartments, well veatilated by a great
number of windows, which are always open. The blinds
and traniparent linen, which they ftretch over them, keep
out the rays of the fun, afford a moderate light, and miti-
gate the exceflive heats. The only public buildings worthy
of notice are the mofques, with their lofty minarets, of
light archite€ture, and conitructed with much _boldnefs.
‘They thus produce a very picturefque effe& in a town where
all the roofs are flat, and throw great variety into the pic-
ture. The houfes in general have a view of the Nile, and
of the Delta, which form a moft magnificent fpeacle.
The river is always covered with veflels, mounting and de-
{cending with oars, or under fail. The tumult of the har-
bour, the joy of the mariners, their noify mufic, exhibit a
moving and animated fcene. The Delta, that immenfe
garden, where the earth is never weary of production,
furnifhes the whole year a fucceffion of harvefts, of vege-
tables, of flowers, and of fruits; various fpecies of cu-
cumbers and delicious melons, the fig, the orange, the ba-
nana, the pomegranate, of the molt exquifite favour. To
the north of the town are gardens, where lemon and orange
trees, date trees, and {ycamore trees, are planted at random;
by their fcliage affording an arch impenetrable to the rays
of
ROSETTA.
of the fun, and by their flowers see the fhade of
thefe groves delightful. The houfes of Rofetta, fays Son-
nini, are much better built, in general, than thofe of Cairo:
its fituation upon the banks of the river; the view of the
Delta, which prefents, as Savary defcribes it, the de-
lightful profpeét of the moft beautiful culture, the per-
fumed groves in its neighbourhood, and its pure and
wholefome air, have moft defervedly procured for it the
name of the “ garden of Egypt.’’ Commerce conititutes
the principal wealth of the inhabitants of Rofetta. The
importation of foreign merchandize to Cairo, and of the
produétions of Egypt into the port of Alexandria, em-
ploys a great number of mariners. (See Boeuass and
ScuerMm.) ‘The bar of the Nile is totally fhut during
two months of the year, and the commerce of Alexandria
is interrupted. But if all the fhips in Egypt were to
perifh, the Ottoman government, fays Savary, would not
remove one inch of ground of the canal of Faoué to render
it navigable. It fuffers every thing to go to ruin, and re-
pairs nothing.
In the town of Rofetta a profound filence reigns, un-
interrupted by the noife of any carriage. The inhabitants
move with gravity through the ftreets, clad in long robes
which hang down to their heels. ‘Their heads are covered
with heavy turbans, or bound round witha {chale or fhaw],
which is a long piece of ftuff made of filk or wool. The
girdle is made ufe of by both fexes. The citizen is armed
with a knife, the foldier with a fabre, and a pair of piftols.
The women of the lower clafs, whofe drefs confifts of a
large blue fhift, and a long pair of drawers, have their faces
covered with a piece of linen, with holes oppofite to the
eyes. The rich wear a large white veil, with a cloak of
black filk, that wraps up their whole body. But though
they are thus mafked, they are not fcrupulous in making
- figns, nor in ogling.
The moft ordinary paftime here is {moking and drinking
coffee. From morning to night the inhabitants have their
pipes in their mouths; at home, in each other’s houfes, in
the ftreets, on horfeback, they keep their pipe lighted, and
the tobacco-bag is hung at their waift. If the inhabitants
of Rofetta be lefs barbarous, fays Sonnini, than thofe of
the other parts of Egypt, they are not lefs ignorant, lefs
fuperftitious, nor lefs intolerant. We find among them,
although with fhades more foftened down, the fame rough-
nefs of charaéter, the fame implacable averfion towards the
nations of Europe, and difpofition to infult both Chriftians
and Jews, the fame revengeful difpofition, in a word, the
fame treachery ; and they are addicted to the fame fhameful
vices, fome of which we cannot name.
The country round Rofetta is an immenfe furface, with-
out a mountain or hill, interfeted by innumerable canals,
covered with harveft and a variety of trees, which winter
never ftrips of their leaves. The {foil isa black mould, the
fertility of which is inexhauftible. The chief article of
cultivation is rice, called in the vicinity of Rofetta « fultani,”’
which is fown from the month of March to that of May,
tranfplanted on the banks of the Nile, and on the borders
of the canals at the end of July, and cut in November.
{See Ecyer.) Rice forms a principal article of exporta-
tion, which they dry by fpreading upon the terraces of
the houfes and in the public fquares; asd to this opera-
tion is attributed the multitude of gnats, with which the
town and the infide of the houfes are filled at the time
when it is performed.
Rofetta, befides being the great emporium of the trade
that is carried on between Cairo and Alexandria, has fome
branches of commerce peculiar to itfelf; fuch as fpun-
You. XXX.
cotton, dyed red, which is drawn from the adjacent diftricts :
dreffed flax, linen cloths, filk dyes for the eaftern drefles,
&c. The flax of the country, which is long, foft, and
filky, would make beautiful linen, if they knew how to
employ it; but the fpinfters ars very inexpert, and the
thread they make is clumfy, hard, and uneven. The linens
they bleach ferve for the table ; the reft, dyed blue, is em-
ployed for the clothing of the people. In Rofetta there
are ftore-houfes of natron, and manufatories where it is
ufed. (See Natron.) Moft of the merchants of this
town are Turks or Syrians, and fome from Barbary. The
Copts are numerous, together with fome Arabs. The
command of the town is vefted in an officer of the Mam-
louks, who bears the title of Aga. About a league from
the fea, northward of Rofetta, are two caftles, one on the
weltern bank of the Nile, and the other on the oppofite
bank of the river, conftru@&ed to defend the entrance of
the river. The former, which is afcribed to St. Lewis in
the time of the crufades, is almoft entirely demolifhed ; and
the few cannon which "remain in it are unfit for fervice.
Thefe two forts, though inconfiderable, and in a ruinous
ftate, would be fufficient to itop veffels from entering the
river, if the Turks knew how to make ufe of cannon; but
here they have no occafion for it ; as nature has guarded
the mouth of the Nile, by raifing a dangerous bar, called
the Boghafs or Bogaz, which is the terror of mariners.
About half a league to the fouth of Rofetta is a tower,
called the tower of Canopus, from the erroneous fup-
pofition that Rofetta is on the fcite of the ancient
Canopus. This tower has been built, in modern times,
upon a hillock of fand, which at this place forms the
W. bank of the Nile. It is fquare, and partly demo-
lifhed. In the lower part the inhabitants of this dif-
tri& fhew the opening of a fubterraneous paflage, which,
as they fay, ied to Alexandria. Near the top of the
fame is prefented a general view of the country,
having no bounds except thofe which nature has pre-
feribed ; and near its foot, clofe to the edge of the Nile,
ftands a mofque, confecrated to a hely Muffulman, called
« Abou-Mandour,”’ which fignifies father of the light.
This faint, if he be the father of the light, is alfo the terror
of the fands, as, but for him, they would long ago have
overwhelmed Rofetta, and added it to their dreary domain.
Oppofite to this mofque, upon the E. bank of the Nile,
are two or three houfes, called Maadée, becaufe they itand
at the place facing the ufual paflage to the Delta. On
the weft bank, at a fhort diftance above Abou-Mandour, is
Dgeddie, a confiderable village, in the environs of which
a great number of vine-plants grow in the fand; from
hence Rofetta and Alexandria are fupplied with grapes.
At the foot of the tower above-mentioned, a large femicir-
cular bafon announces a port, which has been choaked up by
the faud. In digging at the bottom of this hillock, twenty
beautiful marte pillars were difcovered by a Turkifh mer-
chant, who was itripped of his fortune by the Beys, from
an imagination that he had carried off a treafure from this
place. M. d’Anville fufpeéts that the ancient Bolbitina
muft have been at a very fmall diftance from the {pot on
which Rofetta now flands. The ruins now mentioned
feem to confirm his conjeGture ; as they are at the extremity
of a town, and can only belong to the Bolbitina {poken of by
Steph. Byz. and which gives its name to one of the branches
of the Nile. This place is very pi€turefque ; the tower,
falling into ruins, is furrounded by tombs, and to the weit-
ward is a defart plain, whofe burning extent the eye cannot
look over without horror; but on the E. the contraft is
very ftriking, prefenting a majeltic river, and the Delta,
4 E uniting
ROS
uniting moft protufely the graces of the fpring, the beauty
of the fummer, and the rich luxuriance of the autumn.
Sir R. Wilfon has given us a pi€ture of Rofetta, very
different from that which we have above exhibited. He
fays, it is built of a dingy red brick, and that a great part
of the town is in ruins, many of the houfes having been
pulled down by the French for fuel. The ftreets are not
more than two yards wide, and full of wretches, which the
pride of civilization revolts at acknowledging to be human.
The number of blind perfons is prodigious ; nearly every
fifth inhabitant having either lott, or having fome humour
in, his eye. The eryfipelas, the dropfy, the leprofy, the
elephantiafis, and lufi nature, conftantly offend the fight.
Filth, mofquitos of the moft dreadful fort, vermin of every
kind, women fo ugly, that, fortunately for Europeans, their
faces are concealed by a black cloth veil, in which are cut
two eye-holes; itench intolerable; houfes almoft unin-
habitable :—thefe form the-charms of Rofetta, and Savary’s
garden of Eden. The quay, however, is allowed to be
a handfome objeét, and might be thade noble. The baths
are reprefented as horridly difgutting. Dr. Wittman, cited
alfo by Crutwell, obferves, that though it contains but few
ftriking public edifices, Rofetta muit be confidered as a
handfome place by thofe who have been accuftomed to
mud walls and fandy defarts ; the mofques and their mi-
narets, as well as their houfes, built with bricks, plattered
over and white-wafhed. The population he eftimates at
8 or 10,000, but from the number of empty houfes, it ap-
peared capable of containing at leaft treble that number.
In 1807, the Britifh were defeated here, with confiderable
lofs, by the Turks; go miles N.W. of Cairo. N. lat. 31°
24'. E. long. 30° go’. Savary. Sonnini. Niebuhr.
ROSETTE, in Military Language, an ornamental branch
of ribbands, or cut leather, which is worn both by officers
and foldiers in the Britifh fervice, on the upper part of their
cues.
Rosettes, two {mall bunches of ribbands that are
attached to the loops by which the gorget of an officer is
fufpended upon his cheft. The colour of the ribband mutt
correfpond with the facing of the uniform. The French
ufe the fame term.
ROSETTI, Donato, in Biography, an ingenious Ita-
lian, who flourifhed in the 17th century, but of whofe per-
fonal hittory little is known. He was a native of Leg-
horn, where he was probably educated, and was fo funects:
ful in the cultivation of the {ciences, that at a very early
age he was confidered as completely qualified to teach
mathematics and the elements of philofophy in different
univerfities. While he was profeflor of logic at Pifa, he
publifhed a treatife relating to the fyitem of the earth,
which was well received. The title of this work was
« Antignome fifico Mathematiche con il nuovo Orbe e
Syftema terreftre.”” This was followed by ‘* A Collec-
tion of phyfico-mathematical Inftruétions ;”? « A Treatife
on the Compofition of Dutch Glaffes, ard Glafs Drops ;’’
« A Collection of phyfico-mathematical Demonftrations’’
ef propofitions which he had undertaken to prove. In
his “ Antignome,’? he maintained that the number of
fenfes was eleven ; this increafe he made out by confidering
the different modes in which we touch bodies as fo many
different fenfes, and endeavouring to fhew that the per-
ceptions arifing from them cannot properly be afcribed to
the fenfe of feeling in general. He was the author of an-
other treatife, entitled ‘* Polifta fedele,’? intended to ex-
plain the inclination of bodies to unite at their poles, and
various phenomena refpe€ting their harduefs, their elafti-
eity, their extenfion, and the caufes which convert folids
ROS
into fluids. It is not known when this philofopher died =
he was living at Pifa in the year 1678.
Rosetti, ANTONIO, chapel-mafter to the duke of Meck-
lenburg Schwerin, born, according to Gerber, at Milan, in
1744.3; but we have better authority to fay that he was
a native'of Bohemia, and a difciple of the great Haydn at
Vienna, where, in 1755, he was a violinift in the imperial
chapel, and afterwards in the fervice of count Althan,
1780. Since that time he has been a voluminous publifher
at Hamburgh and Leipfic, of pieces for the piano-forte, with
and without a violin accompaniment, of fymphonies for a
full orcheftra, on the plan of his mafter Haydn, flute con-
certos, &c. Some of his fymphonies, when performed at
the concerts in England, while Haydn was in this country,
we thought written with force, and abounding with fire
and new paflages.
ROSEWAY Porz, in Geography, a populous fea-port
town on the S E. coaft of Nova Scotia, N.E.. by E. of
cape Negro and Harbour.
Roseway J/land, an ifland that lies at the mouth of
Port Wager, on the S.E. coaft of Nova Scotia.
ROSEWELL, Tuomas, in Biography, a Prefbyterian
divine, was born in Somerfetfhire about the year 1630, and
was educated at Oxford. After leaving the univerlity, he
was prefented to the living of Strode, in his native county,
from which he was. ejected in the year 1662, by the Bar-
tholomew a&. In 1674 he officiated with a Non-con-
formift congregation at Rotherhithe ; and in the year 1684
he was arrefted on a charge of high treafon : on this charge
he was tried in the court of king’s bench, November 8th,
before the infamous Jefferies. The indi&tment was on words
faid to have been delivered from the pulpit, and the wit-
nefles were three women of: abandoned charaéters, of whom
the chief was afterwards fet in the pillory for perjury.
The trial lafted feven hours, and Mr. Rofewell behaved
with all the decency and refpeét that could have been ex-
pected, and made a defence that was applauded by all who
heard him, The women, fays bifhop Burnet, could not
prove, by any circumftance, that they were even prefent
at the meeting, and the words to which they {wore wére
fo grofs, that it was not to be imagined that any man in his
wits would have made ufe of them in a mixed affembly ;
yet Jefferies urged the matter with his ufual vehemence.
He laid it down as an axiom, concerning which there could
be no controverfy, that all preaching at conventicles, as he
was pleafed to call diffenting places of worfhip, was trea-
fonable, and that this ought to difpofe the jury to believe
any evidence upon that head. The jury accordingly found
the prifoner guilty. As foon, however, as the trial was
over, fir Jolin Talbot, who was prefent at it, went to the
king, and urged it on his majeity, that if fuch evidence
was admitted, as had appeared againft Mr. Rofeweil, no
one of his fubje&ts would be fafe. Upon this, when
Jeffries foon after came into the royal prefence, with an
air of exultation and triumph, to congratulate his majefty
on the conviction of .a traitor, the king afforded. him a
cool reception, which mortified him exceedingly, but at the -
fame time it gave a complete turn to the bent of his mind;
fo that when the court met to hear Mr. Rofewell’s counfel,
who moved for an arreft of judgment, this judge, who was
as mean as he was corrupt and cruel, aflumed a tone of
moderation, and ftrongly recommended to the king’s coun-
fel caution and deliberation where the life of a man was
depending. The prifoner was, in the end, pardoned. He
died in1691. Neal’s Hilt. vol. iv.
ROSHAN, or RosHawn, in Geography, a country of
Afia, fituated between Meckley and Arracan, between
2°
ROS
92° and 95° E, long., and 21° and 23° N, lat.; about
120 miles in length, and 80 in breadth. See ARrracan.
ROSHEIM, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Barr; 15 miles S.W. of Strafburgh. The place con-
tains 3355, and the canton 12,017 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 2274 kiliometres, in 15 communes.
ROSHOVER, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Weit-
min{ter county, containing 1786 inhabitants.
ROSICRUCIANS. See RosycructAns.
ROSIENNE, in Geography, a town of Samogitia, in
which the diet and court of judicature are held; 76 miles
S. of Mittaw. N. lat. 55° 30’. E. long. 41° 57’.
ROSIERE, La, a {mall ifland near the §.W. coaft of
the ifland of Jerfey ; 1 mile E.S.E. of Noirmont Point.
Rosiere, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Montdidier. The place contains 2760, and the canton
13,812 inhabitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres, in 21
communes.
ROSILERES aux Salines, atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Meurte, on the Meurte, formerly celebrated
for its falt-works; 6 miles W. of Luneville,
ROSIERS, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire, on the Loire; 7 miles N.W. of Saumur.
Rosters, Cape, the S. limit of the mouth of the river
St. Lawrence ; being the eafternmoft point of the diftrict
of Gafpee, in Lower Canada. N. lat. 48° 56’. W. long.
63° 40!. ,
GHANA a town of Etruria; 13 miles S.E. of
ifa.
ROSIL, in Rural Economy, a term applied to fuch land
as is neither light nor heavy, being a medium between
fand and clay ; it is fometimes written ro/ills.
ROSILLY Bay, in Geography, a bay on the S. coaft of
Wales. N. lat. 51° 32’. W. long. 4° 16/.
ROSIN, Joun, in Biography, an antiquary, was born
at Eifnach in 1551, and died of the plague in 1626. He
was author of ‘ Antiquitatum Romanarum,” a work of
high reputation, of which the beit edition is that of Utrecht,
in 1701.
Rosin, Refina, in Pharmacy. See Resin.
Rosin is particularly ufed for a refinous matter prepared
from the juice of the pine-tree ; in ordinary ufe for the mak-
ing of ointments, plafters, and for other purpofes.
For the method of procuring it, fee Pryz, and Turren-
TINE.
ROSITO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra; 16 miles N.E. of Caffano.
Rosiro, Cape, a cape on the eaft coaft of Calabria. N.
lat. 40° 5’. E. long. 16° 40’.
ROSKOPF, a mountain of Auftrian Swabia; 1 mile
S.E. of Schonau.
ROSLAND, in our Old Writers, heathy land, or
ground full of ling: alfo watery and moorifh land.
ROSLAVL, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Smolenfk. N. lat. 54°. E. long. 32° so’.
ROSLAW, a river of Saxony, which runs into the
Elbe, oppofite to Deflau.
ROSLDORYF, a town of Auftria; 6 miles S.W. of
Ehrnfprunn.
ROSLYN, Rostin, Rofélyn, or Rofkelyn, a, village in
the parifh of Lafwade, and county of Midlothian, Scot-
land, is about fix miles S.S.W. from Edinburgh. This
place is much celebrated on account of its caftle and chapel,
and for the romantic character of the fcenery in its im-
mediate vicinity. An excurfion to Roflyn is one of the fa-
ROS
vourite fummer recreations of the inhabitants of the northern
metropolis ; and no traveller of tafte leaves that part of the
kingdom, without contemplating its beauties. The caftle
is feated on a bold and lofty rock, overhanging the river
North-Efk, which dathes over a rugged channel at the bafe,
in a femicircular {weep; and the precipitous banks are
covered with a profufion of wood. Only a very {mall por-
tion of the ancient building is now ttanding ; but a modern
manfion has been ereéted on part of the old walls. It is un+
certain when this caltle was built; but that event molb pros
bably occurred about the commencement of the 12th century,
when William de Sanéto-Clere (fon to Waldernus de St.
Clere, who came to England with William the Conqueror}
obtained a grant of the barony of Roflyn from the Scottifh
king, Malcolm Canmore. No mention of it is made in hit-
tory, however, till the reign of James II. of Scotland, when
fir William Hamilton is itated to have been confined here,
for joining the rebellious ftandard of earl Douglas. In
1554 it was fet fire to, and in great part demolifhed, by
the forces of king Henry VIII. The St. Clere family, or,
as the name is now fpelt, St. Clair, was anciently of great
note in Scotland. Their pofleflions were very extenfive,
and their titles numerous, being earls of Caithnefs and
Orkney, lords of Nithfdale, and barons of Pentland, Couf-
lande, Cardain, Saint-Clair, Herbertfhire, Hertfoordy
Grahamfhaw, Kirkton, Cavers, Newborough, and Rox-
burgh. ‘Their affluence and power exceeded that of moft
contemporary nobles, either in England or Scotland; and
they lived in a ftyle of magnificence and fplendour, which
even the Scottifh monarchs were fcarcely able to rival.
James IL. conferred upoa them the honour of being here-
ditary patrons and grand matters of mafonry in Scotland ;
privileges which they continued to enjoy for feveral genera~
tions.
The chapel of Roflyn occupies the fummit of a hill above
the caftle. It was founded in the year 1446, by William
Saint Clair, earl of Caithnefs and Orkney, for a provott, fix
prebendaries, and two finging boys; and was endowed by
him with confiderable landed pofleffions. He did not, how-
ever, live to complete his undertaking, notwithftanding he
{pared neither trouble nor expence to effect this purpofe be-
fore his death, which happened in 1479. From a manu-
{eript memoir of the houfe of Douglas, depofited in the
library of the Faculty of Advocates at Edinburgh, we learn
many curious particulars relative to the building of this
chapel. It is there faid, that the founder ‘ caufed artificers
to be brought from other regions and forraigne kingdomes,
and caufd dayly to be abundance of all kinde of workemen
prefent ;”? and it is fubfequently added, «« and to the end
the worke might be more rare, he caufd the draughts to
be drawn upon Eaftland boords, and made the carpenters
to carve them according to the draughts, and then gave
them for patterns to the mafons, that they might thereby
cut the like in ftone.”” The prefent building is generally
fuppofed to have been intended only for the choir of a large
collegiate church, which, according to tradition and pro-
bability, it was the defign of the Puiden to have ereéted.
Though in a mutilated eres its architeGture is unique, and
combines, according to Mr. Gandy, *“ the Egyptian,
Grecian, Roman, and Saracenic ftyles ;” and exhibits the
arch ‘in all its poffible forms and principles.” ‘This
ftruéture meafures in the interior 68 feet in length, and 35
in breadth. The exterior is fupported by 2: buttreffes,
furmounted by pinnacles, each differing from the others in
its ornaments. Two of thefe buttrefles have double pin-
nacles, the outer fhafts of which are {maller than the inner,
with which they are conneéted by flying abutments, Similar
4 E 2 members
ROSLYN.
members alfo unite the larger pinnacles with the upper part
of the chapel. The eaftern end difplays five buttrefles,
with four pomted windows intervening, all of uniform fize
and ftyle, though varying fomewhat in the tracery work
with which they are ornamented. Each window is divided
by a ftone mullion, faced, both internally and externally,
with double columns; and the tranfom of the arch is de-
corated with half figures of perfons in the attitude of fup-
plication, and with different kinds of foliage. On the north
and fouth fides of the chapel, in the lower compartment,
are five windows of a fimilar kind; alfo a pointed arched
door-way, recefled under. a larger femicircular arch, above
which is an irregular triangular window, highly ornamented.
Another tier of windows, on each fide, gives light to the
upper part of the building ; but thefe are now much mu-
tilated, having loft their mullions, tracery, &c. Between
every two windows are two canopied niches, and a bracket,
which appear to have been defigned for ttatues. This por-
tion of the building is f{upported by two oppofite ranges of
five arches each, feparating the body of the chapel from the
fide aifles; beyond which, at the eaft end, there are two
columns, and two more in the centre between them, all of
* them fupporting {tone beams, exhibiting a great variety of
{culptural ornaments. One of the centre pillars is wreathed,
afid is popularly called the apprentice’s pillar, from a tradi-
tion‘refpecting its execution by an apprentice of the matter
mafon of the itru€ture ; who, it is faid, finding himfelf un-
able to underftand the model furnifhed to him, went abroad
for inftructions, during which time the work was accom-
plithed by the apprentice. It is fingular that a fimilar ftory
is told of fome of the beft fculptures in Melrefe abbey ;
and we believe, alfo, of a much later produétion of art,
the ftatue of king Charles II. in the Parliament-fquare at
Edinburgh. ‘T'wo heads in the chapel are faid to reprefent
the mafter and the apprentice. The former is fhewn
as frowning, and the latter with a fcar or indention on the
forehead, to denote that he was murdered by his matter,
through envy of his fuperior genius. At the eafk end of
the chapel are four altars, dedicated to different faints.
s¢ Of arches,’ fays Mr. Britton, in his Architeftural An-
tiquities, ‘‘ there are more than thirteen varieties to be
found in this building. A fiat or fegment beneath the roof
of the aifles, and over the door to the fub-chapel; femi-
circular in the vault of the roof, and over the entrance
doors; groined, acutely pointed over the weltern aifle ; flat
pointed between the centre and fide aifles ; {harp pointed in
the lower windows; ogee to the pilcinas; flattened, and
lateft of the pointed ftyle, infide of the door-way, fouth
- fide; half fegynent in the flying buttreffes ; counter arch in
the triangular windows; flat arch and fegment joined in a
door in the vault; feveral arches of various forms in the
windows, niches, and canopies, alfo in the battlements.’’
The vault above-mentioned is the burying-place of the fa-
mily of the Sinclairs. The foil of it is fo dry, that bodies
have beea found entire 80 years after their interment. ‘They
were formerly buried in armour, and without a coffin.
‘© The late Roflin,”? fays father Hay, in his MS. memoirs,
‘< was the firft that was buried in a coffine, contrary to the
fentiments of James VII., who was then im. Scotland ;”’
and he adds, “ that the great expence my mother was at in
burying her hufband, occafioned the fumptuary ats that
were made in the next parliament.’? There was formerly
a fuperftitious ftory relative to this chapel current among
the common people in the neighbourhood. They believed
that, previous to the death of any member of the Saint Clair
family, the chapel was to be feen in flames, without fuftain-
ing any injury. This fuperftition is alluded to by Mr.
x
Scott, in his « Lay of the Minftrel,”” in the following
beautiful lines :
«¢ Seem’d all on fire that chapel proud,
Where Roflin’s chiefs uncoffin’d lie,
Each baron, for his fable fhroud,
Sheath’d in his iron panoply.
Seem’d all on fire, within, around,
Deep facrifty, and altar’s pale ;”
Shone every pillar foliage bound,
And glimmer’d all the dead men’s mail.
Blaz’d battlement and pinnet high,
Blaz’d every rofe-carv’d buttrefs fair,
So ftill the blaze, when fate is nigh,
The lordly line of high St. Clair.”
The village of Roflyn was anciently a place of confi-
derable importance. King James IT. conttituted it a burg
of barony in the year 1456, and granted to the inhabitants
a weekly market anda fair ; but thefe privileges are now
abandoned. The fields immediately contiguous are cele-
brated in hiftory as the fcene of three fanguinary engage-
ments betwixt the Englifh and Scotch; all fought on the
fame day, the 24th of February, 1303. The particulars
are-thus narrated: by the Scottifh hiftorians. During a
truce, Ralph Confroy, treafurer to Edward I., invaded
Scotland at the head of thirty thoufand men. With a view
to plunder, he divided his forces into three bodies; and
having reached the vicinity of Roflyn, encamped them in
three diftant ftations. On being apprifed of this invafion,
fir John Cumming and fir Simon Frazer marched with
10,000 men to watch the motions of the enemy ; and finding
the firft divifion unprépared, attacked and routed it with
great flaughter.. The fecond divifion coming up immediately
after the battle, fhared the fame fate; as did likewife the
third divifion, which appeared in a fimilar manner at the
clofe of the fecond ation. This engagement excited much
intereft both at home and abroad ; and is ranked among the
nobleft efforts of Scottifh bravery. About half a mile
lower down the Efk, is fituated the houfe of Hawthornden,
remarkable not only for its having belonged to Drummond,
the celebrated poet and hiftorian, but alfo for the caves under
it. There are various conjeCtures as to the original inten-
tion of thefe fubterraneous cavities. Stukeley has given'cre-
dit to a fabulous tradition, that they were ftrong holds of
the Pictith. kings ; and accordingly one cave is called the
king’s gallery, another the king’s bed-chamber, and a third
the guard-room. Setting afide this groundlefs tradition, the
moft probable opinion is, that they were reforted to as places
of refuge during the deftructive wars between the Englifh
and Scotch. Detached from the principal caves is a
{maller one, called the Cyprefs grove, where Drummond
is faid to have compofed many of his poems. It was in
thefe caverns that the famous fir Alexander Ramfay, one
of the anceftors of the Dalhoufie family, who performed
fuch exploits of valour in the conteft for the crown between
Bruce and. Baliol, ufed to conceal himfelf. Here he was
reforted to by the young warriors of his day, who confi-
dered it as a neceflary part of military education to have
been of his band. From thence he fallied forth, as occafion
prefented itfelf, and attacked the Englifh, then in pofleffion
of Edinburgh. The -Statiftical Account of Scotland, by
fir John Sinclair. ~ArchiteQural Antiquities of Great Bri-
tain, vol. iii. gto. by John Britton, F.S.A. A Companion
and ufeful Guide to the Beauties of Scotland and the He-
brides, &c. by the Hon. Mrs. Murray Auft, of Kenfing-
ton, 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 18ro. ;
ROSMA-
ROS
ROSMARILHAL, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira, on the borders of Spain; 8 miles W. of
Alcantara, inSpain. N. lat. 39°33'. W. long. 6° 50!.
ROSMARINUS, in Botany, fo called from ros, dew,
and marinus, alluding to its fituation on the fea-fhore. Thofe
who have obferved it mantling the rocks of the Mediterra-
nean in winter, with its grey flowers glittering with dew,
_ cannot but be ftruck with the elegant propriety of the
name.—Linn. Gen. 16. Schreb. 22. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
126. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grae.
Sibth. v. 1. 12. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 52. Tournef.
t. 92. Jufl, 111. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 19.—Clafs and
order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn.
Labiate, Juil. :
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
comprefled at the upper part, with anereét mouth; upper
lip undivided ; lower cloven. Cor. unequal; tube longer
than the calyx; limb gaping ; upper lip divided into two
parts, ereét, fhorter, acute, with reflexed margins; lower
reflexed, trifid; the middle fegment very large, concave,
narrow at the bafe; the lateral ones narrow, acute. Stam.
Filaments two, aw]-fhaped, fimple, witha tooth at one fide,
inclined towards the upper lip, and exceeding it in length ;
anthers fimple. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, four-cleft ; ttyle
refembling the ftamens; ftigma fimple, acute. Peric. none,
except the permanent calyx, which contains four ovate /eeds
in its bottom.
Obf. This genus approaches yery near to Salvia, from
which however it differs in having the ftamens fimply fur-
nifhed with a lateral tooth.
Eff. Ch. Corolla unequal, its upper lip cloven. Fila-
ments longer than the corolla, curved, fimple with a tooth.
Calyx campanulate, trifid. Seeds four, naked.
1. R. officinalis. Common Rofemary. Linn. Sp. Pl.
33. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t.14. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 87.—Leaves feffile—Native of the fouth of Europe,
the Levant, and occafionally in the Grecian iflands ; com-
mon in gardens, flowering from January to May.—An
ereét, evergreen /brub, four feet high, very much branched ;
branches ob{curely quadrangular, downy, leafy on all fides,
Leaves oppofite, fpreading in a recurved manner, linear-
oblong, obtufe, revolute, entire; fmooth, dark green, and
fhining above ; downy and veined beneath. Flowering
branches axillary, oppofite, fhort, very leafy. lowers
axillary, terminal, on very fhort ftalks, ere&t, of a bright
blue colour, variegated with purple and white, having,
like the leaves, a {trong aromatic fragrance, refembling
camphor. This is the AsSavwr1: of Diofcorides and other
ancient authors. Rofemary, when wild, has broader leaves,
larger flowers, and a ftronger fcent than when culti-
vated in our gardens; indeed Miller, following the old
writers, regarded this as a fufficient ground to make them
diftin& fpecies ; the former being fubje& to a variety whofe
leaves are ftriped with yellow, and hence called Gold-ftriped
Rofemary ; the latter varying with a white ftripe, and
thence named Si/ver-friped Rofemary. The filver variety is
very tender. From an old opinion of Rofemary-juice hav-
ing the property of ftrengthening the memory, this plant
has been poetically made an emblem of remembrance or fide-
lity ; and this was probably the origin of its being worn or
ufed at funerals and weddings.
2. R. chilenfis. Chili Rofemary. Willd. n. 2. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 1. 52.—Leaves on ftalks.—Native of Chili,
and flowering in July. This /orub is only known from
Molina’s Natural Hiftory of Chili, who defcribes it as
having ttalked /eaves. Future obfervation muf{t determine
whether or not it be really a Ro/marinus.
ROS
RosMARINUS, 1n Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
fhrubby, evergreen kind, of which the {pecies cultivated
is the officinal rofemary (R. officinalis).
There are varieties of this with narrow leaves ; with broad
es ; with filver-ftriped leaves, and with gold-{triped
eaves.
Method of Culture.—In all the forts it may be effected by
planting flips or oe in the early {pring months, as from
March to May, as well as by layers ; in performing the firft
methods of which a quantity of young fhoots fhould be cut,
or ftripped off, from about five or fix to eight or ten inches
long, {tripping off the lower leaves, and then planting them
in a border of light earth, in rows a foot afunder, giving a
good watering, and repeating it frequently till they are
rooted, which they effeét in a fhort time ; in the fame year they
fhoot at top, and become tolerable little plants by autumn ;
when about the beginning or middle of September, or in
the {pring following, they may be tranfplanted where they
are defigned to remain for growth.
The layers fhould be laid down in any of the convenient
lower young branches, into the earth, in the f{pring, fum-
mer, or autumn, and they will be well rooted by autumn
following, when they may be taken off, and planted out
where they are to remain for plants.
Almoft all the varieties are moderately hardy ever-green
plants, though the common green forts are the moft fo;
the ftriped kinds being liable to fuffer by hard frofts, if
much expofed, or planted in wet ground; of courfe they,
as well as all the forts, fhould have a warm fituation and dry
foil: fome of the variegated kinds fhould alfo be potted, in
order to have the fhelter of a green-houfe in winter. They
are moft durable in dry poor foils. In regard to the ufes of
thefe plants, the common green forts are generally made ufe
of for different medicinal purpofes, the leaves as well as the
flowers being employed, and both thefe and the ftriped
kinds are planted out as fhrubs for the fake of affording
a more full variety. They all afford variety of courte
in the borders, clumps, and other parts of gardens and
fhrubberies.
RosMARINUuS, in the Materia Medica. See Rosemary,
ROSMARUS, in Zoology, the name of an animal called
alfo by fome the fea-horfe, and more ufually known by the
name of mor/e.
ROSMITHAL, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Prachatitz ; 11 miles N. of Blatna.
ROSNAY, a town of France, in the department of tke
Indre ; 8 miles N.E. of Le Blanc.
ROSNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oife ; 3 miles W. of Mantes.—Alfo, a town of
France ; 5 miles E. of Paris.
ROSOLIS, or Ros-soris, popularly Rofa-folis, /un-
dew, an agreeable fpirituous liquor, formerly much in re-
pute, chiefly taken after meals, by way of a drachm, to aid
digettion ; being compofed of burnt brandy, fugar, cinna-
mon, and milk-water, and fometimes perfumed with a little
mufk.
It hadits name, becaufe anciently prepared wholly of the
diftilled water of the plant Ros /olis, which fee ; but that
plant was at length neglected in the compofition.
The beft was that of Turin. The French have now a
particular kind, not called ros /olis, but du roy; becaafe
ufed with good effe& by Louis XIV. It is compofed of
Spanifh wine, in which are infufed anife, fennel, aneth, corian-
der, &c. for three weeks.
ROSOMACHA, or Rosomak, in. Zoology, a name
given by the Ruffians to the glutton. They avs, fays
Olaus, taken by the hunters chiefly on account aren
kins,
ROSLYN.
members alfo unite the larger pinnacles with the upper part
of the chapel. The eaftern end difplays five buttreffes,
with four pointed windows intervening, all of uniform fize
and ftyle, though varying fomewhat in the tracery work
with which they are ornamented. Each window is divided
by a ftone mullion, faced, both internally and externally,
with double columns; and the tranfom of the arch is de-
corated with half figures of perfons in the attitude of fup-
plication, and with different kinds of foliage. On the north
and fouth fides of the chapel, in the lower compartment,
are five windows of a fimilar kind; alfo a pointed arched
door-way, recefled under. a larger femicircular arch, above
which is an irregular triangular window, highly ornamented.
Another tier of windows, on each fide, gives light to the
upper part of the building ; but thefe are now much mu-
tilated, having loft their mullions, tracery, &c. Between
every two windows are two canopied niches, and a bracket,
which appear to have been defigned for itatues. This por-
tion of the building is fupported by two oppofite ranges of
five arches each, feparating the body of the chapel from the
fide aifles; beyond which, at the eaft end, there are two
columns, and two more in the centre between them, all of
* them fupporting {tone beams, exhibiting a great variety of
{culptural ornaments. One of the centre pillars is wreathed,
afid is popularly called the apprentice’s pillar, from a tradi-
tion ‘refpecting its execution by an apprentice of the matter
mafon of the itru€ture ; who, it is faid, finding himfelf un-
able to underftand the model furnifhed to him, went abroad
for inftruétions, during which time the work was accom-
plifhed by the apprentice. It is fingular that a fimilar ftory
is told of fome of the beft fculptures in Melrefe abbey ;
and we believe, alfo, of a much later produétion of art,
the ftatue of king Charles II. in the Parliament-fquare at
Edinburgh. ‘Two heads in the chapel are faid to reprefent
the mafter and the apprentice. The former is fhewn
as frowning, and the latter with a fcar or indention on the
forehead, to denote that he was murdered by his matter,
through envy of his fuperior genius. At the eaft end of
the chapel are four altars, dedicated to different faints.
¢ Of arches,’? fays Mr. Britton, in his ArchiteG@ural An-
tiquities, ‘‘there are more than thirteen varieties to be
found in this building. A flat or fegment beneath the roof
of the aifles, and over the door to the fub-chapel; femi-
circular in the vault of the roof, and over the entrance
doors ; groined, acutely pointed over the weftern aifle ; flat
pointed between the centre and fide aifles; fharp pointed in
the lower windows; ogee to the pilcinas; flattened, and
lateft of the pointed ftyle, infide of the door-way, fouth
- fide; half fegvaent in the flying buttreffes ; counter arch in
the triangular windows; flat arch and fegment joined in a
door in the vault ; feveral arches of various forms in the
windows, niches, and canopies, alfo in the battlements.’’
The vault above-mentioned is the burying-place of the fa-
mily of the Sinclairs. The foil of it is fo dry, that bodies
have been found entire 80 years after their interment. ‘They
were formerly buried in armour, and without a coffin.
‘© The late Roflin,”? fays father Hay, in his MS. memoirs,
‘< was the firft that was buried in a coffine, contrary to the
fentiments of James VII., who was then in. Scotland ;”
and he adds, * that the great expence my mother was at in
burying her hufband, occafioned the fumptuary acts that
were made in the next parliament.’? There was formerly
a fuperttitious ftory relative to this chapel current among
the common people in the neighbourhood. They believed
that, previous to the death of any member of the Saint Clair
family, the chapel was to be feen in flames, without fuftain-
ing any injury. This fuperitition is alluded to by Mr.
x
Scott, in his « Lay of the Minftrel,” in the following
beautiful lines :
«¢ Seem’d all on fire that chapel proud,
Where Roflin’s chiefs uncoffin’d lie,
Each baron, for his fable fhroud,
Sheath’d in his iron panoply.
Seem’d all on fire, within, around,
Deep facrifty, and altar’s pale ;”
Shone every pillar foliage bound,
And glimmer’d all the dead men’s mail.
Blaz’d battlement and pinnet high,
Blaz’d every rofe-cary’d buttrefs fair,
So full the blaze, when fate is nigh,
The lordly line of high St. Clair.”
The village of Roflyn was anciently a place of confi-
derable importance. King James IT. conttituted it a burgh
of barony in the year 1456, and granted to the inhabitants
a weekly market anda fair ; but thefe privileges are now
abandoned. The fields immediately contiguous are cele-
brated in hiftory as the f{cene of three fanguinary engage-
ments betwixt the Englifh and Scotch; all fought on the
fame day, the 24th of February, 1303. The particulars
are thus narrated by the Scottifh hiltorians. During a
truce, Ralph Confroy, treafurer to Edward I., invaded
Scotland at the head of thirty thoufand men. With a view
to plunder, he divided his. forces into three bodies; and
having reached the vicinity of Roflyn, encamped them in
three diftant ftations. On being apprifed of this invafion,
fir John Cumming and fir Simon Frazer marched with
10,000 men to watch the motions of the enemy ; and finding
the firft divifion unprépared, attacked and routed it with
great flaughter.. The fecond divifion coming up immediately
after the battle, fhared the fame fate; as did likewife the
third divifion, which appeared in a fimilar manner at the
clofe of the fecond aGtion. This engagement excited much
intereft both at home and abroad ; and is ranked among the
nobleft efforts of Scottifh bravery. About half a mile
lower down the Efk, is fituated the houfe of Hawthornden,
remarkable not only for its having belonged to Drummond,
the celebrated poet and hiftorian, but alfo for the caves under
it. There are various conjeétures as to the original inten-
tion of thefe fubterraneous cavities. Stukeley has given'cre-
dit to a fabulous tradition, that they were {trong holds of
the Piétifh. kings ; and accordingly one cave is called the
king’s gallery, another the king’s bed-chamber, and a third
the guard-room. Setting afide this groundlefs tradition, the
moft probable opinion is, that they were reforted to as places
of refuge during the deftructive wars between the Englifh
and Scotch. Detached from the principal caves is a
{maller one, called the Cyprefs grove, where Drummond
is faid to have compofed many of his poems. It was in
thefe caverns that the famous fir Alexander Ramfay, one
of the anceftors of the Dalhoufie family, who performed
{uch exploits of valour in the conteft for the crown between
Bruce and. Baliol, ufed to conceal himfelf. Here he was
reforted to by the young warriors of his day, who confi-
dered it as a neceflary part of military education to have
been of his band. From thence he fallied forth, as occafion
prefented itfelf, and attacked the Englifh, then in poffeffion
of Edinburgh. The Statiftical Account of Scotland, by
fir John Sinclair. ~Archite@tural Antiquities of Great Bri-
tain, vol. iii. gto. by John Britton, F.S.A. A Companion
and ufeful Guide to the Beauties of Scotland and the He-
brides, &c. by the Hon. Mrs. Murray Auft, of Kenfing-
ton, 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 18ro. :
ROSMA-
ROS
ROSMARILHAL, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira, on the borders of Spain; 8 miles W. of
Alcantara, inSpain. N. lat. 39°33'. W. long. 6° 50’.
ROSMARINUS, in Botany, fo called from ros, dew,
and marinus, alluding to its fituation on the fea-fhore. Thofe
who have obferved it mantling the rocks of the Mediterra-
nean in winter, with its grey flowers glittering with dew,
_ cannot but be ftruck with the elegant propriety of the
name.—Linn. Gen. 16. Schreb. 22. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
126. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. x. 12. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 52. Tournef.
t. 92. Juff. 1x. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 19.—Clafs and
order, Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn.
Labiate, Jull. :
Gen. Ch. CGa/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
compreffed at the upper part, with an erect mouth; upper
lip undivided ; lower cloven. Cor. unequal; tube longer
than the calyx ; limb gaping ; upper lip divided into two
parts, erect, fhorter, acute, with reflexed margins; lower
reflexed, trifid; the middle fegment very large, concave,
narrow at the bafe; the lateral ones narrow, acute. Stam.
Filaments two, awl-fhaped, fimple, witha tooth at one fide,
inclined towards the upper lip, and exceeding it in length ;
anthers fimple. Pi/. Germen fuperior, four-cleft ; ttyle
refembling the ftamens; stigma fimple, acute. Peric. none,
except the permanent calyx, which contains four ovate /eeds
in its bottom.
Obf. This genus approaches yery near to Salvia, from
which however it differs in having the ftamens fimply fur-
nifhed with a lateral tooth.
Eff. Ch. Corolla unequal, its upper lip cloven. Fila-
ments longer than the corolla, curved, fimple with a tooth.
Calyx campanulate, trifid. Seeds four, naked.
1. R. offcinalis. Common Rofemary. Linn. Sp. Pl.
33. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t.14. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 87.—Leaves feffile.—Native of the fouth of Europe,
the Levant, and occafionally in the Grecian iflands ; com-
mon in gardens, flowering from January to May.—An
erect, evergreen [iris four feet high, very much branched ;
branches ob{curely quadrangular, downy, leafy on all fides.
Leaves oppofite, fpreading in a recurved manner, linear-
oblong, obtufe, revolute, entire; fmooth, dark green, and
fhining above ; downy and veined beneath. Flowering
branches axillary, oppofite, fhort, very leafy. Flowers
axillary, terminal, on very fhort ftalks, ere&t, of a bright
blue colour, variegated with purple and white, having,
like the leaves, a {trong aromatic fragrance, refembling
camphor. This is the AiSavwrs: of Diofcorides and other
ancient authors. Rofemary, when wild, has broader leaves,
larger flowers, and a ftronger fcent than when culti-
vated in our gardens; indeed Miller, following the old
writers, regarded this as a fufficient ground to make them
diftin& fpecies ; the former being fubje& to a variety whofe
leaves are ftriped with yellow, and hence called Gold-friped
Rofemary ; the latter varying with a white ftripe, and
thence named Si/ver-friped Rofemary. The filver variety is
very tender. From an old opinion of Rofemary-juice hav-
ing the property of ftrengthening the memory, this plant
has been poetically made an emblem of remembrance or fide-
lity ; and this was probably the origin of its being worn or
ufed at funerals and weddings.
2. R. chilenfis. Chili Rofemary- Willd. n. 2. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 1. 52.—Leaves on ftalks.—Native of Chili,
and flowering in July. This /orub is only known from
Molina’s Natural Hiftory of Chili, who defcribes it as
having ttalked /eaves. Future obfervation muft determine
whether or not it be really a Ro/marinus.
ROS
RosMARINUS, 1n Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
fhrubby, evergreen kind, of which the {pecies cultivated
is the officinal rofemary (R. officinalis).
There are varieties of this with narrow leaves ; with broad
i ; with filver-ftriped leaves, and with gold-{triped
eaves.
Method of Culture.—In all the forts it may be effeéted by
planting flips or pene in the early {pring months, as froma
March to May, as well as by layers ; in performing the firft
metheds of which a quantity of young fhoots fhould be cut,
or ftripped off, from about five or fix to eight or ten inches
long, {tripping off the lower leaves, and then planting them
in a border of light earth, in rows a foot afunder, giving a
good watering, and repeating it frequently till they are
rooted, which they effeét in a fhort time ; in the fame year they
fhoot at top, and become tolerable little plants by autumn ;
when about the beginning or middle of September, or in
the {pring following, they may be tranfplanted where they
are defigned to remain for growth.
The layers fhould be laid down in any of the convenient
lower young branches, into the earth, in the {pring, fum-
mer, or autumn, and they will be well rooted by autumn
following, when they may be taken off, and planted out
where they are to remain for plants.
Almott all the varieties are moderately hardy ever-green
plants, though the common green forts are the moft fo;
the {triped kinds being liable to fuffer by hard frofts, if
much expofed, or planted in wet ground; of courfe they,
as well as all the forts, fhould have a warm fituation and dry
foil: fome of the variegated kinds fhould alfo be potted, in
order to have the fhelter of a green-houfe in winter. They
are moft durable in dry poor foils. In regard to the ufes of
thefe plants, the common green forts are generally made ufe
of for different medicinal purpofes, the leaves as well as the
flowers being employed, and both thefe and the ftriped
kinds are planted out as fhrubs for the fake of affording
a more full variety. They all afford variety of courfe
in the borders, clumps, and other parts of gardens and
fhrubberies.
Rosmarinus, in the Materia Medica. See Rosemary,
ROSMARUS, in Zoology, the name of an animal called
alfo by fome the fea-horfe, and more ufually known by the
name of mor/e.
ROSMITHAL, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Prachatitz ; 11 miles N. of Blatna.
ROSNAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Indre ; 8 miles N.E. of Le Blanc.
ROSNY, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oife ; 3 miles W. of Mantes.—Alfo, a town of
France ;_ 5 miles E. of Paris.
ROSOLIS, or Ros-soris, popularly Rofa-folis, /un-
dew, an agreeable fpirituous liquor, formerly much in re-
pute, chiefly taken after meals, by way of a drachm, to aid
digettion ; being compofed of burnt brandy, fugar, cinna-
mon, and milk-water, and fometimes perfumed with a little
mufk.
It hadits name, becaufe anciently prepared wholly of the
diftilled water of the plant Ros /olis, which fee ; but that
plant was at length neglected in the compofition.
The beft was that of Turin. The French have now a
particular kind, not called ros /olis, but du roy; becaafe
ufed with good effe&t by Louis XIV. It is compofed of
Spanifh wine, in which are infufed anife, fennel, aneth, corian-
der, &c. for three weeks.
ROSOMACHA, or Rosomak, in Zoology, a name
given by the Ruffians to the glutton. They avs, fays
Olaus, taken by the hunters chiefly on account rie
kins,
ROS
fins, whieh are-much efteemed by people of fortune for
robes, as being variegated with very bright colours, re-
fembling flowers. See Ursus Gulo.
ROSOSZE, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Li-
thuania; 3omiles S.W. of Brzefk.
ROSOY. See Rozoy.
ROSPORDEN, a town of France, in the department
of the Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, inthe dif-
trict of Quimper. The place contains 560, and the canton
4413 inhabitants, on a territory of 1274 kilometres, in four
communes.
ROSPUS, aname ufed by fome authors for the ftrange
fifh called the rana pifcatrix, or frog-fifh. See Sra-devil.
ROSS, Atexanper, in Biography, was born at Aber-
deen, and became matter of the grammar-{chool at South-
ampton, and chaplain to king Charles I. His works are
numerous, of which the beft known is “A View of all Re-
ligions :”” and a curious performance, called “ Virgilius
Evangelizans,”? taken wholly from the AEneid. He died in
1654, aged 61.
Ross, Jown, a learned prelate, was born in Hereford-
fhire, and educated at St. John’s college. Cambridge,
where he took his degree of D.D. in the year 1756.
He had fome years previoufly to this publifhed a pamphlet
in defence of Dr. Middleton againft the criticifms of Dr.
Markland, and in 1749 an edition of Cicero’s ‘ Epittole
ad Familiares,” in two vols. 8vo. He was prefented to the
vicarage of Frome, in Somerfetfhire, andin 1778 he was
advanced to the bifhopricof Exeter. He died in 1792.
Ross, Joun Locxnart, the fifth fon of fir James
Lockhart, was born in November 1721, and having mani-
fefted an inclination for the fea-fervice, he was, at the age
of 14, placed under captain Ofborn, who then commanded
his majefty’s fhip the Portland of 50 guns, which failed in
September 1735, for Conftantinople. He ferved in feveral
different fhips, and under different commanders, till 1743,
when he was advanced to the rank of lieutenant. It was
not till 1755 that he was appointed. to a command, which
was in the Savage floop of war, of 12 guns and 70 men.
In a very fhort ‘time he took a St. Domingo merchant-man,
valued at 30,000/. In the following year he was appointed
to the command of the Tartar floop of 24 guns, and 200
men. War was now declared againit the French, and on
the 20th of September he chafed and engaged two French
frigates of 28 guns, and drove them into Morlaix. With-
out particularizing the in{tances of his fuccefs, we may ob-
ferve that, between the 20th of September 1756 and the
roth of OGober 1758, he took nine privateers, containing
220 guns, and about 2500 men, with the lofs of only five
men killed and two wounded in the different engagements.
At length the name of captain Lockhart was almoit {ufficient
to terrify the enemy to ftrike. The following fact, which
ftands upon the moft indubitable authority, fhews in what
manner he was regarded on the feas. A privateer belonging
to Briftol, called the King George, and commanded by a
Mr. Read, haying fallen in with an enemy’s fhip of far fu-
perior force, during the night, and finding that the exi-
gencies of her fituation demanded the moft prompt and
vigorous exertions to preferve herfelf from capture, the
commander ran with great fpirit along-fide, and hailing the
enemy, commanded her to ftrike to the Tartar, captain
Lockhart, and was inftantly obeyed without the {malleft
hefitation. Captain Lockhart’s condué in proteéting the
trade of the country was fo meritorious, that the magiftrates
of Plymouth, immediately after his return to port, voted
him the freedom of their corporation to be prefented him in
- a gold box. A prefent equally honourable was made him
ROS
the enfuimg year, by the merchants and underwriters of
London, which confifted of a filver cup and falyer, curioufly
chafed, and emboffed with his arms, and the reprefentation
of the Tartar, and the feveral privateers which had been
captured by him.
In 1759 he was promoted to the Chatham of 50 guns,
and had two {maller veffels put under his command. In a
fhort eruife he took the Arethufa, a French frigate of 32
guns. In the following year he was promoted to the Bed-
ford, a third rate, but did not long retain the command.
In the fame year, by the death of a brother, he changed
his name to Rofs, and was eleéted a reprefentative in parlia-
ment. It was not till 1777 that he was called again to
ferve his country in the fea-fervice. In that year he was
employed under the orders of admiral Keppel, in the fa-
mous battle on the 27th of July. (See Kepren.) In
1779 he was raifed to the rank of rear-admiral of the blue,
and appointed fourth in command of the Channel, fleet,
having hoifted his flag on board the Royal George of too
guns. About this period he fucceeded his brother to the
dignity of a baronet. He next accompanied fir George
Rodney on his fortunate expedition, undertaken for the re-
lief of Gibraltar. After his return he went but little to
fea; but in 1787 he was advanced to the rank of vice-
admiral of the blue; and here clofed the profeffional career
of fir John Lockhart Rofs, who, confidering his great zeal
and a¢tivity in the profecution of the duties of his profef-
fion, and the vaft benefits which the commercial interefts of
his country reaped from his exertions, mult be allowed to
rank very high in his profeffion. His coolnefs and intre-
pidity in the hour of battle were never furpafled; and, in
the courfe of a very long fervice, to fight and to conquer
were alike habitual to him. He died in June 1790, after a
lingering and painful illnefs; and his remains were interred
in the Rofs aifle, forming the ealt end of the church of
Fearn, which had been the burying-place of all the refpe@-
able families of the name of Rofs for many ages. Stock-
dale’s edition of Campbell’s Lives of the Admirals, vol. vi.
Charnock’s Biographia Navalis, vol. vi.
Ross, in Geography, a borough and market-town in the
lower divifion of the hundred of Greytree, county of Here-
ford, England, is feated on a commanding eminence, over-
hanging the river Wye, at the diftance of 15 miles S.E. by
E. from the city of Hereford, and 121 W. by N. from
London. This town was made a free borough by king
Henry IfI., and feems to have been a place of more im-
portance formerly than at prefent. In the time of Camden
it was famous for its cyder, and for the manufaCture of iron
wares. Its celebrity for cyder yet cuntinues, but the laft-
mentioned branch of trade has much declined. According
to the parliamentary returns for 1811, Rofs contained 558
houfes, and a population of 2261 perfons. The market-
day is Thurfday, weekly ; and the fairs are on Holy Thurf-
day, Corpus Chrifti, 2oth July, Thurfday after roth Oc-
tober, and 11th December. The petty feffions for the
hundred of Greytree are held here. The government of
this borough is vefted in a ferjeant and four conftables, but
their powers are extremely limited. Here are two charity
fchools, and an alms-houfe; the latter of which owed its
eftablifhment to John Kyrle, whom Pope has characterized
and invefted with deathlefs and truly merited fame, by the
name of “ the Man of Rofs.’? This truly benevolent cha-
raéter was born at White Houfe, in the parifh of Dymock,
Herefordfhire, in 16373 ferved the office of fheriff for the
county in 1683, and died in 1724. Though poffeffed only
of an annual income of s5o0o/., he not only Ped in happinefs
and refpectability himfelf, but diffufed around him innu-
is merable
|
|
|
at ia)
merable benefits to the poor and the unfortunate. Among
other advantages conferred by him on Rofs, he raifed the
‘church {pire above 100 feet in height, and inclofed a piece
of ground with a wall, and funk a refervoir in the centre of
it, for the ufe of the inhabitants. He likewife conftructed
a fine broad caufeway at the weftern extremity of the town.
The houfe in which Mr. Kyrle refided was afterwards the
‘King’s Arms, fituated near the entrance of the town from
‘Gloucefter, but is no longer an inn.
The ftreets of Rofs are moftly fituated on the top and
flope of a hill, and are extremely narrow. The market-
houfe, though ereéted fo late as the reign of Charles II.,
is in a very decayed ftate. It is conftruéted of ftone, and
difplays the heterogeneous mode of building prevalent in
the reign of his predeceflor, James I. The church is a
handfome flructure, having a tower, furmounted by a lofty
{pire at its wefternend. In the window over the altar here,
among other fragments of painted glafs, is one reprefenting
a bifhop, with the infcription, « Thomas Herefordenfis,”
written beneath in black letter. This bifhop had probably
been a benefaCtor to the church. The views from the fur-
rounding cemetery, and from the contiguous profpeét
ground, are much celebrated. Immediately below, the
river Wye forms a fine femicircle, at one of the ex-
tremities of which are the ruins of Wilton caftle; and
beyond it an extenfive vale, terminated by diftant moun-
tains. Near the church-yard is a {pot called Bifhop’s-
Court, from the circumftance of its having been anciently
the {cite of a palace, belonging to the bifhops of Here-
ford.
The ruins of Wilton caftle above-mentioned ftand on the
weftern bank of the Wye. This manfion was for feveral
centuries the refidence of the Greys, of the fouth, who de-
rived from it their original baronial title, in the reign of
Edward I. foon after they acquired poffeffion of it. Its
prefent ruinous condition is to be attributed to the royalilt
governors of Hereford, by whofe orders the whole interior
was confumed by fire. The feats and objects of antiquarian
intereft in this vicinity are numerous. On the fummit of
Eaton-hill, about two miles to the north of Rofs, is a large
encampment, probably of Roman origin. The intrench-
ments are in a very perfect ftate, and are of great depth. A
farm-houfe here difplays veftiges of an ancient manfion, and
the furrounding grounds are {till defignated the Park of
Eaton ; but the hiltory of the place is entirely loft. At a
hamlet called Hole-in-the-Wall, about a mile further to the
north, are fome foundations of walls, which bear the ap-
pearance of great antiquity. What occafioned the appella-
tion by which their fcite is diflinguifhed, is an excavation
formed in the rocky bank of a neighbouring garden, which,
when complete, led by a flight of fteps downwards into a
cavity, whofe roof was fupported by afingle column. Af-
cending the hill towards Old Gore is a hollow {pace extend-
ing about 100 paces, in which a number of celts were dif-
covered a few years ago. Thefe inftruments were nearly of
the fame fize, and had evidently been caft, as the marks of the
mould were vifible. On the oppofite fide of the river from
Hole-in-the-Wall, ftands Kingtton-houfe, long the property
of the Hofkyns’ family ; one of whom, ferjeant Hofkyns, is
faid to have entertained here James I. with a morrice-dance,
performed by ten perfons whofe united ages exceeded one
thoufand years. Above this manfion is Fawley-Court,
anciently the feat of fir John Kyrle, progenitor to the
«« Man of Rofs,’’? and now the property of a gentleman
named Money, a defcendant from the family by the female
line. Goodrich caftle is fituated — four miles to the
fouth of Rofs, on a finely wooded promontory, round which
a
ROSS.
tthe river Wye forms a femi-circular fweep. This fortreis
was for many years the baronial refidence of the Talbots,
earls of Shrewfbury. By whom it was originally founded
is unknown, though the near affinity of its name to that of
duke Godric, who occurs as a witnefs to two charters
granted by king Canute, renders it not an improbable con-
jeCture that he was the perfon. Nothing of its authentic
hiftory is recorded till the reign of king John, where we
find it mentioned as the property of William Strigul, earl
marfhal, who died here in 1246. Subfequently it was cou-
veyed by a female heir to William de Valentia, carl of Pem-
broke, from whofe family it pafled to the Talbots, after-
wards earls of Shrewfbury. Elizabeth, daughter of Gilbert,
the feventh earl, carried it by marriage to Henry de Grey,
earl of Kent, whofe defcendants held it till the death of
Henry, duke of Kent, when it was fold to admiral Griffin,
anceftor to the prefent proprietor. Few events of hiftorical
note are related refpe€ting this caftle. In the civil wars
between king Charles I. and his parliament, it was at fir
garrifoned tor the latter, but was captured foon after by
the royaliits, who, in their turn, were compelled to furrender
it to the republicans, after a fiege of fix weeks, A.D. 1646.
On the 25th of Augult, in the fame year, the parliament
ordered it to be notified to the countefs of Kent, that it
was neceflary the caftle fhould be demolifhed. Accordingly
it was difmantled in March following ; and has fince been
gradually falling to decay, but enough of it yet remains to
point out its former extent and grandeur. The form of
this ftruéture is that of a parallelogram 176 feet long, by
152 broad. Each of the four angles is ftrengthened by a
round tower, andin the fouth-weft part of the area is a
f{quare keep, which appears to be of anterior date to the reft
of the building. “ This keep tower,” fays King, in his
Munimenta Antiqua, vol. iti. « has every mark in its ftyle
of architecture of being coeval with the Saxon age.” It
confifts of three ftories, the loweft of which was ufed asa
prifon. The principal entrance was by a flight of fteps,
which is detached from the main tuilding, and conduéts
to a platform before the door-way into the fecond and
principal ftory, which has. no interior conneGtion with the
dungeon beneath, as happens in moft Norman caftles. The
entrance to the prifon-apartments was under a very re-
markable fort of pointed arch, formed of « quite flat fides,
which feem, from the appearance of the wall around, and
from its peculiar ftyle, to have been inferted many ages after
the keep was ereéted, and in the time of Edward III. ;—a
fufpicion that appears to be moft ftrongly confirmed by the
circumftance, that about the twenty-fecond year of the
reign of that king, Richard Talbot, its then lord, obtained
the royal licence for having in his caftle a prifon for male-
factors ; having alfo the cognizance of pleas of the crown,
&c. within his lordfhip of Irchenfield and Wormilow.”
The windows in the two upper {tories are faid, by the fame
author, to be genuine Saxon; and that in the middle of the
higher {tory feems to have continued unaltered from the
period of its conftru€tion. ‘The columns on each fide ftand
within the arch, the femicircular part of which is ornamented
with zigzag : this window terminates the middle projecting
buttrefs that affifts in fupporting the tower ; aud under it
is a zigzag moulding, or band, which is carried round the
whole building. The window in the middle ftory ig nearly
fimilar to that defcribed ; but a ftone frame for glafs is in-
ferted init, apparently of the age of Henry VI., and pro-
bably the work of the celebrated earl Talbot, who, according
to tradition, had his private chamber in this keep. The other
portions of the caftle are of much later ereétion than the keep.
The entrance was very ftrongly fortified, Immediately in ie
and
ROS.
and within the {pace inclofed by the furrounding fofle, was
a very deep pit, hewn out of the folid rock, and having a
drawbridge thrown acrofs it, which, when drawn up, exaétly
fitted the {pace between the towers on each fide of the gate-
way, which was further defended by two maflive gates and
portcullifes, and by loop-holes, and machicolations in the
vaulting, through which boiling lead and water were poured
down on the heads of affailants. This paflage opened
into the great inner court, on one fide of which ftands the
chapel, now in ruin; and near it is afmall o€tagonal watch-
tower, which rifes higher, than any other building within the
caftle. Adjoining the entrance to the keep is the garrifon
tower, which. is thirty-fix feet {quare at the bafe ; “¢ but the
three outward angles diminifh as they afcend and form tri-
angular buttrefles, fo that the upper part of the tower is
circular.”” From the keep a wall formerly extended to the
weit, or Great tower, whichis circular in its outward form,
but o€tangular within. Between this and the north, or
Ladies’ tower, were ranged the {tate apartments. | The hall
was a magnificent room, 65 feet long and 28 broad, and ap-
pears, from the pointed ftyle of its windows, to have been
erected in the reign of Edward I. or JI. It communicated,
towards the north, with a kind of anti-chamber, whence a
paflage led into the great {tate-room ; the northern. end of |
which exhibits two moft beautiful pointed arches, of a later
date than the reft of the apartments. The Ladies’ tower
occupies a high and fteep precipice to the north of this
building, and is hence the moft defenfible part of the cattle.
Its name clearly indicates its appropriation as the refidence
of the female part of the garrifon. See a plan and views
of Goodrich caftle, in Bonner’s Perfpective Itinerary ; with
hiftorical and defcriptive accounts.
Three miles eaftward from Rofs is Rofc, or Bury-hill,
where fome antiquaries have placed the Ariconium of Anto-
ninus, which Camden had fixed erroneoufly at Kenchetter.
The fcite of this ftation is ftrongly marked by the colour of
the foil, which is extremely black within its area, while
all around it is inclined to red. _ About fixty years ago, the
ground here was covered with rubbifh, and overgrown with
briars, &c. but the then proprietor foon afterwards in-
clofed and levelled it. In the courfe of that operation,
many Roman antiquities were difcovered by the workmen ;
fuch as fibule, lares, lachrymatories, rings, coins, fragments
of pillars, and of teffellated pavements, innumerable pieces of
red pottery, and fome foundations of buildings. A field
near this ftation retains the name of Kill-Dane-Field, but
the particulars of the event to which it alludes is unknown.
About a mile to the fouth-weft is the fcite of Eccle{wall
caftle, now occupied by a modern manfion; and {till more
to the fouth, and fomewhat nearer to Rofs, are the remains
of Penyard caftle, which appears to have been con{ltructed
for the defence of the narrow pafs through the woods from
the county of Gloucefter, into thofe of Monmouth and
the principality. This fortrefs was demolifhed during
the civil wars. It had formerly a park and chace at-
tached; and the latter appellation is ftill given to an
eminence which rifes to the weftward of the cattle. Beau-
ties of England and Wales, vol. vi. by E. W. Brayley,
and John Britton, 8vo. 1805. King’s Munimenta An-
tiqua, vol. iii. fol.
Ross, a bifhopric in Ireland, united with Cork by queen
Elizabeth in 1586. It contains 124,000 acres, all in the
county of Cork, in 33 parifhes.
_ Ross, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county of Cork, dif-
tinguifhed by the name of ‘ Rofs Carbery.’’ It is fituated
on a bay or harbour, to which it gives its name, but which
is choaked up with fand. The town is fituated on a rocky
. fenza.
ROS
eminence projecting to the fouth, and nearly furrounded by
a ftrand. In the centre of the town is a pretty large {quare,
with four narrow ftreets diverging from its angles. Tt is
chiefly inhabited by weavers, and a good deal of linen yarn
is fold here. In former times a fchool was founded here by
St. Fachnan, which was much frequented. It is 155 miles
S.W. from Dublin, and 32 from Cork.
Ross, Mew, a fea-port and poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Wexford. his, according te Mr. Wakefield,
appears to be a {pot well adapted for becoming a place of
great commercial importance. It is fituated at a confider-.
able diftance from the coaft on the river Barrow, which has
a fufficient depth of water to allow veflels of large fize to
unload at the quay. Not far remote is the junétion of this
river with the Nore, the latter of which conveys merchan-
dize to Thomattown, within a few miles of Kilkenny, while
the former affords a communication by canal to Dublin.
The Barrow is alfo united to the Suire, which is navigable
to Clonmell. Notwithftanding thefe advantages, Mr. W.
{tates Rofs to be in a ftate of ina¢tivity, without trade or
capital. Other writers fpeak of it as a flourifhing place,
the buildings numerous and elegant, and the population
rapidly increafing. Rofs is a corporate town, and one of
the ftaple ports far the exportation of wool. To the former
circumftance Mr. Wakefield attributes its decline. It fends
a member to parliament, under the influence of the marquis
of Ely. There is a charter {chool for 60 boys. It is
called New Rofs, to diftinguifh it from another, now a mere
village, a few miles diltant. New Rofs is 673 miles $.S.W.
from Dublin.
Ross, a county of the ftate of Ohio, divided into 13
townfhips, and containing 15,514 inhabitants.—Alfo, a
town of Wafhington county, Pennfylvania, containing 1327
inhabitants.
Ross, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of Scotland, and
county ef Argyle; 6 miles N.N.E. of Cambeltown.
Ross- //land, lies in the lake of Killarney, county of Kerry,
Ireland, in which is a rich vein of grey copper ore, with
copper pyrites, galena, and blende, the working of which
has been prevented by an influx of the waters of the lake.
A. caftle on this ifland has a military governor.
Ross’s Z/fland, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Archipelago.
N. lat. 10° 44!.
Ross of Balmangar, a cape of Scotland, on the S. coaft
of the county of Kircudbright, at the mouth of the Dee;
4 miles S. of Kircudbright.
ROSSA, a fmall ifland near the W. coaft of the ifland
of Corfica; 10 miles N.E. of Calvi.—Alfo, a {mall ifland
in the Mediterranean, near the N. coaft of Sardinia. N. lat.
12 15!.. E. long. 9° 25'.
ROSSAL Pornt, a cape of England, on the coait of
Lancafhire; 2 miles W. from the mouth of the river
Wyre.
ROSSANO, a city of Naples, in Calabria Citra, the
fee of an archbifhop, formerly the moft celebrated rendez-
vous of Bafilian monks in Italy ; 27 miles N.N.E, of Co-
N. lat. 39°.38'.. E. long. 16° 44!
ROSSARNO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra, on
the Metrano; 4 miles S.E. of Nicotera.
ROSSBACH, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia, near
which Frederic II. king of Pruffia, gained, in the year
1557, a glorious victory over the combined armies of France
and Auttria; 5 miles N.W. of Weillenfels.
Rosssacn, Ober, a town of Upper Heffe ; 2 miles S.W:
of Fridberg.
Rossspacu, Nider, a town of Upper Hetle, near Ober
Rofsbach. +
8 ROSS-
ROS
ROSSCHOCHA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into
the Indigirka, N. lat. 67° 50'.. E. long. 140° 14!.
ROSSDEOGHAN, a {mall ifland on the W. coaft of
Ireland, in Kenmare river; 10 miles N.E. of Lamb’s
Head.
ROSSDORF, a town of Bavaria; 12 miles N.E. of
Bamberg.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 10 miles N.W. of Meinungen.
ROSSE, in Ichthyology, the name given by Bellonius to
that kind of cyprinus of Artedi, which we call the roach.
ROSSEL, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Ermeland; 50 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg. N.
lat..53° 57!.. E. long. 21° 11’.
ROSSELARE; a town of France, in the department
of the Lys; 3 miles N. of Grammont.
ROSSENAW, a town of Auttria; 2 miles N.W. of
Zwetl.
ROSSENBURG, a town of the margraviate of An-
{pach ; 8 miles N. of Anfpach. 7
ROSSENDORYF, a town of the margraviate of An-
fpach ; 2 miles N.W. of Cadolzburg.
ROSSI, Gray-Virrorio, in Biography, an Italian man
of letters, was born of a good family at Ronse, in 1577.
He was educated under the Jefuits oF the Roman college,
where he joined the ftudies of the law and philofophy to
that of polite literature, but being difappointed in his ex-
pectations with refpe& to the firft of thefe purfuits, he
limited his attention to the laft. He became a member of
the academy degli Umorilti, of which he was one of the
moft zealous promoters, and gave fuch proofs of ability in
its exercifes, that feveral advantageous offers of employ-
ment were made to him. He, at length, accepted the poit
of fecretary to the cardinal Andrea Peretti, with whom he
refided twenty years. After the death of that prelate he
retired to a folitary villa on mount Sant’ Onofrio, where he
lived in tranquillity to himfelf, and engaged in his itudies,
till he died in 1647, at the age of 70. He was much
elteemed by the men of letters at Rome, as well as by many
perfons of rank, among whom was the cardinal Chigi, after-
wards pope Alexander VII. Roffi, who 1s better known
by his ciaflical name, Erythreus, was author of feveral
works, His firlt publication was a kind of fatire on the
corrupt manners of the Romans, entitled “ Eudemie
Lib. X.”” He alfo publifhed two volumes of “¢ Epittles,”’
addreffed to cardinal Chigi, under the name of Tyrrhenus,
and two others to different perfons; alfo various dialogues
on moral topics, orations, and other traéts, which are all in
the Latin language. His chief work is entitled «* Pinna-
theca Imaginum illuftrium Virorum,’’ being eulogies or bio-
graphical accounts of many learned men his contemporaries.
Gen Biog. r
Rossi, Pasquatr, called Pa/qualine of Vicenza, by long
practice after the bett Venetian and Roman pictures, ac-
quired, without a matter, a confiderable power of defign and
colour. Few of his public works remain; one of the beft
is a St. Gregorio in the dome of Matelica. In galleries we
meet with his cabinet pittures, reprefenting converfations,
gaming parties, concerts, and fimilar capricci, highly elabo-
rate, and of Flemifh finifh.
Rosst, Lemme, publifhed in 1666, at Perugia, in quarto,
a work entitled ‘ Siftema Mufico,” or Speculative Mufic,
explaining the moft celebrated fy{tem cf the ancients in all
the genera.” This is one of the cleareit and belt digeited
treatifes on harmonics that was produced in Italy during the
y7th century.
Rosst, MicHart ANGELO, a dilettante or gentleman-
performer on the violin, who, in the part of Apollo, in
Vou. XXX.
ROS
1632, accompanied himfelf on that inftrument in a mufical
drama at Rome, entitled «* I] Ritorno di Angelica nell’ In-
die,” to the great delight of the audience. It appears that
Stradella, who fung in his own oratorio of St. John the
Baptift at Rome, led the band, and accompanied his own
voice on the violin. ;
Rossi. See Luier.
Rossi, LA Pasqua, a female finger in the confervatorie
of the Incurabili at Venice in 1770, who performed in a
motet by Galuppi under his own direction, in a very fuperior
manner. Italian Tour,
Rossi, FRANcEscO pi PuGuia, an excellent mufical com-
pofer of the old {chool, who produced the following three
operas, that were much admired in their day: ‘ Sejano mo-
derno della Tracia,’’ 1636; ‘¢ La pena degl’ Occhi,” 1688 ;
and ‘** I,a Corilda, o l’Amor trionfante della Verdetta.”’
ROSSIGLIONE, Axro, in Geography, a town of the
Ligurian republic ; 17 miles N.W. of Genoa.
RossiGLionE, Baffo, atown of the Ligurian republic; 15
miles N.W. of Genoa.
ROSSIGNOL, a confiderable lake of Nova Scotia, be-
tween Liverpool and Annapolis, faid by the Indians to be
the main fource of the Liverpool and Petit rivers. —Alfo,
a port on the S. coait of Nova Scotia, S.W. of Port de
l Heve. 3
RossiGNoL, in Ornithology. See MoracizLa Lucinia and
Phenicurus.
ROSSINA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Par-
ma; 14 miles S.S.E. of Parma.
ROSSITA, a river of European Turkey, which runs
into the Jantra, near Nicop, in Bulgaria.
ROSSITTEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Samland, on the Kuritfch Nerung; 18 miles N. of Ko-
nigfberg.
ROSSITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim; 8 miles N.N.W. of Chrudim.
ROSSLA, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Weimar; 6 miles N.E. of Weimar.
ROSSLEBEN, or Rosset, a town of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia; 3 miles N.N.E. of Wiehe.
ROSSLYN, Larl of, in Biography. See Wenper-
BURNE.
ROSSMORE, in Geography, an ifland in Kenmare river,
county of Kerry, Ireland, about 6 miles W. of Kenmare
town.
ROSSO, Cape, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Metelin. N. lat. 39° 18!.
ROSSOCKEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland; 25 miles S.W. of Ortelfburg, .
ROSSOMAKA, in Zoology. See Ursus Gulo.
ROSS-SHIRE, a county or diftri& of Scotland, in-
cluding the {mall difperfed county of Cromarty, which
united, form one fheriffdom, though feparated lieutenancies,
is fituated between 57° 7! 40" and 58° 7! 20" north latitude.
It is one of the largeit fhires in North Britain, and extends
about eighty miles in length, aed feventy-eight in breadth.
The whole comprehends 3799 Britifh fquare miles, of
which 562 are in the ifle of Lewis, and 344 in Cromarty.
Rofsfhire ftretches acrofs the whole of Scotland, from the
northern to the weftern ocean, and has annexed to it, be-
fides the ifles of Lewis, Barra, and Rona, the Sulifker-rock,
and the Flannan and Shaint ifles, which will be found to
be noticed under their re{pective names. It is bounded on
the north by the county of Sutherland, on the eait by
the Moray and Cromarty friths, on the fouth by the county
of Invernefs, and on the weit by the Atlantic ocean.
4F According
ROSS-SHIRE.
According to the population returns of 1811, the united
counties contain 13,280 houfes, and 60,853 inhabitants.
Hiftorical Events—Rofsfhire, in very remote times, con-
{tituted part of the Pictifh kingdom. At a later period,
when the Norwegians obtained pofleffion of the Orkneys,
and fubdued the neighbouring counties of Caithnefs and
Sutherland, it feems to have fhared the ufual fate of fron-
tier provinces, and to have belonged alternately to the
Norwegians and to the Scotch. According to the Icelandic
writers, it made part of the dominions of the earls of Ork-
ney; but in the ‘“ Defcriptio Albaniz,’’ both the counties
of Rofs and Moray are mentioned as comprehended within
Scotland; and other accounts ftate that part of Rofsfhire
was poflefled by the princes of the Hebrides, or lords of
the Ifles. The truth probably is, that, favoured by their
peninfular fituation, the inhabitants of Rofs paid little refpect
to the authority of any of their powerful neighbours. — Rofs-
fhire formed a comitatus, or earldom, as early as the 11th
century ; but of the hiftory of its firft earls fcarcely any
authentic document exifts. What is remarkable, however,
contrary to the cuftom in moft other feodal pofleflions, this
earldom feems to have defcended to heirs female as well as
to heirs male. Hugh, one of the earls of Rofs, was flain
at the battle of Halidon-hill, in 1333. William, his fon, fuc-
ceeded, who appears to have had fome claim to the Wettern
ifles, as in a variety of charters, yet extant, he is flyled
earl of Rofs, and lord of Skye. This nobleman flew Ray-
nold of the Ifles ina fray at Perth; but in endeavouring to
eftablifh a right to his pofleffions by force, he was com-
pletely thwarted. William left iffue an only daughter,
who married Walter Leflie, and thereby gave him a title
to the earldom. His fon and fucceflor, Alexander, ef-
poufed one of the daughters of the regent of Scotland,
Robert, duke of Albany, and had by her a daughter,
Euphemia, who, while a child, was induced to refign her
rights to the regent’s fon, who thereby became earl of Rofs
and Buchan. He did not, however, long enjoy his honours
and poffeffions in quiet, for on the death of Euphemia, as
is generally believed by poifon, Donald, lord of the Ifles,
afferted his title to the earldom of Rofs, and being received
by the inhabitants, not only fucceeded in obtaining pofleffion
of the diftri€&, but extended his dominions as far fouthwards
as the Grampian hills, and tranfmitted them to his pofterity.
John, his fon and fucceflor, who lived in the middle of the
sth century, was-one of the moft powerful chieftains of
his age. He ufed the ttyle of an independent prince, made
treaties with Edward IV. of England, &c.; and, indeed,
the extent of his territories might well juttify fuch conduct,
as his {way was acknowledged over at leaft a fourth part
of the whole kingdom of Scotland.
General A/pe@.—On the eaftern coait of Rofsfhire, to a
fhort. diftance from the fea, the country is comparatively
flat, and being chiefly inhabited by perfons {peaking the
Englith language, has been long confidered to be part of the
lowlands of Scotland. This traét is extremely fertile and
well cultivated, and abounds with feats belonging to opulent
and refpe€table proprietors, by whofe exertions it has been
greatly improved of late years. The climate is more fa-
vourable to agricultural purfuits than in motft of the
northern diftri@s of our ifland; fo likewife is the foil,
which, in many parifhes, is a deep loam, capable of yielding
very large crops of wheat. In fhort, fuch are the natural
advantages of this narrow tra¢t, that it is confidered little
inferior to Fifefhire, either in point of foil or climate.
Unfortunately, however, the portion of it fufceptible of
arable culture, though nearly fixty miles in length, rarely
exceeds a mile and a half in breadth, except in the parifhes
4
of Nigg and Tarbet. The foils here are, of courfe, various.
In the parifhes of Fodderty, Dingwall, Kiltearn, Nigg, and
Eattern Fern, a rich deep loam prevails. About Contin,
and in the parifhes of Alnefs, Rofekeen, and Kilmuir, the
foil is light, but fufficiently favourable for general crops.
The other portions confift of a conftant fucceffion of lofty
mountains. The central diftriét, however, may be juftly
defcribed as a beautiful Highland country, the hills being
covered with a profufion of grafs, and every where inter-
{eéted by ftraths, or valleys, many of them extremely rich
and fertile; but on approaching the weitern coaft the gene-
ral afpeét is uninviting. The traveller who climbs a moun-
tain beholds around hima profpeét exhibiting a defolate and
dreary region, where nothing can be feen but vaft rocky
mountains, with fummits broken, ferrated, and f{pringing
into various forms. Yet amidft thefe hills, fo dreary to the
fight, and producing little but heath, fome valleys, at once
beautiful and fertile, intervene, which might be cultivated with
advantage, did not the climate to which they are fubjeGted
deter the inhabitants. During March and April, the
weather is commonly friendly to the operations of the
hufbandman. In the autumnal months rain falls in fuch
quantities, as to lay the ripening corn flat upon the fields,
and to {well every trifling ftream into a torrent, by which
the lands are {tripped of their produce, and fand and {tones
are fubitituted. The fair days in this diftriét, according to
a regifter kept at Lochalfh, are eftimated at 143 in number
annually ; but in the months of Auguft, September, Oc-
tober, and November, not more than five days in thirty are
free from rain. ‘The foils in the valleys, both here and in
the middle diftriG, are moftly alluvial, and partake, in
general, of thofe of the nature of the furrounding mountains.
At the head of the bay of Applecrofs the foil is fandy ; and
on its fouthern fide refts on lime-{tone. At Keefhornit is of
the fame defcription, and very fertile. The foil of Ter-
ridon is light and gravelly, with the exception of a few
patches of mofs; which have lately been brought into a
ftate of cultivation. At loch Carron, a great variety of
foil may be obferved within a very limited fpace. On the
flat {pots along the fhore the foil is light and ftony ; on
the higher and floping grounds, a fandy loam ; and at the
head of the loch it is of a loofe clayey confiftence.
Mineralogy.—The mineral products of thefe counties are
but very little known, becaufe the fubterranean contents have
hitherto been but little inveftigated. Coal is indicated in
every part of the Black ifle, in Cromarty, and throughout
all the eaftern parts of Rofsfhire. Lime-ftone is abundant
cn the weftern coaft, where it is leaft wanted, and is like-
wife partially found at Kirkan, and in the eaftern diftrié,
particularly in the vicinity of Geanies and Cadboll. Copper
has been wrought in primary lime-itone near Keefhorn 3
but the mine is for the prefent abandoned. In the parith
of Kiltearn, {mall quantities of lead-ore have been dif-
covered ; and a vein of the fame metal, very rich in filver,
appears in the parifh cf Alnefs. Here alfo 1s a ftratum of
iron-{tone, which is plentiful in moft parts of the eaftern
diftri@. At Poolew yet remain the ruins of a large {melt~
ing-furnace, the exiftence of which fhews the manufacture
of iron to have been once an important bufinefs in that
part of the country. Marle has been found in large quan-
tities in the fame diftri@, particularly at Culrain, near the
fea; and on the welt coait, in the parifh of Lochalfh, is an
immenfe bank of fhell-fand, the right of property in which
has been for many years-a fubje&t of litigation between
Mr. Innes of Lochalfh, and the clergyman of the parifh,
Mr. Downie, the former contending that it belongs to him as
proprietor of the eftate of Lochalfh, and the latter, that it lies
within
ROSS-SHIRE.
within fea-mark, and is therefore inter regalia. In the parifh
of Kincardine ftands one of the loftieft mountains in Rofs-
fhire, called Carnchuinaig, on which ftones have been found
perfe@tly fimilar to thofe known by the name’ of Cairn-
gorums.
Knockirny, another hill on the borders of the fame
parifh, produces excellent marble, both white and _parti-
coloured. The other loftieft mountains in Rofsfhire are,
Tulloch-Ard, in the diftri€& of Kintail; Ben-Uaifh, in the
parifh of Kiltearn ; and Scuilm-a-bharra, in the parifh of
Kincardine. That of Tulloch-Ard claims particular at-
tention on account of its importance in remote times.
« Like the temple of Janus of ancient Rome, it indicated
peace or war; for when war commenced, a barrel of burn-
ing tar, on the higheft peak, was the fignal ; and in twenty-
four hours all the tenants and vaflals of Seaforth appeared
at the caftle of St. Donan, armed pro arjs et focis. ‘This
mountain is the creft of Seaforth’s arms.”’
Lochs and Rivers.—The eaitern coaft of the united
counties of Rofs and Cromarty is wafhed by three large
arms of the fea, the Dornoch, Cromarty, and Murray friths.
On the weitern coait there are eight arms of the fea,
ftretching for many miles up the country. Thefe are,
loch Broom, Little loch Broom, loch Greinord, loch
Ew, loch Torbidon, loch Carron, loch Daich, and the
Gairloch ; all of them the ufual refort of vaft fhoals of her-
rings. Gairloch has likewife been celebrated, during feveral
centuries, for the cod-fifhing. One proprietor, only, fends
on an average 40,c00 fith of this kind to market annually.
The principal frefh-water lakes are loch Maree, and loch
‘Tannich, the former about fifteer miles long, and the latter
feven; befides which there are. above twenty lefs confiderable
lakes, and a great number of {mall ones. Thefe abound
with fine trout and pike, and in fome are charrs. In loch
Maree is found that fpecies of trout called the gizzard
trout. This loch is adorned with twenty-four {mall iflands,
planted with fir-trees, and other kinds of wood. The
largeit rivers on the weftern coait are the Ew, the Carron,
and the Broom, which fall into the refpeétive lochs of the
fame names. The firft-mentioned of thefe is frequented by
prodigious numbers of falmon, and is perhaps the beit
angling itream in Britain. Salmon are likewife plentiful in
the Carron, and at Ullapool. On the eattern coatt the chief
rivers are the Conan, the (eaft) Carron, the Alnefs, and
the Oikel. The Conan and Alnefs fall into the Cromarty
frith, which alfo receives feveral minor ftreams. The
Carron empties itfelf into the Dornoch frith, as does like-
wife the Oikel, which forms the boundary between the
counties of Rofs and Sutherland. The falmon fifheries
on all thefe rivers are very productive. The river Beaulie,
which flows into the Murray frith, is the boundary of the
county for feveral miles on the Invernefsfhire fide.
There is a variety of fulphureous and chalybeate {prings in
Rofsthire. The {pring at Strathpeffer, which is fulphureous,
is molt remarkable, on account of the very great refort of
Highhlanders and itrangers to. drink its waters from a
belief in their medicinal qualities for the cure of cutaneous
diforders, and of barrernefs in women.
State of Property —The value of land in thefe counties, as
in mott parts of Great Britain, has vaftly increafed within the
lait twenty years. Numerous farms, which, at the commence-
ment of that period, were rented at little more than 200/.
per annum, have been leafed fince 1805, as high as 800/. or
tooo/.; and their monied price, when they have been
brought to market, has held a proportional elevation.
Landlords, trufting to ignorant furveyors, when about to
Jet their lands, generally put a value on them, which expe-
rience has woefully fhewn to be far beyond their intrinfic
worth. Hence diitrefs arofe among the farmers, even when
food was at its higheft pitch, and moft of them were confe-
quently compelled to throw up their leafes, or to obtain a
confiderable reduGtion of rent.
Mott of the eftates in Rofs and Cromarty fhires are held
direétly under the crown, vice the earls and bifhops of Rofs.
The few duties formerly paid to the earls and bifhops are
now levied for the government ; and being payable chiefly
in kind, convertible at the fair price of corn, they have be-
come a very heavy burthen on the eftates from which they
are taken. Until lately almoft every extenfive proprietor
committed the management of his eftate to a factor, but the
evils of this praétice have at length begun to operate a
cure. ‘ There can be no doubt,”’ obferves fir George Mac-
kenzie, in his ** General View of the Agriculture’’ of thefe
counties, “ but that the crowded population of the High-
lands, and their confequent flow imprevement, mutt be attri-
buted, in a great meafure, to the extenfive power given to
faGtors.”? The late fa&tor of the proprietor of Lochalfh,
by his injudicious condu@, involved his employer in numerous
litigations with the minifter of the parifh, and with his
tenants, fome of which have been depending for upwards
of nine years. The principal landholders are the heirs of
the late lord Seaforth, Mr. Innes of Lochalfh, fir Hugh
Monro of Fowlis caftle, fir Alexander Munro of Novar
houfe, fir He€tor Mackenzie of Conanfide, fir Roderick
Mackenzie of Rofehaugh, fir Charles Rofs of Balnagown
caftle, and Alexander Rofs, efq. of Cromarty houfe. This
maniion is by far the moft elegant, and the beft laid out
building of any ia this part of the united kingdom, but the
pleafure-grounds have been much neglected.
Agriculture.—The proprietors of the eaitern diitri@ of
thefe counties are very {pirited in improving, and follow
every f{pecies of good hufbandry praétifed in the fouth.
Farmers of the fuperior clafs begin to imitate their example ;
but the {maller tenants are far behind. The ufual grains
cultivated on the arable lands are bear, oats, potatoes,
peafe and beans, and, along the fhore, wheat. Every ro-
tation cultomary in the fouth has been tried; but the want
of markets within the county has induced many to lay their
farms down with grafs. The grafles generally fown, both
for hay and pafturage, are red and white clover, with a mix-
ture of rye-grafs and rib-grafs. The ordinary rotation
practifed by the imall tenants, and which they have uni-
formly puriued for centuries, is bear, or bigg, with manure,
followed by two crops of oats, or fometimes peafe, and
always a quantity of potatoes; on which root their families
are chiefly maintained during nine months of the year. The
gentlemen, and more extenfive farmers, ufe lime, marle, and
fhelly-fand, as manure. The fmaller tenants make a com-
pott at the rate of one load of dung to three of earth, which
they depofit for fome time in pits, and then fpread in Fe-
bruary on the itubble land. The manure is then ploughed
down, and another ploughing is given towards the end of
April, when they fow their bear, or bigg. The fhelly-fand
on the weft coait is reckoned a very valuable manure; it
laits from twelve to fifteen years, and has the effect of con-
verting a light brown infipid foil isto rich black loam. The
fize of farms here is various. The native farmers occupy
from feven to thirty-feven acres of arable land; and, in fome
inftances, have {mall grazings rates to their arable
fields ; but, for the moit part, the hories and cattle employed
in the labour of the farms are fent, as foon as feed-time is
over, to graze during fummer on fome hill pafture, for
which five or fix fhillings per head are paid. The gentle-
men, and better fort of farmers, poffeis from 300 te 800
4F2 acres,
ROSS-SHIRE.
acres, which are in general inclofed; but the reft of the
country is almoft entirely open field. Among the {maller
tenants leafes ufually run from five to feven years, at the
end of which an increafe of rent is moft frequently demanded.
This limitation of leafes greatly retards improvement ; for
the tenant can reap but little benefit from his labour in fo
fhort a fpace of time; andif he has done any thing more
than his neighbours, his farm is coveted, and he mutt either
give a greater increafe of rent than it can properly bear, or
remove. ‘There are fome eftates, however, in the leafing of
which a different practice has been adopted, to the mutual
advantage of the landholder and the tenant.
The central and weftern diftri@s of Rofsthire may be
confidered as exclufively devoted to pafturage; the {mall
quantities of arable lands in the vallies bearing but a very in-
fignificant proportion to the extent of the country. — Till
within the laft thirty years thefe diftricts were inhabited by
a number of fmall farmers who maintained themfelves and
their families from the produce of the little fpots they had
to cultivate, and who, in favourable feafons, were enabled
to pay the trifling rent impofed by the landlord, from the
profit of the cattle they pofiefled. Thefe extenfive dittricts,
particularly the central diftri€t, are now converted from
cattle into fheep farms; and there is no quettion of their
{uperior adaptation to the latter fpecies of ftock. Forevery
pound of beef which a Highland cattle grazier can fend to
market, a fhepherd can at leaft bring three pounds of mutton.
The wool alfo furnifhes the ftaple tor a ufeful and important
branch of manufaéture. Hence the fhepherd can afford a
double rent with eafe; and there can hardly exilt a doubt
that property in the Highlands will, in procefs of time, be
tripled, or even quadrupled, by fheep farming. The re-
fult, however, upon the population of the country is be-
coming more and more evident. In proportion as capital
is acquired, farms augment in magnitude, and a {maller
number of people find employment and fupport within a
given {pace.
Live-Stock.—The cattle reared in the low parts of thefe
counties are chiefly intended for the dairy, and are’a mixed
breed. The oxen and old cows are commonly fattened for
the butchers of Invernefs and Fort George. ~The breeds of
fheep kept are various. The pure Cheviots, a mixture of
that breed with the Leicefter, and a mixture of the latter
with the old white-faced horned breed of the country, are fre-
quently met with, and alfo the pure Leicefter. Some gentle-
men have introduced the South Down and the Merino, and
have fuccefsfully attempted croffes of thefe with the Cheviot
breed. The mountain breed is not larger than ponies, but
by care and attention in breeding, the fize and utility might
be greatly augmented. ‘The breed of hogs kept by gentle-
men for their tables, is that of China; but the country
people chiefly rear the large common fow. Turkies, ducks,
pea fowls, Guinea fowls}sand common fowls, are reared by
moit of the families refiding in the country, but only to
fupply their own confumption. Pigeon-houfes are very
frequent ; and bees are beginning to attra& confiderable
attention.
Roads.—Through the cultivated parts of the county the
roads have been long noted for their excellence, though
there were no other means for making or repairing than the
ordinary ftatute labour. About feven years ago, however,
a bill for converting the ftatute labour mto money was pre-
fented to. parliament, and pafled into alaw. By this a&,
the poit-road from the borders of the county of Rofs, near
Beauly, to its termination at the Frith of Dornoch, is to be
made turnpike; and-authority is given for the erection of
toll-gates every fix miles.
The materials for making roads -
are every where found in great abundance; but the number
of bridges required renders road-making very expentive.
The roads forming by government, and the Highland
counties conjointly, will coit, on an average, 250/. per mile ;
though their breadth be only fifteen feet. The roads in the
mountainous diftriéts, if roads they can be called, are very
bad; but moft of them are in progrefs of amelioration.
The road from Contin to Lochcarron is confiderably ad-
vanced. :
Towns and Villages.—In the united counties of Rofs and
Cromarty there are three royal boroughs, all of them
fituated in the eaftern diftri@. Thefe are Tain, on the
fouthern fide of the Frith of Dornoch; Dingwall, at the
inland extremity of the Frith of Cromarty ; and Fortrofe,
on the northern fide of the Moray Frith. Of the villages,
the moft worthy of notice are Cromarty, Ullapool, Fairn-
tofh, and Lochalfh: the laft has lately been conttituted a
burgh of barony. Fairntofh is remarkable for the fingular
privilege it enjoyed for nearly a century, of exemption from
excife, on condition of an annual ‘payment of 4oo marks
Scots. This right was refumed by government in 1786,
and the fum of 20,000/. was granted as a compenfation to
the proprietor. Before that period, Fairntofh whifkey was
proverbial for its purity and excellence; and even yet, the
appellation of real Fairntofh is ufed to denote the beft
famples of that favourite Highland beverage. Fairs, mar-
kets, and ‘ tryfts’? for cattle, are held at various places
throughout the country ; fome of them eftablifhed by cuf-
tom, and others by acts of parliament.
ManufaGures and Commerce.—The only manufacture
which has been eftablifhed in thefe counties is that of bifcuit
and cotton-bagging at Cromarty, with branches at Inver-
gordon and Port-Mahomack. This is carried on to a con-
fiderable extent. The bagging made at thefe places, and
at Invernefs, obtains a decided preference, under the name
of Invernefs bagging, where it is principaily fold. Many
years ago, a flax manufaCtory was attempted to be efta-
blifhed, but without fuccefs. With refpect to commerce,
it may be obferved, that the chief exports are black cattle,
fheep, and wool, and a confiderable quantity of wheat and
oats. ‘
Antiquities. —Rofsfhire contains a confiderable number of
remains of antiquity, which are not unworthy. of notice.
Thefe contift chiefly of Druidical temples, and Piétifh or
Danifh forts, called Duns, and of the cattles of the ancient
chieftains. In the parifh of Kiltcarn, in the ealtern diftri@t,
is a Druidical temple, confitting of a row of twelve large
ttones, fo difpofed as to form two conjoined ovals. The areaof
each oval is 13 feet long and 10 feet broad in the centre. At
the weitern extremity of one of them is a ftone, which rifés
eight feet above the furface of the ground; but the other
ftones do not exceed fix feetin length. In the middle of the
weitern oval isa flat tone, which was probably the altar; and
at the diftance of three paces from the eaftern oval is.a circular
hollow, faid to have been a well of confiderable depth, but
it is now filled up. Thefe ovals occupy the fummit of an
eminence, round which are drawn three concentric circular
ditches; and at the diftance of half a mile to the weft-
ward is a cairn, 30 paces in diameter, containing in the
centre a grave 34 feet long, 318 inches broad, and 14
deep, lined by four flat ftones, and covered by another.
Cairns are alfo numerous on the adjoining Hill. In the
parifh of Nigg, on the the fame coalt, ftands a large obelifk,
on one fide of which are cut the figures of different animals,
and on the other a crofs. The former is fuppofed to be a
much older work than the latter; and the tradition is, that
the jtone was ereéted in memory of a fhipwreek, by which
three
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three fons ef one of the Danifh monarchs are faid to have
loft their lives, and their bodies buried under the obelifk.
The rock oppofite, where the veffel ftruck, is from this cir-
*s-Sons. Another obelifk,
cumitance ftill called the a
fimilar to the above, formerly itood in Nigg church-yard,
Near Dunfkeath, on the
but the bafe of it alone remains.
ledge of a rock over-hanging the Moray frith, are the re-
mains of a caftle, built in 1179, by William, furnamed the
Lion, king of Scotland. In the parish of Kincardine is
Craigchenican, where the gallant marquis of Montrofe
fought his lait battle. He fwam to Kyle, and lay fome
time concealed in Affint; but being difcovered and appre-
hended he was fent prifoner to Invernefs. The ground
where the battle took place received its prefeat name from
the event of that memorable day. Near the church, in the
fame parifh, is an alley, walled in, and terminating im a large
femicircle, appropriated to the military exercife and difci-
pline, diftinguifhed by the name of Weapon-fhawing ; and
in the cemetery is a {tone fculptured with an imperial crown,
and a man on horfe-back, in the act of darting a lance.
Tradition reports it to be the upper part of a {tone coffin,
in which the remains of a prince of Loellin, who died of his
wounds in the neighbourhood, were depofited. In the fame
neighbourhood are alfo feveral Druidical circles, and likewife
fome of the round buildings which were formerly mentioned
under the denomination of Piéts-houfes. Near Avoch, the
foundations {till remain of a large old caftle, or fortalice.
To this ruin tradition gives the name of Dougias cattle. It
is about 350 feet long and 160 feet broad, divided into nu-
merous apartments, which appear to have been conitruéted
of coarfe red quarry-{tone and lime ; and was defended on
one fide by a deep foffe, and on another by battions.
Throughout every part of the eaftern diftri€t are abundance
of places where battles with the Danes and Norwegians, or
between rival clans, are faid to have been fought. Num-
bers of cairns point out the {pots where the afhes of the
dead have been depofited, though concerning moft of them
tradition is filent. In the parifh of Eddertoun, however,
on a plain to the weft of the church, tradition fays a great
battle was fought againft the Danes, one of whofe princes,
who fell in ation, lies buried in the centre of a large circu-
lar barrow in the immediate vicinity. In the parifh of
Fearn are feveral Druidical temples; but the moft intereit-
ing monuments of antiquity here are the abbey and cattle of
Lochlin. ‘The abbey-church was long ufed for divine fer-
vice, but is now in a ftate of ruin. The caftle occupies the
fummit of a very lofty eminence, and is one of the moft
conf{picuous objeéts in the country. It is built in the form
of two fquares, joined together at the corners. Another
very ancient caftle was fituated at Cadboll, whence it de-
rived its name.
vaults under ground ; but it deferves notice on account of a
fingular tradition concerning it, which is fully credited by
the vulgar, viz. that though i¢ was inhabited for many cen-
turies, no perfon ever died in it; in fhort, that it poflefled a
magical charm again{t death, though not againtt difeafe, or
the evils attendant on extreme old age. Hence many of
the inhabitants, it is faid, when they became weary of life,
requeited to be carried out of the caftle, that they might
obtain relief. The caftle of Craighoufe, in the parifh of
Kirk-Michael, ftands clofe to the fhore,: inclofed on the
land fide by a ditch and high wall. All the apartments of
that portion of the manfion now moft entire are vaulted with
ftone. This cattle was long the property of the family of
Williamfon, who emigrated to Germany ; it afterwards be-
came the occafional refidence of the bifhops of Rofs. In
this vicinity is a great number of ancient encampments, like-
3
Few remains of it now exift, except- the:
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wife various tumuli and cairns. In Killernan parifh are
two ancient ftruétures, Killeoy and Redcaftle, of confider-
able ftrength. The latter was anciently of fome importance.
It was annexed to the crown in 1455, and was conitituted a
borough of barony, and a free-port, with the right of hold-
ing weekly markets, and levying toll and anchorage dues.
Rory Mackenzie, the proprietor of Redcaftle in 1646, hav-
ing joined the rebellious ftandard of the gallant marquis of
Montrofe, was taken prifoner near Balveny, in Morayshire,
and fuffered the death of a traitor. During his abfence the
cattle was garrifoned by his fons and dependants, but was
foon after ttormed and taken by a: party of royalifts, who
put the garrifon to the {word and fet fire to the buildings.
In the mountainous peninfula of Kintail, on the weft coaft,
ftand the ruins of the caftle of Donan, which was built by
Alexander III. of Scotland, to refift the depredations of
the Danes. Colin Fitzgerald, anceftor to the late earl of
Seaforth, was made’conitable of the caitle, for his bravery
at the battle of Largs, fought in 1263. In 1715 it was
taken from the king’s forces by ftratagem; but two years
afterwards, having been attacked on the fea fide, by acline
of battle fhip, it was demolifhed. In the front of a clergy-
man’s houfe, in Kintail, ftands Donan-Diarmed, or the
fort of Diarmed. It is of a circular form, twenty feet in
diameter, and of the fame height. Diarmed’s tomb is on
the north-ealt fide of the fort.
Such parts of Rofsthire as are included ia the Hebrides,
the reader will find noticed under their refpeGtive names, and
alfo under the words Western IsLanps. Beauties of Scot-
land, vol. v. Lond. S8vo. 1808. A General View of the
Agriculture, &c. of the Counties of Rofs and Cromarty,
by fir George Stuart, Mackenzie, bart. Lond. 8vo.
1810.
ROST, Joun CuristorHer, in Biography, a German
poet, was born at Leipfic in the year 1717. He received
a good education, and as he advanced in life he ftudied,
with the utmoit afliduity, jurifprudence, antiquities, and the
belles’ lettres! His chief inftructor was Ernefti, but he
ftudied philofophy alfo under Hoffman, and attended the
letures of Gottfched, to whofe praife he devoted the firft
fruits of his mufe, though he afterwards wrote againft him
a fatirical poem, which was pubhifhed in 7743. This is
faid to be the beft of his productions, and to abound with
genuine and delicate wit. He attenipted paftorals m the
German languace, which were printed at Berlin in 1742,
but the morality of them is exceedingly lax, and vice is ex-
hibited too frequently under the captivating form of inno-
cence. A new edition of them appearéd at Drefden in
1744, entitled «« An Attempt at Paftoral Poetry, with other
poetical Pieces,’? and a third was’ publifhed in 1768. In
1746, Rott was appointed fecretary and librarian to count
Bruhl, and died in 1765, in the 48th year of his age. His
mifcellaneous poems were publifhed after his death, in 1769.
Gen. Biog.
Rosr, in Metallurgy, a term ufed by the miners at Chrem-
nitz to exprefs the ore of gold after it has been wafhed and
powdered, and melted firft with lime-ftone, and afterwards
burnt with charcoal alone. See Lecu.
ROSTAD, in Geography, a town of Norway; 70 miles
N. of Drontheim.
ROSTAK, a town of Arabia, in the province of Oman,
the feat of a fovereign prince, at fome diftance from the fea;
70 miles W. of Mafcat.
Rostaxk, a town of Perfia, ia the province of Lariftan;
go miles S. of Mar. ,
ROSTAL, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Anfpach ; 7 miles N.N.W. of Schwabach,
ROSTAN,
ROS
ROSTAN, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Damaf-
cus; 45 miles N.N.E. of Damafcus.
ROSTAYN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bo-
leflau; 4 miles N. of Aycha.
ROSTEN, in the Materia Medica of earlier ages, a name
given to crab’s eyes.
ROSTER, in Military Language, a plan, or table, by
which the duty of officers, entire battalions, and {quadrons,
is regulated.
ROSTGAARD, Freprrick, in Biography, a learned
Danifh writer, was born at Kraagerup, in Seland, in the
year 1671. He was educated at Copenhagen, and in 1690
he undertook a tour through Europe; in the courfe of
which he paid a vifit to the moft celebrated univerfities of
Germany, Holland, England, France, and Italy. After
his return in 1669, he was made private keeper of the re-
cords to his Danifh majefty, and in 1702 was ennobled and
appointed a counfellor of juitice. In 1721 he became chief
fecretary in the Danifh chancery, and after receiving a con-
fiderable penfion, he was nominated in 1735 a counfellor
of conference. He died in 1745, and bequeathed to the
library of the univerfity of Copenhagen a great many manu-
{cripts and feveral printed books, confifting moftly of hif-
torical works, with a large fount of Arabic and Perfian
types. He was author of a great number of works, among
which the following may be enumerated: “ Deliciz Poe-
tarum Danorum;’’ “ A Danith Tranflation of Corneille’s
Cid ;”? ‘ Projet d’une nouvelle Methodé pour drefler le
Catalogue d’une Bibliothéque felon les Matiéres avec le
Plan ;”? *“* Enchiridion ftudiofi, Arabicé cum Verfione La-
tina, edit. ab Hadrino Relando.’’ He collected, with great
care, and at a confiderable expence, in various parts of
France and Italy, manufcripts of “ Libanii Epiftole,’’ from
which the edition of J. C. Wolfius of Hamburgh was pub-
lifhed. It was through the exertions of Roftgaard that the
« Fragmentum Theotifcum Ifidori Hifpalenfis’? was dif-
covered and publifhed in the fecond volume of the Danifh
Bibliotheque. He was the author of many Latin and
Danifh poems, and was employed for feveral years on a
Danifh Lexicon, as well as in collecting rare Arabic and
Greek manufcripts, and heraldic documents relating to the
Danifh nobility. Gen. Biog.
ROSTOCK, in Geography, a fea-port town of Germany,
in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Mecklenburg,
on a lake which communicates with the Baltic. It contains
three churches and an univerfity, jointly founded by the
dukes and the town in the year 1419, and privileged by a
bull of pope Martin V. afterwards confirmed by the emperor
Ferdinand I. But in 1437, the town fell under the ban
both of the emperor and pope, and the profeflors removed to
Griefswalde, whence they returned again in 1443. In 1487,
on account of a mifunder{tanding between the dukes and the
town, the univerfity was removed to Lubeck, but again re-
ftored in 1492. The place has thrice fuffered from the pef-
tilence, and at the commencement of the reformation was
deferted by its profeffors and ftudents till the year 1530, and
in 1950 the emperor Ferdinand afforded it a new charter.
In purfuance of a convention made, in 1563, between the
dukes and the town, the former nominate and pay fifteen
profeffors, and the town nine. It was alfo agreed that the
dukes fhould annually contribute 3000 florins, and the town
500, towards the falaries of the profeflors. The magif-
tracy confifts of three burgher-maiters, one fyndic, twelve
aldermen, one fecretary, and a prothonotary. It poflefles
the right of coining copper, filver, and gold, and therefore
has a mint. Both the civil and criminal jurifdiCtion are
yefted in the magiftracy, with right of appeal to the two
ROS
fupreme courts of juftice, except in thofe cafes where no
appeal is allowed. The town enjoys other confiderable pri-
vileges ; neverthelefs it is hereditarily fubje& to the dukes,
in acknowledgment of which fubjetion it annually pays
55 rixdollars, as an original tribute, and alfo 600 florins,
for the grant of an excife. The trade of this town is very
confiderable. In the year 1218 it was admitted into the
Hanfeatic confederacy ; 25 miles N.E. of Weifmar. N.
lat. 54° 10!. E. long. 12° 12/.
ROSTOV, a town of Roffia, in the government of Ja-
roflavl, fituated near a lake, to which it gives name: the fee
of a bifhop; 36 miles S. of Jaroflavl. N. lat. 57° E.
long. 39° 54.
ROSTRA, in Antiguity, a part of the Roman forum,
wherein orations, pleadings, funeral harangues, &c. were
delivered.
The roftrum was a kind of chapel, taken out of the
forum, and furnifhed with a fugeeftum, or eminence, called
more particularly the roftra, where the orators ftood te
{peak.
It was adorned, or, as Livy fays, built, with the beaks of
fhips taken from the people of Antium, in a naval engage-
ment ; whence the name.
There were two kinds of roftra; roffra vetera and rofira
nova. ‘The latter was erected by Auguitus, and decorated
with the prows of veffels which he took at the battle of
AGium. The firft were thofe already defcribed.
ROSTRALIS Corona, Rofral Crown. See Crown.
Rosrrauis Columna, Roftral Column. See CoLumy.
ROSTRATA, in Zoology. See Toucan.
ROSTRENEN in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftri€t, in the department of the North
Coaits; 20 miles S. of Guingamp. N. lat. 48° 14!. W.
long. 3° 15.
ROSTREVOR, a poft-town of the county of Down,
Ireland, fituate on the bay of Carlingford, and much fre-
quented for fea-bathing. Mr. Wakefield calls it the Brigh-
ton of Ireland, and it has been much admired for its ro-
mantic icenery. It is a wooded bank, on a {mall arm of
the fea, and has behind it the Mourne mountains. It is 574
miles N. from Dublin, and 73 from Newry.
ROSTRIFORMIS Processus, in Anatomy, the fame
as coracoides.
ROSTRUM literally denotes the beak or bill of a bird.
This isa hard horny fubftance, confifting of an. upper and
under part, extending from the head, and anfwering to the
mandibles in quadrupeds. Its edges are generally plain and
fharp, like the edge of a knife, or cultrated; fometimes
ferrated, or jagged, or pectinated, or denticulated; but al-
ways deftitute of real teeth immerfed in fockets. See dna-
tomy of Birps.
Hence the word is alfo figuratively applied to the beak,
or fore-part, of the head of a fhip.
The roftrum, or fnout, in fithes, varies very much in
figure, and ferves as a confiderable article of diftinétion. It
is, 1. In fome plagioplateous, or deprefled, as in the pike,
&c. 2. In fome it is conic in fhape, as in the oxyrynchus,
&c. 3. In fome it is extended into a long and fharp point,
as in the common ones. And, 4. In others it is triangular,
or nearly fo, as in the rays. See Fisu.
Rostrum is alfo ufed to fignify an inftrument, with
which paper is ruled for mutfical compofitions. d
Rostrum, in Chemiffry, fignifies the nofe, or beak, of
the common alembic, which conveys the liquor diftilled-inte
its receiver.
Rosrrum is alfo a fort of crooked {ciffars, which the
furgeons,
ROS
furgeons, in fome cafes, make ufe of for the dilatation of
wounds.
Rostrum Leporinum, in Surgery, the piece of flefh fitu-
ated betwixt the margins of a hare-lip.
Rostrum Seminis, in Botany, the beak of the feed, is an
elongation of the apex of a naked feed, originating either
in the bafe of the ftyle itfelf, remaining in a hardened ftate
(fee DicuroMENA); or it confifts of an appendage to the
whole fruit, compofed of two naked feeds; as in Scandix.
The fame term applies to a fimilar elongation of certain
feed-veffels ; as in Geranium and its allies, whofe beaks bear
a ftrong analogy to thofe of Scandix; and in Helleborus,
Delphinium, and abundance of other genera, where they ori-
inate from the indurated {tyles.
ROSWEIDE, Henrizerv, in Biography, a learned
Dutch Jefuit, and writer in ecclefiaitical antiquities, was
born at Utrecht in the year 1569. He entered among the
difciples of Loyola, at Doway in Flanders, when he was
20 years of age, and foon difcovered the fubjeéts of ftudy
peculiarly adapted to his genius, by {pending the time which
he was allowed to devote to exercife and recreation, in exa-
mining the libraries of the monafteries in that city, and
refcuing the ancient mann{cripts contained in them from
duit and oblivion. Having completed his courfe of acade-
mical ftudies, he filled fucceflively the chairs of philofophy
and divinity, fir at Doway and afterwards at Antwerp,
with great reputation for feveral years. After this he de-
voted his time to the compolition and publication of his
various works. He died in 1629, at the age of 60. He
publifhed, in 1607, “¢ Fafti Sanctorum quorum Vitz in Bel-
gicis Bibliothecis Manufcripte aflervantur,’? which he in-
tended as a {pecimen of a larger work, and which was the
prototype of the immenfe colle&ion by Bollandus and
others, under the title of AGa San@orum. He was author
of many other works, among which is “ An Account of
the Hermits of Egypt and Paleftine,”’ « An Ecclefiattical
Hiftory from the Time of Chrift to Pope Urban VIII.”
in two vols. folio; and “* The Hiftory of the Belgic
Church.”
ROSWALD, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Prerau, infulated in Silefia; 6 miles N. of Ja-
gendorf.
ROSWICK, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 10
miles N. of Pitea.
ROSYCRUSIANS, Rosicructans, Rofacrucians, or
Brothers of the Rofy-crofs, a name aflumed by a feé or cabal
of hermetical philofophers, or of Theo/ophifls ; who. arofe,
as it has been faid, or at leaft became firft taken notice of,
in Germany, in the beginning of the 14th century.
They bound themfelves together by a folemn {fecret,
which they all fwore inviolably to preferve; and obliged
themfelves, at their admiffion into the order, to a itri& ob-
fervance of certain eftablifhed rules.
They psetended to know all fciences, and chiefly medi-
cine; of which they publifhed themfelves the reftorers.
They pretended to be mafters of abundance of important
fearets ; and, among others, that of the philofopher’s ftone ;
all which they have affirmed to have received by tradition
from the ancient Egyptians, Chaldeans, the Magi, and
Gymnofophitts.
Their chief was a German gentleman, called Chriftian
Rofencruz, educated in a monaitery, where he learnt the
languages. About the clofe of the 14th century he went
to the Holy Land, and vifited the holy fepulchre ; and falling
fick at Damafcus, he confulted the Arabs, and other eaftern
philofophers, by whom he was fuppofed to be initiated into
this wonderful art. ‘At his return into Germany, he formed
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a fociety, to whom he communicated the fecrets he had
brought with him out of the Eaft, under an inviolable oath
of fecrecy, and finally died in 1484.
This fociety remained coxcealed till the beginning of the
17th century, when two books were publifhed; the one
entitled «¢ Fama Fraternitatis laudabilis Ordinis Rofecrufis,””
The Report of the laudable Fraternity of Roficrucians ;
the other, ** Confeffio Fraternitatis,”? The Confeffion of the
Fraternity. In thefe works the world was informed, that
the fraternity was enabled, by divine revelation, to explain
the moft important fecrets both of nature and grace; that
they were appointed to correct the errors of the learned
world, particularly in philofophy and medicine; that they
were poflefied of the philofopher’s ftone, and underftood
both the art of tranfmuting metals and of prolonging hu-
man life; and in fine, that by their means the golden age
would return. As foon as thefe grand fecrets weré di-
vulged, the whole tribe of the Paracelfifts, Theofophifts,
and chemitts, flocked to the Roficrucian ftandard, and every
new and unheard-of myftery was referred to this fraternity.
Various were the opinions that were formed of this fociety ;
but though its laws and ftatutes had appeared, no one could
tell where the fociety itfelf was to be found, or who really
belonged to it. It was imagined by fome fagacious ob-
fervers, that a certain important meaning was concealed
under the ftory of the Roficrucian fraternity, though they
were wholly unable to fay what it was. One conjeétured
that fome chemical myftery lay hid behind the allegorical
tale; another fuppofed that it foretold fome great ecclefi-
aftical revolution. At laft Michael Brele, in the year
1620, had the courage publicly to declare, that he certainly
knew the whole flory to have been the contrivance of fome
ingenious perfons, who chofe to amufe themfelves by im-
pofing upon the public credulity. This declaration raifed
a fufpicion againft the whole ftory ; and as no one under-
took to contradi& it, this wonderful fociety daily vanifhed,
and the rumours which had been fpread concerning it ceafed.
The whole was probably a contrivance to ridicule the pre-
tenders to fecret wifdom and wonderful power, particularly
the chemifts, who boafted that they poffefled the philo-
fopher’s ftone. It has been conje&tured, fays Brucker, and
the fatirical turn of his writings, and feveral particular
paffages in his works, favour the conjecture, that this farce
was invented and performed, in part at leaft, by John Va-
lentine Andrea, a divine of Wartenburg.
We fhall here fubjoin fome further particulars concerning
the Roficrucians.
They have been diftinguifhed by feveral names, accom-
modated to the feveral branches of their doGtrine. :
Becaufe they pretend to protra& the period of human
life, by means of certain noftrums, and even to reftore
youth, they were called immortales.
As they pretended to know all things, they have been
called i//uminati: and becaufe they have made no appearance
for feveral years, but have kept altogether incognito, they
have been called the invifible brothers.
Their fociety is frequently figned by the letters F. R.C.,
which fome among them interpret fratres roris coi ; it being
pretended, that the matter of the philofopher’s itone is dew
concoéted, exalted, &c.
Some, who are no friends to free-mafonry, make the pre-
fent flourifhing fociety of free-mafons a branch of Rofi-
crucians; or rather the Roficrucians themfelves, under a
new name or relation; viz. as retainers to building. And
it is certain, there are fome free-mafons who have all the
charaGers of Roficrucians ; but how the era and original of
mafonry, as traced by Mr. Anderfon, and that of Rofi-
crucianifm,
ROT
erucianifm, here fixed from Naudeus, who has written ex-
prefsly on the fubje&, confift, we leave others to judge.
Notwithttanding the pretended antiquity of the Roficru-
cians, it is probable that the alchemifts, Paracelfifts, or fire
philofophers, who {pread themfelves through almoft all
Europe, about the clofe of the 16th century, aflumed,
about this period, the obfeure and ambiguous title of Rofi-
crucian brethren, which commanded, at firit, fome degree
of refpect, as it feemed to be borrowed from the arms of
Luther, which were a ero/s placed upon a ro/e.
But the denomination evidently appears to be derived
from the fcience of chemiftry. It is not compounded, fays
Mofheim, as many imagine, of the two words rofa and crux,
which fignify ro/e and cro/s, but of the latter of thefe words,
and the Latin word ros, which fignifies dew. Of all na-
tural bodies, dew was elteemed the moft powerful diffolvent
of gold; and the crofs, in the chemical language, is equi-
valent to Jight, becaufe the figure of a crofs + exhibits, at
the fame time, the three letters of which the word /ux, or
light, is compounded. Now dus is called, by this fe&, the
feed or menitruum of the red dragon, or, in other words,
that grofs and corporeal light, which, when properly di-
gelted and modified, produces gold. Hence it follows, if
this etymology be admitted, that a Roficrucian philofopher
is one, who, by the intervention and aflittance of the dew,
feeks for light, or, in other words, the fubitance called the
philofopher’s ftone,
The true meaning and energy of this denomination did
not efcape the penetration and fagacity of Gaflendi, as ap-
pears by his Examen. Philofophie Fluddane, fed. 15.
tom. ili, p. 261. And it was more fully explained by Re-
naudot, in his Conferences Publiques, tom. iv. p. 87.
At the head of thefe fanatics were Robert Fludd, an
Englifh phyfician, Jacob Behmen, and Michael Mayer.
The common principles, which ferve as a kind of centre of
union to the Roficrucian fociety, are the following. They
all maintain that the diffolution of bodies, by the power of
fire, is the only way by which men can arrive at true wif-
dom, and come to difcern the firft principles of things.
They all acknowledge a certain analogy and harmony be-
tween the powers of nature and the do¢trines of religion,
and believe that the Deity governs the kingdom of grace by
the fame laws with which he rules the kingdom ef nature ;
and hence they are led to.ufe chemical denominations to ex-
prefs the truths of religion. They all hold, that there is a
fort of divine energy, or foul, diffufed through the frame of
the univerfe, which fome call the archeus, others the univerfal
Spirit, and which others mention under different appellations.
‘They all talk in the moft fuperftitious manner of what they
call the fignature of things, of the power of the ftars over
all corporeal beings, and their particular influence upon the
human race, of the efficacy of magic, and the various ranks
and orders of demons. In fine, they all agree in throwing
out the molt crude incomprehenfible notions and ideas, in the
moft obfeure, quaint, and unufual expreflions.. Brucker’s
Hitt. Philof. by Enfield, vol. ii. © Moth. Eccl. Hitt. vol. iv.
Eng. ed. 8vo. See Benmists and Turosoruists.
ROT, in Rural Economy, ‘a fort of putrid decay, taking
place gradually in different fubitances, either from the ef-
fe&s of moifture or other caufes. Much mifchief is fre-
quently done in this way to different kinds of materials of
the farm fort.
This fort of decay in materials, whether of the manure or
other kinds, is greatly promoted by their being kept ina
continued moift condition, by the atmofpheric air being
freely admitted to them; and where they are of a ftrawy,
littery, or light nature, by their being thrown together in
ROT
rather an open manner. The contaét of the earth or mould
alfo promotes this kind of rot in a very great degree. There
is likewife a great variety of other caufes, which have a
tendency to bring on and expedite the decay of fubitances
both of the hard and lefs firm kinds. See Purrerac-
TION.
Ror, among fheep-farmers, a difeafe incident to fheep
and other animals, in which both the liver and lungs are
affected, and there is often a dropfical tendency. It is
moftly connetted with moifture or moiff fituations; but its
caufes are far from being perfetly inveftigated. Dr. Har-
rifon of Lincolnfhire has, however, lately .done much in
this way, and drawn many ufeful and fcientific conclufions.
The dileafe is readily known to experienced fhepherds by a
careful examination of the eye, which is done by placing the
fheep between his thighs, and holding the head with both
hands. He then proceeds to raife the upper, and deprefe
the under eye-lid, by which means the blood-veflels of the
tunica albuginea, or white, are brought into view. When
they are red, and in great numbers, the fheep is fuppofed ta
be in good health. The caruncula lacrymalis, or haw and
inner furface of the eye-lids, fhould be as red as the veffels on
the eye-ball. If they are pale, and the veins are in {mall
quantities, and faint-coloured, or livid, the fheep is in a de-
bilitated ftate, or affiGted with the rot. And in all cafes
where the blood-veflels have entirely difappeared, the mut-
ton is bad. By frequently examining the eyes in dangerous
feafons, fhepherds may always difcover the rot before the
fheep begin to fhrink, and, confequently, in time to pre-
vent any material injury to their profits.
The above intelligent writer traces the nature and effects
of the difeafe in the following manner: when in warm, ful-
try, and rainy weather, fheep that are grazing on low and
moilt lands feed rapidly, and fome of them die fuddenly,
there is reafon to fear that they have contraéted the rot.
This fufpicion will be further increafed, if in a few weeks
afterwards the fheep begin to fhrink, and become flaccid in
their loins. By preflure about the hips at this time, a crack~
ling is fometimes perceptible. Now, or foon afterwards,
the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece,
the fkin is found to have exchanged its vermilion tint for a
pale red ; and the wool is ealily feparated from the pelt.
As the diforder advances, the {kin becomes dappled with
yellow, or black {pots.. About this time the eyes lofe their
luftre, and become white and pearly, from the red veffels
of the tunica adnata, and eye-lids, being contra¢ted or en-
tirely obliterated. To this fucceed debility and emaciation,
which increafe continually till the fheep die ; or elfe afcites,
and perhaps general dropfy fupervene, before the fatal ter-
mination. Thefe fymptoms are rendered more fevere by an
ob{tinate purging, which comes on at an uncertain period
of the diforder. In the progrefs of the complaint, fheep
become what the graziers call chockered, that is, affeéted
with a {welling under the chin, which proceeds froma fluid
contained in the cellular membrane, wnder the throat.
And he adds, that in five or fix days after contracting
the rot, the thin edge of the {mall lobe of the liver becomes
of a tranf{parent white, or blueifh colour, and this {preads
along the upper and lower fides, aceurding to the feverity
of the complaint. Sometimes it does not extend more than
an inch from the margin. In fevere cafes, the whole peri-
toveum invelting the liver is difeafed ; and then it commonly
aflumes an opaque colour, interfperfed with dark red lines
or patches, ‘The upper part of the liver. is fometimes
fpeckled like the body of a toad, to which it is faid to bear
a ftriking refemblance ; round the duétus communis chole-
docus and hepatic veflels, a jelly-like matter is eee
which
~
ROT,
which varies according to the feverity of the attack, froma
table-fpoonful, orJefs, to five or fix times that quantity.
Upon boiling, the liver lofes its firmnefs, and feparates into
{mall pieces in the water, or remains foft and flaccid. And
it is obferved, that graziers and butchers having remarked
that fheep are much difpofed to feed during the firft
three or four weeks after being tainted, avail themfelves
of this circumftance very’ commonly to increafe their
profits. When the firft ftage is over, flukes begin to ap-
pear in the pori biliarii, the ductus communis choledocus, and
in the gall-bladder. At firft the number of thefe creatures
is {mall ; but as the difeafe advances they increafe, and be-
fore death, are often very numerous. In the laft part of the
complaint, they are fometimes to be found in the {tomach as
well as in -the mteftines and liver. This, like the vifceral
diforders of the human body, may terminate in refolution,
effufion, fuppuration, or fchirrus. rit. The complaint is
faid to terminate in refolution, when the inflammatory a¢tion
goes off, without deftroying the {tate and texture of the
parts.. However, he is ftrongly inclined to believe, that
every confiderable inflammation in the human body, and in
other animals, although it ends in refolution, leaves behind
it fome remains, which may be difcovered by an experienced
anatomift. When the vetlels are thrown into inflammatory
actioa for a few days only; effufion commonly takes place,
and the coats become thicker, and aflume a buff-like colour.
Thefe changes in the fanguinary fyitem often continue
through life, and lay the foundation of many chronic and in-
curable diforders. Sheep that recover from the rot exhibit
very different appearances after death, according to the fe-
verity of the attack ; but the taint is feldom or never entirely
removed. The liver of an old ewe, that lately died fat,
and contained fourteen pounds of fuet inher body, had the
following appearances: the back part of the {mall lobe
was dappled with whitifh fpots; the coats of the duétus
communis and pori biliarii were confiderably thickened, and
more folid than ufual. In colour they refembled the human
aorta in old people, and were full of flukes: in other re-
{peéts the liver appeared to be found and natural. The
butcher afferted that the variegated appearance and alteration
in the duéts were occafioned by a flight taint of long ttand-
ing, which had not been confiderable enough to diforder the
economy, or impair the health of the animal fufficiently to
prevent its feeding.
2dly. That when fheep die fuddenly in the firft ftage of
the diforder, an effufion of ferum, or of wheyifh-coloured
fluid, may be commonly difcovered in the cavity of the
abdomen, and then the peritoneum furrounding the liver is
generally covered with a membrane or coat of coagulable
lymph. This form of the rot has been frequently con-
founded with the refp or red water, though it differs from
the latter diforder in the colour of the effufed liquid, in
being much lefs expofed to putrefaétion, and in feveral other
particulars. :
3dly. And that abfceffes in the liver exhibit another ter-
mination of this malady. They are feldom confiderable
enough to kill immediately ; but, in confequence of the ab-
forption of purulent matter from them, the fheep frequently
waite away, and die he@tical or dropfical. When the col-
leétions are fmall, fheep will recover fufficiently to bear
lambs; for three or four feafons,° and afterwards beeome
tolerable mutton. 4thly. That the moft’;common termina-
tion is in {chirri, or what the fhepherds call knots in the liver.
The whole fubftance of this important vifcus has been found
fo full of fmall roundifh lumps, or {chirrous bodies, that it was
difficult to find any found partin it. The firft attack is un-
fortunately fo very infidious, that the diforder is fearcely
Vor. XXX.
obfervable before the animal begins to wafte and lofe flefh.
In this advanced ftate it is faid to labour under the rot or
pourriture, from overlooking the commencement of the
diforder. And hydatids are obferved to effet {chirrous and
purulent livers more frequently than others. When livers
are much difeafed, the butchers carefully conceal them from
the public eye. To him it is always matter of furprife to
find the mutton faleable in thefe fevere cafes. It fhews, in
an extraordinary manner, the accommodating power of
living matter, which is able to maintain life, and increafe
eorpulence, under {uch unfavourable circumitances. Shep-
herds and breeders, who make it a general rule to kill every
fheep that becomes indifpofed, from an opinion that very
few of them ever recover from any illnefs, would do well to
examine the livers and other vifcera of flaughtered fheep.
By fuch a practice they would foon be convinced that fheep
are able to endure a great deal.
But in refpeét to the caufes of the difeafe, it has been
imputed, rit, to a vitiated dew ; 2dly, to a cruft, which
adheres to grafs after wet weather, or the overflowing of
running water ; 3dly, to the luxuriant and quick growth of
plants, in hot, moilt feafons; 4thly, to grazing certain
herbs ; 5thly, to fafciole hepatice, or their ova, being in-
troduced into the itomachs of animals, by feeding on
fwampy and low grounds in moift weather ; 6thly, it “has
been called the /heep-pox by profeflor Viboutg, of thé vete-
rinary college at Copenhagen ; but this is not properly the
caufe of the rot. And, 7thly, it is afcribed, by Dauben-
ton, to poor diet, and-drinking too much. water. Thefe
different caufes are objected to, and fhewn not well founded
by the firft writer, who thinks that, 8thly, it feems to be
occafioned by poifonous efluvia, which, under certain cir-
cumttances, are emitted from marfhy foils, in fupport of
which it is ftated that the following faéts afford ftrong
proofs.
His refidence confilts of high and low lands, of a loamy
and tenacious nature. While a brook which runs through
the farm remains overflowed, and the water continues upon
the adjoining flat grounds, his fheep never fuffer any incon-
venience, though they are frequently obliged to wade for
their provifions. As foon as the flood is fubfided, the fheep
can at any time be tainted in a guarter of an hour, while the
land retains its moifture, and the weather is hot and fultry.
The butchers are fo well acquainted with the importance of
this faét, that when his friend has difpofed of any fat fheep,
they are ufually turned upon this rotten ground to make them
thrive fafter. But by judicious management he has laid the
greateft part of his farm completely dry, and is now little
troubled with the rot, unlefs when he wifhes to give it to
fome particular animals. His neighbours, who havé been
le{s provident, are ftill fevere fufferers by it ; nor are their
misfortunes confined to fheep alone. Pigs, cows, affes,
horfes, poultry, hares and rabbits, become rotten in this
lordfhip, and have flukes in their livers. Many years fince,
his grandfather removed ninety fheep from a confiderable
diftance to his own refidence. On coming near to a bridge,
which is thrown over the Barling’s river, one of the drove
fellinto a ditch, and fraétured its fore-leg. The fhepherd
immediately took it in his arms to a neighbouring houfe, and
replaced the limb. During this time, which did not occupy
more than one hour, the remainder were left to graze in the
ditches and lanes. The flock were then driven home, and
in a month afterwards, the other fheep joined its com-
panions. The fhepherd foon difcovered that all had con-
tracted the rot except the lame fheep ; and as they were
never feparated upon any other occafion, it is reafonable to
conclude that the diforder was acquired by feeding in the
4G road
ROT.
road and ditch bottoms. And he adds, that a Lincolnfhire
farmer purchafed fome turnips in Nottinghamfhire, upon
which he intended to winter a flock of fheep. The firft di-
vifion, confifting of about forty, were detained one night at
a village near to the place formerly alluded to, by the over-
flowing of the Barling’s Ean, and were put upon a piece of
flat land which leads to the river. The water had not re-
turned to its former channel more than a day or two,
Every one of the forty fheep became rotten; whereas the
other divifion, which {topped no where by the way, efcaped
the diforder, and remained well. Sheep were formerly ad-
mitted into fome adjoining paltures, in travelling to and from
the neighbouring fairs and markets ; but fo many of them
contraéted the rot, that, for fome time palit, the graziers in
this county will not fuffer their flocks to {top fer a moment
near the village. He has repeatedly examined the fufpected
ditches and paftures, but never obferved either flukes, or any
of the plants, to which the rot has been attributed: though
he muft candidly acknowledge that he ought to have fought
for them with more care and attention. Thefe ditches com-
municate with a rivulet, which frequently overflows its banks,
and the inclofures are then deluged with water. The foil
confitts chiefly of loam or clay, and the furface is fo flat and
level on both fides of the river, that for want of proper de-
{cent, the water is a long time detained upon the grounds.
He is credibly informed, that in this place the rot affects
fwine, hares, and rabbits, as well as fheep.
It is further ftated, that he has likewife been informed
by Mr. David Wright, that a few years fince, as a drove
of fheep were pafling through a long lane in the parifh of
Irby, one of them, being weary, fell down in the middle of
the road. The others were permitted to range at large,
till their companion was able to travel. They were then
driven all together into a pafture, and it was foon difcovered
that only the ¢ired fheep had efcaped the rot. As the flock
had never been feparated upon any occafion, we are entitled
to conclude that the diforder was contraéted while the
tired animal remained upon the road. From thefe and
other cafes, the writer thinks himfelf juftified in afcribing
the rot in fheep, and other animals, to paludal efluvia; but
in regard to the nature and conttitution of which he ac-
knowledges it 1s very difficult to form any rational opinion,
as they have hitherto eluded the moft fubtile and delicate
inquiries.
In refpeét to the prevention of the diforder, he fuggetts,
that where neceffity requires the pafturage of moift grounds
in fummer or autumn, the fhepherd ought carefully to re-
move his flock into a dry fituation before the evening, and
provide them with corn, and good hay, or green food. He
lays that a confiderable farmer of Bohemia kept his fheep
found in the wet and fatal year of 1769, by feeding them
every night, when turned under a fhed, or into ftables,
with hafhed ftraw; and by eating it greedily they were
all faved. By this judicious praétice, the fheep were re-
moved to fleep in better air, as well as preferved in a more
vigorous {tate of body. Sir John Pringle informs us, that
perfons have maintained themfelves in good health, during
fickly feafons, by inhabiting the upper ftories of their houfes ;
and he has reafon to believe, that by merely confining fheep
on high grounds through the night, they have efcaped the
rot. He adds, that after the dew is exhaled by the fun’s heat,
fheep may be fuffered to range in moift and f{wampy places,
with lefs danger, becaufe the miafmata, which are formed
in the night, and remain entangled among the grafs, or float
in the lower part of the atmofphere, are chiefly diffipated
with the dew. Therefore, unlefs they be very copioufly
produced in the day time, or are unufually virulent,, they
9
will not be fufficiently concentrated to do much injury to
healthy fheep. While at reft and afleep, the operations of
the fyftem are more feebly performed, and then fheep are
peculiarly expofed to difeafed ations. By conforming to
thefe regulations, he has known one flock efcape entirely,
while others have fuffered materially in the fame open field.
And it is confidently afferted, that decoétions of bitter
herbs, with falt, have frequently preferved fheep from the
rot. Salt is fuppofed to contlitute a part of Fleet’s cele-
brated noftrum ; and we know that bitters are defervedly
recommended to prevent intermittents, the dyfentery, and
other diforders, which originate from exhalations. In Ox-
fordfhire, Dr. Lower has frequently known fix or feven
fpoonsful of ftrong brine and‘{tale urine, with foot fteeped
in it, to be given with great fuccefs. This is done at
{pring and the fall of the year, when the dew is counted
moft dangerous. This courfe of phyfic is continued eight
or ten days, or till the fheep eat their meat heartily ; and
if they were taken in time, there feldom died any in a
whole flock. For the fame purpofe, Ellis recommends the
following medicine in his * Pra€tical Hufbandry.”? Take a
peck or more of malt, and mafh it, as though you would
brew it into ale or beer, and make eleven or twelve gallons
of liquor; then boil in it a quantity of fhepherd’s purfe,
comfrey, fage, plantain, penny-royal, wormwood, and blood-
wort: add yeaft, and afterwards falt the mixture; then
turn the liquor into a veflel, After April comes in, give
feven or eight {poonsful to every fheep, once in the week,
if the weather be wet, and if dry not fo often.
Some have fuppofed that there are various objections to
the above notions concerning the nature and caufes of the
rot in fheep ; but efpecially that of its not being met with
in the fheep of fome other diftrits where mar/b mia/mata,
and the difeafes which depend upon it, greatly prevail. It
has, indeed, been ftated in the view of eliciting the truth
of the matter, by Dr. George Pearfon, that there is an
apparent difficulty or obje€tion to the above writer’s con-
clufion—that the rot in thefe animals is occafioned by the
fame morbific agent which occafions intermittent and remit-
tent fevers—in the circumitance that in fome of the marfhes
of the county of Kent, where intermittent fevers affect a
great proportion of the inhabitants; and even perfons re-
fiding in the neighbourhood, although living on dry chalky
lands, where fuch difeafes never fhew themfelves, if at fome
diftance from the low grounds, unlefs in confequence of
importation ; and in Chitney marfh, on the river Medway,
near the ifle of Sheppey, one of the moft prolific fituations
for agues to be found in the kingdom; and which is
equally famous for its pafturage, by which very great
numbers of fheep are fed and kept; where the fallow
and indeed cadaverous countenances of the inhabitants,
fhewed that moft of them were ill, or were recovering
from agues; on inquiring into the health of the fheep,
befides the evidence of the fine healthy condition of the
animals, it was found, on the authority of a fhepherd
who had lived thirty-fix years in the marfh, that he had
only feen the diforder once, and that was in the firft
year of his refidence there ; nor is the rot at all common
many part of the county of Kent. The Leicefter breed of
fheep, he afferted, were fubject to it, but not the fheep
bred in the marfh ; nor were thefe animals fubject to any
other difeafe more frequently than in other fituations in
general, or particularly in the uplands. On thefe grounds,
the doftor thinks, it would appear that one kind of miaf-
mata of marfhes which produce agues, do not in all fituations
alfo produce the rot. He does not, however, conceive it
logically juft to conclude, from the inftance which has been
given,
”
ROT.
given, that miafmata paludum of a different {pecies may
not occafion the rot, and alfo agues. It is poflible alfo, he
fuppofes, that fome concomitant agents or circumitances
may render the fame miafmata produ€tive of one of the
difeafes in certain fituations, but not of the other diforder.
The. fame circumftances occur in other fituations, as
there is a prevalence of miafmata in the Romney Marth,
another great fheep diftri&, which frequently produces in-
termittent and remittent- fevers ; while the rot is fcarcely
ever known to happen in it. And in Effex there are agues
in plenty, in many parts, without the rot in the fheep of
them being at all known.
Some of thefe remarks and dire¢tions deferve the notice
of the grazing farmer, as by proper attention to them much
mifchief may often be prevented. But there are fome
who fuppofe that moft dependence in the cure of this affec-
tion is to be placed upon the removal of fheep into dry
fituations, keeping them warm and fheltered, and giving
them dry food in the yard. Inthe Report on Agriculture
for Lincolnfhire, fome circumftances are given that may
dire&t the farmer on this point. It is ftated, that in rot-
ting years, the fheep that feed on the falt marfhes over
which the fpring-tides come, fell very high in confidence
that they arefafe. And that a fhepherd, who when young
was fhepherd’s boy to an old man who lived at Netlam, a
place noted for the rot, fays he is perfuaded that fheep only
take the rot in a morning before the dew is off, as by keep-
ing them up till the dew is gone they have been preferved
from the difeafe, while others, where this precaution has
been negleéted, have become difordered.
Others think that the beft and fureft remedy, in thefe
cafes, is that of combining plenty of dry food with the free
ufe of fea-falt, and at the ave time removing the animals to
the found, rich, dry, pafturelands. The rotis never known
to be caught on the South Downs of Suffiex. When the
fheep fuffer in this way, the difeafe is always got while they
are keeping in the weald, or other low lands. Such marfhes
as are occalionally overflowed by falt-water, are never known
to rot fheep, but are moft admirable for keeping them found
and healthy ; and fhould any thing be capable of curing the
rot, it is the fheep feeding on fuch land. Some have ob-
ferved, that if, after a froit, even when very early, fheep be
turned into fuch meadows and brooks as are at other times
particularly liable to rot them, they will not, under this
circumitance, fuffer at all; as it is f{uppofed the animalcule
which the infeéts depofit in the fummer among the herbage,
are deftroyed by the froft. The flounders found in the
livers of the animals, are believed to be taken up with their
food. It is more probable, however, that it is only the
very minute ova of fuch infects which are taken into the
ftomachs of {uch fheep. The autumnal months, when there
is no froft, are the moft difpofed to bring on the rot in the
above diltri€t ; but after one fingle night of hard froft, the
danger is over for that year.
Rotten fheep have, in a great many inftances, been cured
by feeding them on the herbage growing on a thin foil on
lime-{tone rock. Hundreds have been known to have be-
come fourd on lime-ftone land; their livers being com-
pletely healed, and the fheep healthy in every refpe@.
In the original Agricultural Report of the county of
Stafford, it is fuggefted, that the rot in fheep may be removed
by the ufe of medicine. The difeafe is conceived as per-
haps rather fimilar in its nature to the dropfy, as there is a
preternatural abundance of water. The writer remarks,
that of fix rotten fheep which he had about fix years before
the time of writing, he fucceeded in curing five of them,
but the fixth died full of water. One of the five which
were cured brought him a lamb the following year, whichs
with its mother, continued healthy, and became fat on grafs ;
the lamb was fold in the fummer, and the ewe in the begin-
ning of winter, to a butcher. The other four alfo fattened,
but in lefs time, on grafs alone, and were parted with in the
like manner. On April the 25th, in the year 1802, he alfo
drenched two rotten ewes, one of them in the lait ftage of
the difeafe ; they both became found, acquired fat, and
were fold, with many others, in O¢tober, to the butcher,
undiltinguifhed from the reft. Since that time he has re-
peatedly tried the fame remedy ; and on the whole number
of cafes, has not loft more than one in fix or feven.
His method of performing the cure is this: the rotten
fheep is to be fafted one night, then one table fpoonful of the
{pirits of turpentine is to be taken, and mixed with two of
the fame fpoonsful of foft cold water ; which is to be given
to each fheep for one dofe. The fheep is then to be kept
on dry food for three or four days; at the end of which
time, the fame dofe of the medicine is again to be repeated,
and the fheep continued on dry food for three days
longer ; at the conclufion of which period fuch fheep may
be permitted to join the flock. When affected with a con-
fiderable degree of loofenefs, fheep have often been cured in
this manner with great facility.
In fhort, it may be concluded, in regard to the cure of
this difeafe, which feems to be caufed by a general debility
or weaknefs of the whole fyftem, accompanied with a local
affe€tion of the fame nature in the liver, that all fuch foods
and remedies as are of a dry nourifhing quality, and which
excite and ftrengthen the conftitution, will conftantly be
found of great utility, if not wholly capable of affording a
perfect cure of the difeafe. ;
The following receipt was prefented to the Royal Society,
by Mr. Boyle, and is preferved in their regifter, vol. 1i.
303. Some time before Allhollantide, the fheep is to
be blooded under the eye, and, if neceflary, again in the
fpring; and, in Oétober, his gums may be rubbed at
three or four different times with Spanifh falt. But the
principal remedy confifts in this: that about Allhollantide,
or fomewhat fooner, you take a {mall handful of the fore-
mentioned falt, and making the fheep hold up his head, com-
pel him to {wallow it, and keep him from drinking any thing
for about an hour after.
Ror, Dry, in Rural Economy, a highly deftruétive vege-
table difeafe, affe€ting the timber in the foundations, and
other parts of buildings, in particular foils and fituations.
It affe€ts the wood, or ligneous parts, in fuch a manner as
te leave it conneéted by nothing but the {mall hard fibrous
ortions, which give it a curious tremulous appearance, but
all of which, when touched by the hand in the more advanced
{tages of the difeafe, readily moulder into a brownifh fnuff-
like duit. It is attended with a peculiar earthy f{mell,
fimilar to that which iffues from frefh dug up wood, which
has lain fome time in the ground in contact with decaying
animal matter. It is very materially different from that na-
tural fort of decay which takes place in wood from the pre-
fence of wetnefs. This has been fuppofed to originate from
very different caufes, fuch as the ufe of wood in too green
a ftate, exceflive dampnefs in the foundations of the build-
ings which are affeGted with it, the want of a free circula-
tion of air in fuch fituations, and more lately to be the effect
of a plant of the fungus tribe, which has leaves as in the mifle-
toe, &c. the boletus Leshityiciaies And on the former fuppofi-
tions it has been flated to the Society for the Encouragement
of Arts, &c. by Mr. Bramley of Leeds, in the thirty-firft
volume of their Tranfa¢tions, that to bring the matter to
the teft by experiments, would require the obfervations of a
4G2 long
ROT.
lone period, and in felected fituations. And that wood
ufed for the general purpofes of man is cut down at different
periods; and although it may be felled at the proper feafon,
or when moit free from fap or moifture, it is not always to
be effeéted. Nay, even admitting it to have been cut down
in the moft favourable fituation, it {till abounds with fuch an
extra proportion of moilture, as to require a regular expofure
to the air prior to its being applied to ufe, if we with to
guard againit that fhrinking which always takes place where
this precaution has not been taken. And although the fir
kind contains lefs of this watery portion, yet it afluredly
poflefles a confiderable fhare ; and it is in this {pecies, he
apprehends, that the evil called the dry rot moft generally
occurs, as from the facility of working the fame it is moft
generally applied in buildings. But fuppofing it to be fir,
or any other {pecies, wood felled when abounding with any
extra proportion of fap, and applied to ufe without the pro-
per feafoning or expofure to a free current of air, until fuch
extra moifture has had time to exhale, is moit liable to the
difeafe in queition ; and the cure, or principal prevention
again{t it, would be the precaution of felling all wood only
at the proper feafon, or when the fap is not in circulation.
The next mode of prevention would be to ule fuch wood
only as has been for a confiderable period expofed to the
influence of a free current of air, or, where conveniénce will
admit, to that of air heated to a moderate degree ; fuch air
extracting with greater facility the enclofed moifture, and
in a more certain ratio than the irregularity of our atmofphere
will allow, under other circumftances.
And it is fuggetted, that in all rapidly-improving countries,
this evil is likely to be an increafing one, as the current de-
mand for wood generally exceeds the fupplies laid by in
ftore, fo as to be applied to ufe in regular fucceflion, after
being properly feafoned. And that another caufe that
affects all wood mott materially, when not fully dried, is
the application of paint, the nature of which prevents all
exhalation, and confines the enclofed moitture, till it occa-
fions a fermentation through the whole fibrous fyftem of the
wood, and brings ona premature ftate of decompofition, or
the dry rot. It is likewife fuppofed that a fimilar evil may
be induced, in confequence of any newly Snifhed building
having all the doors and windows {hut up, and that for
fome length of time, particularly in moift weather. The
wood, even though unpainted, is thus frequently placed
in our atmofphere more charged with vapour than in its
own internal contents, and it is confequently in an imbib-
ing inftead of an exhaling ftate, and tending to decay.
Wood placed in dampifh fituations, and the ends of timbers
near to moilt walls, fuffer from fimilar canfes, but what par-
ticularly attrafted his obfervation to the circumiftances was
this, that both oak and fir pofts were brought into this pre-
mature ftate of decay, from their having been painted prior
to the due evaporation of their moifture ; and then extending
the obfervation, and tracing the hiftory of other wood affe@ed
in a fimilar manner, he is convinced that the evil fre-
quently thus originates, and its prevention would be in
ufing timber previoufly well dried and feafoned for fuch
purpofes.
And it is added, that fince thefe obfervations were made,
having been bufily engaged in draining from 4000 to 5000
acres of ground, further ideas on the {ubje& of the dry rot
have occurred to him from the work he has been engaged in.
Where houfes are troubled with damp walls, near to the
earth’s furface, it is generally, if not univerfally, occa-
fioned by the percolation of water from the higher adjoining
ground, which, thus intercepted in its current, attempts: to
follow the general hydroftatic law, of elevating itfelf, by
T
’ the operation of making it up.
the fyphon line, to a height equal to that from whence it hae
its origin. Thus in houfes differently fituated, we fee the damp
arifing to varying degrees of height on the walls, and thofe
are probably correfponding to the height at which ‘the
moifture circulates in the adjoining ground. At its firft en-
trance to the building, and whilit the moifture is in {mall
quantity, the excavated part of the foundation wall, he
thinks, may abforb, and gradually quit fuch proportion: but
the excefs, as is generally the cafe in moiit weather, exceed-
ing that power, the foundation {tones are then faturated in a
more rapid proportion than the adjoining rarefied internal
atmofphere can evaporate: the watery particles then creep
up, in degrees proportionate to the afcent from which they
originally defcended, excepting when prevented, or driven
off by the fuperior heat of the adjoining rooms, when, in
addition to the difagreeable damp they caufe, they frequently
occafion confiderable damage to the piétures, furniture,
&c. Drains laid out athwart the afcending cround, witha
very flight defcent or fall, and made of the depth of one
yard for each yard of afcent, and from the foundation until
equal the height that fuch damp ever rifes, would, there is
little doubt, completely fecure the houfe and furniture from
the inconveniencies hitherto fuftained, and would generally
prove an effeGiual prevention to moft cafes of the dry rot,
where it originates in extreme moiiture. He is of opinion that
the fungus which pervades decaying wood is not the firft caufe,
but a dependent on the peculiar flate to which fuch wood
has been reduced by prior caufes. The difleminated feeds
finding a proper bed, or nidus, like to the mufhroom, toad-
ftool, &c. fix their abode, and pervade the whole fubftance,
thus accelerating the general law of Providence, which tends
to make all matter reproductive.
Upon thefe grounds cellars, or fuch other places, fhould
be drained in the manner he has mentioned, by taking off
the percolating water prior to its gaining admiflion to or
contaét with the walls: and it is probable that, in moft
cafes, a fingle drain will have complete effect; it would
affuredly, he thinks, do fo, if it was not for the variation of
the earth’s internal ftrata, which are not eafily difcernible.
And that if attention to this rule was paid prior to the build-
ing any new ftreets in towns, it would prove eflentially ufe-
ful in preventing fuch mifchief.
And it has alfo been fuggefted to the above fociety, that
mortar made of lime from burnt chalk is much more deftruc-
tive to,timber than ftone-lime, or that burnt from lime-{tone.
Chalk-lime attraéts moiture ; and communicating it to any
timber which it touches, occafions its decay. And further,
likewife, that fea-fand is prejudicial, if made into mortar,
from a fimilar quality of attra€ting moifture from the at-
mofphere: this, it is fuppofed, may in fome degree be cor-
rected by wafhing the {and well in frefh water, where good
fand cannot be procured. But that good mortar, where any
is required to be in contaét with timber, may be made from
a mixture of ftone-lime frefh burnt, and river-fand, to which
avery {mall quantity of common brown, or yellow iron
ochre fhould be added, and well incorporated therewith in
See QUICKLIME.
And it has been fuggetted by Mr. Johnfon of Ipf{wich, in
the fame volume of the Tranfadtions of the above fociety, that
fome time between 1771 and 1773, he went, at the requeft
of a friend, to the chapel at the Lock hofpital, through
curiofity, to examine a pew there that had frequently been
repaired for damages by the dry rot. And that after a clofe
inveftigation, he found it was the operation of a plant, whofe
leaf relembled that of the vine. Wherever it had touched,
the effect of its poifonous quality got through the wood to
the paint, which he has feen a mere fkin. He propofed to
cover
ROT.
cover the floor with bricks, laid in mortar, which was ac-
cordingly done. He called twice fince, the lait time about
feven years ago, and has reafon to think that it never ap-
peared again. That the next opportunity of examining it
carefully was at Mark-hall, in Effex, the feat of Mr.
Montague Burgoyne. In a parlour there were three pillars
of about ten inches in diameter, the outwood of which
- was between two and three inches thick. Two of them
were eaten through in lefs than feven years, from the bafes,
about two feet upward, within the hollow, and were as rotten
asif it had been the effe& of a hundred years ftanding. The
gardener of this gentleman was a botaniit; and found the
plant where he directed him to fearch for it, and faid it was
the boletus lachrymans. And, he adds, that fome authors
call it a parafitical plant; and it is fometimes to be found with
the willow and fallow tribe ; but this is not to the purpofe.
Till within a few months he has never been without fome
leaves of the plant. For many years they appear exhanited
and dead, and foon crumble into duit ; but he fufpects that
frefh wood attracts a frefh growth from the root.
At another time, he faw it in a honfe at Whitehall, built
by fir John Vaabrugh, whofe nephew then lived in it. The
houfe is, he thinks, only two itories high; the plant had
afcended to the upper ftory, committing devaitation on the
wainfcot all the way. It will deftroy half-inch deal wainf-
cotting ina year. He has alfo had it twice in houfes he
inhabited, one in Suffolk, and the other in Gloucefterfhire.
He bore with the firit; in the other cafe he undertook to
ftop it, and did it effeGtually.
It is fuppofed, tlrat the caufe is from the floor being laid
on the earth, which has been, where he has obferved it, of
a gravelly or fandy loam nature. The moiiture from a
water-courfe at hand, or a north afpeét, where the outer wall
ftands in a garden-bed, fo that the rain percolates, are great
encouragers ; it requires moifture, he fufpe&s. But it never
rifes in the middle of the floor ; becaufe, if the feed were
there, it could net germinate for want of air ; butit is eafy
to fuppofe that after the floor is fhrunk, an air may be
created between that and the vacancy between the wain-
f{eot and the outer wall, fufficient for the purpofes of vege-
tation. He fays, he faw an inftance laft fummer in the
houfe of a friend, a itudent in botany. He was furprifed
when he told him it was a vilit from a plant; but fo it
proved, and always is, and ever was fo; nor does it originate
from any other caufe.
With the view of removing it in his own cafe, he removed
the original foil near the part affe&ted, and fupplied its place
with fand. He then placed pieces of tile; on thofe he laid
mortar, and tiles over them, pufhing them under the
wainfcot, fo that it had no communication with the joifts or
floor. Pillars in like manner fhould, he thinks, be kept
from the earth. And in laying a floor upon the ground, he
fhould take away the earth fora foot in breadth, and four
inches in depth, all round the walls, and place the ends of
the joifts in mortar, covering them with tiles prefled under
the floor and wainfcot, quite to the outward wall. Iron or
tin plates would do; but are not fo'cheap as mortar and
tiles, and probably much lefs durable in fuch fituations. It
is fuppofed that this plant has no adhefive powers, but in
conta& with wood. If it could pafs over brick and mortar,
it might be feen to {pring from the cellars and infeé& half
the houfes in'the kingdom. He recommends, in fhort, that
~ wainicot be kept free from conta& with the joifts and
oor.
It is obferved that the leaves of the plant appearing ex-
haufted and dead, is owing to their having imparted all their
juices to the wood, which change it to a fungus, and not to
a powder, like rottennefs from length of time. “And that
nothing is more eafy than to prevent the damage from the
plant. Befides what he has faid above, he is pofitive that
a tile laid clofe along the walls round the room, would pre-
vent the growth of the plant, even without mortar; and
perhaps it is only neceflary where the walls are next to the
air. And charring the ends of the joifts for a few inches,
and the fide of the wainfcot at bottom next the wall, would,
he fuppofes, be fufficient ; for the plant cannot adhere to
any thing but wood, and that poffefied of its natural juices,
to a certain de 3 fo that he queftions if old dry oak
would receive it. But all the white foft woods, as beach,
poplars, and deals, are for a long time ready'to receive it.
Repairing the damage with frefh wood, without removing
the earth and plant, is only feeding the evil, or extending
the difeafe. It is fuppofed, that as the plant is of the creep-
ing kind, and cannot: rife two inches, the wood, in all cafes,
mutt be in conta& with the earth to fupport it. He adds,
that a fungus broader than the palm of one’s hand, and an
inch or more in thicknefs, is commonly feen at the bottom of
an old poit, on the furface of the earth ; but it is not eafy
to difcern whether the wood or the earth furnifhes the
matter.
The writer further remarks, that he had lately a con-
verfation with an old friend, who fhewed him two parcels of
rotten wood, from an oak barn-floor laid about fixteen years
ago. After lying twelve years, it fhook upon the joifts.
On examination it was found to be rotted in various parts,
and the planks, two inches and a half in thicknefs, were
nearly eaten through, though the outfide was glofly, and
without blemifh. The joiits, and a large middle beam,
were laid at the ends, in brick aud mortar, to create a firm
level. No earth was near the wood; and, he thinks, that
no air could find a paflage. The rottennefs was partly an
impalpable powder, of the colour of Spanith fnuff, and
other parts were black, as if burnt ; the reft was clearly a
fungus. And that this gentleman is a perfon of undoubted
veracity ; but a nice and exact obfervation is neceffary in
fuch examinations. He thought nothing of any plant, and
it is likely there was none of the boletus ; fo that his af-
fertion that it was always to be found, was rather too
fyftematic. He afked himif the timber was dry when laid
down. Hecould not however fay that had been particularly
adverted to. It had been fawed from a large oak, and was,
as he thought, in all refpeCts proper for a barn-floor. As
this feems not the operation of the boletus, he afks, how
did it happen? We know that the oak, when in vegetation,
is fubjeét to what we fhall call an exudation of juices, which
produces the fungus, named the agaric of the oak, with
which the Druids of old played many tricks. The oak,
then, if fawed into thick quantities, may emit thefe fame
juices, as the progreflive courfe of nature to its entire decay.
It isadded that we have all feen oaks of vaft fize and ancient
record, with a great part of the outfide whole, and all the
infide gone; perhapsthe work of a century. In all hollow
trees fungus is difcoverable. To ufe a law term, it is a
mifnomer to call it dry rot ; for the rotting principle is in
moiiture. He further ftates, that he had never feen the
rot upon fo large a {cale in timber, till lately. The pre-
vention then of beams, rafters, large joilts, and -pofts put
into the earth, from decay by the rot, is by charring only,
which will dry up all the fungus juices of wood in large
fubftance. Paint, or a bituminous preparation, may pro-
bably ftop up the pores, and prevent the rot in flight work,
where the treatment he before obferved, with fire, might be
incom-
ROT.
jncommodious, as to half-inch wainfcot, &c. The incor-
ruptibility of charcoal is proved by a variety of indif{putable
facts.
A great many ufeful faé&s on this fubjec& have been
ftated by Mr. Batfon, of Limehoufe, in the twelfth volume
of the fame TranfaGions, in refpe&t to his methods of pre-
venting the dry rot in a room much affected with it. The
mode he adopted was to clear the ends of his timbers, to
take away the infeCted earth to the depth of two feet, and
to fill up that {pace with anchor-{mith’s afhes, or afhes from
a foundry, before his flooring boards were laid.
And on minute examinations being made under the di-
reétion of the fociety, at the diitances of fix and twelve
years after the flooring was laid, the boards, wainfcot, and
timbers, were all found entirely free from any appearance of
the dry rot. The ufe of ftone-work next the ground, as the
foundations of pofts, door frames, partitions, &c. has alfo
been found ufeful in preventing fuch wood-works from being
attacked by this difeafe. And alfo the caufing a more free
circulation of air about fuch foundations by the fixing of
iron gratings in ftone-work in different places, fo as to pro-
duce the moft perfe& ventilation. But notwithftanding all
that has yet been done in refpeét tothe nature and modes of
preventing this fort of rot, much ftill remains to be effected
both in regard to the nature of its origin, and ‘the mott
certain means of eradicating it under different circum-
ftances.
It will probably, however, be found the beft and moft
effe€tual plan, until further trials and difcoveries have thrown
more full and complete light on its nature and caufes, to take
care that the wood-works near the ground in all buildings
in fuch places as rot timber have as little contact with it as
poflible, by being raifed and fupported at fome diftance
from it, by means of folid ftone or brick and mortar work,
by a full and free circulation of air being every where ad-
mitted in the foundations near fuch wood-works, by being
eareful to make ufe of fuch timber only as is perfectly well
feafoned and prepared, and by having conitantly a fufficient
number of drains made all round to difcharge any moiiture
that may occur. It may likewife be of farther advantage
in all fuch cafes to avoid painting or coating over the wood-
work near the parts which are liable to be difeafed or become
rotten, for fome confiderable length of time after they have
been done ; as well as to allow of large tires to be occa-
fionally made, where convenient, as near to fuch fituations
as poffible, in order that every fort of moifture and damp-
nefs, together with the peculiar rawnefs of fuch new works,
may always be removed as much as they are capable of in
the firft inftance, or as foon after the works have been
finifhed as may be compatible with their nature and extent.
In regard to the boletus lachrymans being the caufe of the
dry rot in timber, it has lately been contended that the dif-
ferent forts of fungus, which are met with upon decaying
timber of different kinds, are the produétion of the remaining
powers of life in the fap of the unfeafoned wood; and that
the fame fort of living organizable matter, which, whilft its
powers continued in their perfeét condition, would have
generated the branch of an oak, will, when debilitated and
enfeebled, give exiftence to a certain kind of fungus, and
become the caufe of this difeafe.
Mr. .T. Wade, in a recent publication, obferves, that
the term dry rot feems to be improperly applied to the decay
in timber, which it is generally employed to defignate, and that
the impropriety of the expreffion, probably, has not a little
contributed to involve this fubje€&t in obfcurity. A very
fhort advance in the invettigation of this fubjeét will fhew,
that moifture is a condition neceflary to the putrefaCtive
procefs, and that water is the moft efficient agent in the de-
compofition of organized bodies.
By capillary attraétion fluids are carried to the tops of
the highelt trees, a phenomenon which has been long ob-
ferved, but has not been fatisfatorily explained. Precifely
the fame effeét takes place when one end of a piece of timber
is immerfed in water, or placed in a damp fituation. It
happens even in vacuo.
Timber, fo placed, at firft {wells, after fome time it
changes colour, then it emits gafes which have a mouldy or
mutty fmell. In the more advanced period of decay, the
ma{s dries, and cracks in tranfverfe direCtions. Liattly, it
becomes pulverulent, and forms vegetable mould. Generally,
in fome of thefe ttages of decompofition, the different {pecies
of fungus are found to vegetate on the mofs.
When a vegetable is deprived of life, the matter con-
ftituting it begins to undergo changes in order to enter into
new combinations. Jt is reduced to fimple principles by the
aid of warmth, and the prefence of air and water. In
houfes, fhips, &c. we cannot prevent the influence of thefe
powerful agents, but it may be retarded. It feems the
ufual mode of feafoning timber by exficcation is of little ufe.
Timber, thus prepared, is found, indeed, to fhrink and lofe
much of its weight; but even very old oak timber, (pro-
cured from ancient buildings,) when immerfed in water, or
expofed in a damp {fituation, readily acquires the weight,
and {wells to the dimenfions of green timber, from which,
in its properties, it does not materially differ.
Mr. Wade therefore endeavoured to difcover fome other
means by which timber may be made to refift change, or
decay.
Lignum vite, box, ebony, &c. are nearly indeftrudtible,
owing to their being of fo clofe a texture that water cannot
be abforbed by them, neither do they give out any foluble
matter to water, at leafl not without long boiling, or digeit-
ing ata very ngh temperature. Therefore the great agent
that determines the changes in wood in general, here has not
any influence.
Other durable woods, fuch as teak, cedar, &c. though
of an open grain, and very porous, contain refinous, or
oleaginous matter, repelling moifture, which cannot infinuate
itfelf, as is the cafe with the feathers of fome fowls, &c.
On thefe principles the common perifhable woods may be
made to refemble thofe which are very lafting, or, indeed,
nearly indeftruétible.
Thus, to prevent the decay of oak, &c. it is neceflary
either to caufe it to be incapable of abforbing moitture, or
to render the ligneous fibre infoluble.
Some of the effects produced bear confiderable analogy
with tanning, by which procefs a fkin, entirely foluble in
water, forming jelly or glue, and quickly fufceptible of
putrefaction, is made into leather, a fubitance not at all
foluble in water, and capable of enduring for a long period,
fometimes for feveral centuries.
For various methods of performing this, we beg to refer
the reader to Mr. Wade’s book, in which the operations re-
commended feem fimple and economical. :
Ror in Timber, a difeafe in trees which quickly injures
and, deftroys the woody parts of them by inducing a fort of
rotting anddecay. It has been {tated to proceed from dif —
ferent caufes, but the principal, according to the author of
the Pra&tical Planter, are thofe of external wounds or
bruifes, the trees growing in unfavourable foils, the roots of
which have been barked at the period of planting, or in
cutting out plants. And fecondly, by the tree growing in
= fpouty
ROT
{pouty foil, whofe ri roots have been injudicioufly hacked
at the time of tranfplanting, or in cutting out a neighbour-
ing plant. In this cafe the difeafe affeGts the pith, eats up-
ward, and often confumes the heart to fuch a degree, while
the bark remains in a perfe@tly found ftate, that the trunk is
enfeebled, andeafily broken. This is demonftrated by cut-
ting affected trees at different ages, and the rof is generally
- found lefs or more advanced upward, according to the fize of
the cavity. He here itates a very curious inftance of this
{pecies of rot, that occurred at Wemyfs caftle, in Scotland,
in 1795. In thinning a wood, whofe trees confifted chiefly
of elm and afh, in one part of it the foil was obferved to be
fpouty, and the elm-trees in rather a fickly condition. Every
elm-tree cut in this part was more or lefs affeted ; fome were
rotted a foot, others two, three, &c. feet upwards, and the
wood above, to the extremity of the bole, was uniformly
found, and fold at two fhillings a foot. One beautiful afh-
tree, in particular, was fold ftanding, at the rate of half a
crown a foot of timber; nor was there the {malleft outward
blemifh from the ground to the very top. When it was cut
down, a completely ready made pump, fifteen feet in length
from the ground upwards, was difcovered, and aétually, as
he was afterwards informed, applied as fuch. It is con-
ceived that in this cafe the remedy is to be at all due pains to
prevent the caufe, by carefully draining the foil of poifon-
ous, ochry water, and when neceflity occafions the cutting
of large roots, to treat them in the manner of an amputated
branch.
And athird caufe of the rot which he notices, is that of
{tagnant water lodging in the angle formed by the ftem and
an upright branch, or in the angle formed by rival items,
where no aétual ground has ever been made; but, which
often happens, if the tree be in a youthful vigorous itate, a
cup or hollow is formed, refembling that between the thumb
and finger half opened. Here the water lodging, in time
penetrates the bark, and forms the firft receptacle of cor-
ruption, which being once begun advances apace to the
great injury of the trees. In this cafe the rit thing necef-
fary towards a cure, or prevention of further injury, is to
clean out the water, (for which a fyringe may be ufeful,)
duit, &c. and dry the whole well by aid of a mop or
woollen cloth; then to fillit up, until it run over, with tar ;
after which to fix on an apron of thin lead, in fuch a man-
ner as that its edges may reach about a foot upwards on each
limb of the tree, being joined clofe, and fattened with
faddle tacks, &c.
The compofition advifed by Mr. Forfyth is probably
much better for the purpofe, as being lefs liable to decompo-
fition ; and at the fame time capable of being applied with
ae exaCtnefs. It is remarked by the firft writer that
<nots or excrefcences are frequently found on the boles and
branches of trees, particularly of elms. What may have
occafioned them, in many cafes, is not eafily accounted for ;
but it is fometimes obvious that they proceed from bruifes,
or the mal-treatment of trees in youth. In this cafe we
frequently find them hollow within, and full of water,
which, if not removed, will of a certainty induce the rot.
And he advifes that when the knot is quite entire on all
fides, and perfectly found, which may be known by ftriking
it with a mallet, it fhould be fuffered to remain. But that
when it is found hollow, as above, it fhould be fawn clean
off, the wound fhould be fmoothed, as already direéted,
cleaned, dried, and laid over with tar, &c. The compo-
fition before-mentioned is, however, here probably pre-
ferable for the fame reafon as in that cafe. See Compojition
for Trees, and Timper-Trees.
In cafes where the internal parts of trees of the timber
ROT
kind become rotten, and get hollow, in confequence of the
above, or other caufes, as not unfrequently happens to the
oak and elm, as well as different other kinds, efpecially
when they are of fome confiderable length of growth, it has
been dire€ted, in order to reftore them, that the decayed
and rotten wood fhould be cut out at different times, as the
new wood comes in contaé& with it; great care being taken
not to cut too much at any one time, but to leave enough
to fupport the trees, and prevent them from being blown
down by high winds, until the new wood is {trong enough
for that purpofe: the remainder may then be cut out, as
there will be no danger. By thefe means, the application
of his compofition, and heading down, it has been aflerted
by the late Mr. Forfyth, that a great number of rotten hol-
low trees, which had, when taken in hand, little more than
the bark remaining found, have within a few years been en-
tirely filled up; and others, that were headed down within
a few feet of the ground, have had their ftumps completely
covered by the leading fhoots, forming handfome trees ; the
places at which they were headed being only difcerned by
faint cicatrices.
It is ftated that a lime-tree, about 18 inches in diameter,
whofe trunk was decayed, rotten, and hollow, from the top
to the bottom, and to which, after cutting out the decayed
wood, the compofition had been applied about 16 years be-
fore, was lately cut down for the purpofe of afcertaining
the progrefs it had made in the interior part, and was found
entirely filled up with new found wood, which had com-
pletely incorporated with what little old wood remained,
when it was firlt taken in hand. Its body has been cut into
fhort lengths, in order to be fhewn, for the fake of con-
vincing thofe who may be doubtful on the fubje&.
Alfo an old elm, the infide of which was totally decayed,
and out of which were taken, at different times, two large
cart-loads of rotten wood, has made fhoots more than 20
feet high in the courfe of fix years. Several others of dif-
ferent forts are likewife ftated to have made equally fine
fhoots in this mode of treating them, and are now fine
thriving trees ; the marks of the places at which they were
headed down being fcarcely perceivable. A lime, the
hollow part of which is 11 feet in height, is now, it is faid,
filling up: the tree is about a foot in diameter. A decayed
part, 4 feet long and 28 inches broad, in a large elm, is
now, too, ftated to be rapidly filling up with found wood.
About two feet and a half in length on one fide, which was
for fome time left to nature, ftill continued, it is faid, to
decay, till the compofition was applied: new wood and
bark are now afferted to be forming in the part. Befides
thefe, a great many other trees of the fame kind, fome of
which had wounds ten feet long and two feet broad, are
now alfo faid to be entirely filled up, as well as many fyca-
mores, oaks, and other foreft-trees, reftored to a flourifhing
ftate by having the dead wood cut out, and the compofition
applied.
However, notwith{tanding thefe and many other fimilar
ftatements, a variety of doubts and objections have been
raifed and entertained again{t this mode of filling up and
curing the decayed and rotten parts of foreft-trees, by per-
fons of much information and experience on the fubje& of
vegetable economy; fo that additional faéts, and more
careful and exa@ conclufions from them, are probably re-
ceflary before the utility or inutility of the method can be
fairly appreciated or fully afcertained. I;
Ror in Hops, a difeafe in this fort of crops, which is
very fimilar to that of the mould. See Hop and Moutp.
Ror, in Geography, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs
into the Lein.
ROTA,
ROT.
jncommodious, as to half-inch wainfcot, &c. The incor-
ruptibility of charcoal is proved by a variety of indifputable
facts.
A great many ufeful facts on this fubject have been
itated by Mr. Batfon, of Limehoufe, in the twelfth volume
of the fame Tranfaétions, in refpect to his methods of pre-
venting the dry rot in a room much afle&ed with it. The
mode he adopted was to clear the ends of his timbers, to
take away the infected earth to the depth of two feet, and
to fill up that {pace with anchor-{mith’s afhes, or afhes from
a foundry, before his flooring boards were laid.
And on minute examinations being made under the di-
rection of the fociety, at the diitances of fix and twelve
years after the flooring was laid, the boards, wainfcot, and
timbers, were all found entirely free from any appearance of
the dry rot. The ufe of {tone-work next the ground, as the
foundations of pofts, door frames, partitions, &c. has alfo
been found ufeful in preventing fuch wood-works from being
attacked by this difeafe. And alfo the caufing a more free
circulation of air about fuch foundations by the fixing of
iron gratings in {tone-work in different places, fo as to pro-
duce the moft perfect ventilation. But notwith{tanding all
that has yet been done in refpeét to the nature and modes of
preventing this fort of rot, much {till remains to be effected
both in regard to the nature of its origin, and the mott
certain means of eradicating it under different circum-
ftances.
It will probably, however, be found the belt and moft
effe@tual plan, until further trials and difcoveries have thrown
more full and complete light on its nature and caufes, to take
care that the wood-works near the ground in all buildings
in fuch places as rot timber-have as little contact with it as
poflible, by being raifed and fupported at fome diftance
from it, by means of folid ftone or brick and mortar work,
by a full and free circulation of air being every where ad-
mitted in the foundations near fuch wood-works, by being
eareful to make ufe of fuch timber only as is perfeétly well
feafoned and prepared, and by having conttantly a fusficient
number of drains made all round to difcharge any moifture
that may occur. It may likewife be of farther advantage
in all fuch cafes to avoid painting or coating over the wood-
work near the parts which are liable to be difeafed or become
rotten, for fome confiderable length of time after they have
been done ; as well as to allow of large fires to be occa-
fionally made, where convenient, as near to fuch fituations
as poflible, in order that every fort of moifture and damp-
nefs, together with the peculiar rawnefs of fuch new works,
may always be removed as much as they are capable of in
the firft inftance, or as foon after the works have been
finifhed as may be compatible with their nature and extent.
In regard to the boletus lachrymans being the caufe of the
dry rot in timber, it has lately been contended that the dif-
ferent forts of fungus, which are met with upon decaying
timber of different kinds, are the produdtion of the remaining
powers of life in the fap of the unfeafoned wood; and that
the fame fort of living organizable matter, which, whilft its
powers continued in their perfect condition, would have
generated the branch of an oak, will, when cebilitated and
enfeebled, give exiftence to a certain kind of fungus, and
become the caufe of this difeafe.
Mr. .T. Wade, in a recent publication, obferves, that
the term dry rot feems to be improperly applied to the decay
in timber, which it is generally employed to defignate, and that
the impropriety of the expreflion, probably, has not a little
contributed to involve this fubje&t in obfcurity. A very
fhort advance in the inveftigation of this fubject will fhew,
that moifture is a condition neceflary to the putrefactive
procefs, and that water is the moft efficient agent in the de-
compofition of organized bodies.
By capillary attraétion fluids are carried to the tops of
the highelt trees, a phenomenon which has been long ob-
ferved, but has not been fatisfactorily explained. Precifely
the fame effect takes place when one end of a piece of timber
is immerfed in water, or placed in a damp fituation. It
happens even in vacuo.
Timber, fo placed, at firft fwells, after fome time it
changes colour, then it emits gafes which have a mouldy or
mutty {fmell. In the more advanced period of decay, the
maf{s dries, and cracks in tranfverfe direCtions. Laitly, it
becomes pulverulent, and forms vegetable mould. Generally,
in fome of thefe itages of decompofition, the different fpecies
of fungus are found to vegetate on the mofs.
When a vegetable is deprived of life, the matter con-
ftituting it begins to undergo changes in order to enter into
new combinations. Jt is reduced te fimple principles by the
aid of warmth, and the prefence of air and water. In
houfes, fhips, &c. we cannot prevent the influence of thefe
powerful agents, but it may be retarded. It feems the
ufual inode of feafoning timber by exficcation is of little ufe.
Timber, thus prepared, is found, indeed, to fhrink and lofe
much of its weight ; but even very old oak timber, (pro-
cured from ancient buildings,) when immerfed in water, or
expofed in a damp fituation, readily acquires the weight,
and {wells to the dimenfions of green timber, from which,
in its properties, it does net materially differ.
Mr. Wade therefore endeavoured to difcover fome other
means by which timber may be made to refift change, or
decay.
Lignum vite, box, ebony, &c. are nearly indeftruétible,
owing to their being of fo clofe a texture that water cannot
be abforbed by them, neither do they give out any foluble
matter to water, at leaft not without long boiling, or digeit-
ing ata very high temperature. Therefore the great agent
that determines the changes in wood in general, here has not
any influence.
Other durable woods, fuch as teak, cedar, &c. though
of an open grain, and very porous, contain refinous, or
oleaginous matter, repelling moifture, which cannot infinuate
itfelf, as is the cafe with the feathers of fome fowls, &c.
On thefe principles the common perifhable woods may be
made to refemble thofe which are very lafting, or, indeed,
nearly indeftrutible.
Thus, to prevent the decay of oak, &c. it is neceflary
either to caufe it to be incapable of abforbing moitture, or
to render the ligneous fibre infoluble.
Some of the effects produced bear confiderable analogy
with tanning, by which procefs a fkin, entirely foluble in
water, forming jelly or glue, and quickly fufceptible of
putrefaction, is made into leather, a fubftance not at all
foluble in water, and capable of enduring for a long period,
fometimes for feveral centuries.
For various methods of performing this, we beg to refer
the reader to Mr. Wade’s book, in which the operations re-
commended feem fimple and economical. ;
Ror in Timber, a difeafe in trees which quickly injures
and, deftroys the weody parts of them by inducing a fort of
rotting anddecay. It has been ftated to proceed from dif-
ferent caufes, but the principal, according to the author of
the Praétical Planter, are thofe of external wounds or
bruifes, the trees growing in unfavourable foils, the roots of
which have been barked at the period of planting, or in
cutting out plants. And fecondly, by the tree growing in
a fpouty
ROT
{pouty foil, whofe larger roots have been injudicioufly hacked
at the time of tranfplanting, or in cutting out a neighbour-
ing plant. In this cafe the difeafe affe€ts the pith, eats up-
ward, and often confumes the heart to fuch a degree, while
the bark remains in a perfeétly found ftate, that the trunk is
enfeebled, andeafily broken. This is demonftrated by cut-
ting affected trees at different ages, and the rot is generally
- found lefs or more advanced upward, according to the fize of
the cavity. He here itates a very curious inftance of this
{pecies of rot, that occurred at Wemy{s caftle, in Scotland,
in 1795. In thinning a wood, whofe trees confifted chiefly
of elm and afh, in one part of it the foil was obferved to be
fpouty, and the elm-trees in rather a fickly condition. Every
elm-tree cut in this part was more or lefs affeGted ; fome were
rotted a foot, others two, three, &c. feet upwards, and the
wood above, to the extremity of the bole, was uniformly
found, and fold at two fhillings a foot. One beautiful afh-
tree, in particular, was fold ftanding, at the rate of half a
crown a foot of timber; nor was there the fmalleft outward
blemifh from the ground to the very top. When it was cut
down, a completely ready made pumf, fifteen feet in length
from the ground upwards, was difcovered, and a¢tually, as
he was afterwards informed, applied as fuch. It is con-
ceived that in this cafe the remedy is to be at all due pains to
prevent the caufe, by carefully draining the foil of poifon-
ous, ochry water, and when neceflity occafions the cutting
of large roots, to treat them in the manner of an amputated
branch.
And athird caufe of the rot which he notices, is that of
ftagnant water lodging in the angle formed by the ftem and
an upright branch, or in the angle formed by rival {tems,
where no aétuai ground has ever been made; but, which
often happens, if the tree be in a youthful vigorous itate, a
cup or hollow is formed, refembling that between the thumb
and finger half opened. Here the water lodging, in time
penetrates the bark, and forms the firft receptacle of cor-
ruption, which being once begun advances apace to the
great injury of the trees. In this cafe the Srit thing necef-
ary towards a cure, or prevention of further injury, is to
clean out the water, (for which a fyringe may be ufeful,)
duft, &c. and dry the whole well by aid of a mop or
woollen cloth; then to fillit up, until it run over, with tar ;
after which to fix on an apron of thin lead, in fuch a man-
ner as that its edges may reach about a foot upwards on each
limb of the tree, being joined clofe, and fattened with
faddle tacks, &c.
The compofition advifed by Mr. Forfyth is probably
much better for the purpofe, as being lefs liable to decompo-
fition ; and at the fame time capable of being applied with
greater exactnefs. It is remarked by the firft writer that
knots or excrefcences are frequently found on the boles and
branches of trees, particularly of elms. What may have
occafioned them, in many cafes, is not eafily accounted for ;
but it is fometimes obvious that they proceed from bruifes,
or the mal-treatment of trees in youth. In this cafe we
frequently find them hollow within, and full of water,
which, if not removed, will of a certainty induce the rot.
And he advifes that when the knot is quite entire on all
fides, and perfeétly found, which may be known by ftriking
it with a mallet, it fhould be fufferedto remain. But that
when it is found hollow, as above, it fhould be fawn clean
off, the wound fhould be fmoothed, as already direéted,
cleaneds dried, and laid over with tar, &c. The compo-
fition before-mentioned is, however, here probably pre-
ferable for the fame reafon as in that cafe. See Compofition
jor Trees, and Timper-Trees.
In cafes where the internal parts of trees of the timber
ROT
kind become rotten, and get hollow, in confequence of the
above, or other caufes, as not unfrequently happens to the
oak and elm, as well as different other kinds, efpecially
when they are of fome confiderable length of growth, it has
been direéted, in order to reftore them, that the decayed
and-rotten wood fhould be cut out at different times, as the
new wood comes in contaé with it; great care being taken
not to cut too much at any one time, but to leave enough
to fupport the trees, and prevent them from being blown
down by high winds, until the new wood is {trong enough
for that purpofe: the remainder may then be cut out, as
there will be no danger. By thefe means, the application
of his compofition, and heading down, it has been aflerted
by the late Mr. Forfyth, that a great number of rotten hol-
low trees, which had, when taken in hand, little more than
the bark remaining found, have within a few years been en-
tirely filled up; and others, that were headed down within
a few feet of the ground, have had their ftumps completely
covered by the leading fhoots, forming handfome trees ; the
places at which they were headed being only difcerned by
faint cicatrices. P
It is ftated that a lime-tree, about 18 inches in diameter,
whofe trunk was decayed, rotten, and hollow, from the top
to the bottom, and to which, after cutting out the decayed
wood, the compofition had been applied about 16 years be-
fore, was lately cut down for the purpofe of afcertaining
the progrefs it had made in the interior part, and was found
entirely filled up with new found wood, which had com-
pletely incorporated with what little old wood remained,
when it was firft taken in hand. Its body has been cut into
fhort lengths, in order to be fhewn, for the fake of con-
vincing thofe who may be doubtful on the fubjec.
Alfo an old elm, the infide of which was totally decayed,
and out of which were taken, at different times, two large
cart-loads of rotten wood, has made fhoots more than 20
feet high in the courfe of fix years. Several others of dif-
ferent forts are likewife ftated to have made equally fine
fhoots in this mode of treating them, and are now fine
thriving trees ; the marks of the places at which they were
headed down being fearcely perceivable. A lime, the
hollow part of which is 11 feet in height, is now, it is faid,
filling up: the tree is about a foot in diameter. A decayed
part, 4 feet long and 28 inches broad, in a large elm, is
now, too, {tated to be rapidly filling up with found wood.
About two feet and a half in length on one fide, which was
for fome time left to nature, ftill continued, it is faid, to
decay, till the compofition was applied: new wood and
bark are now afferted to be forming in the part. Befides
thefe, a great many other trees of the fame kind, fome of
which had wounds ten feet long and two feet broad, are
now alfo faid to be entirely filled up, as well as many fyca-
mores, oaks, and other foreft-trees, reftored to a flourifhing
ftate by having the dead wood cut out, and the compofition
applied. ,
However, notwith{tanding thefe and many other fimilar
ftatements, a variety of doubts and objections have been
raifed and entertained againft this mode of filling up and
curing the decayed and rotten parts of foreft-trees, by per-
fons of much information and experience on the fubje& of
vegetable economy; fo that additional facts, and more
careful and exa& conclufions from them, are probably re-
ceflary before the utility or inutility of the method can be
fairly appreciated or fully afcertained. Soe
Ror in Hops, a difeafe in this fort of crops, which is
very fimilar to that of the mould. See Hop and Moutp.
Rot, in Geography, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs
into the Lein.
ROTA,
ROT
ROTA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, on
the coaft of the Atlantic, celebrated for its wine; 3 miles
W. of Puerto de Santa Maria.
Rora. See ZARpPANA.
Rora, in Mechanics. See WHEEL.
Rora <driflotelica, Ariftotle’s Wheel, is the name of a
celebrated problem in mechanics, founded on the motion of
a.wheel about its axis; ‘thus called, becaufe firft, that we
know of, taken notice of by Ariftotle.
The difficulty is this. _ While a circle makes a revolution
on its centre, advancing at the fame time in a right line
along a plane, it defcribes, on that plane, a right line,
equal to its circumference. Now if this circle, which we
may call the deferent, carry with it another {maller circle,
concentric with it, and which has no motion but what it re-
ceives from the deferent ; which is the cafe of the nave of a
coach-wheel carried along by the wheel; this little circle,
or nave, will defcribe a line in the time of the revolution,
equal, not to its own circumference, but to that of the
wheel: becaufe its centre advances in a right line as faft
as that of the wheel does; as being in reality the fame
with it.
The matter of fa&t is certain; but how it fhould be,
feems a myttery. , It is obvious that the wheel, advancing
during the revolution, muft defcribe a right line equal to its
circumference; but how would the nave, which revolves
like the wheel, defcribe a right line fo much greater than its
circumference ?
The folution Aniftotle gives is no more than a good ex-
plication of the difficulty. Galileo, who next attempted it,
has recourfe to an infinity of infinitely little vacuities in the
right line defcribed by the two circles; and imagines that
the little circle never applies its circumference to thofe va-
culties ; but in reality only applies it to a line equal to its
own circumference ; though it appears to have applied it to
a much larger.
But it is evident, that this is all gratis diétum. The va-
culties are Imaginary ; and why does not the great circle
apply its circumference to them? Laitly, the magnitude of
thefe vacuities muft be augmented or diminifhed, according °
to the different proportion TOF the two circles.
F. Tacquet will have it, that the little circle, making its
rotation more flowly than the great one, dces on that, ac-
count defcribe a line longer thai its circumference; yet
without applying any point of its circumference to more
than one point of its bafe. But this is no more allowable
than the former.
The attempts of fo many great men proving vain, M.
Dortous de Meyran, a French gentleman, had the good
fortune to hit on a folution, which he fent to the Royal
Academy of Sciences; where being examined by Meflrs.
de Louville aad Saulmon, appointed for that purpofe, they
made their report,’ that it was fatisfactory. The’ folution is
to this effect :
The wheel of a coach is only a¢ted on, or drawn in a
right line; its circular motion or rotation arifes purely from
the refiftance of the ground on which it is applied.
Now this refiftance is equal to the force with which the
wheel is drawn in the right line, inafmuch as it defeats that
direction ; of confcquence, the caufes of the two motions,
the one right, the other circular, are equal; and, therefore,
their effects, 7. ¢. the motions, are equal. And hence the
wheel deferibes a right line on the ground equal to its cir-
cumference. i
As for the nave of the wheel, the cafe is otherwife. It
is drawn ina right line by the fame force as the wheel; but
RO. 2
it only turns round becaufe the wheel turnss and can only
turn with it, and at the fame time therewith.
Hence it follows, that its circular velocity is lefs chart that
of the wheel in the ratio of the two circumferences ; and,
therefore, its circular motion is lefs than its reétilinear
one.
Since then it neceflarily defcribes a right line equal te
that of the wheel, it can only do it by flidmg, or what they
call the motion of rotation; that 1s, a part of the circular
nave cannot be applied to a part of a right line greater
than itfelf but by fliding along that part, and that more
or lefs, as the part of ‘the nave is lefs than that of the
circle. See RoratTion.
Rora is alfo ufed for a particular court of jurifdi€tion in
Rome, eftablithed fer taking cognizance of beneficiary mat-
ters, &c.
The rota confifls of twelve doGors chofen out of the four
nations of Italy, France, Spain, and Germany; three of
them being Romans, one a Florentine, one a Milanefe, one
of Bologna, one of Ferrara, one a Venetian, one a French-
man, two Spaniards, and one a German; each having four
clerks or notaries under him.
Their office is to judge of all beneficiary caufes, both
within Rome, and throughout the ftate of the church, in
cafe of appeal, and of all civil procefles which are for above
five hundred crowns.
They are alfo called chaplains of the pope, ‘as fucceeding
the ancient judges of the facred palace, who held their court
in his chapel.
The denomination rota, wheel, fome will have derived
hence, that they officiate by rotation; others, becaufe the
mott important affairs of the Chriftian world turn upon
them. Du-Cange derives it from rota porphyretica, becaufe
the pavement of the chamber where they formerly fat was
of porphyry, and fafhioned like a wheel.
Rota, La, in Biography, an admirable bravura finger
in the Incurabili Confervatorio at Venice, in 1770, under
the regency of Galuppi.
ROTAB, in Geography, a river of Saxony, which runs
into the Saale, three miles S. of Lena.
ROTACEZ, in Botany, the zoth natural order among
the Fragmenta of Linneus, named from rota, a wheel, in
allufion to the form of the corolla, which is wheel-fhaped,
rotata. No commentary upon this order is found in the
lectures of Linnzus, publifhed by Gifeke. The genera
ftand thus; Trientalis, Centunculus, Anagallis, Lyfimachia,
Phlox, Exacum, Chlora, Gentiana, Swertia, Chironia, and
Sarothra. ‘To which are fubjoined, in a feparate fection,
Afcyrum, Hypericum, and Ciftus ; thefe furely have little
affinity to the reit.
ROTACH, in Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
runs into the Maine, near Lichtenfels, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg.
ROT AI, or Rorre, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, where a Dutch factor refides, who trades with the na-
tives in the chief article of their produce, which is fugar.
The north end of this ifland, and the fouth end of Yimor
(which fee), lhe N. 3 E. and S. $ W., and are about three
or four leagues diftant from each other. At the weft end
of the paflage between Rotte and Semaz (which fee), are
two {mall-iflands, one of which lies near the Rotte fhore,
and the other off the fouth-weft point of Semau, with a
good channel between them, about fix. miles broad. ‘The
ile of Rotte has not fo lofty and. mountainous an appearance
as Timor, though it is agreeably diverfified by hill and valley.
On the north fide are many fandy beaches, near which grow
fome trees of the fan palm; but the far greater part was
covered
RO.
covered with a kind of brufhwood without leaves.
Voyage by Hawkefworth, vol. iii. p. 264.
ROTALA, in Botany, fo named by Linnzus, from rota,
a wheel; apparently in allufion to the fpoke-like appear-
ance of its numerous radiating whorled leaves. — Linn.
Mant. 2. 143. Schreb. 33. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 189.
Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 26. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Jul.
- 303.—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia.. Nat: Ord.
Caryophyllei, fe. 3, Linn. Caryophylleis affine, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
membranous, three-toothed, permanent. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments three, capillary, the length of the calyx ; anthers
roundifh. Piff. Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyle thread-
fhaped; ftigma three-cleft. Peric. Capfule evate, ob-
fcurely triangular, inclofed in the calyx, of three cells,
and three valves. Seeds numerous, roundifh.
Eff. Ch. Calyx three-toothed. Corolla none.
of three cells, with many feeds.
1. R. verticillaris. Linn. Mant. 2. 175. (Ene pael ;
Rheede Malab. v. 9. 159. t. 81.) —Native of wet fitua-
tions in the Eaft Indies, from whence it was fent by Koenig
to Linneus. A fmall annual 4erd, quite fmooth, four
inches, or more, in height, ere€t, branched, having the
afpe& ef an Ammannia, as Vahl, from the infpe€tion of the
only known {pecimen, in the Linnzan herbarium, remarked.
Root with many rows of whorled fibres. Stem and branches
reddifh ; quadrangular in the upper part. ‘Leaves from
four, or five, to eight in each whorl, feffile, linear, entire,
bluntifh, or fomewhat emarginate, at the end, about half
an inch long; paler, with a prominent rib, beneath.
Flowers axillary, {mall, feflile, folitary, pale; their per-
manent ca/yx membranous and pellucid, globular, ae
the fruit, about the fize of a muitard feed.
ROTAS, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore, 8135 miles N.W. by N. from Lahore. N,. lat.
32° 58'.
Roras, a circar of Hindooltan, in the foubah of Bahar,
bounded on the N.E. by Boujapour, on the E. by Bahar
Proper, on the S. by Palamow, on the W. by the circar
of Bidzigur, on the N.W. by Chunar ; its form approaching
to a {quare about 58 miles each way. The chief towns are
Rotafgur and Saferam.
ROTASGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the above-
mentioned circar, fituated on the river Soane; 94 miles
S.W. of Patna. _N. lat. 24° 38’. E. long. 84° 2.
ROTATA, Corotva, in Botany, a monopetalots co-
rolla, whofe tube is as fhort as poffible, and the limb hori-
zontally extended, like the form of a wheel. This differs
from a falver-fhaped corolla, in the want of an clungated
tube. See CoroLia.
ROTATION, in Mechanics, is a term ufed to denote
the motion of the feveral parts of a folid body about an
axis, called the axis of rotation, and which may be either
fixed or fpontaneous, according as the body is conftrained
to make its revolution about a determinate point or line,
or is free to revolve in any direétion from a momentum im-
prefled upon it in fpace.
We have already treated of feveral cafes of rotatory
motion, under our articles Cenrer of Gyration, Percus-
SION, OsciLLATION, &c. and it therefore only remains
in this place, to offer fome general remarks with regard
to fuch motion, and to enumerate a few ef the moft im-
portant particulars relating to this intereiting branch of
mechanics.
When a folid body turns round an axis, retaining its
fhape and dimenfions unaltered, every particle is abfolutely
defcribing a circle round this axis; which axis pafles
Vor. XXX.
Cook’s
Capfule
ROT
through the centre of the circle, and is perpendicular to its
plane. Moreover, in any inftant of its motion, the particle
is moving at right angles with the radius veétor, or line
joining it with the centre of rotation: therefore, in order to
afcertain the direction of the particle, we may draw a line
from that particle perpendicular to the axis of retation.
This line will be in the plane of the circle of rotation of
that particle, and will be its radius veétor ; anda line drawn
from the particle, perpendicular to its radius veGtor, will
be a tangent to the circle of rotation, and will reprefent the
diretion of the motion of this particle.
The whole body being fuppofed to turn together, it is
evident, that when it has made one complete rotation, each
point has defcribed the circumference of a circle, and the
entire paths of the different particles will be in the propor-
tion of thefe circumferences, and therefore of their radii:
and this is alfo true of any portion of thefe circumferences ;
that is, the velocities of the different particles are propor-
tional to their radii vetores, or to their diftances from the
axis of rotation ; and all thefe motions are in parallel planes,
to which the axis of rotation is perpendicular. Hence’ it
follows, that when we compare the motion of different re-
volving bodies with refpeé& to velocity, it is evident that it
cannot be done by direétly comparing the velocity of any
particle in one of thefe bodies with that of any particle of
the other; for as all the particles of each have different ve-
locities, this comparifon can eftablifh no ratio. But we may
familiarly compare fuch motions, by the number of com-
plete turns which they make in any equal portions of time ;
and, therefore, as the length or number of feet defcribed
by any body, in reétilinear motion, is a proper meafure of
its progreflive velocity, fo the angle defcribed by any par-
ticle of a revolving body is a proper meafure of its motion
or rotation: and in this manner may the motion of two or
more bedies be compared, and this velocity is with pro-
priety called the angular velocity.
Again, with refpe& to the motion of bodies at liberty to
move freely by the a¢tion of any force impreffed: if any
fuch body receives an impulfion in any direétion, which
does not pafs through the centre of gravity, the motion
which enfues is a rotatory one. For if, at the fame mo-
ment, a body is impelled according to any direction A B,
(Plate XXXVII. Mechanics, fig. 9.) not pafling through
the centre of gravity, an equal and oppofite force is ex-
erted upon the body in a parallel direétion, CG pafling
through the centre of gravity, that centre will manifeftly
be kept at reft: neverthelefs it is clear, that the other parts
of the body will not be ina {tate of quiefeence, becaufe the
tavo forces, though equal, are not direétly oppofite; fo
that the only motion that the body can have, its centre of
gravity being at reft, is evidently a motion of rotation about
that centre. Now the fixed axis, about which the body re-
volves, is prefled by the impelling force, while it generates
rotatory motion; but the axis, being by hypothefis im-
moveable, re-aéts equally againft that preffure ; and, when
it patles through the centre of gravity, would, as above
{tated, caufe each particle to move with the fame velocity,
and in the direGtion of the force. If, then, the force which
preffes againift a fixed axis, ‘in given circumttances, be afcer-
tained, the motion of the body in free fpace, when the axis
is removed, will be known ; for the latter motion will con-
fit of the rotatory motion about the axis pafling through
the centre of gravity, confidered as fixed, compounded with
the motion of the centre of gravity caufed by the force now
at liberty to impel the centre, the fixed axis which pafles
through it being removed.
When a folid body receives an impulfe on any one point,
4H or
ROTATION.
or that point is urged in any way by a moving force, it
cannot move unlefs the other points, with which it is con-
neéted by the force of cohefion, move alfo ; except the force
of impubfion is fufficient to overcome that of cohefion, a
cafe which is not meant to be confidered here. And what-
ever is the motion of any particle, that particle muit be
conceived as urged by a force precifely competent to the
production of that motion, by aéting immediately on the
particle itfelf. The particle, immediately impelled by the
external force, is either preffled towards its neighbouring
particles, or is drawn from them ; and by this endeavour to
change its place, the conneéting forces are exerted, or
brought into a@tion. We are but little acquainted with
thefe connecting forces; but this is of little importance
in a mechanical point of view; for the fa&t, that the forces
by which the moleculz of bodies aét on each other are equal,
is quite fufficient for our prefent purpofe.
After thefe general remarks, let us endeavour to illuftrate
the principles above laid down in the folution of a few of
the moft obvious and moft pra¢tical cafes relating to this
important branch of dynamics. ;
Let AF GH (Plate XXXVII. Mechanics, jig. 1.) re-
prefent the circumference of a wheel, which turns in its own
plane round a horizontal axis, pafling through S, its centre ;
and let a weight P, fixed at the extremity of a line A P, com-
municate motion to the wheel. Let alfo the whole weight
of the wheel be Q, and fuppofe this weight to be collected
uniformly into the circumference A F GH: then during
the defcent of the weight P, each point of the circumference
muft move with a velocity equal to that with which P de-
fceends; and confequently fince the moving force is the
weight P, and the mafs moved P + Q, the force which
accelerates P in its defcent will be that part of the accele-
rating force of gravity which is exprefled by the fraction
12
P+Q0
in any given time, is found by means of the general formula,
given under the article AccELeratep Motion; that is,
The velocity, therefore, that is generated in P,
» = 2ft, v= ae and the fpace through which it
+
: Pet
has pafled in the fame time is s = .. .Uhus,’ for
pa n the fame time is s PEO
example, if P and Q were equal to each other, then
1
PHO eee 8 5
The parts of the weight Q, which are uniformly difpofed
over the circumference A F G H, balance each other round
the common centre of gravity S; their weight, therefore,
has no effeét in accelerating or retarding the defcent of P ;
and this will be the cafe, whenever the axis of motion pafles
through the common centre of gravity. But in order to
render the properties of rotatory motion more obvious, it
will be convenient to difpofe the parts of the revolving
fyftem, fo that the axis of motion fhall not neceflarily pafs
through the common centre of gravity. Thus, referring
to the preceding figure, inftead of fuppofing the weight Q
to be uniformly colle&ted over the circular rim AF GH,
let it be colle&ted into any point Q. Here it is evident,
that if the mafs Q be acted upon by gravity, the force
which communicates motion to the fyftem round S will be
variable; it being the greateft, when SQ is horizontal ;
and gradually diminifhing, till Q has defcended to its loweft
point.
But in order to begin firft with the fimpleft cafe, the
ie
g
5
moving force fhould be conftant, as it will be, if we fuppofe
the mafs that is colletied in Q to be deftitute of weight,
and to poflefs inertia only: it follows, therefore, that
during the revolution of Q round S as an axis, the moving
force will be conftantly equal to P, and the mafs moved
= P+Q, and confequently the force which accelerates
the defcending weight, or any point in the circumference,
will be that part of gravity which is expreffed by
Lie
PEO”
the fame as before.
In thefe cafes, the force which communicates motion to
the fyftem has been fuppofed a weight, or body, aéted on
by the earth’s gravity, and confequently conititutes a part
of the mafs moved, at the fame time that it ats as a moving
force. But motion may be communicated by a force, which
fhall add nothing to the inertia of the matter moved ; as,
for inftance, fteam, mufcular power, &c.: and it will,
therefore, be convenient, in many inveltigations, to affume
the moving force of this kind. ‘The inertia of the moving
force P, therefore, in the fubfequent propofitions, will not
be taken into the account, unlefs exprefsly mentioned.
Thus, if any number of bodies without gravity, being col-
leGted into the points F, H, Q, are caufed to revolve
round the axis S, by a moving force P, the force which
accelerates thefe bodies in their revolution will be
P
F+H+Q
iP
F+H+Q+P
bodies F, H, and Q, as alfo the power P, being fuppofed
to aét at equal diftances from the axis of motion.
But when bodies revelve at unequal diftances from the
axis, their velocities being different, other formule will be
neceflary for determining the force whereby any given point
of the fyftem is accelerated.
Let B (fg. 2.) reprefent a material peint, moveable
about an axis of motion pafling through S: with the centre
-, when P is without inertia; or it will be
, when P is poflefled of inertia; the
_S, and diftance SD, defcribe a circle DGH. Now
if B be connected with every point in the area of the
circle, which is an inflexible fubftance, no force can be ap-
plied to move the circle, but what muft communicate the
fame angular motion to B. Let us fuppofe this force to
be P, aGting on the circumference of the inflexible circle
DGH, by means of a line pafling over the fame, to which
P is connected. Now the abfolute force of P to move D,
or any point in the circumference, will be P; but the com-
munication of motion to this point D is refifted by the in-
ertia of the-body B, which being moved with a different
velocity, and acted on by a different moving force, its in-
ertia is not to be eftimated by its quantity of matter only,
but by confidering what mafs or quantity of matter which,
when difpofed at the diftance S D, will oppofe the fame
refiftance to the defcent of the weight P, as the body B
itfelf does, when aéting at the diftance S B.
In order to eftimate this, we muft confider that when
any two bodies are put in motion by two conftant forces
acting for the fame time, the quantities of matter moved
are in a direct ratio of the moving forces, and in the inverfe
ratie of the velocities generated; that is, if — exprefles
m
the ratio of the moving forces, g that of the quantities of
q
Vv a6
matter, and — that of the velocities generated ; the rela-
Vv
tion
ROTATION.
tion of thefe quantities is defined by the equation 2 =
ss x A by the laws of reétilinear motion.
m Vv
To apply
this, it muft be obferved, that although the abfolute
force of the weight P, a&ting upon the point D, remains
conftantly the fame, yet its effet upon bodies placed at
different diftances from the axis ef motion are in the inverfe
propertion of thofe diftances; therefore, the moving forces
exerted by P, on the points B and D, will be in the pro-
portion of SD to SB. Alfo, by the problem, the an-
gular motion of D and B are equal; and, confequently, the
velocity of Bis to the velocity of D, aaSBtoSD. And
fince the quantities of matter in B, D, are in the dire& pro-
portion of the moving forces, or of SD to S B, and in the
inverfe proportion of the velocities generated, or of S B to
SD, we thall have the quantity of matter in B to that con-
tained in D, as S D*: S B*; and confequently the weight
3B
sD*
The fame may be otherwife found thus: let x = the
quantity of matter required to be collected in D, M the
moving force which aéts on B, m that which aéts on D,
fought = B x
V the velocity of B, and wv the velocity of D; then BS —
x
M v SD
aw. but — = SB by the property of the lever;
v SD :
and Vv > SB’ by the nature of angular motion; there-
Bess SB
fore, > = SBP and « = B x Sp” as above.
Whenever, therefore, a body B revolves round an axis,
by the aétion of a conftant force P, applied at a given dif-
tance, S D, from the axis, in order to find the force which
accelerates D, the mafs B may be fuppofed to be removed,
SB :
3D: collected in
the point D3 to which the force is applied. After which,
the acceleration of the point D, or any other point of the
eircumference, will be determined from the principles al-
ready explained; for the moving force being P, and the
and inftead of it an equivalent mafs B x
mafs moved B x ao the acceleration of P, or D, will
be that part of gravity expreffed by the fraction ——
Bx sD
= Be SDE while we fuppofe the power P void of in-
Bx SB
1 gta Pp Ss DEB)
en Sea wee Te Se
gai
when the inertia of P is confidered.
On the fame principle, if any number of bodies, A, B>
C, &c. (fig. 3-) be put in motion round a fixed axis,
pafling through S, by a conftant force P, applied at D,
the point D will be accelerated in the fame manner, and
confequently the whole fy{tem will have the fame angular
velocity. If, inftead of A, B, C, &c. placed at the dif.
tances SA, SB, SC, &c. we fubftitute the bodies
AxSA? Bx SB 7
re sto ad thefe being col-
lected into the points a, b, and c, refpeétively ; and the
moving force in this cafe being P, and the mafs moved
ASS At &B'x!S'B: y
—— + = +. a 3 the force which ac-
celerates D will be that part of the force of gravity that is
exprefled by the fraétion,
PxsSD ‘
A x S\A*+ Bx'SB*+Cx SC’
or, if the inertia of P be confidered, by
1 Feder od Op
Ax SA*+BxSB*+CxSC + Px SD*
The velocity of the point D is uniformly accelerated,
becaufe the force above determined is invariable : it follows
alfo, that the angular velocity of the fyftem is uniformly ac-
celerated, becaufe the abfolute velocity of any point at a
given diftance from the axis of motion, is as the angular
velocity of that point, and confequently of the whole fyf-
tem. It is alfo manifeft, that it is of no confequence whe-
ther the bodies A, B, C, &c. revolve in the fame or different
planes, if their diftances from the axes SA, S B, SC, &c.
are the fame, thefe diftances being eftimated by lines ‘drawn
from A, B, and C, perpendicular to the common axis of
motion; if, therefore, they fhould be fituated in various
planes, they may be referred to any"one given plane per-
pendicular to the axis.
It is obvious likewife, that changing the pofition of the
bodies A, B, C, in the fame plane will not affeé& the force
which accelerates the fy{tem, provided their refpeCtive dif-
tances from the axis of motion be not altered; thus, with
the centre S, and diftances S B, SC, let the arcs of circles
be defcribed ; if B is transfered to 4!, or C to c!, the moving
force which aéts on thefe bodies refpeétively will not be
altered, and confequently the maffes moved being likewife
conitant, the accelerating force will be the fame.
All thefe propofitions are equally true, whatever may be
the force by which the angular motion is generated, pro-
vided it be conftant ; or, if variable, fhould its aGion be
confidered for an evanefcent particle of time only.
We have here followed the methed employed by Mr. At-
woed in his treatife on “* Re¢tilinear and Rotatory Motion;
being, as we conceive, the beft calculated to convey a cor-
rect and elementary idea-of the laws of rotatory motion.
But it is obvious, that, inftead of confidering the given
bodies A, B, C, (fg. 3.) to be equivalent to ether bodies
placed at the diftance S D, we might enquire, at what dif-
tance from the centre of motion § all thefe bodies muft be
collected, without changing their maffes, fo that the fame
angular motion may be generated in the fyftem? This point
is called the centre of gyration; and as the method of finding
this point has been ey treated of under the article
Cenver, we hhall, in the fubfequent part of this article,
confider it as known, and fhall proceed to the folution of a
few fuch problems as appear beit calculated for illuftrating
the fubject under confideration.
Prop. I.
Let D, E, F, (fig. 4.) reprefent a wheel, or cylinder,
turning about an axis pafling through its centre of gravity
S; round the circumference of which a perfe@ly flexible line
is made to pafs, and to the end of which a body, P, is fuf-
4H2 pended ;
ROTATION.
pended ; then, ‘having given the radius SD, the pawer P,
and the weight of the wheel, or cylinder, DEF, it is re-
quired to determine the angular velocity generated in the
fyftem in a given time.
Let R reprefent the centre of gyration, and make SR =r,
SD = d, the weight of the cylinder E D F = w, and the
given power = p; then the force which accelerates the
point D is ae if we fuppofe p void of inertia; but if
;
the inertia of p be contidered, the force of acceleration is
pull sheds ?
we +pd*
if the force of gravity be taken 162+ = 193 inches = /;
and 3.14159 = c; then, in the time /, the velocity generated
in the point D, or defcending weight P, will be repreiented by
_ 2ltpd?
~ pd tur
And fince the circumference of the circle EF D = 2¢d,
the angular velocity generated in the time #, will be
360° x 2ltpd? 360° lt pd
2cd(pd?+wr)” c(pd'+wr')
lipd
cpd*+cewr
1. On the fame principles it will be found, that the an ular
velocity generated in the fyftem during the defcent o the
weight f, through any {pace S, is
Isp
ang. vel. = es (ines
Isp
. vel. = Gass
reise J CHp+ or w-
2. The fpace defcribed by the weight p in its defcent
It dp
Pp+rw
, the force of gravity being affumed unity; ‘but
inches in a fecond.
degrees, or
revolutions in a fecond.
x 360° degrees, or
revol. in a fecond.
from reft during ¢ feconds, is 5 = > and
confequently, the time of deferibing s is,
aes J sa’ pt+sr'
Tas lp d’
3. The {pace deferibed by p from reft, while an angular
velocity of 2 revolutions in a fecond is generated, is
w
feconds.
POMP p+ Crw
‘=e ‘
lp
4. The force which accelerates the centre of gyration R,
p dr
18 f = Pp i ca hy
5. The abfolute velocity generated in the weight 9,
while it defcends from reft through the {pace S, is
ib al 7 4a AP ; int Ry
v= NA Bpaee and the velocity of the point R, is
Ay (Bib = veléti
s= PPPS and the velocity generated in the
point R, in the time ¢, is
_ altdpr
"» Si ar w
All thefe refults are drawn immediately from the known
ine.
wr + pd’
the accelerating force, as determined in the precedi t
of this propofition. Anca
In the above inveftigation we have confidered the re-
volving fyftem to be a uniform wheel, or cylinder ; but, it
is obvious, the fame will have place for any fy{tem of bodies;
provided only that the axis of motion pafles through its
centre of gravity, and that R be the centre of gyration of
the fyftem. ;
Prop. Il.
Let ABC (jig. 5.) reprefent a wheel and axle, and
let the axis be horizontal, having given its weight w, and
the weight g applied to the circumference of the axle, and
p applied to the circumference of the wheel, in order to raife
q3 it is required to affign the {pace defcribed by the elevated
weight g from reft in any given time; the proportion of
the radii of the wheel and axle being alfo known.
Here the abfolute force which impels D is f, and fince
formule for accelerated motion, by making f =
q acts in a direction contrary to f, with a force = nee,
this muft be fubuéted from g, which gives p — —
-SD—gSA
= pvr ies for the motive force which impels
D. Let the centre of gyration of the wheel and axle be
R; then fuppofe the mafs of matter in the whole fyf-
w.SR*+9.SA*+9.SD
SD?
be concentrated in D, the point D will be accelerated in
the fame manner, as when the parts of the fyftem are dif-
pofed as defcribed in the problem. Since, then, the force
p-SD—g-SA
SD
this force, divided by the whole era or the mafs fup-
pofed to be concentrated in D, will give for the accele-
p-SD?—¢97.SA.SD
w.SR?4 p.8D* $9.85 A”
_ p-SD.SA-— gS A’
w.SR*+p.SD? + 9.S A*
Or, if we make SD=2, SA=m,SR =r, then the
tem removed, if the mafs
whieh impels D =
> it follows that
rative forceon D =
and
the accelerative force ong =
pu —gqmn
wr + pr + gm
If the inertia ef the wheel and axle is not confidered,
accelerating force on D is
a0 pr —qmn
i petgm-
pw—aqmn
mm
the above becomes And if the inertia
of p alfo = 0, then we have
; or, if the mafs
moved have no weight, but poffefles inertia only, as when it
is drawn along a perfectly polifhed plane, as reprefented alfo
pn’
pr + gm
Let this accelerative force in any of the cafes we have
fuppofed
in fig. 5, then the accelerative force is fimply
ROTATION.
fuppofed be put = f; then the fpace, velocity, time, &c.
will be found immediately from the general formula
2
=
Ltv= = %
F tog bak
Suppofe, for example SD=x=6, SA=m=2,
thn SR=r=6 ,/4. (See Center of Gyration.) Let
. alfo w= 10, f = 100;¢= 40. Then, by our firft formula,
na p—nmg tt 36.100 — 6.2.40 =
wr+tpri+aqm ~ 10.18 + 100.36 +a40.4
___ 3600— 480 cla AP ove | og the accelerative
189 + 3600 + 160 3940 197
force on D, that of gravity being r. Whence the fpace
pafled through by the defcending weight pin 1", is s =
156. 16:5 193-156
2 = = —————
sf 197 137
Whenever motion is communicated to any body, a certain
refiftance muft have been overcome by the moving force:
this refiftance is of various kinds. 1. The inertia of the
ma{s moved, whereby it endeavours to perfevere in its ftate
of quiefcence, or of uniform motion in a right line. 2. That
of a weight, or other abfolute force, oppofed to the ation
of the moving power. 3. Obftacles upon which the moving
body impinging is retarded in its progrefs; fuch, for ex-
ample, is the refiftance which arifes from the particles of a
fluid through which a body moves. The eftimation of thefe
refiftances, and their effeéts in retarding the motion of bodies
a&ted on by a given force, are deducible from the laws of
motion, and conititute a part of the folution of almoft every
problem en to the motion of bodies.
The moving forces alfo are of various kinds ; viz. gravity,
mufcular power, the impaét of bodies folid or fluid, &c. ;
and the effe& of thefe moving forces, which are exerted on
bodies in order to create motion, exclufive of the refiftance
oppofed to them, depend on the various circumftances of the
time in which they act, and on the {paces through which the
bodies moved are impelled, &c. Whence it follows, that,
from the great variety of undetermined conditions which may
enter into mechanical problems, there muit be of courfe va-
rious ways of producing the fame mechanical effet ; and it isa
very material part of the art, confidered either in a theoretical
or practical point of view, to proportion the means to the
end, and to effe& this with all the advantages that the nature
of the cafe is capable of. It is the due obfervation of thefe
particulars, which contribute to render the mechanic inftru-
ments complete, and the negle& of them defective, in their
conftruction. This proper choice of means to produce me-
chanical effe&t, is frequently the refult of long and con-
tinued experience, independent of theory; the know-
ledge of which, however, when immediately applied to
practice, would fave the artift much time and trouble; and,
at the fame time, be produétive of other advantages which
experience alone mutt be dettitute of.
Prop. III.
In order to illuftrate this application of theory to prac-
tice, let A BC (fg. 5.) be a wheel and axle moveable
round an horizonal axis, pafling through S, and a given
weight g, which applied to the circumference of the axle, to
be raifed by the application of a given moving force, p,
which is applied to the circumference of the wheel.; let it
be required to aflign the proportion of the radii of the
wheel and axle, fo that the time in which the weight w
afcends through any given fpace fhall be the leaft poflible,
feet, or inches.
force on p is
Let the given radius of the axle SA=m, SR=r,
SD=~-; then, by the laft propofition, the accelerative
xp — gms
wri+>px +;qm
mxp— mq
.» and that which accele-
rates g is ; the fquare of the time,
therefore, in which any {pace § is defcribed by the afcend-
ing weight g, is
s wrt px + gm
=
1 % mpx— mg
» (/ being = 193 in.)
And
and which, by the queftion, is to be a minimum.
which, therefore, put into fluxions, and reduced, gives
mg + /(m'gi +pwr + gpm’)
Pp
=
the radius required.
Or, if we do not confider the inertia of the wheel, then
wi3 ne
moti eee ZF pf ig adler ene
m +m .2=m (1+ 4/2), the radius of the wheel
in this particular cafe.
To give an example in numbers, let g = 100, p = 33,
w = 20, r= 4/ 50, or r* = 50, m= 1, then the diftance
z=
fought is 100 + 4/ (10000 + 33000 + 3300 eS)
33 33
= 9.55 inches.
This, therefore, will be the moft convenient diftance to
apply the given moving force, when the chief obje& is to
leflen the time of afcent. If it be required to affign the
diftance SD, when the momentum communicated to w,
while it afcends through a given fpace, is the greateft pof-
fible, the folution will be the fame as before, which, therefore,
anfwers to two conditions; that is, it will render the time
in which g afcends through a given fpace the leaft, and the
momentum generated during the fame afcent the greateft
poflible.
Ifthe weight g, inftead of afcending in a vertical direGtion,
is drawn along an horizontal plane, as in fg. 5, the
furface of which is fuppofed perfeétly polifhed; then the
weight g, as oppofed to the moving force = 9, poflefling
in this cafe only inertia, we fhall have for the radius of the
wheel
af (Peep gm if weir? lg wh
e wy oy P
which, if the inertia of w be rejected, becomes fimply
x= 4.
Hence, if the quantity of matter to be drawn along the
plane is four times greater than that which is contained in
the moving force, the radius of the axle S A being given,
in order that it may be impelled with the greateft velocity
pofible, and, with the greateft momentum, the radius of the
wheel fhould be double that of the axle, when the inertia of
the wheel is not cenfidered.
Prop. 1V.
As a further application of our theory, let A BC;
(fig. 5+) be a wheel: and axle; when, having given a
moving force or weight , acting on the circumference a
the
z=
ROTATION.
the wheel in order to raile a weight g, which is applied to
the circumference of the axle, it is required to aflign the
quantity g, when the momentum generated in it in any given
time fhall be the greateft poflible ; the inertia of the wheel
and axle not being confidered.
Making, as before, SD = 2,S A = m, the force which
nmp — mq
iD aa 0
inches, the velocity generated in g in the time ¢ will be
; therefore, if / = 193
accelerates g is f =
amp —m : .
gid q and the momentum generated in g will
wp + mq
—_— i. 2
be 2¢]x qa A te 7 ; and as this is to be a maximum
np+mg@
by the problem, its fluxion = 0, which being taken and
v(t pf tmp) — ep
m>
Therefore, if SD:SA::2:1, theng=p \/ (a+ + 23)
— np; if the radius of the axle equal the radius of the
wheel, that is, x = 1; then the weight g = p(./2—T1),
and confequently the weight moved muft be about {,ths of
the moving force.
But if we introduce the weight of the wheel, and call it w,
r being the diftance of the centre of gyration from the axis,
then the momentum generated in the time f will be expreffed
reduced gives g =
ia paabig
ee Mi —, which is the greateft poflible
wrt+np+mg
V (ntpPt+e2rrpwtriwtrampwt
n m p*) me (opt r w)
m
Prop. V.
Again, let AB CH (fg. 7.) be a fyftem of bodies move-
able round a vertical axis, which paffes through the common
centre of gravity of the fyftem. And fuppofe D EG to
be a wheel, the axis of which is vertical, and coinciding with
that of the fyftem; let motion be communicated by means
of a line going round this wheel, the ftring D P being
ftretched by a given weight ; let it be required to affign
the radius of the wheel EG D, fo that the angular velocity
communicated to the fyitem ina given time may be the
greateft poffible. Let the weight of the fyftem = w, and
the diftance of the centre of gyration from the axis of motion
=r, the radius fought SD =x; then the motive force
being p, the velocity generated in a given time in that
by 2/t x
when I=
2
4 8 : 4 p*
defcending weight will be proportional to SN aE, TODS ine
y and
x
wr +p”
which is to be amaximum by the conditions of the problem,
purest pets —ap xs
(w 7r* a ? oe)?
whencepwr? = p*x*,0rx= 7 \ yi the diftance fought.
the angular velocity generated in the fame time as
we have, therefore, =O;
Suppofing, therefore, the moving force = 1 of the weight
of the fyftem w, we fhall have « = r / ts = 2r; thatis,
the weight fhould be applied at a diftance from the axis,
equal to twice the diftance of the centre of gyration, in
order to produce the greateft angular velocity in a given
time.
Prop. VI.
In order to increafe the ation of a given moving force
again{t a weight to be raifed, or refiftance to be overcome, a
combination of two or more mechanic powers is frequently
made ufe of. Thus, let p bea power applied by means of a
line to the vertical wheel C, (fg. 6.), and fuppofe the
circumference of the axle K to be in contaét with the cir-
cumference of the wheel B, fo that the circumference of
the wheel B may always move equally faft with that of the
axis which belongs to C; let alfo the axle of B communi-
cate motion to the vertical wheel A, to the axle of which a
weight, g, is fufpended, fo as to a& in oppofition to p;
moreover, let /mn to 1, be the fum of the ratios of the
radiue of each wheel to that of its axle; then if p/m
= g, the two weights, f and g, will fuftain each other in equi-
librio; but if p/m be greater than g, the equilibrium will
be deftroyed, and the weight g will afcend; and it is re-
quired to affign the {pace which, under thofe circumftances,
will be defcribed by g in a given time.
Let the radii of the wheel and axle A be in the ratio of
7to 1; thofe of B asmto13 and thofe of Casato1r;
the diftance of the centre of gyration in A from the axis
=r, the fame of B =7’, and of C=r"; the weight
of the wheel and axle A = w; that of B = w!; and that
of C = wil,
Now the abfolute moving force is , but fince g ats in
oppofition to it, it muft be fubdu&ed from 4, in order to
obtain the real motive force of the fyftem. And fince g
would balance a weight = 7 if applied at p» the force
. . . 1m n—
which impels » on the whole will be pend, In the
mn
next place, the inertia which refifts the communication of mo-
tion to p muft be afcertained. Now motion is communicated
to the wheel A, from the circumference of the axle B, and
the inertia of A, and of the weight g, which refifts the com-
a
LUT Ghia
; 3 in regard,
munication of a force applied at S = Sree
therefore, to the inertia of A and g, thefe may be fuppofed
to be removed, and the equivalent mafs a colleé&tedinto
the circumference of the wheel A, or of the axle B.
And fince motion is communicated to B, by the circum-
ference of the axle C, the inertia of B, together with
2 fz if f 2
s wr : re w wr
the equivalent mafs wr + @willbe Muha DinsACbOE SL
: P Lm
In like manner, fince motion is communicated to C by the
weight p acting at D, the inertia which refifts the commu-
nication of motion to D or 4, will be
pr +! 7h 7? Pay! + wrt SiK fash
SOW Pm? i
Paw pt Ph mw’? +r? Polt+wrtg¢
ie eT 2
and the force which accelerates p in its defcent from reft
ail lmn (plmn—Qq)
Paap + Pm ws! 4 rt Pw? + ower + g
and
ROTATION.
and that which accelerates g
pe TOY a 2 eee
= hepa died el alter +9
if, therefore, we make this force = f, all the circumftances
of the motion may be determined by the general formula
>
vy
4Ef
ty of other propofitions in Atwood’s treatife on “ Rota-
tory Motion.”
In all the preceding propofitions, the axis of the revolv-
ing fyftem has been fuppofed fixed; but there are other
cafes by which rotatory motion may be produced, which
eught to be attended to in this article ; fuch as that which
ute from a body defcending down en inclined plane, hav-
ing a ribbon or cord wound about it, oue end of which is
fixed at the upper part of the plane, which, by preventing
the body fliding freely, caufes a rotatory motion. The fame
effe& alfo follows from the fri€tion df the body againft the
plane; and the fame may be imagined when there is no
plane, but the body is left to fall freely, except fo far as
the cord wound about it fhall produce a rotatory motion in
its defceht. We fhall not attempt the inveltigation of
thefe cafes, but merely ftate the refults that have been ob-
tained; and muft refer the reader for the former to the
feveral treatifes on dynamics, enumerated’ under the articles
Dynamics and Mrcuanics.
Let a body (fig. 8.) have a cord wound about it, either
at its circumference, or any other part, 2s C, having one
end fixed at a point above, as at D; then if the body be
left to defcend by the aétion of gravity, it will acquire a
motion of rotation by the unwinding of the cord, and the
fpace a¢tually defcended by the body in this cafe, will be
to the {pace defcended in the fame time, when falling freely,
as CGto CO; O and G reprefenting the centres of
ofcillation and gyration when the point of {ufpenfion is
at C. And the weight of the body will be to the tenfion
of the cord, as CO to CG. The fame ratios have
place when the body defcends down an inclined plane ;
the forces which generate the motion being both decreafed
in the fame ratio.
The force by which fpheres, cylinders, &c. are caufed
to revolve as they move down an inclined plane (inftead of
fliding), is the adhefion of their furfaces, occafioned by
their preflure againft the plane. This preffure is part of the
weight of the body; for this weight being refolved into its
component parts, one in the direction of the plane, the
other perpendicular to it, the latter is the force of the
preflure ; and which, while the fame body rolls down, the
plane will be exprefled by the cofine of the plane’s
elevation. Hence, fince the cofine decreafes, will the arc
or angle increafe. After the angle of elevation arrives at a
certain magnitude, the adhefion may become lefs than what
is neceffary to make the circumference of the body revolve
faft enough; and in this cafe, it will proceed partly by
fliding, and partly by rolling; but the angle at which this
circumftance takes place, will evidently depend upon the
degree of adhefion between the furfaces of the body and
plane. This, however, will never happen, if the rotation
1s produced by the unwinding of a ribbon, and it is on
this latter fuppofition that the following particular cafes
are deduced.
Let W be the weight of the body, s the {pace defcended
by a heavy body falling freely, or fliding freely down a
plane ; then the {pace S, defcribed by rotation in the fame
time, by the following bodies, will be in thefe proportions.
; as before fhewn. See a varie-
sSgtuaHgftr=
1. A hollow cylinder or cylindrical furface S= +45;
tenfion = 1 W.
2. A folid cylinder § = 253 tenfion = + W.
3. A fpheric furface S = 25; tenfion = 2 W.
4. A folid fphere S = 45; tenfion = 7 W. See Gre-
gory’s Mechanics, vol. i.
Rorarion, Spontaneous, is that rotatory motion which
a body acquires when aéted upon by any external force in
free fpace. And the centre of /pontancous rotation is that
point which remains at reit the inftant the body receives its
impulfion, or it is that point about which the body begins
to revolve.
The moft general method of treating this fubjeét is with
reference to three reétangular co-ordinates, after the method
of Lagrange and other modern French writers; but as that
method is not commonly adopted by Englifh mathema-
ticians, we mult neceflarily either enter at great length into
explanation, or run the rifk of not being underitood by
many of our readers, on which account we fhall here adopt
a fimilar mode of inveltigation ta that which we have fol-
lowed in the preceding part of this article.
Firft, then, we may obferve, that when a body, B, (fig. 9-)
of any fhape whatever, receives an impulfe, the direétion ot
which does not pafs through the centre of gravity, and
takes in confequence two motions, as we have ftated in the
early part of this article, it is evident, that for an initant
of time we may confider it as having only one motion,
namely, a motion of rotation about a point or fixed axis, C,
which may be either within the body, or out of it, accord-
ing to its fhape, and the diftance, GS, between the centre
of gravity and the direétion of impaét. If, while the
line GS is carried parallel to itfelf from GS to G'S/,
we imagine that it revolves about the moveable point G,
as the particles of the body have greater or lefs velocities,
as they are more or lefs diftant from G, it is manifeft that
there is upon SG a certain point, C, which will be found
to defcribe from C! towards C an arc equal to GG!,
which, during an evanefcent inftant, may be regarded asa
right line; in that cafe the point C will have been carried
as far backward by its motion of rotation, as it will have
been advanced parallel to GG! by the velocity common
to all the parts of the body; the point C has, therefore,
during this inftant, been adtually at reft in C; and may
confequently be confidered as a fixed point about which the
body during fuch inftant has a rotatory motion. This point
is the centre of fpontaneous rotation, and is the fame as
the centre of fufpenfion, correfponding to the centre of
percuflion, the centre of percuflion being the point where
the body is ftruck.
Without entering into a minute demonttration of this pro-
perty, we may convince ourlelves of its truth, by confider-
ing that the aétion of a body againft an immoveable ob-
{tacle, in the centre of percuflion, muft have the fame effe&
upon the body, as if that body had been at reit, and it
had been ftruck by the obftacle ; in which latter cafe, the
centre of fufpenfion would not be affected, and therefore
it becomes the centre of {pontaneous rotation. On which
account it alfo follows, that the centre of fpontaneous
rotation is wholly independent of the magnitude of im-
pact ; but depends entirely on the diftance that the force
@S, or the refult of all the forces, a&s from the centre
of cravity, G; and confequently, wker that force aéts in
the direétion, or coincides with G G’, there will be no mo-
tion of rotation, as is obvious.
We may alfo farther obferve, that if an impact be made
on any point of the axis of a fymmetrical body, or a folid
of revolution, and that point be confidered as the point of
II fufpenfion,
ROTATION.
the wheel in order to raile a weight g, which is applied to
the circumference of the axle, it is required to aflign the
quantity g, when the momentum generated in it in any given
time fhall be the greateft poffible ; the inertia of the wheel
and axle not being confidered.
Making, as before, SD = 2,S A = m, the force which
nmp — mq
ly a Lie
inches, the velocity generated in g in the time ¢ will be
accelerates g is f = therefore, if 7 = 193
hd ds uk f and the momentum generated in g will
ap+md¢@
ampgq — m q
np + mq
by the problem, its fluxion = 0, which being taken and
J (xt p + nm p’) — np
m>
Therefore, if §$D:S A::a:1, theng=p \/ (x* + 23)
— np; if the radius of the axle equal the radius of the
wheel, that is, x = 1; then the weight g = p(./2—1),
and confequently the weight moved mutt be about 3,ths of
the moving force.
But if we introduce the weight of the wheel, and call it aw,
r being the diftance of the centre of gyration from the axis,
then the momentum generated in the time ¢ will be exprefled
2tlx
be 2¢]x° ; and as this is to be a maximum
reduced gives g =
by 2/¢ x 7 2 Alen ie oi which is the greateft poflible
wr+n'p+m¢
J (ntpt+earrpwtrw +rampw t+
when g = ik i 0 Net rw)
m
Prop. V.
Again, let A BCH (fg. 7.) be a fyftem of bodies move-
able round a vertical axis, which paffes through the common
centre of gravity of the fyftem. And fuppofe D EG to
be a wheel, the axis of which is vertical, and coinciding with
that of the fyftem; let motion be communicated by means
of a line going round this wheel, the ftring D P being
ftretched by a given weight p; let it be required to affign
the radius of the wheel EG D, fo that the angular velocity
communicated to the fyftem ina given time may be the
greateft poffible. Let the weight of the fyftem = w, and
the diftance of the centre of gyration from the axis of motion
=r, the radius fought SD =x; then the motive force
being p, the velocity generated in a given time in that
px
alee pen
defcending weight will be proportional to
the angular velocity generated in the fame time as ae
wrt pw
which is to be amaximum by the conditions of the problem,
PWHKEAPHWX-—AP KK iE
(wr + px*)* aN
whencep wr? = p*x*,0rx= 7 \ We a the diftance fought.
we have, therefore,
Suppofing, therefore, the moving force = § of the weight
of the fyftem av, we thall have x = r \/ o. = 245 thatis
=
the weight fhould be applied at a diftance from the axis,
equal to twice the diftance of the centre of gyration, in
order to produce the greateft angular velocity in a given
time.
Prop. VI.
In order to increafe the a€tion of a given moving force
againft a weight to be raifed, or refiftance to be overcome, a
combination of two or more mechanic powers is frequently
made ufe of. Thus, let » bea power applied by means of a
line to the vertical wheel C, (fg. 6.), and fuppofe the
circumference of the axle K to be in contaét with the cir-
cumference of the wheel B, fo that the circumference of
the wheel B may always move equally faft with that of the
axis which belongs to C; let alfo the axle of B communi-
cate motion to the vertical wheel A, to the axle of which a
weight, g, is fufpended, fo as to a& in oppofition to p;
moreover, let /mn to 1, be the fum of the ratios of the
radius of each wheel to that of its axle; then if p/maz
= g, the two weights, and g, will fuftain each other in equi-
hbrio; but if p/m xn be greater than g, the equilibrium will
be deftroyed, and the weight g will afcend; and it is re-
quired to affien the {pace which, under thofe circumftances,
will be defcribed by g in a given time.
Let the radii of the wheel and axle A be in the ratio of
7to 1; thofe of B asmto1; and thofe of Casntor;
the diftance of the centre of gyration in A from the axis
=r, the fame of B=’, and of C= r"; the weight
of the wheel and axle A = w; that of B = w!; and that
of Cc = w"!,
Now the abfolute moving force is 4, but fince g ats in
oppolition to it, it muft be fubduéted from £, in order to
obtain the real motive force of the fyitem. And fince g
would balance a weight = q
Im
2 if applied at g, the force
which impels 4 on the whole will be PAC Dia
lmn
In the
next place, the inertia which refifts the communication of mo-
tion to p muft be afcertained. Now motion is communicated
to the wheel A, from the circumference of the axle B, and
the inertia of A, and of the weight g, which refifts the com-
wr+g¢
B
therefore, to the inertia of A and g, thefe may be fuppofed
munication of a force applied at S = 3 in regard,
to be removed, and the equivalent mafs anu colle&tedinto
the circumference of the wheel A, or of the axle B.
And fince motion is communicated to B, by the circum-
ference of the axle C, the inertia of B, together with
2 fz Jr t 2
the equivalent mafs edgier will be iid Uar elie CL,
5 P Lm
In like manner, fince motion is communicated to C by the
weight p acting at D, the inertia which refifts the commu-
nication of motion to D or 4, will be
prtolsP rPPwotiwrtg
Sat aaa er aaa? (a
n P mn
Pret pt Ph mw P+ Poliwr +g
i gm n 2
and the force which accelerates p in its defcent from reft
i lmn (plma—q)
TP wap + Pm all + rh Pw? + wr g
and
ROTATION.
and that which accelerates g
a plmn—4q ee
Fmt p + Fm wr yr? wl + wr +9’
if, therefore, we make this force = f, all the circumftances
of the motion may be determined by the general formula
. 2
s=fiv=gft= per
3 as before fhewn. See a varie-
ty of other propofitions in Atwood’s treatife on ‘ Rota-
tory Motion.”
In all the preceding propofitions, the axis of the revolv-
ing fyftem has been fuppofed fixed; but there are other
cafes by which rotatory motion may be produced, which
eught to be attended to in this article ; fuch as that which
enfue from a body defcending down en inclined plane, hav-
ing a ribbon or cord wound about it, one end of which is
fixed at the upper part of the plane, which, by preventing
the body fliding freely, caufes a rotatory motion. The fame
effect alfo follows from the fri€tion 6f the body againft the
plane; and the fame may be imagined when there is no
plane, but the body is left to fall freely, except fo far as
the cord wound about it fhall produce a rotatory motion in
its defceht. We fhall not attempt the inveltigation of
thefe cafes, but merely ftate the refults that have been ob-
tained; and muft refer the reader for the former to the
feveral treatifes on dynamics, enumerated’ under the articles
Dynamics and Mrcuanics.
Let a body (fig. 8.) have a cord wound about it, either
at its circumference, or any other part, 2s C, having one
end fixed at a point above, as at D; then if the body be
left to defcend by the aétion of gravity, it will acquire a
motion of rotation by the unwinding of the cord, and the
{pace actually defcended by the body in this cafe, will be
to the {pace defcended in the fame time, when falling freely,
as CGto CO; O and G reprefenting the centres of
ofcillation and gyration when the point of {ufpenfion is
at C. And the weight of the body will be to the tenfion
of the cord, as CO to CG. The fame ratios have
place when the body defcends down an inclined plane ;
the forces which generate the motion being both decreafed
in the fame ratio.
The force by which fpheres, cylinders, &e. are caufed
to revolve as they move down an inclined plane (inftead of
fliding), is the adhefion of their furfaces, occafioned by
their preflure againft the plane. This preffure is part of the
weight of the body ; for this weight being refolved into its
component parts, one in the direétion of the plane, the
other perpendicular to it, the latter is the force of the
preflure ; and which, while the fame body rolls down, the
plane will be exprefled by the cofine of the fplane’s
elevation. Hence, fince the cofine decreafes, will the arc
or angle increafe. After the angle of elevation arrives at a
certain magnitude, the adhefion may become lefs than what
is neceflary to make the circumference of the body revolve
faft enough; and in this cafe, it will proceed partly by
fliding, and partly by rolling; but the angle at which this
circumftance takes place, will evidently depend upon the
degree of adhefion between the furfaces of the body and
plane. This, however, will never happen, if the rotation
is produced by the unwinding of a ribbon, and it is on
this latter fuppofition that the following particular cafes
are deduced.
Let W be the weight of the body, s the fpace defcended
by a heavy body falling freely, or fliding freely down a
plane ; then the {pace S, defecribed by rotation in the fame
time, by the following bodies, will be in thefe proportions.
1. A hollow cylinder or cylindrical furface S= 453
tenfion = 1 W. ;
2. A folid cylinder S = 35; tenfion = 1+ W.
3. A fpheric furface S = 2.5; tenfion = 2? W.
4. A folid {phere S = 5; tenfion = 7 W.
gory’s Mechanics, vol. i.
Rorarion, Spontaneous, is that rotatory motion which
a body acquires when a¢ted upon by any external force in
free fpace. And the centre of /pontaneous rotation is that
point which remains at reit the inftant the body receives its
impulfion, or it is that point about which the body begins
to revolve.
The moft general method of treating this fubjeét is with
reference to three re¢tangular co-ordinates, after the method
of Lagrange and other modern French writers; but as that
method is not commonly adopted by Englifh mathema-
ticians, we mult neceflarily either enter at great length into
explanation, or run the rifk of not being underftood by
many of our readers, on which account we fhall here adopt
a fimilar mode of inveltigation to that which we have fol-
lowed in the preceding part of this article.
Firlt, then, we may obferve, that when a body, B, (fig. 9.)
of any fhape whatever, receives an impulfe, the direction of
which does not pafs through the centre of gravity, and
takes in confequence two motions, as we have itated in the
early part of this article, it is evident, that for an inftant
of time we may confider it as having only one motion,
namely, a motion of rotation about a point or fixed axis, C,
which may be either within the body, or out of it, accord-
ing to its fhape, and the diitance, GS, between the centre
of gravity and the direétion of impa&. If, while the
line GS 1s carried parallel to itfelf from GS to G'S/,
we imagine that it revolves about the moveable point G,
as the particles of the body have greater or lefs velocities,
as they are more or lefs diftant from G, it is manifeft that
there 1s upon SG a certain point, C, which will be found
to defcribe from C! towards C an arc equal to GG’,
which, during an evanefcent inftant, may be regarded as a
right line; in that cafe the point C will have been earried
as far backward by its motion of rotation, as it will have
been advanced parallel to GG! by the velocity common
to all the parts of the body; the point C has, therefore,
during this inftant, been a€tually at reft in C; and may
confequently be confidered as a fixed point about which the
body during fuch inttant has a rotatory motion. This point
is the centre of {pontaneous rotation, and is the fame as
the centre of fufpenfion, correfponding to the centre of
percuflion, the centre of percuffion being the point where
the body is ftruck.
Without entering into a minute demonttration of this pro-
perty, we may convince ourlelves of its truth, by confider-
ing that the aétion of a body again{ft an immoveable ob-
{tacle, in the centre of percuffion, muft have the fame effe&
upon the body, as if that body had been at reit, and it
had been ftruck by the ob{tacle ; in which latter cafe, the
centre of fufpenfion would not be affected, and therefore
it becomes the centre of {pontaneous rotation. On which
account it alfo follows, that the centre of fpontaneous
rotation is wholly independent of the magnitude of im-
pact; but depends entirely on the diftance that the force
@S, or the refult of all the forces, ats from the centre
of gravity, G3; and confequently, wkea that force acts in
the direétion, or coincides with G G’, there will be no mo-
tion of rotation, as is obvious.
We may alfo farther obferve, that if an impaét be made
on any point of the axis of a fymmetrical body, or a folid
of revolution, and that point be confidered as the point of
II fufpenfion,
See Gre-
ROTATION.
fufpenfion, the correfponding centre of ofcillation will be
the centre of {pontaneous rotation. This follows imme-
diately from the properties of the centre of percuffion and
ofcillation. (See Center.) To which we may alfo add,
that fince the force divided by the body aéted upon, is a
general expreffion for the velocity of the centre of gravity
of that body; therefore the velocity of the centre, of
gravity of the body will be the fame, whatever may be the
diretion of the impelling force ; fo that the permanency of
the quantity of motion obtains the fame in motions about
a centre of {pontaneous rotation, as in all other cafes.
‘Prop. I.
When @S, (fg. 9.) the dire€tion of impaé, paffes
through the centre of the impelling body, the centre
of gravity of the body ftruck, will move with a velo-
city equal to the produ& of the quantity of motion of
the impelling body into the diftance between the centre
of gravity and {pontaneous rotation, divided by the fum
of the produéts of the impelling body into the diftance
of the point of impact from the centre of fpontaneous rota-
tion, and of the impelled body into the diftance of the im-
pelled body, into the diftance between the centres of {pon-
taneous rotation and of gravity.
Let the quantity of matter of the impinging body be 4,
its velocity v, or 6v = 6; and when the body B is ftruck
in the dire€tion 6S, (in which the centre of the body &
is always found), let the velocity of its centre of gravity
be V, the centre of fpontaneous converfion being at C.
Then CG: CS:: V: the velocity of the point S, which is
Cs CS
ret Y ei
locity loft by 4 in the direction @S; whence, by the third
wv. GC —
therefore V . confequently, » — = the. ve-
law of motion, 5 x —— = B.V, and by re-
ui sO E.
B.CG+46.CS
duGion, V = » as was to be demon-
ttrated.
Hence, if the inertia of the ftriking body be evanefcent,
the velocity V will become —_ = being the fame as
would be generated if the body 4 impinged direétily on it
with the velocity V.
Prop. IT.
The inertia of the ftriking body being evanefcent, the
angular velocity of the fyftem about the centre of gravity
is equal to the momentum of the impelling body, divided
by twice the produét of the mafs of the impelled body, and
the diftance CG, into the periphery of a circle whofe
diameter is unity. ‘
If the fixed axis pafled through C, the centre of gravity
would defcribe a circle, whofe radius is CG, with the
velocity But, in the prefent cafe, the motion of the
v
B°
fyftem will be compounded of the uniform reCtilinear motion
of the centre of gravity, in the direCtion G!C, perpen-
dicular to CS, and the angular motion «G's = GCG,
generated round the centre of gravity. And fince the
periphery of a circle, whofe radius is CG, is 27.CG
{x being = 3.1416), we have this analogy, 2 ;27.CG
4
neh : SUL
sons » the time of one revolution in feconds.
B.CG!
b
Whence it follows, that the number of revolutions, or parts
of a revolution, in a fecond, or the angular velocity U,
27.B.CG bv
bv aa 27.B.CG i
And fince C is the centre of percuffion to S as a centre
of motion, if Q be the centre of gyration with re{pe& to G
as a centre of motion (that is, f Q be the principal centre
of gyration), we fhall have GC.GS=GQ’, or CG=
GQ:
GSs°
preceding expreffion for the angular velocity, it becomes
b.v.GS
~ 2% B.GQ?
that the centre of {pontaneous rotation, during the motion
of the fyftem, defcribes the common cyeloid. For the
motion of any point in the fyltem is compounded of the
uniform reétilinear motion of the centre of gravity, and of
the angular motion generated round that centre; but the
velocity with which the centre of {postaneous roetation
would move round the centre of gravity, if there only
exifted a rotatory motion in the fyftem, would be equal to
that with which the centre of gravity would move round
it, if the centre C were fixed; confequently, fince the
centre C has both a rotatory and progreflive motion, each
of which is equal to that of the centre of gravity, it will
deferibe a cycloid.
will be x =
This value of GC being fubftituted for it in the
. It follows alfo from what is fhewn above,
Prop. III.
In the body, or fyftem B, (jffg-.9.) to which, when
quiefcent, motion has been communicated by the impulfe
of a force, ?, without inertia, that is, reCtilinear motion
to the centre of gravity meafured by the {pace V, which
that centre would defcribe uniformly in any given time,
and angular motions meafured by the revolutions U, or
parts of a revolution, which it would defcribe uniformly
round G in the fame time; then if the notations in the pre-
ceding propofitions be retained, and Q be the principal
centre of gyration, when the fyftem revolves about its
centre of gravity, the perpendicular diftance from the cen-
tre of gravity, at which the impelling force muft aé& fo as
to have generated thefe progreflive and rotatory motions,
27.U.GQ?
Vv
Let @S be the direGtion of the impulfe, and let @ be
equal to the momentum of an evanefcent body 4, moving
with the velocity V, B being the weight of the fyftem ;
then the velocity communicated to the centre of gravity of
.6.0.8G
27.B.GQ*
é
But by the propofition, the velocity communicated to the
centre of gravity of the fyftem is V ; and the angular mo-
tion, that is, the number of revolutions, or parts of a revo-
lution, defcribed while the centre of gravity pafles over the
{pace V, is U; fo that from the conditions there arifes this
willbe GS =
the fyftem, will, by the laft propofition, be =
i é 6.v.GS V.GS :
equation, U = 2a BT GO" 22/Go" by putting V
for its equal = Hence GS = 2m oo.
if
ROTATION.
If the body B be a fphere, whofe radius is r, then G Q*
= ir’, and if u be the abfolute velocity of rotation of an
u
equator of the fphere, we have U = et whence the pre-
=
v
' This propofition may be applied to the double motion of
the planets. The earth revolves about an axis pafling
through its centre of gravity, while, by a motion of
tranflation, that centre is carried on in free {pace in an orbit
nearly circular ; and a fimilar kind of double motion has
been difcovered in feveral of the planets, and analogy leads
us to believe it obtains in the others. Now, fuppoting the
bodies of the planets to be f{pherical, as they are nearly, the
ufe of this propofition at once appears. Having given, for
inftance, the magnitude of an impulfe, with refpe& to the
mafs of the earth, and the dire€tion ¢ S, in which it was ap-
plied, at any given diftance S G from the centre of gravity,
the angular motion round G would be inferred ; and con-
verfely if the actual rotatory velocity of the earth’s equator,
and the yelocity in its orbit, be afcertained, the diftance
GS from the centre, at which it may have received a fingle
impulfe ¢ S adequate to produce the double motion, may be
readily found.
Thus, any point in the earth’s equator pafles over 25,020
miles by rotation in one fidereal day ; and if the mean dif-
tance of the earth from the fun be g5 million miles, the
earth will pafs over nearly 596,904,000 miles by its orbital
motion in a year, or in about 366 fidereal days; hence
596,904,000 = 366 = 16,308,852, will be equal to V
in our theorem, while 25,020 = u. Confequently, GS
oes as r
WM eal 3x2
upon a quiefcent fphere, and the direction of force fhould
be at a diftance S G from its centre of gravity of about +3,d
part of its radius, the angular motion of that fphere, and
the abfolute motion of its centre, will have the fame relation
to each other, as thofe which a€tually obtain in the earth,
The time of the rotations of Mercury, Uranus, and
the lait new planets, are unknown; but for the following
planets it is afcertained, fo that, by the fame theorem, we
ceding value of GS is transformed to this, GS = ir.
So that if an impulfe be impreffed
obtain thefe values of GS; wiz. Mars, a Jupiter,
r r r
ase 2588? the Moon, ‘
We have not {fufficient data for the fun; but the very
circumftance of his having a retation of 274 7" 47™, makes
it very probable that he, with all his attendant planets, is
alfo moving forward in celeftial fpace, perhaps round fome
centre of {till more general and extenfive gravitation; for
the perfe& oppofition and equality of two forces, for givin
a rotation without a progreffive motion, has the odds eee
it of infinity to unity. This corroborates the conjectures
of philofophers, and the obfervations of Herfchel and other
aftronomers, who think that the folar fyftem is approaching
to that quarter of the heavens in which the conitellation
Aquilea is fituated.
; Saturn,
Prop. IV.
Tf a body revolves about an axis pafling through its centre
of gravity with the angular velocity U, while this axis is
carried round another axis, alfo pafling through its centre
of gravity, with the angular velocity U, thefe two motions
compofe a motion of every particle of the body, round a
Vor. XXX.
third axis lying in the plane of the other two, and inclined
to each of the former axes in angles whofe fines are inverfely
as the angular velocities round them; and the angular ve-
locity V round this new axis, is to that about one of the
primitive axes, as the fine of the inclination of the latter
axis, to the fine of the inclination ef the new axis to the
other primitive axis.
Thus, ifa body turas round an axis A Ga, (fig. 10.) pafling
through its centre of gravity G, with the angular velocity U,
while this axis is carried round another axis BG 4, with the
angular velocity u; and if GD be taken to G E as U tou,
(the points B and E being taken on that fide of the centre
where they are moving towards the fame fide of the figure, )
and the line D E be drawn, the whole and every particle of
the body will be in a itate of rotation, about a third axis
C Ge parallel to D E, lying inthe plane of the other tio,
and the angular velocity v about the axis C Gc, will be to
UasDE:DG; andtouasDE:GE. For let P be
any particle of the body, and fuppofe a fpherical furface,
whole centre is G, to pafs through P. Draw PR perpen-
dicular to the plane of the figure ; then is P R the common
fection of the circle of rotation I P; round the axis Aa, and
the circle K P é of rotation round the axis B4. Let F and OQ
be the centres of thefe circles of rotation, and Ii, and K&4,
their diameters. Draw the radii PF, PO, and the tan.
gents PM, PN; thefe tangents are in the plane MPN,
which touches the {phere in P, and the plane of the axis in
the line MN, to which a line drawn from G, through Rs
would be perpendicular. Suppofe P N to reprefent the ve-
locity of rotation of the point P, about the axis Bé, while
Pf reprefents its velocity of rotation about Aa, and com-
plete the parallelogram P N ¢ tf; then is P¢ the dire@ion and
velocity of the refultant of the compofition of PN, P fs and
it is manifeitly in the fame plane as the conftituent lines. Let
perpendiculars fF, #T, be drawn to the plane of the axis,
and the parallelogram P Nf will be orthographically pro-
jeCted on that plane, its projeCtion being alfo a parallelogram
RNTF. Draw the diagonal RT. Then, fince P R is
perpendicular to the plane of the primitive axis, PR#T is
{o likewife ; and confequently the compound motion P+¢ is
in the plane of a circle of revolution about fome axis fituated
in the plane of the other two. Produce IR, and draw
GC interfe€ting it perpendicularly in H ; and let L P/ be
the circle of rotation, its diameter being L/=2LH;; then
isPta tangent, and perpendicular to P H, and it will meet
IR in fome point Q of theline MN. The particle P is in
a ftate of rotation about the axis C Gc; its velocity is to the
velocities round A a, or B4, as P# to PF, or P Tto P N.
Now PN the tangent is perpendicular to O P, and PR is
perpendicular to O N; thereforeOP:PN::PR:R N, or
RN= — But the velocity of P about the axis
Bé, ise.OP; whence RN = eo ee
In like manner, RF = U.PR; confequently RF: RN
2: U:4:GD:GE. ButNT:RN::fin. NRT: fin.
NTR:: fin. GED: fin.GDE; hence fin. NRT: fin.
NT R::fin.GED:fin.GDE. Now, fince NR is per-
pendicular to E G, and NT (parallelto F 1) perpendicular
toDG, wehave RNT=EGD. Hence T Ris perpen-
dicular, and Cc parallelto ED. Alfo, fince RN, R RB
R T, are as the velocities u, U, w, about thefe different axes,
and vary refpectively, as EG, DG, DE, we have 0: U:
u::ED:GD:GE; which was to be demanttrated.
Hence, if every particle of a body, whether folid or
fluid, receives at the fame wis two feparate impulfes, the
4 one
R.OvF
one competent to the produétion of a motion of the particle
round an axis with a certain angular velocity, and the other
competent to the produétion of a rotatory motion about
another axis with a certain velocity, the combined effeé&t of
all thefe impulfions, will be a motion of the whole fyftem
about a third axis, given in pofition, with an angular ve-
locity which is alfo given ; and this motion will obtain, with-
out any feparation or difunion of parts, except {uch as may
be occafioned by the aétion of the centrifugal forces refulting
from the rotation.
Hence, alfo, if a body be turning round any axis, and
every particle, in one inltant, get precifely fuch an impulfe
as is competent to produce a given angular velocity round
another axis, the body will turn round a third axis given in
pofition, with a given angular velocity.
Laftly, when a rigid body acquires a rotation about an
axis, by an impulfe on one part of it, and either at the fame
time, or afterwards, receive an impulfe on any part which
alone would have produced a certain rotation about another
axis, the joint efle@ of thefe impulfes will be a rotation
about a third axis, in conformity with this propofition.
For when a zigid body acquires a motion about an axis, not
by the fimultaneous impulfe of the precifely competent
force on each particle, but by an impulfe on one part, there
has been propagated to every particle, (by means of the
cohefive forces, ) an impulfe precifely competent to the pro-
duGtion of that motion which the particle actually acquires ;
and when a rigid body already turning round an axis Aa,
receives an impulfe which makes it adtually turn about
another axis Cc, there has been propagated in each particle
a force precifely adequate to the production, not of the
motion but of the changes of motion which takes place in
that particle ; that is, a force which, when compounded with
the inherent force of its primitive motion, produces the new
motion, that is, by the propofition a force which alone would
have caufed it to turn about a third axis B 4, with a rotation
making the other component of the actual rotation about
Ce.
This elegant theorem, the enunciation of which is due
to P. Frifi, is very important, and gives a great extenfion
to the doétrine of the compofition of motion. It is of
great ufe in many curious problems, and particularly that of
the preceffion of the equinoxes. Thofe who wifh for
farther information on the fubje€t of rotatory motion, may
confult Gregory’s ‘ Mechanics,”’ from which we have
taken the three laft propofitions; Simpfon’s ‘ Tracts ;”’
Frif’s ‘ Cofmographia ;”’ ‘ Philofophical Tranfaétions,”’
1780; Landen’s Memoirs ;”” Atwood ‘ On the Rotatory
Motion of Bodies ;?? Lagrange’s ‘“* Méchanique Analy-
tique ;”? and a memoir “ Sur le Mouvement de Rotation,’’
by Francais, Paris, 1813 ; in which latter work the fubje&
is treated with all the generality it feems to admit of, and
which method we fhould have adopted in this article, but
for the reafons ftated in the commencement of it, that is to
fay, the length to which we mutt have extended it, in order
to have rendered it intelligible to the Englifh reader.
Rotation is alfo fynonimous with Ro.iinG, which fee,
RoraTion, in Geometry, the circumvolution of a furface
round a line, called the axis of rotation.
By fuch rotation of planes, the figures of certain regular
folids are formed or generated.
The method of cubing folids, generated by fuch rotation,
is laid down by M. de Moivre, in his fpecimen of the uafe of
the doérine of fluxions. For the fluxions of fuch folids
take the produ of the fluxion of the abfciffa, multiplied
by the circular bafe, and fuppofe the ratio of a fquare to
9
ROT
the circle infcribed to be as = ; the equation expreffing the
nature or property of any circle, whofe diameter is d, is
dxx—x 2. m
is the fluxion
yy =adx — ux, Therefore 4
n
of a portion of the {phere, and confequently the point it-
1 ikl ae
Cbg ay
dx x#— x}
» and the circumfcribed cylinder is
; therefore the portion of the {phere is to the
circum{cribed cylinder as $d — $x tod — «. Phil. Tranf.
N° 216.
For other initances of this kind, and a view of the appli-
cation of the do&rine of fluxions, to find the contents of
folid bodies, fee Soxnipiry. See alfo Cenrrozaryc
Method. >
Roration, Revolution, in Affronomy. See ReEvoiv-
TION.
Roration, Diurnal. See Diurnat, and Eartu.
RoratTion, in duatomy, the action of the mufculi rota-
tores; or the motion which they give to the parts they are
fixed to.
There are two mufcles, the great and the little obliquus,
ufed to perform the rotation of the eye. The obturator in-
ternus and externus effeét the rotation of the thighs.
Mr. Winflow has given an account of this, as well as of
pronation, and other circulatory animal motions. See
Mem. de l’Acad. des Sciences, 1729. See alfo Exrre-
MITIES. k
Rotation of Crops, in Agriculture, the feveral means of
cropping lands of the arable kind in fuch a manner as to pre-
vent their being exhaufted as much as poflible, and at the
fame time to preferve them free from weeds in the moft com-
plete and perfeét mode. The proper alternation of different
forts of crops in this intention, is a matter of vaft importance
to the interefts of agriculture, and in which immenfe im-
provements have been made in this and other countries with-
in this laft half century, but whichis ftill far from any thing
like perfection. See Cour/fe of Crovs.
In addition to what has been {tated under the head referred
to above, it may be obferved, in this place, that the nature
and ftate in which the manure is, when applied to the lands,
fhould likewife be attended to in fixing the rotations of the
crops, inorder that the firft and all the fucceeding ones may
be fupported in the beft and moft effetual manner by the
changes that are always taking place afterwards in fuch
materials, when united and incorporated with the foils ; and
in this way, thofe parts of them which are not fitted to or
fuitable for one kind of crop, may be converted to the nou-
rifhment and fupport of the next, and fo on in the fame
manner. Thus, where the turnip is the firft crop in the ro-
tation, and manure of the frefh dung kind is ufed, which
dire€tly affords it the necefflary fupply of foluble matter,
while the heat which is generated in its decompofition affifts
the {prouting and growth of the feed, it fhould be fucceeded
by barley, or fome other fimilar fort of grain crop, with
fuitable grafs feeds, as the land will have been but little
robbed of its fertility by the preceding turnip crop, and of
courfe will plentifully fupply the foluble portions of the
gradually decompofing fubftance of the manure to that
crop; while the grafles that remain on the land, which, in
many cafes, draw only a {mall portion of the matter of
which they are compofed from the earth, and in. all probabi-
lity take up the gypfeous fubitance contained in the ma-
nure, which would be of little utility to other forts of crops,
and
R © ¥£
and which, in confequence of their large fupply of leaves,
derive a confiderable proportion of their nutriment from the
furrounding atmofphere, when they become ultimately
ploughed down into the ground, afford a confiderable fupply
of manure to the fucceeding wheat crop, by the gradual de-
cay and decompofition of their roots and leaves, and befides,
_ the woody fibrous parts of the farm-yard manure, which
was at firft applied, and which contains in its compofition
the phofphate of lime, as well as fome other foluble parts
which are of difficult reduction, are now broken down,
and brought into a fuitable ftate for the fupport of that
crop.
Aer this deteriorating and exhaufting crop has been
taken from the ground, recourfe muft again be had to frefh
manure, and the rotation be renewed.
And inthe ftrong clayey foils, after the land has remained
for two years in the ftate of ‘grafs, from the time of taking
a well frefh dunged foil for barley crop, the leys may be
ploughed down and fown with pea and bean crops; after
which the pea and bean {tubble may be turned in for a wheat
crop; and in many cafes this may be followed by crops of
winter tares and winter barley to be eaten off upon the land
in the fpring feafon, previoufly to its being prepared by
their being ploughed in, and other means for the fowing of
turnips.
In thefe cafes, the rotation may ceafe and begin again,
either after taking the wheat crop, or thofe of the tares and
winter barley, according as the circumftances of the dif-
ferent cafes may be in refpeé to the land.
It may be noticed, that pea and bean crops, in all cafes
of this nature, appear to be very well fuited to form and
prepare the land for wheat crops, as is clearly afcertained,
from their being alternately cultivated for many years to-
gether in fome fuch fituations. This may probably depend,
in fome meafure, upon the {mall proportion of fub{tance
fimilar to that of albuminous matter which they contain, and
afford, as well as upon the principles fupplied by the decay
of the bean roots in the ground, which may be capable of
forming a part of the glutinous material in wheat crops.
In the bufinefs of cropping lands, it may likewife be ne-
ceflary to have regard to the nature and manner in which the
different forts of plants are fed and fupported, for though
the compofition of them in general may be very fimilar,
the fpecific differences in the produéts of anumber of them,
as well as many other faéts and circumftances, fully demon-
{trate that they muft draw different forts of matters from the
earth or foil, and although it muft be obvious that fuch ve-
getables as have the fmalleft fupplies of leaves, will, in pro-
portion, be the mott exhaufting to the earth or foil of its
common nutrient materials, yet that particular forts of
plants, as they are principally fupported by particular kinds
of matters, will, where their produce is carried off the land,
require peculiar principles of fuch natures to be fupplied to
the foil on which they grow.
The cafe of the potatoe, as well as fome other plants, is
highly illuftrative of this point, as it is well known that it
produces the moft fully, and in the moft luxuriant manner
at firft, while the ground or mould is in a frefh or virgin
ftate, and juft turned up from old ley or pafture ; but that
in the courfe of a few years it degenerates and declines,
ftanding in need of a new frefh foil; and the nature of its
pene has a conftant tendency to fearch for this, as the
brous radicles afford new bulbs or roots at a confiderable
diftance from the old plant.
Such grounds alfo as have been long cropped with fome
kinds of artificial graffes, as red clover, &c. frequently
ceafe to yield good and full crops of them; they becoming,
ROT
inthe language of the farmer, fick of, or tired with them;
one principal and probable reafon of which is, perhaps, the
deficiency or abfolute want of the peculiar fort of material
which is neceflary for their growth and fupport, as above,
which in this inftance is that of gypfum. This, therefore,
may be proper to be regarded in determining the rotations in
fuch cafes.
A mott remarkable cafe of this property and capability
of particular plants to drain and exhauft the land of the
particular principles and fubftances fuited to their growth
and fupport, is met with in the mufhroom tribe, which are
allerted never to appear in fucceflion on the fame point of
ground. ,
In fhort, in every rotation of crops, it is of effential im-
portance that every part of the land fhould, in its turn or
fucceffion, be made to contribute, as fully as it is capable, to
the different plants as crops, by their being properly chofen
and adapted in this refpect.
In many inftances of ftrong loamy land, great benefit
may be derived from cropping with beans, which have been
fully dungéd for, after barley and clover, as the latter of
the above crops and the manure will fupply abundant fup-
port for the bean crop, and that crop, in its ftubble and
roots, afford an admirable preparation and fupply of food
for wheat, as already noticed ; which may be properly and
beneficially fucceeded by tares, which again prepare the
ground well by their being fed off on the land, or foiled for
another crop of wheat. The rotation may then begin
again.
e Sonie think that all plants, the feeds of which yield oil,
exhauft land in a very high degree. Thus cole, which is a fort
of cabbage, efpecially when it perfeéts its feed, as well as
the cabbage itfelf, which is believed by many to deteriorate
the land greatly, is improper as a crop in preparation for
wheat, though it is had recourfe to in many diftriéts, and
thought highly of for that purpofe. Great caution is con-
{tantly neceflary in the rotations of cropping with fuch forts
of plants as crops.
In fome cafes of the lighter kinds of mixed foils, peas are
found full as good a preparation for the wheat crop as beans,
having the advantage of being off the land fo much fooner.
Peafe or tares alfo prepare well for wheat, after ray-grafs,
on the ftone-brafh lands in many inftances, when well culti-
vated.
That bean crops fhould always precede the wheat, and
not follow it, as is too frequently the cafe in a number of
diftri@s, is fufficiently evident from the above remarks.
Peas may fometimes be fubftituted in the place of the bean
crop, with confiderable propriety and utility.
It may be concluded on this moft interefting ees that
of all the figns which denote the progrefs or perfeétion of
the art of hufbandry in any diftri&t or country, there is none
which is more certain and correct than that of the rotations
of the crops, which are purfued by the farmers in the ma-
nagement of their arable lands. Where there is no regular
and appropriate change in the kinds of the crops, fo as to
fuit them to the nature of their fupport, and the ftates and
circumftances of the land, the fy{tem of farming muft be in
a wretched ftate indeed ; but where the arable grounds are
regularly preferved in a produCtive {tate, by fuitable rotations
well applied, not only the intereft of the tenant is promoted,
his judicious condu& rendered evident, and the advantage of
the proprietor fecured by the improvement which is effeéted,
but the good of the community greatly increafed, by the
produéts of the earth being rendered fo much more abundant
for its ufe and fupport.
The practice of applying manure and cropping, fo as to
412 draw
ROT |
draw out the ftrength of it, and that of the foil, as foon as
it can be done, until the land is rendered quite barren and
incapable of affording any more produce without fome re-
fpite, is moft miferable, and deferves the hig heft reprobation,
though not uncommon.
It has been contended, that a well-fele@ted rotation of
crops is capable of doubling the fupport of the prefent po-
pulation, and of vaftly increafing the wealth and refources
of the nation. Alfo, that having recourfe to proper modes
of cropping, may fometimes be highly beneficial in pre-
venting the ruft or mildew in wheat, as over-dunging imme-
diately for fuch crops is found to be produétive of the dif-
eafe, while the application of it previoufly to fome fort of
{mothering crop, fuch as rape or cole in {trong lands, and
potatoes on thofe that are light, is an almoft effe@tual
means of avoiding it. Some maintain that this difeafe feldom
or ever takes place in wheat crops after rape or cole, and
others affert the fame to be nearly the cafe in them after po-
tatoes. And that, as wheat after clover on light foils is lia-
ble to be affeGted in this way, it may occafionally be of im-
portance to take it before that crop fomewhat in this man-
her, potatoes, wheat, clover, barley.
Roration of Crops, in Gardening, the introdu€tion of
the moft proper and fuitable courfes of crops, for the pro-
duGtion of good garden vegetables of different kinds, and
for the keeping of the ground in the richeft and moft proper
condition for the cultivation and growth of them. This is
equally important and neceflary in the garden as in the field,
but it cannot, by any means, be fo fully and effe€tually ac-
complifhed in the former as in the latter, on account of the
fmallnefs of the ufual limits of it, and the greatnefs of the
number of different articles which are required to be raifed
and cultivated, as well as their more intimate relation to
each other. See Crops, Cour/e of.
In addition to what has been faid under the head above
alludedto, it may be obferved, that the management of this
bufinefs may, in fome meafure, be effeGed by a fuitable divi-
fion and arrangement of the cultivated culinary vegetables
into different clafles, as crops for the purpofe, as their na-
tures, habits, methods of culture, and difference in duration
and other circumttances may indicate. And by the appli-
cation of the manure which is ufed in fuch ftates, kinds,
and manners, as that it may go the fartheft, be confumed to
the greateft advantage in the raifing of the different forts of
vegetables in fucceflion, and produce them of the beft and
moft healthy kinds.
Manure fhould be applied in the firft inftance only for
thofe crops that are not injured in any way by it, but which
receive great benefit from its ufe, and cannot be grown well
without its being always employed in fuch ftates as are moft
favourable to them, according to their different natures, ha-
bits, and kinds, as the potatoe, cabbage, bean, celery, &c.
When thefe crops have taken up the more grofs parts, the
finer and more delicate vegetables may fucceed on the fame
land in their proper order, fo as to confume the remaining
parts of the manure in the moft advantageous ways, both
to the produce and the land.
On this principle, the rotations fhould obvioufly begin
either with the potatoe, cabbage, bean, celery, or fome
other crop of a fimilar kind, well manured for ; and be fol-
lowed by thofe of the more delicate forts, in their mott
fuitable courfes, fo as not to be hurt in their growth or fla-
vour. The ufe of grafs feeds on well manured land may alfo
fometimes be had recourfe to by market gardeners, for lay-
ing down their lands in the view of refrefhing them, and foon
breaking them up again.
By proper attention to the different circumftances which
ROE,
have been noticed above, and others of the fame nature that
may occur, different ufeful and advantageous rotations of
crops may be introduced into garden culture, and the art
be, inthis way, very greatly improved.
ROTATOR, in Anatomy, a name given to the oblique
mufcles of the eye, called alfo, from the direétion of the
fibres, circulares, and from the effect of their ation, amatorii.
See Eyer.
ROTCHET, in Jchthyology, an Englifh name for the
fifh called by authors cuculus, and more frequently by us
the red gurnard. See Tricia Cuculus.
ROTE, an old mufical inftrument, frequently mentioned
in the French Fabliaux, and fuppofed to mean the valle,
an inftrument played with a wheel, inftead of a bow.
Rote, in Geography, a river of Germany, which runs
into the Itch, two miles N. of Coburg.
ROTEBRO, a town of Sweden, in the
Upland ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Stockholm.
ROTELE, in Jchthyology, a name by which fome call
the rutilus latior, or rubellus fluviatilis, more frequently
known by the name of the roach, a river-fifh, with red
belly-fins and tail. See Cyprinus Rutilus.
ROTELSEE, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 4 miles E. of Kitzingen.
ROTENBACH, a town of the archduchy of Autftria ;
g miles N.W. of Schwanaftadt.
ROTENBERG, a town of Auttria; 18 miles S.W. of
Freyttatt. :
ROTENBURG, atown of Switzerland, in the canton
of Lucerne; 4 miles N. of Lucerne.—Alfo, a town of
Wurtemberg, on the N. fide of the Neckar, oppofite to
Ehingen; 21 miles S.W. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 32!.
E. long. 9° 3!.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the county
of Verden, on the Wumme; 12 miles N.N.E. of Ver-
den. N. lat. 53° 8’. E. long. 9° 24’.—Alfo, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Hefle, on the Fulda; 25
miles $.S.E. of Caflel. N.lat. 51° 1’. E. long. 9° 42'..—
Alfo, a town of Brandenburg, in the New Mark, on the
Oder; 12 miles E.S.E. of Croffen.- N. lat. 52° 5. E.
long. 15° 30'.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Baden; 14
miles E.S.E. of Spire. N. lat. 49° 15'. E. long. 8° 48'.—
Alfo, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg; 4o miles S. of
Maydeburg.
ROTENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
Io miles S.W. of Saxenburg.
ROTGANS, Luks, in Biography, an eminent Dutch
poet, was born of a good family at Amfterdam, in 1645.
His education led him to the cultivation of polite literature,
which, for a time, he quitted to take up arms in defence of
his native country, when invaded by the French in 1672.
When his fervices were no longer required, he retired to a
villa between Amfterdam and Utrecht, where he refumed
with new vigour his favourite purfuits. When peace was
concluded between France and Holland, he paid a vifit to
Paris. He died of the {mall-pox in 1710, in the 66th year
of his age. He was author of a number of poems, highly
efteemed in his own country. Of thefe, one is a * Life of
William III.,”’ in eight books. His other pieces are moral
and mifcellaneous, which, with two tragedies, were printed,
in 1715, at Lewarden.
ROTH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Anfpach, at the union of the Roth and Rednitz,
containing an afylum for thofe who have been guilty of man-
flaughter; and manufactures of {tockings, Spanifh lace,
and ftuffs; rs. miles S. of Nuremberg. .N. lat. 49° 10!
E. long. 10° §9'.—Alfo, a river of Germany, formed from
two fprings, called the Ober and the Unter Roth, which
2 unite
province of
ROT
unite near Hilpolftein, on the borders of Franconia; and
after this union, it falls into the Rednitz, near the town of
Roth.—Alfo, a river of Bavaria, which rifes about 10 miles
S. of Landefhut, and runs into the Inn, oppofite to Scher-
ding. — Alfo, a tosvn of Germany, in the lordfhip of
Limberg; 4 miles W.N.W. of Gaildorf.—Alfo, a river
- of Germany, which runs into the Danube, S.W. of Leip-
heim.
Rorn, je, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pracha-
titz; 4 miles N.E. of Pifek.
Rornu, Haus, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Neiffe ; 7 miles E.N.E of Neifle.
ROTHA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfic ;
6 miles S. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51°12!. E. long. 12° 21'.
ROTHALS, in Ornithology, a name given by Gefner,
and fome others, to the pochard, or red-headed wigeon,
the anas ferina; a bird diftinguifhed from all others of the
duck-kind, by having no variegation in its wings. See
Duck (Ferina).
ROTHARIS, in Biography, king and legiflator of the
Lombards, was duke of Brefcia, at the time of the death of
king Ariovald, in the year 638, who left a widow, named
Gundeberg, but no male iffue. ‘The Lombards gave this
lady the privilege of raifing to the throne the perfon whom
fhe fhould fix on for her hufband, and her choice fell upon
Rotharis, the fubje¢t of this article. For the fake of uniting
himfelf with the queen, he repudiated his own wife, whom,
however, he promifed to maintain in the dignity of a queen.
This engagement he did not long regard, but fhut her up
in an apartment of the palace of Pavia, where fhe remained
five years ; when, through the mediation of Clovis II., fhe
was reftored to her rank in fociety. Rotharis had {carcely
afcended the throne, when he had to contend with all the
power of certain nobles difaflefted to his government,
which, however, he quelled, and afterwards reigned with
equal glory and profperity at home and abroad. His pre-
deceflor had bound himfelf by a treaty with the exarch of
the empire, to reftrain himfelf within certain boundaries ;
but Rotharis did not conceive himfelf under any obligation
to obferve this treaty, and fuddenly burit into the province
of the Cottian Alps, which he reduced, and then made him-
felf matter of all the towns in the Venetian territories. The
exarch, at the fame time, made an incurfion into the Lom-
bard territory, which called away Rotharis from his con-
quefts: an engagement enfued, in which the exarch was
totally defeated, and obliged to fave the relics of his army
by fpeedy flight. Rotharis likewife penetrated into Li-
guria, and took Genoa, Albenga, and other maritime
towns, which he pillaged and difmantled, carrying away the
inhabitants as prifoners. Rotharis has the high merit of
having firft given to his nation a code of written laws. In the
fifth year of his reign he f{ummoned a general diet of his nobles
at Pavia, where, with their confent, he enaéted a number
of laws, which were made public in an ediét iffued in 643,
confifting of 386 articles. ‘Thefe, though they bear the
ftamp of a rude age and people, are accounted more judi-
cious than the laws of fome other barbaric people. It has
been obferved, that Rotharis was fufficiently enlightened
not only to deride the fuperftition of witchcraft, but to
protect the victims of that reputed crime from popular rage.
He alfo praétifed religious toleration, and provided in all
the cities of his kingdom a’ bifhop for each of the two pre-
vailing perfuafions, the Arian and the Catholic. He died
in 653, at the age of 47 years, having reigned more than
15 years. Univer. Hitt.
ROTHBEIN, in Ornithology.
aris.
See ScoLtopax Cali-
ROT
ROTHBURY, in Geography, a market-town and parifh
in Coquetdale ward, in the county of Northumberland,
England, is fituated 29% miles N. by W. from Newcaftle,
and 3064 miles N.N.W. from London. In the oldeft re-
cords, this place is called Robirie, Rathbury, and Routh-
biry ; and its name has by fome been derived from the Britifh
word Rhath, fignifying a cleared fpot, or the Gaelic Rath,
denoting a furety or place of fafety; but it is more pro-
bable, on account of its Saxon termination, that it was fo
called from roth, red, from the ferruginous appearances
around it, where iron mines and ochre abound. Soon after
the Conqueft, Rothbury, though itfelf only a member of
the barony of Warkworth, appears to have been a large
manor, including alfo thofe of Thropton and Snitter.
King John enfeofied the barons of Whalton, in this manor,
for the payment of one knight’s fee. It reverted to the
crown, together with Warkworth, by fettlement; and
was, in 1330, granted to the Percies, and entailed upon
their male potterity. The duke of Northumberland is now
lord of the manor, but pofleffes very little freehold pro-
perty in the town. No remarkable hiftorical event has fig-
nalized this place. Previous to the union of England with
Scotland, the inhabitants of Rothbury and its vicinity ap-
pear to have retained longer than mott others the ferocity
and lawlefsnefs of the ancient race of borderers. The re-
formation was late in finding its way hither; and there are
yet fome traits remaining of the ruder ages, but which are
gradually wearing away. A foot-ball play on Shrove-Tuef-
day, at which all the males above eight years old are re-
quired to attend, is one; and the continuance of the cuftom
of bondage-fervice, in the foreft of Rothbury, is another.
But this laft injurious ufage having been abandoned upon
the property of the duke of Northumberland, by his grace,
it will foon, it is to be hoped, be only remembered by tra-
dition.
According to the parliamentary returns in 1811, the
town contains 133 houfes, and 750 inhabitants: the parifh,
however, includes 27 other townfhips, which comprife 712
houfes, and 3732 inhabitants.
Rothbury ftands in a fequeftered and romantic glen, on
the north fide of the river Coquet. The town is wide, airy,
and tolerably well built, and is much frequented, during the
fummer feafon, by valetudinarians, to drink goats’ whey ;
thefe animals abounding very much amongft the adjacent
cliffs and rocks. There is a weekly market, but very in-
differently fupplied, and it has four fairs in the year. ‘The
church is a very ancient {tructure, dedicated to All-Saints, in
the form of acrofs, and contains a font of very curious work-
manfhip, and feveral refpe€table monuments. Witton or
Whitton tower, one of a line of towers, which, in the bor-
der-wars, extended from Hepple to Warkworth, a itrong
ancient building, with the arms of Unfranville on its weit
fide, is now the reétor’s manfion. The living is worth
about 1200/. per annum. Here is a bridge of three arches
over the Coquet.
On the top of a hill, between this town and Thropton,
is a circular intrenchment, with a double ditch and vallum,
called Old Rothbury ; and not far from it, in a fand-{tone
rock, is a large cave.
Rothbury-foret is about feven miles from ealt to weit,
and four miles from fouth to north. There is now very
little wood upon it, and the whole land is nearly inclofed.
It contains mines of lime-{tone, coal, iron, and ochre;
though, fince the wood has difappeared, nothing but coal
is dug, and that only to a very limited extent. In that part
of the foreft, north of the Coquet, and eaft of Rothbury,
near the road leading from Alnwick, are Dibden-wells, the
waters
ROWE
waters of which were formerly held in high eftimation, and
were much reforted to for the cure of {corbutic eruptions.
Halyftone, a {mall village, about five miles weit from
Rothbury, is fuppofed to have been a place of fome confe-
quence in the time of the Saxons; for here, according to
the venerable Bede, Paulinus baptized, in a copious adjoin-
ing fpring, called our Lady’s well, upwards of 3000 per-
fons. There was alfo a priory of Benedi¢tine nuns, a few
vyeftiges of which are now in exiftence.
Harbottle caftle, about a mile from Halyftone, was once
a formidable fortrefs, but is now in ruins. It was given b
William the Conqueror to Robert de Unfranville, lord of
Tours and Vian, by a general grant of the lordfhip of
Redefdale, to hold, by defending that country for ever from
wolves and enemies, by the fame {word which the Conqueror
wore when he entered Northumberland. In 1173 it was
facked by the Scots; but in 1296 it was befieged in vain by
them. It is now the property of Thomas Clennels, efq., who
has built a modern mantion near it.
At Hepple, on the Coquet, about five miles from Roth-
bury, there was alfo a ftrong cattle, or tower, of which
there are very few remains at prefent. Cartington cattle,
two miles north-weit from Rothbury, was formerly the feat
of the Ratcliffes: the part of it which remains is kept in
good repair, and is very ftrongly built. Here is an afylum
for fix females of the Roman Catholic religion, who, from
their fecluded life, are ufually called nuns. See Hiftorical
and Defcriptive View of the County of Northumberland,
&c., 2 vols. 8vo. 1811, drawn up by Mr. Mackenzie of
Newcaitle. Beauties of England, vol. vii. Northumber-
land, by the Rev. Mr. Hodgfon.
ROTHEM, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Danube, 5 miles above Ulm.
ROTHEMSEE, a lake of Germany, in the principality
of Anfpach ; 6 miles E. of Gerhardfbron.
ROTHENBACH, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine; 30 miles E.S.E. of Francfort on the
Maine.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 2 miles E. of Forcheim.—Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, in the territory of Nuremberg; 3 miles N.W. of
Altorf.
ROTHENBURG, a town of Lufatia, on the river
Neifle ; 14 miles N. of Gorlitz. N. lat. 51° 23/. E. long.
15° 2'.—Alfo, a city of Bavaria, capital of a territory, and
imperial, near the Tauber, fituated on a mountain. The
water of the Tauber fupplies the town by means of a ma-
chine, which raifes it to a part called the Klingenthurn, and
‘from thence it falls down, forming three fountains in the
town. The city is encompaffed with ditches and walls, the
latter being fortified with towers. It has five churches, and
the inhabitants are Lutherans. This is a very ancient place,
and it continued imperial till the year 1802, when it was
affigned among the indemnities to the eleGtor of Bavaria;
18 miles W. of Anfpach. N. lat. 49° 22'. E. long. 10°
14'.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg; 40 miles
5. of Magdeburg.
ROTHENFELS, a caftle giving name to a county,
called Konigfegg Rothenfels, and ceded to Bavaria among
the indemnities; one mile N.W. of Immerftadt.—Alfo, a
town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the Maine, the caftle
of which was demolithed by the peafants in the year 1525;
16 miles W.N.W. of Wurzburg.
ROTHENSIRBEN, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Breflau; 8 miles S. of Breflau.
ROTHENSTEIN, a town with a caltle, in the duchy
of Wurzburg ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Konigfhofen.
ROTHER, ariver of England, in Suffexs, which runs
BR OL
into the fea at Rye.—Alfo, a river in the county of Derby,
which runs into the Don, near Rotheram, in Yorkfhire.
Roruer-Beafs, a word ufed in old ftatutes, and itill in
the northern parts of England, for any horned bealts; as
oxen, cows, fteers, heifers, &c.
Whence rother-/oil, in Herefordfhire, is taken for the dung
or foil of fuch cattle.
RorueEr-Nails, are fuch as have a very large head, and
are ufed to faften the rudder-irons in fhips. See RuppeEr.
ROTHERAM, in Geography, a market-town and parifh
in the upper divifion of the wapentake of Strafford and
Tickhill, Weft-Riding of Yorkfhire, England, is fituated
near the confluence of the rivers Rother and Don, at the
diftance of 45 miles S. by W. from the city of York, and 160
miles N.N.W. from London. It is defcribed by Leland as
‘a meatly large town, with a fare collegiate chirch,’’ which
was founded by Thomas Scott, archbifhop of York, anda
native of Rotheram, in 1481, for a provolt, five prielts, a
{chool-matter in fong, and fix chorifters, alfo a fchool-maiter
in grammar, and another in writing. This eftablifhment was
diflolved by king Henry VIII. Camden calls Rotheram “a
large footy market town,” and not unaptly, for even at the
prefent day it is far from meriting the appellation of hand-
fome or agreeable. The itreets are narrow and irregular ;
and the houfes, which are moftly conitruéted of ftone, have
a dull and dingy appearance. A confiderable trade in coals
and other articles is carried on here, by means of the river
Don. The market day for corn, cattle, and butcher’s
meat is on Monday, weekly ; and on every alternate Mon-
day is a fair for fat cattle, fheep, and pigs; there are alfo
two annual fairs, on Whit Monday, and the firft day of De-
cember. Both markets and fairs are well attended ; indeed
Rotheram is one of the two greateft marts in Yorkshire for
fat cattle and fheep. The chief public buildings are the
town-hall, the parifh-church, and two meeting-houfes, une
for Independents and another for Methodilts. The church,
according to Burton, in his ** Monafticon Eboracenfe,”? was
erected in the reign of Edward IV. It is a handfome and
{pacious edifice, in the early pointed ftyle, and confilts of a
nave, with two fide aifles, a chancel, and a tower at the weft
end. Annexed to the church is a fchool-houfe, for the
education of thirty poor children of the parifh of Rotheram.
The clergyman for the time is governor, and has the nomi-
nation of the children; but the truftees of the founder,
Thomas Hollis, of London, efq. appoint the matter. This
inftitution is managed under very excellent regulations, a
copy of which is delivered to the parents of all children ad-
mitted to its benefits. In this town is likewife an academi-
cal inititution, or college, for the education of Proteftant
diffenters. It is called «‘ The Rotheram Independent Aca-
demy,’’ becaufe more immediately connected with the clafs
of religionifts called Independents. It was firft opened in
November, 1795, under the fuperintendance of the Rev,
Dr. Williams, who prelided as divinity tutor, and is de-
figned for the education of young men propofing to be-
come Independent clergymen. This academy is fupported
by voluntary contributions. The building appropriated to
it was erected by the late Samuel Walker, efq. and is calcu-
lated for the convenient accommodation of fixteen ftudents.
The library contains above 1200 volumes, chiefly prefented
by patrons of the inftitution ; and there is likewife a toler-
able colleGtion of philofophical apparatus. The term of
ftudy is four years, but the managers have a difcretionary
power to prolong it if they think proper.
According-to the parliamentary returns of 1811, the
town of Rotheram alone contained 731 houfes, and 2950 in-
habitants; and the reft of the parifh, including the town-
fhips
ROT
fhips of Brinfworth, Catliffe, Dalton, Orgreave, and Tinf-
ley, 209 houfes, and 986 inhabitants.
On the oppofite fide of the river from Rotheram is the
townhhip, or village, of Maxborough, where very extenfive
iron-works are carried on by Mellrs. Walker. At thefe
works cannon of the largeft calibre are manufactured, as
are alfo almoft every kind of catt-iron articles, with many
of wrought-iron, fuch as bar, fheet, flit, orrodiron. Tin
plates, and fteel of every defcription, are likewife made here
in great quantities; and the iron bridges at Sunderland and
Yarm were caft at thefe founderies. The coal, and the
iron-ftone for the blaft-furnaces, are chiefly fupplied from
the mines on the eftates of the earl of Effingham, and thofe
of earl Fitzwilliam. Thefe works were commenced, in
1746, by Mr. Samuel Walker, and his brothers Aaron and
Jonathan, and have ever fince been progreflively inereafing
in extent and importance. In the Methodiit mecting-houfe
is a monument in memory of Mr. S. Walker; the epitaph
was compofed by the celebrated poet, the Rev. William
Mafon, who was one of his moft intimate friends.
The environs of Rotheram are agreeable and picturefque.
On an eminence to the eaftward of the town ftands an ele-
gant manfion, belonging to the Walker family, which, in
point of fituation, can fearcely be excelled. Aldwark-Hall,
the feat of J. S. Foljambe, efq. fituated at the diltance of
four miles from Rotheram, is alfo remarkable for its fine
fituation. Near it is the village of Wickerfley, noted for its
manufacture of grindftones, of which about 5000, of various
fizes, are ftated to be formed annually, and fent to Sheffield.
The other principal feats in the neighbourhood of Ro-
theram, befides thofe mentioned, are Thundercliffe Grange,
the feat of the earl of Effingham, and Wentworth Houte,
the princely refidence of earl Fitzwilliam. The latter houfe
confiits of a centre and two wings, extending about 600
feet in length. Many of the apartments are moft fuperb,
efpecially the hall and gallery, the latter of which is fup-
ported by beautiful Ionic columns, having intervening niches
filled with marble ftatues. Here, and in other parts of
the houfe, are likewife many paintings; and among others
the famous picture of lord Strafford and his fecretary.
Some fine antiques are preferved in a room called the mu-
feum. Wentwork-park comprifes upwards of 1500 acres
of ground, beautifully diverfified with wood, water, and
lawn, and is enriched by feveral ornamental buildings.
Among thefe is a moft magnificent maufoleum, erected by
the prefent earl Fitzwilliam, in honour of his uncle, the late
marquis of Rockingham. It is conftruéted of a very fine
free-itone, and confiits of three divifions ; the firit is a fquare
Doric bafement ; the fecond of the fame form, but of the
Tonic order; and the third prefents a cupola, fupported by
twelve columns of the fame charaéter. Within 1s an apart-
ment rifing into a dome, which reits upon eight pillars, en-
circling a white marble ftatue of the marquis in his robes of
ftate, executed by Mr. Nollekens. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xvi. by J. Bigland.
Rorneram Plough, in Agriculture, a particular fort of
plough, which is found very ufeful, and much employed
about the town of that name, in Yorkfhire, as well as in
many other places in the kingdom. See PLouGu.
ROTHERHITHE, in Geography, a village and parifh
in the eaftern divifion of the hundred of Brixton, and
county of Surrey, England, is fituated on the fouth bank
of the river Thames, at the diftatice of a mile and a half
E. of London bridge. The parifh is bounded on the N.
and E. by that river, on the S. by the parifhes of Bermond-
fey and Camberwell, on the W. by Horfley-Down, and on
the S.E. by the parifh of Deptford, in Kent. In this
RiOw
a are eleven dock-yards, at fome of which fhips ave
uilt for the fervice of the Eaft India Company. The
manor auciently belon to the «¢ Abbot of Graces,’’ but
was granted, in the reign of Richard II. to the priory of
St. Magdalen, Bermondfey. After the fuppreffion of mo-
nafteries, it continued annexed to the crown till the reign
of Charles I. when it was granted to a gentleman of the
name of White, and has fince been poffeffed by various
families. This manor has a court-leet and a court-baron.
Rotherhithe, not being mentioned in Domefday-book, it
feems probable that it was then only a hamlet to Bermond-
fey. The church was ereéted in 1715, initead of a former
one, which had then become ruinous. It confifts of a nave,
chancel, and two fide aifles, with a fquare tower, furmounted
by a fpire at the weft end. The,living is a re€tory in the
diocefe of Winchefter and deanery of Southwark. The
only remarkable monument here is that of the Pelew prince,
Lee Boo, who died of the {mall-pox December 29th, 1784,
inthe zoth year of his age. This young man was the fon
of Abba Thulle, king of the ifland of Goo-roo-raa, and
came to England with captain Wilfon, whofe fhip, the An-
telope, was wrecked off that ifland gth Auguft, 1783, on
which occafion the natives treated the crew with the utmoit
humanity and kindaefs. In this parifh is a free-fchool, at
which about 30 boys and 20 girls are clothed and educated.
According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Rother-
hithe parifh contains 2719 houfes, and 12,114 inhabitants.
The Hiftory and Antiquities of the County of Surrey, by
the Rev. Owen Manning, continued by William Bray, efq.
folio, vol. i. Antiquities of Surrey, by N. Salmon, L. L.B.
Lond. 8vo. 1736. Aubrey’s Natural Hiftory and Anti-
quities of Surrey, vol. v. 8vo. Lond. 1719. Lyfons’s En-
virons of London. vol. i. 4to. Lond. 1796. And Supple-
ment to the latter, 1813.
ROTHESAY, or Rosay, a royal borough-town and
parifh in the county and ifle of Bute, Scotland, is fituated
on the bank of a fine bay, at the N.W. fide of the ifland.
The ancient Gaelic and patronimic name of this parifh is
Cilla-bhruic, which fignifies the church dedicated to
St. Broke. The town is yet called, in the Gaelic language,
Bailea-Mhoide, or the town where the courts of jultice are
held. Rothefay is undoubtedly of high antiquity ; but it
does not feem to have been conftituted a royal borough
till the year 1400, when king Robert III., who was then
refident at the caftle, raifed it to that dignity. At that
period it was a confiderable town, but in fucceeding years
it declined greatly both in extent and population, as was
apparent in the early part of the lait century, by the
number of ruinous houfes, and foundations of others, which
were then vifible. About fifty years ago, indeed, it was
reduced to the condition of a mean village, poflefling only
one decked veflel of inconfiderable burthen. Under the
aufpices of the late earl of Bute, however, the induftry and
emulation of the inhabitants began to revive, and the town
has again advanced to a {tate of comparative profperity
and opulence. Even fo early as 1790, the inhabitants had
accumulated fhipping to the amount of 4246 tons, and it is
believed the eltimate of tonnage is now nearly doubled.
This change has been principally effected by the encourage-
ment given to the herring-fifheries, in which the inhabitants of
Rothefay have about 100 imall veffels employed annually ;
but in part it is likewife to be attributed to the eftablifh-
ment of fome cotton-mills in the immediate vicinity.
Rothefay, as a royal borough, unites with Cambletown,
Irvine, Inverary, and Ayr, in the eleétion of a reprefentative
to the great council of the nation. It is the feat of the
county courts of juttice ; and has the honour of giving the
title
R..O..T
waters-of which were formerly held in high eitimation, and
were much reforted to for the cure of fcorbutic eruptions.
Halyftone, a {mall village, about five miles weit from
Rothbury, is fuppofed to have been a place of fome confe-
quence in the time of the Saxons; for here, according to
the venerable Bede, Paulinus baptized, in a copious adjoin-
ing fpring, called our Lady’s well, upwards of 3000 per-
fons. There was alfo a priory of Benediétine nuns, a few
yeftiges of which are now in exiftence.
Harbottle caftle, about a mile from Halyftone, was once
a formidable fortrefs, but is now in ruins. It was given by
William the Conqueror to Robert de Unfranville, lord of
Tours and Vian, by a general grant of the lordfhip of
Redefdale, to hold, by defending that country for ever frem
wolves and enemies, by the fame {word which the Conqueror
wore when he entered Northumberland. In 1173 it was
facked by the Scots; butin 1296 it was befieged in vain by
them. It is now the property of Thomas Clennels, efq., who
has built a modern manfion near it.
At Hepple, on the Coquet, about five miles from Roth-
bury, there was alfo a ftrong caftle, or tower, of which
there are very few remains at prefent. Cartington cattle,
two miles north-weit from Rothbury, was formerly the feat
of the Ratcliffes: the part of it which remains is kept in
good repair, and is very ftrongly built. Here is an afylum
for fix females of the Roman Catholic religion, who, from
their fecluded life, are ufually called nuns. See Hittorical
and Defcriptive View of the County of Northumberland,
&c., 2 vols. 8vo. 1811, drawn up by Mr. Mackenzie of
Newcaftle. Beauties of England, vol. vii. Northumber-
land, by the Rev. Mr. Hodgfon.
ROTHEM, a river of Germany, which runs into the
Danube, 5 miles above Ulm.
ROTHEMSEE, a lake of Germany, in the principality
of Anfpach; 6 miles E. of Gerhardfbron.
ROTHENBACH, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine; 30 miles E.S.E. of Francfort on the
Maine.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 2 miles E. of Forcheim.—Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, in the territory of Nuremberg; 3 miles N.W. of
Altorf.
ROTHENBURG, a town of Lufatia, on the river
Neiffe ; 14 miles N. of Gorlitz. N. lat. 51° 23'. E. long.
15° 2'.—Alfo, a city of Bavaria, capital of a territory, and
imperial, near the Tauber, fituated on a mountain. The
water of the Tauber fupplies the town by means of a ma-
chine, which raifes it to a part called the Klingenthurn, and
from thence it falls down, forming three fountains in the
town. The city is encompaffed with ditches and walls, the
latter being fortified with towers. It has five churches, and
the inhabitants are Lutherans. This is a very ancient place,
and it continued imperial till the year 1802, when it was
affigned among the indemnities to the elector of Bavaria ;
18 miles W. of Anfpach. N. lat. 49° 22'. E. long. 10°
14!.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Magdeburg; 40 miles
S. of Magdeburg.
ROTHENFELS, a caftle giving name to a county,
called Konigfegg Rothenfels, and ceded to Bavaria among
the indemnities; one mile N.W. of Immerftadt.—Alfo, a
town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the Maine, the caftle
of which was demolifhed by the peafants in the year 15253
16 miles W.N.W. of Wurzburg.
ROTHENSIRBEN, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Breflau; 8 miles S. of Breflau.
ROTHENSTEIN, a town with a cattle, in the duchy
of Wurzburg; 8 miles S.S.E. of Konigfhofen.
ROTHER, a river of England, in Suffex, which runs
ROT
into the fea at Rye.—Alfo, a river in the county of Derby,
which runs into the Don, near Rotheram, in Yorkfhire.
RotrHer-Beafs, a word ufed in old ftatutes, and itill in
the northern parts of England, for any horned beafts; as
oxen, cows, fteers, heifers, &c.
Whence rother-/oil, in Herefordfhire, is taken for the dung
or foil of fuch cattle.
Roruer-Wails, are fuch as have a very large head, and
are ufed to faftea the rudder-irons in fhips. See RuppeEr.
ROTHERAM, in Geography, a market-town and parifh
in the upper divifion of the wapentake of Strafford and
Tickhill, Weft-Riding of Yorkfhire, England, is fituated
near the confluence of the rivers Rother and Don, at the
diftance of 45 miles S. by W. from the city of York, and 160
miles N.N.W. from London. It is defcribed by Leland as
“a meatly large town, with a fare collegiate chirch,” which
was founded by Thomas Scott, archbifhop of York, anda
native of Rotheram, in 1481, for a provoit, five prielts, a
{chool-matter in fong, and fix chorifters, alfo a fchool-maiter
in grammar, and another in writing. This eftablifament was
diflolved by king Henry VIII. Camden calls Rotheram ‘a
large footy market town,” and not unaptly, for even at the
prefent day it is far from meriting the appellation of hand-
fome or agreeable. The itreets are narrow and irregular ;
and the houfes, which are moftly conftructed of ftone, have
a dull and dingy appearance. A confiderable trade in coals
and other articles is carried on here, by means of the river
Don. The market day for corn, cattle, and butcher’s
meat is on Monday, weekly ; and on every alternate Mon-
day is a fair for fat cattle, fheep, and pigs; there are alfo
two annual fairs, on Whit Monday, and the firft day of De-
cember. Both markets and fairs are well attended ; indeed
Rotheram is one of the two greateft marts in Yorkfhire for
fat cattle and fheep. The chief public buildings are the
town-hall, the parifh-church, and two meeting-houfes, une
for Independents and another for Methodilts. The church,
according to Burton, in his ** Monafticon Eboracenfe,”’ was
erected in the reign of Edward IV. It is a handfome and
{pacious edifice, in the early pointed ftyle, and confilts of a
nave, with two fide aifles, a chancel, and a tower at the weft
end. Annexed to the church is a fchool-houfe, for the
education of thirty poor children of the parifh of Rotheram.
The clergyman for the time is governor, and has the nomi-
nation of the children; but the truftees of the founder,
Thomas Hollis, of London, efq. appoint the matter. This
inftitution is managed under very excellent regulations, a
copy of which is delivered to the parents of all children ad-
mitted to its benefits. In this town is likewife an academi-
cal inititution, or college, for the education of Proteftant
diffenters. It is called «« The Rotheram Independent Aca-
demy,’’ becaufe more immediately connected with the clafs
of religionifts called Independents. It was firlt opened in
November, 1795, under the fuperintendance of the Rev.
Dr. Williams, who prelided as divinity tutor, and is de-
figned for the education of young men propofing to be-
come Independent clergymen. This academy is fupported
by voluntary contributions. The building appropriated to
it was erected by the late Samuel Walker, efq. and is calcu-
lated for the convenient accommodation of fixteen ftudents.
The library contains above 1200 volumes, chiefly prefented
by patrons of the inititution; and there is likewife a toler-
able colleGtion of philofophical apparatus. The term of
ftudy is four years, but the managers have a difcretionary
power to prolong it if they think proper.
According-to the parliamentary returns of 1811, the
town of Rotheram alone contained 731 houfes, and 2950 in-
habitants; and the reft of the parifh, including the town-
fhips
Aue ce
ROT
fhips of Brinfworth, Catliffe, Dalton, Orgreave, and Tinf-
ley, 209 houfes, and 986 inhabitants.
On the oppofite fide of the river from Rotheram is the
townfhip, or village, of Maxborough, where very extenfive
iron-works are carried on by Melirs. Walker. At thefe
works cannon of the largeft calibre are manufactured, as
are alfo almoft every kind of caft-iron articles, with many
of wrought-iron, fuch as bar, fheet, flit, orrodiron. Tin
plates, and fteel of every defcription, are likewife made here
in great quantities; and the iron bridges at Sunderland and
Yarm were caft at thefe founderies. The coal, and the
iron-ftone for the blaft-furnaces, are chiefly fupplied from
the mines on the eftates of the earl of Effingham, and thofe
of earl Fitzwilliam. Thefe works were commenced, in
1746, by Mr. Samuel Walker, and his brothers Aaron and
Jonathan, and have ever fince been progreflively inereafing
in extent and importance. In the Methodiit meeting-houle
is a monument in memory of Mr. S. Walker; the epitaph
was compofed by the celebrated poet, the Rev. William
Mafon, who was one of his moft intimate friends.
The environs of Rotheram are agreeable and piturefque.
On an eminence to the eaftward of the town ftands an ele-
gant manfion, belonging to the Walker family, which, in
point of fituation, can fcarcely be excelled. Aldwark-Hall,
the feat of J. S. Foljambe, efq. fituated at the diltance of
four miles from Rotheram, is alfo remarkable for its fine
fituation. Near it is the village of Wickerfley, noted for its
manufature of grind{tones, of which about 5000, of various
fizes, are ftated to be formed annually, and fent to Sheffield.
The other principal feats in the neighbourhood of Ro-
theram, befides thofe mentioned, are Thundercliffe Grange,
the feat of the earl of Effingham, and Wentworth Houte,
the princely refidence of earl Fitzwilliam. The latter houfe
confilts of a centre and two wings, extending about 600
feet in length. Many of the apartments are moft fuperb,
efpecially the hall and gallery, the latter of which is fup-
perted by beautiful Ionic columns, having intervening niches
filled with marble ftatues. Here, and in other parts of
the houfe, are likewife many paintings; and among others
the famous piéture of lord Strafford and his fecretary.
Some fine antiques are preferved in a room called the mu-
feum. Wentwork-park comprifes upwards of 1500 acres
of ground, beautifully diverfified with wood, water, and
lawn, and is enriched by feveral ornamental buildings.
Among thefe is a moft magnificent maufoleum, erected by
the prefent earl Fitzwilliam, in honour of his uncle, the late
marquis of Rockingham. It is conftruéted of a very fine
free-itone, and confiits of three divifions ; the firit is a fquare
Doric bafement ; the fecond of the fame form, but of the
Tonic order ; and the third prefents a cupola, fupported by
twelve columns of the fame charaéter. Within 1s an apart-
ment rifing into a dome, which reits upon eight pillars, en-
circling a white marble ftatue of the marquis in his robes of
ftate, executed by Mr. Nollekens. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xvi. by J. Bigland.
Rorneram Plough, in Agriculture, a particular fort of
plough, which is found very ufeful, and much employed
about the town of that name, in Yorkfhire, as well as in
many other places in the kingdom. See PLouGu.
ROTHERHITHE, in Geography, a village and parith
in the eaftern divifion of the hundred of Brixton, and
county of Surrey, England, is fituated on the fouth bank
of the river Thames, at the diftauce of a mile and a half
E. of London bridge. The parifh is bounded on the N.
and E. by that river, on the S. by the parifhes of Bermond-
fey and Camberwell, on the W. by Horfley-Down, and on
the S.E. by the parifh of Deptford, in Kent. In this
ROT
ag are eleven dock-yards, at fome of which fhips ave
uilt for the fervice of the Eaft India Company. The
manor auciently belonged to the «* Abbot of Graces,” but
was ted, in the reign of Richard II. to the priory of
St. Magdalen, Bermondfey. After the fuppreffion of mo-
nafteries, it continued annexed to the crown till the rei
of Charles I. when it was granted to a gentleman of
name of White, and has fince been potfeffed by various
families. This manor has a court-leet and a court-baron.
Rotherhithe, not being mentioned in Domefday-book, it
feems probable that it was then only a hamlet to Bermond-
fey. The church was ereéted in 1715, initead of a former
one, which had then become ruinous. It confifts of a nave,
chancel, and two fide aifles, with a fquare tower, furmounted
by a {pire at the weft end. The.living is a re€tory in the
diocefe of Winchefter and deanery of Southwark. The
only remarkable monument here is that of the Pelew prince,
Lee Boo, who died of the {mall-pox December 29th, 1784,
inthe zoth year of his age. This young man was the fon
of Abba Thulle, king of the ifland of Goo-roo-raa, and
came to England with captain Wilfon, whofe fhip, the An-
telope, was wrecked off that ifland gth Auguft, 1783, on
which occafion the natives treated the crew with the utmoit
humanity and kindaefs. In this parifh is a free-fchool, at
which about 30 boys and 20 girls are clothed and educated.
According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Rother-
hithe parifh contains 2719 houfes, and 12,114 inhabitants.
The Hiftory and Antiquities of the County of Surrey, by
the Rev. Owen Manning, continued by William Bray, efq.
folio, vol. i. Antiquities of Surrey, by N. Salmon, L. L. B.
Lond. 8vo. 1736. Aubrey’s Natural Hiftory and Anti-
quities of Surrey, vol. v. 8vo. Lond. 1719. Lyfons’s En-
virons of London. vol. i. 4to. Lond. 1796. And Supple-
ment to the latter, 1813.
ROTHESAY, or Rosay, a royal borough-town and
parifh in the county and ifle of Bute, Scotland, is fituated
on the bank of a fine bay, at the N.W. fide of the ifland.
The ancient Gaelic and patronimic name of this parifh is
Cilla-bhruic, which fignifies the church dedicated to
St. Broke. The town is yet called, in the Gaelic language,
Bailea-Mhoide, or the town where the courts of juitice are
held. Rothefay is undoubtedly of high antiquity ; but it
does not feem to have been conftituted a royal borough
till the year 1400, when king Robert III., who was then
refident at the caftle, raifed it to that dignity. At that
period it was a confiderable town, but in fucceeding years
it declined greatly both in extent and population, as was
apparent in the early part of the lait century, by the
number of ruinous houfes, and foundations of others, which
were then vifible. About fifty years ago, indeed, it was
reduced to the condition of a mean village, poflefling only
one decked veflel of inconfiderable burthen. Under the
aufpices of the late earl of Bute, however, the induftry and
emulation of the inhabitants began to revive, and the town
has again advanced to a {tate of comparative profperity
and opulence. Even fo early as 1790, the inhabitants had
accumulated fhipping to the amount of 4246 tons, and it is
believed the eltimate of tonnage is now nearly doubled.
This change has been principally effected by the encourage-
ment given to the herring-fifheries, in which the inhabitants of
Rothefay have about 100 imall veffels employed annually ;
but in part it is likewife to be attributed to the eftablifh-
ment of fome cotton-mills in the immediate vicinity.
Rothefay, as a royal borough, unites with Cambletown,
Irvine, Inverary, and Ayr, in the election of a reprefentative
to the great council of the nation. It is the feat of the
county courts of juftice ; and has the honour of giving the
title
ROT
title of a Scottifh dukedom to the heir apparent of the
Britith throne.
The cattle of Rothefay is now a mere ruin, and is fo
completely enveloped with ivy, that only {mall portions of
its walls are difcernible to the eye. It was erected at dif-
ferent periods ; part of it, forming the prefent entrance, by
king Robert III., and the remainder at a much more remote
date. The latter divifion is quite circular, and is ftrength-
ened by projecting round towers. This caftle, in remote
times, was the fcene of feveral events of military note in
Scottifh hiftory. According to Torfeus, Hufbec, grand-
fon of Somerled, was killed in an attack on a ‘caftle in
Bute, moft probably of this. In 1263, Haco, king of
Norway, obtained forcible poffeflion of it, and of the whole
- ifland ; andin 1334 it was feized by Edward Baliol, becaufe
its then owner, the high fteward of Scotland, was related
to the Bruces, and was next heir to the throne. The year
following, the ifland was invaded by the Englifh under lord
Darcy, and given up to plunder ; which fo exafperated the
natives, that, in conjunction with thofe of Arran, they made
an attack upon the caftle foon after lord Darcy left it, and
fucceeded in regaining pofleffion of it. Subfequent to this
period it became a royal refidence. King Robert II. and III.
lived init for a confiderable time ; and it would appear that
much attention was beitowed on it, for in the reign of
James V. we find that one of the articles of accufation
exhibited againft fir James Hamilton, was his not account-
ing for three thoufand crowns deftined for the ‘ reform of
the caftle and palace of Rofay.”? In 1544, the earl of
Lennox, affifted by the Englifh, made himfelf matter of
this place ; after which it became the principal refidence
of the Stuarts, anceftors of the prefent family of Bute,
and continued fo till the year 1685, when it was burnt
by the duke of Argyle. The earl of Bute, however, yet
ranks among his titles that of hereditary keeper of this
palace.
The parifh of Rothefay extends about ten miles in
length, and from three to four in breadth. In the time of
epilcopacy, it was within the diocefe of the Ifles, and on
the eftablifhment of Prefbyterianifm, was included in the
prefbytery of Irvine, or Cuninghame, and the fynod of
Glafgow and Ayr. Jn 1639, however, it was disjoined from
that prefbytery and fynod, and annexed to the prefbytery
of Denoon, znd fynod of Argyle, to which it continues
united. According to the parliamentary cenfus of 1811,
this parifh contained 702 houfes, and 4970 inhabitants, of
whom 3544 are refident within the borough. The Statif-
tical Account of Scotland, by Sir John Sinclair, bart. vol. 1.
8vo. 1791. Pennant’s Tour in Scotland, &c. 4to. vol. i.
Lond. 1776. Beauties of Scotland, vol. y. 8vo. 1808.
Carlifle’s ‘Topographical Di€tionary of Scotland, 2 vols.
Ato. 1813.
ROTHEWASSER, a river of Saxony, which runs
into the Elbe, about three miles below Pirna.
ROTHHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg ; § miles S. of Meinungen. :
ROTHHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 5
miles N.E. of Aub.
ROTHIA, in Botany, received its name from Schreber,
in honour of Dr. Albert William Roth, a phyfician of the
duchy of Bremen, born in 1755; whofe Flora Germanica,
though as yet unfinifhed, his CataleGa Botanica, and various
other works, have procured him a diftinguifhed rank
amongft European botanifts.—Schreb. Gen. 531, Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1611. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew, v. 4.463. Lamarck Illuftr. t.667. Gaertn. t. 174.
Roth, Catal. v. 1. 103.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly-
RO. 2
gamia-egqualis. Nat. Ord. Compofite femiflofculofe, Linn.
Cichoracea, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx rounded, finely villous; of
about feven equal, linear, acute feales. Cor. compound,
imbricated, uniform, of numerous equal florets, all perfect,
whofe partial corolla is of one petal, hgulate, linear, abrupt,
with five teeth. Stam. Filaments in each floret five, capil-
lary, very fhort ; antliers united into acylindrical tube. Pi/.
Germen in each floret ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length
of the ftamems; ftigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none, the
calyx clofing over the feeds, which are folitary in each
floret ; thofe of the difk cylindrical, fomewhat turbinate,
ftriated, with feflile capillary down, feathery in its lower
part; thofe of the radius cylindrical, ftriated, enveloped in
{cales of the receptacle, but deftitute of down. Recept.
flat ; hairy in the diflk ; chaffy at the radius; the chaffy
feales in feveral rows, linear, channelled, erect, rather acute,
tubular at the bafe, the outermoft equal in length to the
calyx, the inner ones gradually fhorter. ‘
Eff. Ch. Receptacle hairy ; chaffy in the circumference,
Calyx of many equal {cales. Seed-down hairy, feffile in
the diflk ; none in the radius.
Obf. This genus, as every body obferves, is very near
Andryala, and we greatly fear ought not to be feparated
from it. Dr. Roth at firft named it, after a friend of his.
Voigtia, in Roemer and Ufleris’ Magazine, Fafc. 10. 17.
What Gertner has delineated and defcribed for Andryala,
v. 2. 361. t. 158, is now made a fpecies of Rothia; to
which circumftance however he does not advert at p. 371
of the fame volume, where Rothia is defcribed; neither
does Roth, in his original defcription of this genus, feem to
have had Andryala at all in his contemplation, or he
would furely have contrafted their eflential characters. In
fa&t the genus of Andryala itfelf depends upon two of the
{pecies now called Rothia, with which the third indubitably
accords. If 4. Janata of Linneus conftituted a diftinét
genus, the name of dadryala might remain with it; but
there is much reafon to believe this plant ought to be re-
ferred to Hieracium, the hairinefs of its receptacle being
uncertain or variable. 4. cheiranthifolia and ragu/ina;have
fo precifely the habit of Rothia, that we can hardly allow
them to be feparated from it by any technical charaéters
that we can difcern. In this difficulty we fhall here give
the fpecies of Rothia as we find them ; only premifing that,
by any thing here faid, we mean not to invalidate Dr.
Roth’s claim to be commemorated by fome certain and
immutable genus, to which his high botanical merits richly
entitle him. i
1. R. andryaloides. Andryaline Rothia. Gertn. v. 2.
371. Roth. Catal. n. 1. Willd. n. 1. (Voigtia tomen-
tofa; Roth ia Roem. and Uft. Mag. fafc. g. 17.) —Stem
much branched from the very bafe. Leaves downy, ovato-
lanceolate, clafping the ftem, nearly entire.—Native of
Spain. Root annual, branched, fomewhat woody. Stem
twelve or eighteen inches high, ereét, brown, downy ; its
branches alternate, widely {preading. Leaves alternate,
diftant, recurved, rather wavy, downy, andhoary. Flower;
Jfiaiks axillary and terminal, folitary, nearly twice as long
as the leaves, naked, ere¢t, fingle-flowered, extremely downy.
Braéea folitary under each flower, lanceolate, very downy,
{earcely longer than the calyx, which is alfo downy and
whitifh ; contraéted and globofe before the flower opens,
but afterwards lax, confifting of from five to feven fcales,
Corolla yellow ; the florets of the circumference purplifh
at the back. The outer row of fcales of the receptacle is
exadtly like the calyx; the reft gradually {maller, downy
on the outfide. The flowers are open before noon ony?
€
RO®
The whole herb has ftraight, prominent, capitate hairs, in-
termixed with its downy pubefcence. Roth.
2. R. cheiranthifolia. Stock-leaved Rothia. Roth.
Catal. n.2. Willd. n.2. Ait. n.2. (Andryala finuata ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1137. A. integrifolia 8; Syit. Nat. ed. 12.
v. 2. §25-)—Stem ereét, corymbofe. Leaves finely woolly,
lanceolate, finuated, or deeply toothed; the uppermott
- feffile, ovate, taper-pointed, entire. Native of Spain and
the fouth of France, flowering there in May. It is marked
in Hort. Kew. as a hardy annual, flowering in July and
Augutt. Herb milky, clothed with denfe, white, woolly down,
intermixed in the upper part with copious, prominent, capi-
tate, tawny hairs, giving it a reddifh hue, efpecially when
old. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high ; branched above,
at firft corymbofe, then racemofe. Leaves feffile, alternate,
rather diftant, obtufe; the lower ones about a finger’s
length, with fhort, triangular, diftant teeth, and inter-
mediate finufes; the uppermoft gradually {maller and
entire. Flower-flalks naked, or with here and there a
linear radea. Calyx of from three to five fcales. Outer
{cales of the receptacle like the calyx in ftru€&ture, but rather
longer, very downy at the back; inner ones fhorter,
{fmooth, and more membranous. Corolla of a golden yellow
in every part.-—We cannot help fufpe¢ting that what Dr.
Roth thus defcribes as the outer f{cales of the receptacle, do
in faé&t belong to the calyx, which appears to us compofed
of a row of very numerous equal woolly feales, furrounded
with a few fhorter external ones, as ufual in many of this
tribe.
3. R. runcinata. Hoary Rothia. Roth. Catal. n. 3.
Willd. .n. 3. Ait. n. 2. (Andryala integrifolia; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1136. Syit. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 525. «. Sonchus
lanatus ; Dalech. Hilt. v. 2. 1116.)—Stem ere@, corym-
bofe. Leaves downy; the lower ones oblong, runcinate ;
upper lanceolate, flightly toothed. Flower-ttalks villous,
glandular.—Native of the fouth of Europe. Biennial,
twice as large’ as the foregoing, and varying much in luxu-
riance. The lower faves are italked. Whole herb clothed
with fine, denfe, velvet-like pubefcence, very thick and
woolly about the ca/yx, which is moreover befet with long
golden hairs. Roth, very paradoxically, defcribes the calyx
as confifting of only one or two leaflets, or fcales, reckoning
as fcales of the receptacle what all the world, furely, would
call a calyx. This, therefore, is only a difference of words,
and appears ftill further to invalidate the diftin@tion between
Rothia and Andryala. Thefe plants, in reality, require to
be all examined and compared, in a living ftate, by fome
botanift accuftomed to confider genera on a large {cale,
and who is particularly acquainted with fyngenefious plants.
We do not profefs to be, at prefent, Furilied with mate-
rials for the purpofe.
Roruia, in Geography, a town of the ifland of St. Vin-
cent, in York bay. “N. lat. 13° 7!. W. long. 61° 16'.
ROTHLA, a town of Bavaria, in the territory of Ro-
thenburg; 8 miles N. of Rothenburg.
ROTHMUNSTER, a princely abbey of Germany, on
the Neckar, given as an indemnity, in the year 1802, to
the prince of Hohenlohe; 2 miles S. of Rothweil.
ROTHWELL, atown of Wurtemberg, fituated on the
Neckar, being a very ancient imperial town, and which the
emperors Charles IV. and Wenceflaus engaged to maintain
as fuch. It is chiefly remarkable for its imperial tribunal,
the firlt traces of which are to be found in the provincial
court of Swabia, which feems to have originated in the time
of the emperor Louis of Bavaria, and, til] the middle of the
15th century, was fometimes called the provincial court of
the emperor, and fometimes the imperial tribune of Roth-
- Vor. XXX.
ROT
weil. In the year 1802 it was given to the duke of Wur-
temberg ; 44 miles S.S.W. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 7'.
E. long. 8° 34!
ROTHWELL, called alfo Rowrit, a town and parifh
in the hundred of Rothwell, and county of Northampton,
England, is fituated 4 miles N.W. by W. from the town
of Kettering, and 78 miles N.W. by N. from London.
This place is faid to derive its name from two remarkable
{prings in the vicinity, the water of one of which is of a
petrifying quality, and in the other are frequently found
numerous {mall bones, conjeétured to be thofe of frogs.
Here was a {mall priory of Auguttine nuns, dedicated to Se.
John Baptift, and which was probably founded by the Clare
family, whofe fucceflors in the manor appear, upon record,
as its patrons. Rothwell was formerly a confiderable
market-town, but the market has been long difcon-
tinued. The market-houfe is worthy of attention, from
the ftyle of the building. It was begun by fir Thomas
Trefham, but never completed, owing to his death, which
happened in the third year of James 1. His fon and
fucceflor, Francis Trefham, was providentially the inftru-
ment of the difcovery of the gunpowder-plot, by fend-
ing a letter to lord Monteagle, who had married Mr.
Trefham’s filter, and thus led to the dete@ion of the con-
{piracy.
In the church are feveral monumental memorials of the
Trefham family, and others for different perfons. Rothwell
has an annual fair, held on Trinity-Monday. According
to the returns to parliament in 1811, the parifh contains
330 houfes, and 1451 inhabitants.
In the hundred of Rothwell, at Great Oxendon, is a re-
markable echo in the belfry of the church-tower. To a
perfon ftanding at the diftance of 673 feet, on the weftern
part of the elevated ground on which the church is built,
this echo returns diftinétly thirteen fyllables. An echo,
but not to an equal extent, is obtainable from the top of an
adjacent hill to the fouth; but fcarcely any exifts on the
ealtern or northern fides of the tower. But it is faid, that
the effeét has lately been confiderably diminifhed, by altera-
tions which have been made in the belfry-windows.
Braybrooke church, between Oxendon and Rothwell,
exhibits a very curious and highly decorated monument,
erected for fir Nicholas Griffin, knight, who died in 1509.
It difplays an aflemblage of pedeftals, fhields, crefts, and
other ornaments, very charaéteriftic of the age of queen
Elizabeth.
Kelmarfh-hall, on the one fide of Rothwell, and Rufh-
ton-hall, on the other, are noble family manfions ; and the
latter in particular is very beautifully fituated.
Robert Talbot, one of our early Englifh antiquaries,
who flourifhed about 1546, was a native of Thorpe Mal-
for, a village between Rothwell and Kettering. He was
the friend and aflociate of Leland, and both Camden and
Burton feem to have made confiderable ufe of his an-
notations on the Itinerary of Antoninus. Hittory, &c. of
Northamptonfhire, by Bridges and Whalley, 2 vols. folio.
A new edition, with large additions and correétions, of this
work, is now preparing by Mr. George Baker of North-
amptonfhire.
ROTHWENSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the
margraviate of Meiflen; 3 miles S. of Pirna.
ROTIME, a town of Fez, near the Atlantic.
ROTKNUSSEL, in Ornithology, a name by which the
Germans call the ga/linula melampus of Gefner. It is a bird
fomewhat approaching to the {nipe-kind ; its back is brown,
with a flight admixture of reddifh, and fome fpots of a dufky
colour ; its wings are variegated with black and white, and’
4K its
ROT
its beak and legs are black. It is common in many parts
of Germany.. See Guarroia Nevia.
ROTLESREUT, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach; 5 miles S.E. of Culm-
bach.
ROTMEINSDOREF, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg; 2 miles E. of Ebern.
ROTNEBY, or Ronnesy, a fea-port town of Sweden,
near a river of the fame name, which runs into the Baltic.
It has fome trade, a harbour, medicinal {prings, and feveral
manufa@tures. The inhabitants are free of Carlfcrona;
g miles W. of it. :
ROTOLO, an Egyptian weight of twelve ounces, each
ounce confifting of twelve drachms, and each drachm of
fixteen carats. See Rorroro.
ROTONDO, Rorunpno, in Archite@ure, a popular
term fer any building that is round both within and without-
fide, whether it be a church, hall, a faloon, a veftibule, or
the like.
The moft celebrated rotondo of antiquity is the Pantheon
at Rome, dedicated to Cybele, and all the gods, by
Agrippa, fon-in-law of Auguftus; but fince confecrated
by pope Boniface IV. to the Virgin, and all the faints,
under the title of Sta. Maria della Rotondo.
The chapel of the Eicurial, which is the burying-place
of the kings of Spain, is alfo a rotondo ; and, in imitation of
that of Rome, is alfo called Pantheon.
Roronpo, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bafilicata; 6 miles S.S.E. of Turfi.
ROTROU, Joun ve, in Biography, a French dramatic
writer, was born, in 1609, of an ancient family at Dreux.
He diftinguifhed himfelf by a great facility in compofing
dramatic pieces, both in tragedy and comedy. In this line
of literature he was fo far fuperior to his predeceflors, that
he is denominated by Voltaire ‘ the founder of the theatre.’
He was patronized by cardinal Richelieu, and Corneille
ufed to call him his father. He was always a needy man,
and wrote mott of his pieces under the preflure of immediate
neceflity, fo that he never had an opportunity of giving a
finifh to them. At length, however, he was enabled to
purchafe the office of lieutenant-particular of his native place,
where he conftantly refided. A pettilential diforder break-
ing out, and making great ravages at Dreux, he was in-
treated by his brother to quit that town, and come to
Paris; but his reply fhewed that he was refolved to remain
on the {pot where his duty placed him. In one of his let-
ters he faid, « At the moment I am writing, the bell is
tolling for the twenty-fecond death this day: my turn will
come when it pleafes God.”? He died in a very fhort time
after this, in the 41ft year of his age. Of his numerous
plays, the beft are ‘* Chofroes,””? «* Antigone,”? and “* Wen-
ceflaus.’”? The latter was revived by Marmontel, and Vol-
taire {peaks of feveral parts of it in the higheft terms.
ROTSCHOWALM, in Geography, a fea-port of
Ruflia, i the government of Viborg, fituated on the north
coalt of the gulf of Finland, on the borders of Sweden,
formed by {feveral iflands, fortified with forts and re-
doubts.
ROTSCHWENTZEL, in Ornithology, the name of a
bird defcribed by Gefner, and fome other authors, and
feeming to be the fame with our ruticilla, or red-f{tart. See
Moracitta Phenicurus.
ROTSIMPA, in Ichthyology, a name given by the
Swedes to a fpecies of cottus, called by Jonfton and Schon-
veldt /conpius marinus. It is different from the fcorpena of
the generality of writers, and is of the cottus kind. It is
diftinguifhed by. Artedi under the name of the /mooth cottus,
ROT.
with many thorns upon the head, and with the upper jaw
fomewhat longer than the under one. See Corrus Scor-
ius.
ROTSUSTA, in Geography, a river of Walachia, which
runs into the Podrus, 5 miles N.W. of Strehaja.
ROTTBOLLIA, in Botany, fo named by the younger
Linnzus, after Dr. Chriftian Friis Rottboll, Profeflor of
Botany, as well as of Anatomy, in the univerfity of Copen-
hagen, who diedin 1797, aged 70. He is particularly dif-
tinguifhed by his defcriptions and figures of new or rare
plants, a thin folio, publifhed in 1773, with 21 very neat
and accurate plates. As this volume contains: only plants
of the order of Calamaria, it is ufually quoted Rottholl’s Gra-
mina, or Grafles, though that appellation is not precifely
correét. The fame writer has publifhed feveral botanical
treatifes befides, either in the form of univerfity eflays, or
in the Medical Tranfactions of Copenhagen.—Linn. fil.
Nov. Graminum Genera, 23, with a figure. Suppl. 13.
_Schreb. 721. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 463. Mart. Mill. Di.
v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 1. 175.
Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. r. 71. Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. 1. 206. Juffl. 31. Lamarck Llluttr. t. 48.—
Clafs and order, Triandria Digynia. Nat Ord. Gramina,
Linn. Juff.
Gen. Ch. Common Receptacle cylindrical, thread-fhaped,
jointed, with an oblong excavation on one or two fides of
each joint, at the bottom. Cal. Glume lateral, fixed,
fimple or divided, clofing the hollows of each joint, and
containing one or two florets. Cor. Glume concealed by
the calyx, of one or two membranous unawned valves.
Stam. (in each floret) Filaments three, capillary ; anthers
linear, forked at eachend, hanging out of the floret. Pi/?.
(in one floret only of each joint) Germen oblong, abrupt,
convex at one fide, concave at the other; {tyles two, capil-
lary ; ftigmas feathery, prominent. eric. none, except
the hollow of each finally feparated joint, clofed with the
calyx. Seed folitary, the fhape of the germen.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fixed, nearly fingle-flowered, fimple or
divided. Flowers alternate, on a jointed common ftalk.
Obf. The genera which our learned friend Mr. Brown
has feparated from Rostbollia will be found mentioned under
the articles Hemarruria, Leprurvus, Opxniurus, and
Microcutoa. The laft we conceive to be the moft dif-
tin&. We fhall here take the. genus Rotthollia as it ftands
in Linneus and Willdenow, and have drawn up the generic
charaéter accordingly.
1. R.incurvata. Sea Hard-grafs. Linn. Suppl. 114.
Willd. n. 1. Ait.n.z. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Fl. Grac. t. or.
Engl. Bot. t. 760. Knapp. Gram. t. 103. Fl. Dan.
t. 938. (Aegilops incurvata; Linn. Sp. PI. 1490.)—
Spike round, awl-fhaped, incurved. Glume of the calyx
awl-fhaped, clofe-pretled, deeply divided. Stipula very
fhort, abrupt.—Native of the fandy fea-coafts of Europe.
A {mall annual grafs, flowering in Auguit. The root con-
fits of numerous long capillary fibres. Stems numerous, de-
cumbent at the bafe, from three inches to a foot long,
branched, jointed, leafy, round, flender, very fmooth.
Leaves linear, acute, narrow, rough on the upper furface
and edges; their /hearhs a little fwelling, fmooth, ftriated,
fhorter than the leaves, each crowned with a fhort blunt
Sfipula. Spikes folitary at the end of each branch, rigid,
long and flender, more or lefs curved. Calyx {preading
whilft in full bloom. Forets folitary, perfed, all fertile.
2. R. fliformis. 'Thread-fhaped Hard-grafs. Roth.
Catal. v. 1. 21. Nardus gangitis; Herb. Linn. (Gra-
men junceum nodofum minimum capillare; Barel. Ic.
t. 117. f. 1.)—Spike thread-fhaped, {lightly comprefled,
5 : eregt
Sm. Fl. Brit. 152.
ROTTBOLLIA.
ere&. Glume of the calyx fword-fhaped, deeply divided.
Stipula elongated, lanceolate, obtufe, jagged.—Native of
the fouth of Europe. Much more flender than the former,
with a purplith fem, and {maller, rougher, channelled /eaves.
Plorets more crowded together. This is certainly what
Linneus had in his herbarium for Nardus gangitis, when he
defcribed that plant in his Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 53, though the
- mark of a crofs indicates that he had fome doubts concerning
it. Thofe doubts arofe from the fynonyms quoted in the
Sp. Pl. which have ey to do with the grafs before
us. Their hiftory may be found in Tranf. of Linn. Soc.
vw. I. 116.
R. cylindrica. Stout Hard-grafs. Willd. n. 3.
(Gramen loliaceum junceam majus; Barel. Ic. t. 5. G.
loliaceum, fpicis articulofis ereétis ; Mont. Gram. 43. f. 28.
G. myuros, &c.; Bocc. Muf. 70. t. 59.)—Spike round,
awl-fhaped, flightly curved. Glume of the calyx undi-
vided.—Native of the fouth of Europe. This appears to
be of a ftouter habit than even the firft {pecies, but we know
nothing of it, except from the authors quoted. Monti fays
it differs from R. incurvata in having the glume of the calyx
undivided.
4- R. Thomea. Moufe-tail Hard-grafs. Willd. n. 4.
Roxb. Corom, y. 2. 17. t- 132. (R. pilofa; Willd. n. 7.
Nardus Thomea; Linn. Suppl. 105.)—Spike linear, com-
refed, nearly ftraight. Florets imbricated, in two rows.—
Gathered by Koenig on the mountain of St. Thomas in
Tranquebar. A fmall, glaucous, denfely tufted grafs,
whofe /eaves are fringed with long hairs. Spikes folitary on
each ftem ; their common ftalk zigzag at each of the flat
fides of the {pike, but not perceptibly jointed. /orets im-
bricated clofely, in an alternate order, along each edge of
the fpike. Glume of the calyx keeled, undivided, a little
recurved at the point. :
5- R. repens. Creeping Hard-grafs. Forft. Prodr. 9.
Willd. n. 5. (Lepturus repens ; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl.
v. I. 207.) — Spike round, awl-fhaped. Glume of the
calyx undivided. Sheath of the leaves bearded at the top.
Root creeping.—Native of the South Sea iflands, and the
tropical part of New Holland, on fandy fea-fhores.
Branches afcending. Leaves imperfe&tly two-ranked,
ftraight, linear, rather involute ; their fheaths bearded, with
fcarcely any vifible /fipula. Spike thread-fhaped, acute,
beardlefs ; its joints feparable. G/umes of the calyx pointed,
longer than their correfponding joints. Brown.
6. R. levis. Smooth Hard-grafs. Retz. Obf. fafc. 3.
ri. Willd. n. 6.—Spike cylindrical. Joints two-flowered.
Glumes of the calyx oblong, obtufe, undivided, very f{mooth,
the length of the joint.—Native of Tranquebar. Roots ap-
parently perennial, with ftrong fibres. Stems afcending, a
foot or more in height, fcarcely branched, leafy. Léaves
denfely tufted at the root, fhort, broad and flat, fmooth ;
their fheaths denfely bearded, without any membranous
JSlipula: ttem-leaves fhort, diftant, with long theaths. Spikes
terminal, folitary, ereét, three or four inches long, pale,
{meoth, each joint furrowed, with two lateral, not quite
oppolite, hollows. Glume of the calyx very fmooth and
even like ivory, with an obtufe, oblique, greenifh point,
and a little furrowed at the very bafe.
7. R. compreffa. Flat-{piked Hard-gra{s. Linn. Suppl.
r14- Willd. n. 8. Retz. Obf. fafc. 3. 12. Roxb. Co-
rom. v. 2. 30. t. 156. (Hemarthria comprefla; Brown
Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 207.)—Spike compreffed, awl-
fhaped, incompletely jointed. Joints two-flowered. Outer
glume of the calyx undivided ; the points of all the glumes
ftraight.— Native of the Eaft Indies, China, and New South
Wales, about ponds. Stems compreffed, leafy. Leaves
fmooth, naked, with comprefled fheaths. A ftalked tuft
of /pikes, accompanied by a leafy involucrum, fprings from
the upper fheaths. Calyx of two valves; one of them in-
ternal.
8. R. uncinata. Hooked Hard-grafs. (Hemarthria
uncinata; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 207.)—Spike
comprelled, awl-fhaped, incompletely jointed. Joints two-
flowered. Outer glume of the calyx undivided ; the point
of the inner one hooked. —Gathered by Mr. Brown in the
ifland of Van Diemen.
9. R. hirfuta. Great Hairy-fpiked Hard-grafs. ‘Vahl.
Symb. fafe.1. 11. Willd. n.g. (Triticum exgilopoides ;
Forfk. AEgypt-Arab. 26.)—Spike awl-fhaped, very hairy.
Calyx of the perfeé florets fpreading ; of the male ones
clofe-prefled. Stem angular in the upper part.—Native of
Egypt; not unfrequent about Alexandria, flowering in
March. We have {pecimens from Dr. Delile, who informs
us that a figure of this grafs is deftined for the great
work, defcriptive of Egypt, part of which has already ap-
peared at Paris. The /lem is branched, rigid, about two
feet high, leafy, jointed, the upper joints angular, being
flattened at one fide, ftriated, a little roughifh. Leaves
involute, rigid; their fheaths {mooth, ftrongly furrowed,
crowned with a tuft of hairs; the upper ones fomewhat in-
flated. Spite folitary, partly enveloped in the uppermoft
fheath, about three inches long, rather compreffed. G/umes
lanceolate, taper-pointed, emarginate, clothed externally
with copious, long, white hairs.
10. R. Cymbachne. Boat-valved Hard-grafs. Willd.
n. 10. (Cymbachne ciliata; Retz. Obf. fafc. 6. 36.)—
Spikes in pairs, flowering at one fide only. Calyx of the
perfe& florets with an inner, boat-like glume. Leaves
fringed at the bafe.—Yound by Koenig in Bengal. A
flender grafs, a foot high, with feveral, fimple or branched,
Jtems ; the latter bearing one leaf, the others leaflefs. Leaves
fhort, thin, fringed at the margin, above the fheath, with
long, white, feparate hairs; fheath abrupt, pale-brown at
the fummit, fringed. Spikes terminal, in pairs, linear, an
inch anda half long, fome confilting of perfeét, the others
of female, flowers. Common fialk \inear, membranous, flat
at the back, with three longitudinal furrows; zigzag, with
alternate hollows, in front. Calyx of the perfe@ flowers of
two valves, fingle-flowered, both of them parallel and ex-
pofed to view, clofe-preffed to the common ftalk, or re-
ceptacle ; the outermoft valve linear, obtufe, fringed at the
back; innermoft half-ovate, acute, boat-fhaped, greatly
compreffed, ftriated, coloured, fringed at the back, in-
clofing the corolla. Anthers and fligmas black. Female
flowers with a fingle-valved, clofe-prefled, ovate, fringed
calyx, Nightly cloyen at the point. Corolla and flames
wanting. Stigmas longer than in the former. Refztus.
11. R. Coelorachis. Hollow-italked Hard-grafs. Forft.
Prodr. 9. Willd. n. 11.—“ Spike round, flowering at one
fide only. Florets in pairs; one of them ftalked. Calyx
of two valves.’’—Native of theifland of Tanna. We have
feen no {pecimen. Mr. Brown mentions this as one of the
few certain Rottbollie, according to his own itrié limitation
of the genus. We prefume, ae the name, that Forfter
had originally confidered this plant as conftituting a diftin@
genus ; and that he named it in allufion to the hollows of the
common receptacle; which, neverthelefs, are proper to
Rottbollia.
12. R. dimidiata. Half-fpiked Hard-grafs. Linn.
Suppl. 114, excluding thefynonym, Willd. n. 1z.—Spikes
4K 2 comprefled,
ROT
comprefled, flowering at one fide; ftriated with undulating
fines at the other. Flowers two to each joint, one rather
above the other, with fhort abrupt fcales at their bafe.—
Native of the Eaft Indies, and of the Brafils, in fandy
ground. Whether Thunberg’s Cape plant be the fame, we
are not certain, there being fome confufion between our
Rottbolia and the Panicum dimidiatum of Linneus; which
Jatter we have never feen, but Koenig and Retzius infifted
on their being two very different things. R. dimidiata is a
ftout, branched, fmooth g¢rafs, with very broad, obtufe,
{preading /eaves, whofe fheaths, like the /fem, are very much
comprefled. Spies feveral, on folitary or cluftered, fimple,
axillary and terminal, ftalks, two or three inches long, about
their own length. Each /pige is tapering, ftout, jointed,
curioufly ftriated at the back, with alternately curved and
recurved lines ; bearing, at the oppofite fide, on each joint,
two angular flowers, one elevated above the other, and each
accompanied by a fhort fcale at the bafe. ‘The ftru€ture of
the flowers we have not been able to examine.
13. R. evaltata. Tall Hard-grafs. Linn. Suppl. 114.
Willd. n. 13. Brown Prodr. n. 1. Roxb. Corom. v. 2.
30. t.157. (Stegofia cochinchinenfis ; Loureir. Cochinch.
451, on the authority of a {pecimen from the author, in the
Bankfian herbarium.)—Spike round, flowering on every.
fide, beardlefs. Glumes obtufe, rough as well as the com-
mon receptacle. Leaves and their fheaths hairy.—Native
of the Eaft Indies, and of Cochinchina. A tall grafs,
witha folid fem. Sheaths of the eaves furrowed, betprinkled
with elevated points, each bearing a briltle. Spikes folitary,
lateral, four or five inches long.
14. R. formofa. Silky Hard-grafs. Brown n. 2,—
‘Spike round, flowering on every fide ; its joints, as well
as the outer glumes of the perfe&t flowers, filky ; thofe of
the neuter ones {moothifh and empty.’’—Gathered by Mr.
Brown in the tropical part of New Holland.
15. R. perforata. Perforated Hard-grafs. Roxb. Co-
rom. v. 2. 43. t. 182.—-Spike round, flowering on every
fide, beardlefs. Glumes obtufe, fmooth. Common re-
ceptacle perforated in each joint, between the oppofite
flowers. Leavesfmooth. Sheaths woolly at their fummit.
-—Native of low rich patture-ground on the coaft of Coro-
mandel, but rare. Root fibrous. Stems feveral, about two
feet high, ereét, round, jointed, folid, fender, {mooth,
leafy. Leaves {mall, narrow, fmooth, except at their
edges. Sheaths very woolly at the fummit within, which
woollinefs extends a little way up the leaf. Spikes folitary,
ftalked, terminal and axillary, flender, ereét, four or five
inches long. £Yowers two to each of the lower joints, op-
pofite ; one to each of the upper ones; fometimes all per-
fect ; fometimes many of them have /famens only. This,
like moft of the other fpecies, is a coarfe grafs, not eaten
by cattle.
16. R. corymbofa. | Corymbofe Hard-grafs. Linn.
Suppl. 11g. Willd. n. 14. Roxb. Corom. ¥. 2. 42.
t. 181. (R. punctata; Retz. Obf. fafc. 3. 12. /Egilops
exaltata; Linn. Mant. 575. Retz. Obf. falc. 2. 27.
Ophiurus corymbofa; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 207.)
—Spikes aggregate, thread-fhaped, fmooth. Glume of the
calyx ovate, obtufe, undivided, with reticulated depreffions,
—Native of ditches on the coaft of Malabar, as well as of
the tropical region of New Holland. The femis tall, round,
leafy, finely ftriated, {mooth. Leaves flat, with long
fmooth fheaths. Spées purplifh, many together, flender, in
tufts, on fimple or compound, {mooth, cylindrical ftalks,
from the fheaths of the fhort uppermoft leaves. Glume of
each calyx the length of the joint, a little tpreading, at
ROT
leaft_in the dry fpecimen, and curioufly reticulated at the
outtide.
17. R. digitata. Finger-{piked Hard-grafs. Sm. Fl,
Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 73. t.92.—Spikes terminal, cluftered.
Receptacle angular, rough. Flowers partly ftalked.
Glumes keeled, taper-pointed. Sheaths of the leaves hairy.
Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in the low country about the
bafe of the Bithynian Olympus. This is a large grafs,
three feet high, with all the appearance of being perennial.
Stem branched, leafy, round, fmooth. Leaves a foot or
more in length, moderately f{preading, flat, acute, rather
glaucous, with a pale central rib; their upper fide rough,
and often hairy ; their fheaths long, clofe, ribbed, dotted
and hairy. Stipula of a few fhort hairs. Spikes feveral,
from nine to twelve inches long, ereét, forming an oblong
tuft at the top of the ftem; rarely folitary. Receptacle, or
common flalk, of each zigzag, angular, rough-edged, every
joint accompanied at its concave {mooth fide by two flowers,
one feffile, the other on a ftout, angular, club-like ftalk,
half the length of the correfponding joint. Calyx of two
unequal, awl-fhaped, rough-keeled valves; that of the
{talked flower containing two florets, one of which is male;
that of the feffile flower only a folitary floret, fometimes
perfect, fometimes furnifhed merely with ffamens. Corolla
inall the florets of two pellucid white glumes, fhorter than
the calyx. dathers and fligmas yellow.
18, R. muricata. Prickly Hard-grafs. Retz. Obf.
fafc. 3. iz. Willd. n. 15. (/Egilops muricata; ib.
fafc. 2. 27.)—‘ Spikes round, feveral together, on long
{talks. Calyx fringed with prickles; the neutral ones
cloven.””—Found in the Ealt Indies, by Koenig.—Stems
angular, leafy. Sheaths of the caves fringed. Spikes ax-
illary, two or three together, thicker than in R. exaltata,
each on a long ftalk.’ Calyx flightly downy, fringed with
marginal prickles.
19. R. fanguinca. Red-flowered Hard-grafs. Retz.
Obf. fafc. 3.25. Willd. n. 16.— Spikes axillary, alternate,
ftalked, approximated. Corolla awned at the bafe.—Native
of China. —Svem femi-cylindrical, jointed, leafy ; the upper
joints invefted with dilated, hood-like fheaths, from each of
which fprings a folitary {pike, on a long ftalk, the latter
concealed by the fheath. Spikes thread-fhaped. Flowers
alternate. Corolla red, with a long awn from its bafe.
Retzius’s defcription of a dradea, as well as of the parts of
the flower, is not clear to us without a fpecimen. He fays
this grafs has entirely the afpect of an Andropogon.
R. monandra, Cavan. Ic. v. 1. 27. t. 39. f. 1. Lec-
cion. 52, feems rather a f{pecies of Nardus, and is, we be-
lieve, the NV. ariffata of Linneus, under which name it was
fent to Mr. Davall, by fignor Molineri, from Piedmont.
See Narpus, n. 2, where Cavanilles may fafely be cited.
ROTTE, in Geography. See Rorat.
ROTTELN, a town of the duchy of Baden ; fiye miles
N.N.E. of Bale. :
ROTTEN Srong, in Mineralogy, a decompofed ftone,
ufed for polifhing. See Tripo.t.
ROTTENBACH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in
the territory of Nuremberg ; three miles S.S.W. of Lauf.
ROTTENBERG, atown of Bavaria; 14 miles N.N.W.
of Landfhut. F
ROTTENDEAN, a village of England, in Suffex,
very near the fea, and frequented for fea-bathing ; four miles
S. of Brighthelmftone.
ROTTENEG, a town of Auttria; 13 miles S.W. o:
Freyftatt.
ROTTENMANN, atown of the duchy of Stiria; 20
miles
ROT
miles N.W. of Judenburg.
14° 8!.
ROTTENNESS, Purrepo. See PuTREFACTION.
ROTTENSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Konigingratz; eight miles W.N.W. of
Geyerhberg.
ROTTERDAM. See Anamooka.
RorrerDAM, a fortrefs in the ifland of Celebes, near
Macailar, belonging to the Dutch. It lies about 800 feet
from the beach, oppofite to the road of Macaflar, where a
pier-head extends, which ferves for unloading of the thips,
and clote to which there are 15 or 16 feet of water. The
church is 2 neat building, and has room for 200 perfons.
The walls of the fortrefs are high and {trong, and conftructed
of rock-itone. See VrAARDINGEN.—Alfo, a {mall ifland
in the gulf of Manaar, near the W. coatt of the ifland of
Ceylon; 10 miles N. of Manaar.—Alfo, a town of Ame-
rica, in New York, on the N. fide of Oneida lake.—Alfo,
a city and fea-port of Holland, fituated ona river named
s¢ Rotter,’ where it joins the Meufe. This place had the
privileges of a city not long after the year 1270. It has
been accuftomed to hold the firit rank in the aflembly of the
ftates among the {mall cities of Holland; and next to Am-
fterdam it ufed to be reckoned the richeft and moft flourifh-
ing city of the whole {tate, on account of the convenience of
its harbour, where depth of water allowed the largett veflels
to enter, and canals facilitated their loading and unloading
at the warehoufes of the merchants. The port of Rotterdam
was more frequented by Britifh traders than that of Am-
{terdam, becaufe when veflels had weighed anchor, one tide
brought them out to fea. Among the principal -buildings
are the town-houfe, the bank, the Ealt and Welt India
houfes, the arfenal, and fome of the churches, particularly
that dedicated to St. Laurens. On the E. fide of the city
are a large bafin and dock, for the purpofe of building and
launching veffels in the fervice of the Admiralty, and the Eat
India Company. The magiftracy confiits of a council of 24,
out of which are elected four burgomatters, a grand bailiff,
and feven echevins. Befides the magiitracy of the city, here
are alfo three other tribunals, viz. the college of the grand
bailiff, or dyckgrave of Schieland, and council, compofed
partly of nobility and partly of the cities of Rotterdam,
Goude, and Schiedam, that hold their aflemblies at Rot-
terdam, in a houfe called Landhuys, whofe’ bufinefs it is
to infpect the dykes, fuperintend the roads and canals, and
take care of every thing that pertains to the environs of the
city ; the fecond tribunal is that of the judges of Schieland,
whofe jurifdiction extends over what does not belong parti-
cularly to the magiltrates of cities; the third is the college
of the Jords of the admiralty for the Meufe, who have a
koufe appropriated to that bufinefs. Rotterdam was the
birth-place of Erafmus, and it is faid that his ftatue {till
remains, and alfo the houfe in which he was born. The
ftreets are long and generally narrow, and the foot pave-
ment is only diitinguifhed by a clean line of bricks; the po-
pulation is eftimated at about 48,000 people; 30 miles
S.S.W. of Amiterdam. N. lat. 51° 55’. E. long. 4° 24’.
ROTTES, a town of Norway; 50 miles N.E. of
Romfdal.
ROTTT, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, near the coaft
of Friuli. N. lat. 45° 45'. E. long. 12° oj.
ROTTINGEN, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, on the Tauber; 13 miles W.N.W. of Rotten-
burg. ;
ROTTL, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Danube,
fix miles above Lintz.
ROTTLERA, in Botany, is fo called in honour of the
N. lat. 47° 26. E. long.
ROT
Rey. Dr. Rottler, Danith miffionary at Tranquebar, who
like feveral of his Brethren in that remote fituation, has
alleviated his more ferious occupations with the ftudy of
plants ; and, befides acquiring himfelf a confiderable know-
ledge of botany, has been eminently ferviceable to the
{cience, by his communications to his European friends.
The original Roftlera of Willdenow proving the identical
Trewia nudifiora of Linneus, the prefent, chofen by Dr. Rox-
burgh, has been received fubfequently by Willdenow, as
well as in Hort. Kew. Thus the Rottlra of Vahl, in his
Enumeratio, v. 1. 87, is fuperfeded, and if a good genus,
muft have another name.—Roxb. Coromand. y. 2. 36.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 832. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 406.—
Clafs and order, Dicecia Icofandria. Nat. Ord. Tricocce,
Linn. L£uphorbia, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf; tube fhort ;
limb in four deep, ovate, reflexed fegments ; the two oppo-
fite ones rather the {malleft. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments
between thirty and forty, capillary, ereét, inferted into the
tube of the calyx, and about the length of its limb ; anthers
linear, cloven at each end.
Female, on a feparate tree, Cal. Perianth inferior, bell-
fhaped, with four ereé&t teeth. Cor. none. Pif. Germen
fupericr, ovate, powdery ; {tyles three, reflexed ; ftigmas
feathery. Peric. Capfule roundifh, powdery, three-lobed,
three-celled, three-valved, the partitions from the centre of
each valve. Seeds folitary, globofe.
Eff. Ch. Male. Calyx deeply four-cleft, reflexed. Co-
rolla none. Stamens thirty to forty.
Female. Calyx four-toothed, ere&t. Corolla none. Styles
three. Capfule fuperior, three-lobed, three-celled. Seeds
folitary.
1. R. ¢inGoria. Dyer’s Rottlera. Roxb. Corom. v. 2.
36. t. 168.—Native of the inland mountainous parts of the
circars of Hindooftan, flowering in the cold feafon. Dr. Rox-
burgh never found it any where elfe. This is a middles
fized, eret, branching free. Leaves alternate, ftalked,
elliptic-oblong, acute, entire, from four to eight inches in
length, three-ribbed and veiny; nearly fmooth above;
downy beneath; furnifhed at their bafe with two brown
glands. Fot/alks round, downy, from one to three inches
long. Flowers {mall, in cluiters, about the tops of the
branches, axillary and terminal ; the latter branched. Cap-
Jules the fize of a {mall cherry, clothed with abundance of
deep red granular powder, eafily rubbed off. This powder
is a valuable article of commerce, being much efteemed,
efpecially among the Moors, for dyeing filk of a deep,
bright, very beautiful and durable, full-orange or flame-
colour. When the capfules are ripe, in February or March,
they are gathered, and the powder carefully bruthed off.
It is preferved without any further procefs, and is fold to
the merchants trading to Hydrabad, and other inland parts.
This fubftance is but little aéted upon by water, except
with the admixture of alkaline falts, when it gives out a
very deep blood-red colour... To fpirits it communicates a
rich, deep, reddifh flame-colour ; but in neither inftance does
it diffolve, the grains remaining entire, like fand. The in-
habitants know this powder by the name of ae ees
and ufe it in the following manner. To four parts of
Waffunta-gunda are added one of alum, and two of falt of
foda, native barilla. Thefe are rubbed well together, with
a portion of exprefled oil of Se/amum, fo {mall as hardly to
be perceived. When well mixed, the whole is put into
boiling water, in quantity proportioned to the filk which is
to be dyed, and kept boiling {martly, more or lefs time,
according to the fhade required. The filk is turned fre-
quently, to render the colour uniform,
ROTTO-
ROT.
ROTTOCOMB, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Bornou; 8 miles S. of Bornou.
ROTTOFREDO, a town of the duchy of Piacenza;
5 miles W. of Piacenza.
ROTTOLO, in Commerce, a weight ufed in Italy and
the Levant. At Aleppo, and its port Scanderoon, the
cantaro contains 100 rottoli, each of which is fubdivided
into 12 ounces, or 720 drachms ; the great cantaro of Tripoli
contains 175 rottoli, and the zurlo confilts of 27% rottoli.
This rottolo, with which moft forts of goods are weighed,
weighs slbs. avoirdupois nearly. The rottolo with which the
filks from Tripoli, and other parts of Syria, are weighed, con-
filts of 7oo drachms, anfwering to 4% avoirdupois. ‘The
rottolo ufed in weighing the Perfian filks contains 680
drachms, or nearly 44 lbs. avoirdupois. The rottolo of Da-
mafcus, with which brafs, camphor, benzoin, {pikenard,
balfam of Mecca, and other drugs are weighed, contains
600 drachms, or 4; Ibs. avoirdupois. Five rottoli, or 3600
drachms, make what is called ave/no ; which fee. At Saide,
in Syria, (the ancient Sidon,) filk and fattin yarn are weighed
with the rottolo of Damafcus, of 600 drachms ; 100 fuch
rottoli anfwering to about 41olbs. avoirdupois. Heavy
goods are weighed with the rottolo of Acre, 100 of which
are = 482 lbs. avoirdupois. At Conftantinople, the can-
taro, or quintal, contains 44 okes, or roo rottoli; and the
cantaro weighs about 12341bs. avoirdupois, the oke 2 lbs.
13 oz., and the rottolo 192 oz., and the chequee 114 02.
avoirdupois.. At Leghorn, the rottolo is 3 lbs. At Naples,
the cantaro groffo contains 100 rottoli, each weighing 33+
ounces of the gold and filver weight, or 312 ounces avoir-
dupois. Hence 28 rottoli= gslbs. avoirdupois, and the
cantaro groflo = 1963 lbs. avoirdupois. ‘The cantaro pic-
colo is = 106 lbs. avoirdupois nearly.
In Sicily thefe different weights are ufed, viz. the rottolo
groflo of 33 ounces, the rottolo fotile of 30 ounces, and the
libra, or pound of 12 ounces. 10 lbs. of Sicily = 7 lbs. avoir-
dupois nearly ; and, therefore, 40 rottoli groffi, or 44 rot-
toli fotile = 77lbs. avoirdupois. A cantaro groffo con-
tains 100 rottoli grofli, or 1924 lbs. avoirdupois ; a cantaro
fotile is 100 rottoli fottili, and is = 175 ]bs. avoirdupois.
At Smyrna, the cantaro, or kintal, contains 45 okes, or 100
rottoli. The batman is 6 okes, or 2400 drachms ; and the
oke is 400 drachms, and the rottolo = 180 drachms. The
cantaro of 45 okes weighs 123|bs. 4 oz. avoirdupois ;
and, therefore, the oke is = 2lbs. 1102. 13 drs. avoirdu-
pois. At Tripoli, the cantaro weight contains 100 rottoli,
each of 6 ounces, or 128 termini; this cantaro anfwers to
168 lbs. pefo fotile of Venice, or about 12 lbs.. avoirdu-
pois. At Tunis, the cantaro contains 100 rottoli, each of
16 Tunis ounces, and weighs about 111 lbs. avoirdupois.
Kelly’s Cambift.. See Wrrcur. é
ROTULA, in Anatomy, the patella or knee-pan. _ See
ExTREMITIES.
Rotuxa, Diflocations and Fradures of; in Surgery.
Fracture, and Luxation.
Roruta, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a genus of the
echini marini, of the general clafs of the placente. The
characters of the rotule are, that they are flat fhells in form
of a cake, compofed of various flat pieces, and formed into
a round, fomething like that of a wheel, but wanting one or
more parts of its outer ring, and radiated or dentated ; their
mouth is fituated in the middle of the bafe, and the aperture
of the anus in the third region ef the axis, and marked with
a cinquefoil flower at the fummit. The great obvious cha-
racter is, however, the dentated edge. Of this genus there
are two known fpecies.
See
ROU
Rotuta, in Ichthyology, is alfo a name given by fome to
the faber, or doree. .
ROTULI Magni Inzgroffator.
ROTULORUM Custos.
ROTULUS, aroll. See Rott.
Rorutus Contrarientium. The earl of Lancafter taking
part with the barons againft king Edward II., it was not
thought fit, in refpeét of their power, to call them rebels or
traitors, but only contrarients ; accordingly, we have a record
of thofe times called rotulus contrarientium.
Rorutus Wintoniz, an exa&t furvey of all England, by
counties, hundreds, and tithings, made under king Alfred,
not unlike that of Domefday.
It was thus called, becaufe anciently kept at Winchefter
among other records of the kingdom.
ROTUNDA Fenestra, in Anatomy, an opening of the
cochlea into the tympanum. See Ear.
Rorunpa Ligamenta Uteri, two fibrous cords afcending
from the uterus, and pafling through the abdominal rings.
See GENERATION.
ROTUNDO. See Roronpo.
ROTUNDUM Foramen, in Anatomy, an opening of
the {phenoid bone. See Cranium.
ROTUNDUS, a name given to feveral mufcles from the
roundnefs of their body.
Such are the rotundus major, called alfo teres major, and
the rotundus minor, called alfo teres minor, and tranfver/alis.
-Rotunnus, Pronator Radi. See PRonator.
ROTZ, in Geography, a town of Auttrias 24 miles N.
of Tulln.
ROTZHOF, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on the river
Muehr ; 16 miles S. of Gratz.
ROU, or Puto Rou, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea,
near the coaft of Malacca. N. lat. 6° 43'. E. long
102° 10,
ROUAD. See Ruap.
ROUAGE, Baitery en. See BATTERY.
ROUAITHA, in Geography. See Roartua.
ROUALTHA, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Hedsjas ; 108 miles $.S.E. of Mecca.
ROVANIEMI, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Ulea, on the Kemi; 55 miles N.N.E. of Tornea.
ROUARA, a town of South America, in Guiana.
ROVASIO, a town of France, in the department of the
Sefia ; 15 miles N. of Vercelli.
ROVATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Mela; 10 miles W.N.W. of Brefcia.
ROUBAIX, atown of France, in the department of the
North, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Lille s
6miles N.E. of Lille. The place contains 8091, and the
canton 13,761 inhabitants, on a territory of 40 kiliometres,
in four communes.
ROUBAN, atown of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
40 miles S. of Calaat el Moilah.
ROUBBIE!, in Commerce, a gold coin of Turkey,
which is one-third of the fequin, called Mahbub.° See
SEQUIN.
ROUCOU, or. Rocov, otherwife called Annotto and Or-
lean, is a red dye, formed in maiffes, from the pellicles of the
feeds of an American tree. That which is commonly met with
among us is moderately hard and dry, of a brown colour on
the outfide, and a dull red within. Labat informs us,
that the Indians prepare a dye of this fort much fuperior
to that which is brought to us; of a bright fhining red
colour, almoft equal to carmine. For this purpofe, inftead
of fteeping and fermenting the feeds in water, they rub them
with the hands, previoufly dipt in oil, till the pellicles come
of
See InGRossATOR.
See Cusros.
ROU
off and are reduced into a clear pafte, which is fcraped off
from the hands with a knife, and laid on a clean leaf, in the
fhade, to dry. De Laet, in his notes on Marcgrave’s Na-
tural Hittory of Brafil, mentions two kinds of roucou, or
annotto; one of a permanent crimfon colour, ufed as a
fucus, and another which gives a colour inclining more to
that of faffron. This laft, which is our annotto, he fup-
- pofes to be a mixture of the firlt fort with certain refinous
matters, and with the juice of the root of the tree. See
AnNoTrTo.
ROUELLE, in Geography, a river of France, which
rifes near Le Quefnoy, and runs into the Scheldt, at Valen-
ciennes. ;
ROUEN, a city of France, and capital of the department
of the Lower Seine, fituated on the Seine ; before the revo-
lution the capital of Normaady, and the fee of an archbifhop ;
13 potts S.W. of Amiens. The place contains 87,000, and
its fix cantons 87,000 inhabitants, ona territory of 15 kilio-
metres, in one commune. Rouen is large and commercial,
has feveral manufactures, particularly of cotton, and con-
tains 36 parifh churches. In the market-place is a ftatue of
the celebrated maid of Orleans, who was burnt here by the
Englifh for a witch. In 1117, when the French were de-
feated by the Englifh in a battle fought here, the city be-
longed to the king of England, asa part of Normandy ;
but in the year 1204, it was furrendered to the king of
France. In 1418, Henry V. of England commenced a liege
which lafted five months ; the inhabitants defending the city
with perfevering firmnefs and ardour, and enduring the mott
fevere hardfhips ; but they were at laft obliged to furrender,
on condition of paying 345,000 crowns of gold, and taking
an oath of allegiance to the conqueror, who entered on the
roth of January 1419. N. lat. 49° 26'. E. long. 1° 10!.
Rouen, in Agriculture, a term made ufe of to fignify
after-grafs, or the hay made from this fort of grafs. It is
fometimes written Rowet. See Arrer-Gra/s.
This fort of preferved grafs is now found by many farmers,
in different diftri€ts, to be of vaft utility and advantage in the
{pring feafon for the fupport of fome part of their ftore-
fheep ftock, as that of the ewes during the lambing-time, and
thofe other fheep which are to be kept in good condition.
In the county of Norfolk, Mr. Bevan has a high opinion of
the great value and ufe of this kind of grafs, fometimes pre-
ferving the quantity of twenty-eight or thirty acres of it in
an excellent ttate for the ewes and lambs in the early fpring.
And near Swaffham, in the fame county, Mr. Mafon is in
the practice of keeping grafs of this nature from the end of
July, and not turning at all into it umtil early in the {pring
of the following year, when the fattening bullocks and theep,
which have had hay during the winter, are put into it.
The old grafs is found to nurfe up a great bite of young
growth, and both together carry on the bullocks in a very
tavourable manner ; it is alfo excellent for fheep ; nothing
at fuch afeafon is fuppofed to equal it. At Burnham, on
an expofed piece of thirteen acres of this fort of grafs, open
to the fea, and the north-eaft wind, which Mr. Overman kept
from Midfummer, ten fcore and fixteen ewes and their
lambs were turned in on the 27th of March, and it kept
them well a-whole month. It is aflerted, that they would
have been half ftarved without it ; but that by means of it
they were fully fupported, to the furprife of many who faw
them feedmg. This piece was fully tathed in every part.
The fame fyttem of practice is alfo found equally ufeful
and important in the county of Effex. Mr. Kitcher, of this
diitriG, isin the habit of laying up a patture of this fort of
{pring food for his fheep, finding it of fuch aftonifhing ufe,
that he is determined not to be without fo great a refource.
ROU
And at Ongar, Mr. Dyer fhuts up e'rafs for the ufe of his
fheep, both ewes and lambs, in March and the following
month : it is found that the young grafs fhoots up with it
in an extraordinary manner, and that his flock does better on
it than on turnips. Alfo at Gosfield, Mr. Thurlow fhuts
up afpace of grafs from the beginning of September to
the lambing-time, and finds it of very confiderable advantage
to his flock.
ROVER. See Prrare.
ROVERBELLA, in Geagraphy, a town of Italy ; 12
miles N.N.W. of Mantua.
ROVEREDO, or Rovereirn, a town of the county
of Tyrol, with a {trong citadel, built by the lords of Caftel-
barco ; but in the year 1414, it was taken from them by the
Venetians, from whom Maximilian I. wretted it again by the
{word, and incorporated it with the county of Tyrol. This
town has a manufacture of fine filk, and carries on a great
trade. The wine produced in this traét is called « Goccia
d’oro,” or golden drops. On Sept. 4th, 1796, Roveredo
was taken by the French, after a battle in which the Au-
{trians loit 7000 prifoners, 25 pieces of cannon, 50 waggons,
and 7 {tandards; 8 miles S.E. of Trent. N. lat. 45° 53/.
E. long. 11° 3/.
ROUERGUE, a province of France before the revo-
lution, about 25 leagues in length, and 18 in breadth, bounded
on the E. and S. by Languedoc, on the W. by Quercy,
and on the N. by Auvergne. The land, though not very
fertile, produces much wood, and here are mines of copper,
iron, fulphur, vitriol, &c. ‘The principal rivers are the
Tarn and the Lot. The capital city was Rhodez. It now
forms the department of the Aveyron.
ROVERO, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan; 9 miles
E. of Cifmone.
ROVERSANO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Rubicon; 20 miles W. of Rimini.
ROVERSCIO, At, or Per Roverfeio, Ital. in Mufic,
reverfed, inverted. See RrvoitcimenTo, and Rivorrare.
ROVES, in Ship-Building, {mall {quare pieces of iron with
a hole punched in the middle, through which the nail goes,
where it is clenched, and binds together the boards of pin-
naces, yawls, &c.
ROVETTA, Don Giovanni Batista, in Biography,
a Venetian compofer, in great favour in the middle of the
17th century, vice maeftro di cappello of St. Mark’s ca-
thedral, and compofer of five or fix operas. He likewife
was author of Mafles and Madrigali a fci voci concertati : in
{coring one of them, we found the inttrumental parts con~
fifted only of two violins, and a bafe, wholly different from
the voice-parts ; but, except an introduction or fymphony
to each movement, and {hort ritornels, they had little to do.
Thefe madrigals were firft publifhed in 1625.
ROUEZ le Guillaume, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Sarthe ; 3 miles S. of Sille.
ROUFFACH, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, inthe diftrié&
of Colmar. The place contains 3292, and the canton 11,882
inhabitants, on a territory of 1122 kiliometres, in eight com-
munes.
ROUFFIGNACGC, a town of France, in the department
of the Dordogne; 9 miles S.W. of Montignac.
ROUGE’, a town of France, in the department of tie
Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Chateaubriant. The place contains 2134, and the canton
7349 inhabitants, on a territory of 160 kihometres, in five
communes.
RouGeE, Cape, or Red Cape, a cape on the N. fide of
the ifland of St. Domingo; four leagues W. of Point
Tfabellica.
R O-U
Uabellicd.—Alfo, a cape called «« Ras el Hamrah,”’ on the
coatt of Algiers. N. lat. 37° 5’. E. long. 7° 42'. -
Rovuce River, a river of America, in Louifiana, fo
called from the colour of its waters, which are faid to tinge
thofe of the Miffifippi in the time of the floods, rifes in
New Mexico, and after running about 600 miles, joins the
Miflifippi 187 miles above New Orleans, 56} miles below
Fort Rofalie, receiving 30 miles from its mouth the Noir, or
black river. About 7oleagues up Rouge river the French
had a confiderable poit, called Natchitoches, being a fron-
tier to the Spanifh fettlements. Tobacco of a fuperior
quality is cultivated at this poit in confiderable quantities,
and fold at New Orleans.
Rover Chapeau, or Red Hat, a cape on the coaft of
North America. N. lat. 46° 31'. W. long. 55° 26!.
RouGe-Croix, q. d. Red Crofs. See PouRsuIvANTs.
RouGe-Dragon, q. d. Red Dragon. See Poursur-
VANTS.
ROUGEMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri¢t of Baume; feven miles N. of Baume. The
place contains 1260, and the canton 8290 inhabitants, on
a territory of 170 kiliometres, in 26 communes.
ROUGET,, in Ichthyology, a name given by the French
to the fifh called the /yra and capo by authors. It is a
{pecies of the trigla, and is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the
name of the trigla with a long bifid fnout and tubulous
noftrils. See TRIGLA.
ROUGH, Rovucuness, in Mechanics. See Friction,
and RESISTANCE. ;
RouGu Cafting. See PLASTERING.
Roucu Diamond. See Diamonp.
RouGcu Emerald. See EMERALD.
RovucGu-laved Plants. See PLANT.
RouGu Tafle. See Taste.
Rovucu-Tree Rails, in Ship-Building, are rails along the
waift and quarters of fhips, nearly breaft high, to prevent
perfons from falling overboard. This term originated from
the pra¢tice in merchant veflels of carrying their rough or
{pare gear in crutch irons along their waitt.
-Roucu Rider, a perfon who is indifpenfably neceflary
im every cavalry regiment. He is a fort of non-commil-
fioned officer, and fhould always aflociate with the ferjeants
in preference to the private men. :
Rough riders are the affiftants of the riding-mafter, and
one fhould always be appointed to each troop. The necef-
tary qualifications for every rough rider (independently of
a thorough knowledge of horfemanfhip) are activity, zeal,
and good condud.
No rough rider ought to be an officer’s fervant, as his
fituation places him above the level of common men.
Rough riders are generally paid five guineas a-year as
a compenfation for their trouble; they likewife receive
tos. 6d. from every officer who learns to ride, and from
every officer who has a horfe broke at the riding {chool.
This money is divided equally amongft them.
Every rough rider muft provide himfelf with a proper
jacket for the riding {chool bufinefs, according to the pat-
tern fixed upon in the regiment.
When it is found abfolutely neceflary to employ non-
commiflioned officers as rough riders, they muft do as much
troop duty as they can.
Roueu Horfes, To, a word in familiar ufe among the
dragoons to fignify the act of breaking in horfes, fo as to
adapt them to military purpofes.
Rovueu it, To, a-cant word ufed among military men,
fignifying to face every fort of hardfhip.
ROU
Rovucu Creek, in Geography, a river of Kentucky, which
runs into Green river, N. lat. 37° 12!. E. long. 87° 35/.
Rovucu Skelly, a cape on the E. coaft of Scotland. N.
lat. 56° 36'. W. long. 2° 28!.
ROUGHCAST Wasu, in Rural Economy, a fort of
liquid wath, or application, employed for the purpofe of
being laid over the furfaces of outfide walls, or buildings,
of this nature, in order to preferve and ornament them.
It is noticed by Mr. Vancouver, in his report of the ftate
of the agriculture of the county of Devon, that a wafh of
this kind is getting greatly into ufe in that diftri@. It
confifts, in this cafe, of four parts of pounded lime, three
of fand, two of pounded wood-afhes, and one of the fcoria
of \iron, intermixed very intimately together, and made
fufficiently thin or fluid as to be applied by means of a
brufh. It is remarked, that when dry, it gives to the
work the appearance of new Portland ftone, and affords
an excellent proteétion againft the penetrating force of the
fouth-wefterly ftorms in that expofed county. It is alfo
found ufeful for applying over the outfides of ftone build-
ings or walls.
ROUGHING Crorn. See CLoru.
ROUGHINGS, in Agriculture, a term fometimes ap-
plied to latter-grafs, or aftermath, and fometimes to coarfe
paftures. They are always of the coarfe rough tufty kinds,
when this epithet is applied to them.
ROUGHY, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which
falls with an impetuous current into the Kenmare river,
about two miles E. of Kenmare town.
ROUGIES, a {mall ifland on the W. coaft of France,
being one of the group called the «* Seven Iflands.”?.. N.
lat. 48° 54!. W. long. 3° 21/.
ROUGNAT, a town of France, in the department of
the Creufe; nine miles S. of Evaux.
ROUHA. | See Ourra.
ROUHAMON, in Botany, a Caribbean name, retained
by Aublet for one of his genera. See Lastostoma.
ROUIA, in Geography, a town of Syria, containing
feven fine palaces, fome of which are entire, and feveral
churches built in a fine ftyle; 36 miles S.S.W. of Aleppo.
ROUJAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Beziers ; fix miles N.W. of Pezenas.. The place contains
1129, and the canton 5720 inhabitants, on a territory of
135 kiliometres, in 41 communes. ; :
ROVIGNO, or Trevieno, a fea-port town of Htria,
feated on a rock which projeéts into the fea, with two har-
bours capable of containing the largeft veffels. It con-
tains about 17,000 inhabitants, chiefly fifhermen and beat-
builders. In its vicinity are quarries of beautiful marble;
68 miles E. of Venice. N. lat. 45° ro’. E. loag. 13°
'
PRovIco, a town of Italy, and capital of the Polefine
di Rovigo, on the river Adigegto, the fee of the bifhop of
Adria, to the decline of which town it owes its increafe.
It was anciently called Buonvico; it is furrounded with
walls, turrets, and battlements. The river divides it into the
upper and lower towns, and to the E. isa fortified caftle.
Exclufive of its fuburbs, it is about a mile and a half in
circumference, and contains fix gates, a collegiate and nine
other churches, together with feveral religious houfes and
hofpitals; 37 miles. S.S.W. of Venice. N. lat. 45° 4!
E. long. 11° 48’.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in the Vin-
centin, on the Adige; 14 miles S.S.W. of Vicenza.
ROUILLAGC, a town of France, in the department
of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Angouleme ; 12 miles N.W of Angouleme. The
2 place
ROU
place contains 1168, and the canton 13,531 inhabitants, on
a territory of 2524 kiliometres, in 19 communes.
ROUILLE,, Perer Juiian, in Biography, a learned
Jefuit, born at Tours in 1681, was educated in the Jefuits
college of that city, and made his profeffion in the fociety
in 1715. He fucceflively taught the languages, philo-
fophy, and mathematics in its feminaries. In 1724 he
was called to Paris to affift father Catrou in the compofi-
tion of his Roman Hittory. To this work he only con-
tributed the differtations. He alfo revifed and corrected the
work of father d’Orleans, on the revolutions of Spain, and
had a confiderable fhare in the ‘* Memoires de Trevoux’’
from December 1733 to February 1737. He had pre-
vioufly to this, in 1716, delivered « A Diicourfe on the
_ Exceliency and Utility of Mathematics,”’ printed at Caen
in 1716. He was author of fome other works, and died,
highly refpected and eiteemed, in the year 1740. -
ROUILLY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Vienne; 15 miles W. of Poitiers.
ROUL, Rott, or Row/, inthe Mihtary Art. Officers
of the fame rank, who mount the fame guard, and take their
turns in relieving one another, purfuant to fome eftablifhed
rofter, as captains with captains, fubalterns with fubalterns,
and command according. to the feniority of their commif-
fions, are faid tq rou/ or roll.
ROULADE, Fr. in Mufic, a divifion or paflage in a
fong of many notes to one fyllable. (See Division and
Neume.) A roulade is only an imitation of inftrumental
melody, either to grace a treble part, render an image more
obvious, enforce the expreffion, or, when it is neceflary,
to fufpend the difcourfe and prolang the melody. But it
is likewife neceflary that it fhould be on a long fyllable,
that the voice fhould be fpirited, a€tive, and capable of
allowing the throat full liberty to warble and exprefs with
facility and neatnefs the notes of the divifion, without
fatiguing the organs of the finger, and confequently the
ears of the audience. Rouffeau.
The vowels mott proper for thefe flights are a, 0, and e,
open. The 7 and w are not fonorous, but diftort the
mouth: the diphthongs ftill more. (Roufleau is here
confidering the vocal properties of the French alphabet. )
As to the nafal vowels or fyllables, they fhould never be
employed in roulades. The Italian language, in which
the a and o abound, is more fit for inflexions of voice than
the French; and thefe vowels are not {pared by Italian
compofers, but brought into aétion as frequently as pof-
fible. On the contrary, the French, obliged to compofe
almoft all their melodies to fyllables inftead of vowels,
on account of their defects, are conitrained to give the
notes a flow and heavy motion, or to admit a clafh of con-
fonants in accelerating fyllables; which neceffarily renders
the melody languid or harfh. And we join with the citizen
of Geneva in confefling, that we trow French vocal mufic
can never furmount thefe inconveniencies.
“It is a vulgar prejudice to-imagine, that divifione are
improper in plaintive and pathetic airs; on the contrary,
when the heart is moved and affeéted to an uncommon de-
gree, the voice more eafily finds accents of paffion, than
the mind can furnifh words, and thence arife interjeCtions
in all languages. (See Neume.) It is equally erroneous
to imagine that a divifion is always proper, whenever a
favourable vowel or fyllable occurs, without confidering
the ficuation of the finger, and whether the fentiment,
whicli he ought to exprefs, authorizes it.
“ Roulades are of modern invention. It does not appear
that the ancients ever admitted them in their mufic, or ever
gave them more than two notes to a fyllable. And this
VoL, XXX.
ROU
eonttitutes the difference between the two mufics; one of
which was fubfervient to the language, to which the other
gives the law.”
Thefe refleGtions are admirable, deep, comprehenfive, and
convincing; yet, fince they occurred to the penetrating
author, more changes and refinements have happened in
lyric poetry and finging, which make it neceflary to extend
this article, in order to keep pace with the times.
Till about the middle of the lait century, many Italian
compofers gave divifions to a, e, and 0, indifcriminately ;
all Farinelli’s divifions are confined to the vowel a. (See
a colleétion of them in Burney’s Hift. Muf. vol. iv.)
Even the vowel o clofes the lips and teeth more than the
Italian a, on which account, we fuppofe, it has been
wholly refuted divifions or roulades in its vocal mufic. See
Laneuace, Euphony of, where this fubjeé& has been fully
difcuiled.
ROULAND 1’Ecurse, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Doubs; and chief place
of a canton, in the diftri@ of Baume; nine miles N.E of
Befancon. The place contains 423, and the canton 9066
inhabitants, on a territory of 250 kiliometres, in 33 com-
munes.
ROULERS, a town of France, in the department of
the Lys, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Courtnay. The place contains 8063, and the canton
13,587 mbhabitants, on a territory of 374 kiliometres, in
two communes.
ROULET, a town of France, in the department of
the Charente ; eight miles S.W. of Angouleme.
ROUM, i.e. the kingdom of the Romans, a name
given to Natolia, by Solyman, fultan of the Turks, when
he invaded and became matter of it, in the rith century.
It is now chiefly applied to a part of Afiatic Turkey, ex-
tending from the Mediterranean to the Black fea, eaitward
of Caramania and Natolia, and weftward of Armenia and
the government of Diarbekir, including the governments
of Sivas, Adana, and Marafch.
Roum Kala, a {mall town and fort of Perfia, in the
pachalic of Orfa, fituated on the weftern bank of the
Euphrates, and inhabited by Turks and Arabs. It was
formerly called Zeugma, from a Grecian term fignifying a
bride, and was the great paflage for the Roman armies
into Macedonia. There were two {mall towns, one on
each fide of the river; the former was called Zeugma, and
the latter Apamea. A few miles farther down the river,
the caravans travelling from Aleppo to Orfa, pafs the
Euphrates on a bridge of boats, at a place called “ Bir,”?
which, according to M. D’Anville, reprefents the ancient
Bertha, 144 miles from Aleppo and 67 from Orfa, in N.
lat. 36° 58. ee Bir.) It is fituated on an eminence
on the bank of the Euphrates, prote¢ted by a citadel and
a wall in a dilapidated condition. At this town, the houfes
of which are in a ruinous {tate, a tax is levied on all travellers
and merchants who crofs the Euphrates, which is here
deep, rapid, and about 130 yards broad.
ROUMIEJU, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers; fix miles E. of Condom,
ROUND, Rorvunnus, in Geometry.
Grosr, and SPHERE.
Rounp, in Anatomy. See Rotunnvs.
Rounp, in Mufic. A round in catch-books is fome-
times called @ canon in the unifon, and fometimes, but erro-
neoufly, a catch: but it is diitiné from both, being no more
than a fong of as many ftrains or fe€tions, as parts ; which,
inftead of being begun together, are performed after each
4L
See CuRcLe,
other,
ROU
other, always finging different words and different notes in
harmony with the reft; till a fignal is given, by holding up
the hand, for finifhing upon the perfeét chord of the key
note, where the author has placed this final mark, >
_ Rounp is alfo ufed in mulic to denote a fpecies of fugue.
See RouNDELAY.
Rounp, in Military Language, fignifies a walk or turn,
which an officer, commiffioned or non-commiflioned, at-
tended with fome foldiers, commonly fix, takes in a garri-
fon, or fortified place, around the ramparts in the night-
time, to liften if any thing be ftirring without the works,
and to fee that the fentinels are watchful, and de their duty,
and all things are in good order.
in ftrié& garrifon the rounds go every half hour, that
the rampart may be always furnifhed. The fentinels are to
challenge at a diftance, and to port their arms as the rounds
pafs, and let no one come near them. All guards turn
out, challenge, exchange the parole, and prefent their
arms, &c.
Rounds are ordinary and extraordinary. ‘lhe ordinary
rounds are three; the ¢own-major’s round, the grand round,
and the wifiting round.
Rounps, Manner of going the. When the town-major
goes his round, he comes to the main guard, and demands
a ferjeant and four or fix men to efcort him to the next
puss and when it is dark one of the men is to carry a
ight. :
ON foon as the fentry at the guard perceives the round
coming, he fhall give notice to the guard, that they may
be ready to turn out when ordered ; and when the round is
advanced within about twenty or thirty paces of the guard,
he is to challenge brifkly ; and when he is anfwered by the
ferjeant who attends the round, toqn-major’s round, he is to
fav, fland, round! and port his arms; after which he is to call
out immediately, ferjeant, turn out the guard! town-major’s
round. Upon the fentry calling the ferjeant to turn out
the guard, he immediately draws up the men in good order
with fhouldered arms, and the officer places himfelf at the
head of it, with his {word drawn. He then orders the
ferjeant and four or fix men to advance towards the round,
and challenge; the ferjeant of the round is to anfwer,
town-major’s round ; upon which the ferjeant of the guard
replies, advance, ferjeant, with the parole! at the fame time
ordering his men to re{t their arms. The ferjeant of the
round advances alone, and gives the ferjeant of the guard
the parole in his ear, that none elfe may hear it ; during
which period, the ferjeant of the guard holds the ipear of
his halbert or pike at the other’s breaft. The ferjeant of
the round then returns to his poft, whilft the ferjeant of
the guard, leaving his men to keep the round from advanc-
ing, gives the parole to his officer. This being found
right, the officer orders his ferjeant to return to his men ;
fays, advance town-major’s round! and orders the guard to
port their arms; upon which the ferjeant of the guard
orders his men to wheel back from the centre, and form a
lane through which the town-major is to pafs (the efcort
remaining where it was) and go up to the officer and give
him the parole, laying his mouth to his ear. The officer
holds the point of his {word at the town-major’s breaft
while he gives the parole.
Rouxps, Grand, the rounds which are gone by general
officers, governors, commandants, or field-officers. When
there are no officers of the day on picquet, the officer of
the main guard in garrifon may go the grand rounds.
Rounns, Vifiting, rounds gone by captains, fubalterns,
and the town-majors of garrifons.
The grand rounds generally go at midnight ; the vifiting
ROU
rounds at intermediate periods, between fun-fet and the
reveillé. ‘The grand rounds receive the parole, and all
other rounds give it to the guards.
There is alfo a {pecies of baftard rounds, if we may be
permitted the expreffion, which are gone by a corporal and
a file of men; and which are in reality nothing more than a
patrole. When challenged, they anfwer pat. rounds.
N.B. The governor of a garrifon can order the rounds
to go as often as he may judge expedient. Extraordinary
rounds are reforted to when any particular event or occur-
rence is expected, and in cafes of tumult, &c.
Rounp Robbin, a compaé of honour which officers
enter into, (when they have caufe of complaint againft
their fuperior officer) to ftate their grievances, and to endea~
vour to obtain redrefs, without fubje&ting one more than
another to the odium of being a leader or chief mover.
The term is a corruption of ruban rond, which fignifies a
round ribbon. It was ufual among French officers when
they figned a remonftrance, to write their names in a cir-
cular form, fo that it was impoffible to afcertain who figned
firft. Hence to fign a round robbin againft any perfon, is
for any f{pecific number of men to fign, one and all, a remon-
{trance againit him. Colonels of regiments have been fome-
times treated in this manner. Great judgment, directing
motives grounded upon {trong faéts, fhould always influence
on thefe nice occafions.
Rounps, Way of the. See Way.
Rounps, Counter. See CountEer-Round.
Rounp, Quarter. See QuaRTER-Round.
Rounps, among Ma/ons, denote the broken pieces of
ftatues. .
Rounp-Heads. See Wuic and Tory.
Rounp-Head Nails. See Natt.
Rounp-Houfe, in Ship-Building, that part of the fhip
abaft, next above the quarter-deck, fitted up with cabins,
&c. for the accommodation of the captain.
Rounp-Houfes at the head, conveniencies, or feats of
eafe, for the officers.
Rounp-fou/e alfo denotes a kind of prifon, for the nightly
watch to fecure perfons in, till they can be carried before
a magiftrate. See WATCH.
Rounp-Ja, or Round-Aft, at Sea, a term belonging to
the main and fore-fail. When the wind largeth, they fay,
Let rife the main-tacks, or the fore-tacks! Hale aft the fore-
Jheet to the cat-head ; and the main-fheet to the cub-britlge-head !
And when thefe fheets are thus haled down, they keep
them from flying up with the paflarado rope. ‘Fhis work
is called rounding-in, or rounding-aft the fail.
Rounp 4ft, in Ship-Building, the fegment of a circle which
the ftern partakes of from the wing-tranfom upward.
Rounp Stern, the ftern of a veffel whofe bottom, wales,
&c. are wrought quite aft, and unite in the ftern-poft. Few
Englifh veflels are built on this conftruéction, excepting
{mall veflels, as hoys, &c.
Rowunp-up of the Tranfoms, the fegment of a circle to
which they are fided, alfo of the beams and rails of the
ftern, to which they are moulded.
Rounp Niche, Roof, Seam, Shot, Splice, Table, Top. See
the fubftantives.
Rowunp, in the Academies, denotes a circular pifte or
tread.
Rounp a Horfe, To, is a general term for all forts of
maneges, upon a volt, or circular tread.
Hence, to round a horfe upon a trot, gallop, &c. is to
make him carry his fhoulders and haunches roundly or com-
paétly, upon a larger or {maller circle, without traverfing or
bearing to a fide.
Rounn
ROU
Rounp Table, the circular table at which the knights of
old, who affembled together from different countries to
perform the martial exercifes of the tournament, were ac-
cuftomed to eat, on fuch occafions, to prevent difputes
about precedency. Such atable is feen fixed to the eaitern
wall of the county-hall at Winchefter, being vulgarly called’
«¢ Arthur’s Round Table,’’ though it does not appear to
- be more ancient than the reign of king Stephen. From the
ufe to which thefe tables were appropriated, the diverfion
itfelf of the tournament, or tilting, was called the round
table. << Illuftris miles, Rogerus de Mortuo-mari apud
Kenilworth ludum militarem quem vocant rotundarg tabu-
lam centum .militum ac tot dominarum conftituit.””? Th.
Walfingham, Hift. p. 49.
Rovunp Towers, thofe tall fender towers which are almoft
peculiar to Ireland (fome few being found in Scotland),
rifing to the height of from 50 ta 100 feet, or more, and
containing not more than five or fix feet in diameter in their
upper chamber. They have a fingle entrance-door, of
from five to fifteen feet from the ground, and a loop-hole,
to give light to each ftory, of which there are generally fix
or feven in each round tower. The uppermott {tory, how-
ever, which was the ufual dwelling-place of the folitary
inhabitant, was furnifhed with four loop-holes or windows,
correfponding with the four cardinal points of the compafs.
From the nature and fituation of thefe*fingular itruétures,
they being always very near to the fcite of an ancient
church, it appears that each of them was built for the habi-
tation of a fingle Jnclufus, or hermit, who, living in the
higheft chamber of it, enjoyed his beloved folitude as
much as if he had dwelt in a defart. It appears from
Giraldus Cambrenfis, that Ireland was full of thefe towers
in the 12th century, and there is reafon to afcribe the
ereCtion of them to the fixth, feventh, and eighth centuries,
namely, before the Danifh invafions, and during the period
of the Irifh tranfmigration into various countries in quett
of folitudes. The idea of them and ¢heir ufe were evi-
dently borrowed from the columns and itylites of the Eat.
See SryLirTeEs.
Rounp Bay, in Geography, a bay with good anchorage,
on the W. coatt of St. Lucia.
Rounp, Cape, a cape on the coaft of Patagonia, in the
ftraits of Magellan. S. lat. 53° 47'. -W. long. 71° 32!.
Rowunp Hill, an ifland in the North Pacific ocean, near
the E. coaitof Labrador. N. lat. 53° 25’. W. long. 55°
16).
Rounp Hill Bluff, a cape on the N. ooatt of Jamaica,
W. of Montego bay. N. lat. 18° 29’. W. long. 77° 58).
Rounp Heads, Indians of North America, inhabiting
the territory on Round river. The number of warriors
is about zooo. y
Rounp Jfland, a {mall ifland of England, in Pool
harbour.—Alfo, a fmall ifland near the E. coaft of Borneo,
in the bay of Gunong Tellu. S. lat. 0° 28/.. E. long.
123° 30'.
Rounp Key, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Weitt
- Florida, which is well timbered. |N. lat. 30° 15’. W.
long. 88° 28'.
Rounp Rock, one of the Virgin iflands, in the Weft
Indies. N. lat. 18° 10!. W. long. 62° 53!.
ROUNDELAY, or Rounpo, a kind of ancient poem,
thus called, according to Menage, from its form; and be-
caufe it ftill turns back again to the firlt verfe, and thus
goes round.
The word is formed from round and Jay.
call it rondeau ; the Spaniards glo/es.
The common roundelay confitls of thirteen verfes, eight
The French
ROU
of which are of one rhyme, and five in another. It is
divided into. couplets ; at the end of the fecond and third
of which, the beginning of the roundelay is repeated ; and
that, if poffible, in an equivocal or punning fenfe.
The roundelay is a popular poem among the French,
but little known among us. Marot and Voiture have fuc-
ceeded the heft in it.
Rapin obferves, that if the roundelay be not very ex-
quifite, it is intolerably bad. In all the ancient roundelays,
Menage obferves, that the verfe preceding has a complete
fenfe, and yet joins agreeably witi that of the clofe; with-
out depending neceffarily on it. This rule, well obferved,
makes the roundelay more ingenious, and is one of the
finefies of the poem.
Some of the ancient writers fpeak of the roundelay, or
roundel, as a kind’ of air appropriated to dancing ; and in
this fenfe the term feems to indicate little more than dancing
in a circle, with the hands joined. See Ronpeavu.
ROUNDELET. See Runpter.
ROUNDING, in Sea Language, denotes certain old
ropes wound firmly and clofely about that part of a cable
which lies in the hawfe, or under the fhip’s bow, or
athwart the item. It is ufed to prevent the furface of the
cable from being chafed or fretted in thofe places.
Rounp1nG-in generally implies the a& of pulling upon
any rope which paffes through one or more blocks, in a
dire€tion merely horizontal; as round-in the weather-
braces, &c. It feems to be derived from the circular
motion of the rope about the fheave or pulley through
which it paffes.
Rounpinc-up is exprefled of a tackle which hangs in a
perpendicular pofition, without fuftaining or hoifting any
weighty body ; in which cafe it is the operation of pulling
the blocks clofer to each other, by means of the rope
which paffes through them, to compofe the tackle; and
is oppofed to over-hauling, by which the blocks are drawn
farther afunder.
ROUNDNESS, Rorunopiry, in Phyfes.
RICITY-
ROUNDO, or Rounpevay,in Mufic, a kind of burden
or ritornello; where the beginning of each couplet is re~
peated at the end of it.
ROUNDSTONE Bay, in Geography, a harbour of the
county of Galway, Ireland, in Ballinahinch. It is fepa-
rated from Birterbui bay by the ifland of Inifhkeele,
lying on the weit of it.
ROUNREAK, a town of Pegu, on an ifland formed
by the Ava; 42 miles S. of Lundfay.
ROUP, in Commerce, a filver coin of Turkey, containing
LO paras, the para being equal te 3 afpers, and 40 paras
being equal to the dollar or piaftre.
Rovr, in Poultry, is a filthy boil or {welling upon their
rumps, known by the itaring, or turning back of the
feathers.
The roup, if not foon remedied, will corrupt the whole
body ; to prevent which, the feathers are to be pulled
away, the {welling Jaid open, and the matter prefled out;
after which the part is to be wafhed with falt and water, or
brine.
ROUPALA, in Botany, a name of Aublet.
RuOpPaLa.
ROUPEYROUX, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Aveyron; 7 miles S.E. of Villa-
franche.
ROUPIA, or Rurer. See Rupee.
ROUREA, in Botany, a name of Aublet’s.
BERGIA.
ROUSAY,
See SpHE-
See
See Ro-
41, 2
ROU
ROUSAY, in Geography, one of the Orkney iflands,
Scotland, is fituated to the north-weft of the Mainland of
Orkney, from which it is feparated by a ftrait about a mile
in breadth. It confifts chiefly of a ridge of lofty hills de-
clining on all fides towards the coaft. - The beit cultivated
parts of this ifland are its eaftern and fouth-weltern fides ; but
there is a narrow {trip of arable land extending round the
whole fhore. The hills are moftly covered with heath, inter-
mixed with various kinds of grafles, which afford fuftenance
to a great number of fheep, {wine, and black cattle. Op-
polite to the Mainland, in a romantic fituation, ftands the
houfe of Weftnefs, which in remote ages was the abode of
the celebrated earl Sigard, who fell in the famous battle
of Clontarf in Ireland, and is ranked by hiftorians among
the greateft heroes of hisage. On a flat tract of land, clofe
to the fhore, about a quarter of a mile weftward from the
place, are feveral ‘ immenfe piles of ftones, evidently the
ruins of fome ancient ftructure, around which are to be
feen graves formed with {tones fet on edge, as in fome other
places ; and the name of Swendrow, which it bears, points
it out, with great probability, as the fcene of the capture
of earl Paul, by Swein, the fon of Afleif, and the flaughier
of his attendants, when he was, with the bafeft intention,
carried a prifoner into Scotland.’’? The ridge known by
the whimfical name of the camp of Jupiter Fring, is fituated
about two miles eaftward from Weftnefs. Several ftanding
ftones are to be met with in different parts of the ifland ;
and there are fome tumuli on the fouth fide, near the
Freit, alfo a few Pits-houfes.
Contiguous to Roufay, on the north-weft, is the {mall
ifland of Eaglefhay, which yields to none of the Orkney
ifles in beauty of appearance, or conveniency of fituation.
This ifland is about two miles long and one broad, and, in con-
juntion with Roufay, forms one parifh ; which, according
to the population cenfus of 1811, contained 189 houfes,
and 965 inhabitants. Eaglefhay is remarkable in hiltory
for having been the fcene of the unjuft and barbarous
murder of St. Magnus, the tutelary faint of the Orkney
iflands. The church, which is very ancient, is faid to
occupy the fpot on which the affaflination was committed.
Owing to the natural attractions of this ifland, feveral of
the counts of Orkney made it their ufual place of refidence,
and their example was followed in later times, when it
became the property of the Douglafes and the Monteaths.
Hiftory of the Orkney Iflands, by the Rey. Dr. Barry,
2d edit. by the Rev. James Headrick, gto. London, 1808.
ROUSE zp a Hare, among Hunters. See Huntine.
Rouse, To, among Falconers, is when a hawk lifts up and
fhakes himfelf.
ROUSHOLM Heap, in Geography, a cape on the
S.W. coat of the ifland of Stronfa. N. Jat. 58° 56’... W.
long.’ 2° 3a’.
ROUSSE, Grand and Petit, rocks in the Englifh Chan-
nel; 5 miles N.E. from the iland of Jerfey.
ROUSSEA, in Botany, was fo called by the writer of the
prefent article, in memory of the celebrated Jean Jacques
Roufleau. Botany had f{pread a charm over the latter
years of this diftinguifhed man, and foothed their real or
imaginary ills. Whenever he touches on this favourite
fubjeét, he communicates the fame charm to his readers,
Such has been the effect of his example, perhaps above all
others, that he would now no longer have to deplore «the
gro{s ignorance and barbarifm’’? of the French, who, about
fifty years ago, ftared at a botanift with fovereign con-
tempt. His letters on the feience have rendered the Lin-
nean fyftem popular all over Europe. He corre{ponded
with Linneus, who had dedicated a genus to his name ;
ROU
which the younger Linneus, through mifapprehenfion,
publifhed as Rufelia, and which is now called Vahlia,
there being already a Rufelia, named by Jacquin. What
we are about to defcribe was therefore feleéted as a very
fine and fingular genus, and it has been generally adopted,
both in France and elfewhere.—Smith Plant. Ic. fafe. 1. 6.
Schreb. Gen. 792. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 607. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 4. Jufl. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot.
v. 2. 568. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 75.—Clafs and order,
Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Gampanacea, Linn. Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four
deep, equal, widely {preading, tongue-fhaped, permanent
fegments. Cor. of one petal, externally rugofe; tube
nearly globular, almoft as long as the calyx ; limb in four
equal, lanceolate, acute, revolute fegments. Stam: Fila-
ments four, ereét, equal, linear, flattened, fomewhat taper-
ing upwards, longer than the corolla; anthers terminal,
fmall, arrow-fhaped. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, -pyramidal,
quadrangular ; ftyle terminal, fquare, permanent, the length
of the ftamens ; itigma funnel-fhaped. Peric. Berry? py-
ramidal, quadrangular, of one cell? with a coriaceous coat.
Seeds very numerous, lenticular, imbedded in-pulp.
Est. Ch. Calyx in four deep fegments. Corolla bell- .
fhaped, four-cleft, inferior. Berry? quadrangular, with
many feeds.
1. R. fimplex. Sm. Ic. t. 6. Willd. n. 1.—Gathered
by Commerfon in the ifland of Mauritius, and commu-
nicated by Thouin to the younger Linnzus, with about
1500 fine plants befides. This appears to be a /brud, of a
flefhy habit, climbing over mofly rocks, or ftems of trees,
in moift fituations. The fem is thick and knotty. | Leaves
oppofite, in pairs crofling each other, ftalked, fimple,
obovate, rather flefhy, dillantly toothed, pointed, quite
{mooth on both fides, with a folitary rib, and many fine
tranfverfe veins ; their length about three inches; breadth
one, or one and a half. Footfalks an inch long, even,
channelled, {mooth. S#pulas oppofite, between the foot-
ftalks, triangular, acute, membranous. //owers folitary,
axillary, large, flefhy, on drooping round /la/gs, rather
fhorter than thofe of the leaves, accompanied at the bafe
of the ftalk by feveral crowded, membranous, acute braéeas,
very like the fiipulas. Calyx {mooth, an inch long. Corolla
fomewhat downy at the outfide ; of its colour we have no
means of judging. The fruit appears to be a coriaceous
berry, about an inch in diameter, but we have not feen it
fully formed, nor has Commerfon left any note refpecting
the qualities of the plant. In the texture, and external
downinefs, of the corolla, this genus accords not fo much
with Campanula itfelf, as with others of the fame order,
Goodenia, Scevola, &c. To fome of thefe the form of its
ftigma approaches, while the anthers, fo widely differing
among themfelves in this order, are, in the prefent inftance,
very unlike moft of the other genera. The oppofite eaves,
and intermediate /fipulas, evince, as M. de Juffieu obferves,
an approach in habit to the natural order of Rupiacem.
See that article.
ROUSSEAU, Jouy Baptist, in Biography, a French
poet, of confiderable celebrity, was born at Paris in 1671.
His father, though only a fhoe-maker, contrived to give him
a liberal education. By his literary talents he obtained,
while very young, admiffion among perfons of rank and
tafte. In 1688 he attended the French ambaflador to the
court of Denmark, in quality of page. After this he went
with marfhal Tallard to England, where he contracted an
intimacy with Saint Evremond. In 1703 he was domici-
liated with M. Rouillé, direétor of the finances, whom he
accompanied to court, and elfewhere, living in tranquillity
in
ROUSSEAU.
in the midft of {plendour, and cultivating the Mufes, to the
negle&t of thofe opportunities which occurred to him of
making his fortune. © When he was at the height of his re-
putation, he involved himfelf in an affair which put an end
to his happinefs, and rendered him wretched for the re-
mainder of his life. A number of men of letters were ac-
cuftomed to meet at a coffee-houfe in Paris, among whom
- were Roufleau and La Motte, when, in 1708, the opera of
Hefione made its appearance. Rouffeau wrote fome verfes
upon the authors of the words, the mufic, and the ballet of
the piece, which were highly fatirical. ‘Thefe were anony-
mous, and were imputed to Roufleau, who not only denied
them, but attempted to fix the blame upon M. Saurin, a man
of fcience and letters, who, from a Calvinift minifter, had
become a convert to Popery, and refided in Paris. The
nature of this difcuffion it is not neceffary to go into, it is
fufficient to fay, that by an arrét of parliament, in 1712
Rouffeau was condemned to perpetual banifhment from the
kingdom, not only as a fuborner in the accufation of Saurin,
but as the author and diftributor of the fatirical verfes. He
had already retired to Switzerland, where he was protected
by the count de Luc, the French ambaffador to the Cantons.
He publifhed in Soleure the firft edition of his colle&ted
works, in the preface to which he ridiculoufly gives himfelf
the air of one who wrote verfes for mere amufement, al-
though it was by his poetry alone he obtained public notice
and the favour of the great. When De Luc went to Baden,
in 1714, as plenipotentiary for concluding peace with the
emperor, Roufleau accompanied him. He there became
known to prince Eugene, and by him was taken to Vienna.
Here he refided three years, but not being able to reftrain
himfelf from exercifing bis fatirical talent, he was obliged to
quit that capital for Bruffels, in hafte. At Bruflels he be-
came acquainted with Voltaire, with whom he formed a con-
fidential intimacy, which however did not laft very long:
jealous of exch other’s fame, they became bitter enemies,
not only endeavouring to blacken each other’s moral charac-
ter, but each, at the expence of his own judgment, depre-
ciating the literary merit of his adverfary. Ronfleau longed
much to revilit Paris, and made interceffion with the regent
duke of Orleans, who granted him letters of recall, but the
poet infifted upon a previous revifion of his trial, which he
could not obtain. In1721 he came to England, where he
prepared a new edition of his works. T'his was publifhed
in 1723, in two vols. 4to. and produced him 10,000 crowns,
which he placed in the fund of the Oftend company. The
failure of this company funk. all his fortune, and he was re-
duced, in the decline of life, to fubfift on the benevolence
of his friends. Boutet, a notary of Paris, fupplied his moft
urgent wants, but he met with more effe€tual affiftance from
the duke d’Aremberg, who, when he quitted Bruffels in
1733, fettled upon him a handfome penfion, befides givin
him an apartment and his table in his palace. Roufleau aif
pleafed this patron, by calumniating Voltaire, and deter-
mined to go to Paris, with the hope of finally obtaining a
repeal of his banifhment. He had prepared his way by two
epiftles to perfons of weight in that city, and by an ode to
the praife of cardinal Fleury on the peace. His efforts
were, however, unfuccefsful. He could not even obtain a
fafe-guard for pafling a fingle year in Paris: he accordingly
returned to Bruffels, where he died in March 1741, at the
age of 70. In his laft moments he declared he was not the
author of the couplets for which he had been banifhed. The
eftimate of his moral charaCter depends fo much on the be-
lief of his guilt or innocence, in the points refpe@ting which
he was accufed, that nothing can be more different than its
ftatement by his friends and enemies. . There is more agree-
3
ment in the opinions of his countrymen relative to his poeti-
cal charaéter, and it is pretty generally acknowledged that
he ftands at’the head of the ode writers in the French Jan-
guage. ‘To thefe compofitions,” adds his biographer,
“he brought great fire and force of expreffion, copioufnefs,
and grandeur of imagery, and all the harmony of which his
language is capable ; but the fentiment is generally common,
and nothing indicates a foul of the fuperior order.” OF his
*¢ Odes’’ there are four books, of which the firft confifts of
facred topics, taken from the Pfalms. He wrote two books
of “ Epiitles’”? in verfe ; “¢ Cantatas ;”? “ Allegories ;”
«¢ Epigrams ;’’ ‘¢ Mifcellaneous Poems ;”’ « Four Comedies
in Verfe and three in Profe;’’? and a “ Colle&tion of Let-
ters.’’ Thefe are faid to give an unfavourable idea of his
temper, but fome allowance fhould be made for a man who
was fo long an objeé&t of the perfecution of his enemies,
and of whom it was faid in his epitaph, that “ thirty years
he was an objeét of envy, and thirty of compaffion.”? M.
Seguy, in concert with M. the prince of la Tour Taflis,
has given a beautiful edition of his works, agreeably
to the poet’s laft correétions. This edition was printed at
Paris in 1743, in three vols. gto. and in four vols. 12mo.
containing nothing but what the author acknowledged as
his own. Ferron fpeaks of Rouffeau as uniting in himfelf
the excellencies of Pindar, Horace, Anacreon, and Mal-
herbe. He was in habits of correfpondence with the abbe
d’Olivet, the two Racines, the celebrated Rollin, and other
illuftrious French characters.
Rousseau, JEAN Jacques, was born at Geneva in the
year 1712. His father was a watch-maker. At his birth,
which, he fays, was the firft of his misfortunes, he endan-
gered the life of his mother, and he himfelf was for a long
time in a very languifhing ftate of health; but as his bodily
ftrength increafed, his mental powers gradually opened, and
afforded the happieft prefages of future greatnefs. His
father, who was a citizen of Geneva, was a well-informed
man, and in his fhop, he always kept by him fome literary
works of authority, among which were Plutarch’s Lives,
with which he intermixed fuch converfations as might be
expected from an ardent republican. In his “ Confeffions,”’
to which all the biographers of Rouffeau mult go for in-
formation, he has recorded feveral circumltances, which, in
his opinion, exerted a lafting influence upon his charater ;
but it is more probable that his ruling propenfities were de-
termined by his bodily conflitution. This he reprefents as
of the warmeft kind, burning with fenfuality from his very
birth. His {chool education was very imperfeét, and he
grew up in habits of idlenefs, and in the vices of a weak
untteady temper. He was firft put apprentice to an attor-
ney, who foon difcharged him for his negligence: after this
he was put out to an engraver, who difguited him by his
harfhnefs. The fear of chaftifement, which he probably
well merited, rendered him a fugitive from his mafter, when
he was in his 15th year, at which time he was a reftlefs dif-
contented being, confumed with defires of which he knew
not the obje&, and careffing his fancies for want of realities.
He went into Savoy, where he was hofpitably entertained
by a parifh prieit, who pleafed himfelf with the idea of mak-
ing a profelyte from the Genevan reformed church. For
this purpofe he fent the youth to Annecy, to a Madame de
Warrens, an ingenious and very amiable lady, who had, in
1726, left part of her wealth, and the Proteftant religion,
in order to throw herfelf into the bofom of the church.
This generous lady ferved in the triple capacity of a mother,
a friend, and a lover to the new profelyte, whom fhe re-
garded as her fon. For farther inftruction fhe fent him to
a feminary at Turin, where his converfion was completed,
and
ROUSSEAU.
and he got twenty florins in exchange with his new religion.
When this money was fpent, he found no better refource
than to enter into the fervice of a countefs: here he com-
mitted a crime, which he acknowledges, in his “« Confeffions,”’
with the moft heartfelt remorfe. He ftole a ribbon, and
when it was found in his pofleffion, he not only denied the
theft, but charged an innocent and amiable young woman
in the houfe with it, to whom, in faét, he meant to have
prefented the ribbon. After the death of the countefs, he
entered into the family of a nobleman, whofe fon, a literary
man, took pains to inftruct him, and treated him rather as
a companion or pupil than a fervant. But the flattering
prof{pects opened to him by this conneétion he deflroyed by
his imprudence and mifconduét, and being turned out of
doors, after pafling fome time as a vagabond, he returned
to Madame de Warrens. This lady had found means to ally
her devotional turn of mind with the induigence of amorous
propenfities, of which young Roufleau was an objeé,
though not the only one. Through her intereft he obtained
a place as fecretary to acommiffion, appointed by the king
of Sardinia for furveying lands, and in this employ’ he con-
tinued two years, during which he-apphied himfelf to the
ftudy of arithmetic and geometry. Mutic, however, became
his paffion, and growing difgufted with his other occupation,
he renounced it, and took up the profeffion of mufic-mafter
at Chamberry. Here he pafled eight years, intimately con-
ne€ted with Madame de Warrens, though not without fol-
lowing her example of occafional deviations to other fa-
vourites. At length a coldnefs took place, and Roufleau
was recommended by her to the office of tutor to the chil-
dren of M. Mably, at Lyons. He did not retain this fitua-
tion very long, but went to Paris, where he lived in ob-
{curity till 1743, when he obtained the appointment of
fecretary to the French ambaflador to the republic of Venice.
It was not long before he quarrelled with his fuperior, and
returning to Paris, with an improved knowledge and talte
in mufic, he lived by it, at the fame time employing his lei-
fure in the ftudy of natural philofophy and botany. He was
for fome time clerk to a farmer-general, and with part of
the profits which he gained in this fituation he repaid fome
of the pecuniary afliftance he had received from Madame de
Warrens, who now ftood in need of it. In 1748 he began
to feel the attacks of a painful diforder, which troubled him
during the remainder of his life, and by incapacitating him
for active employments, might perhaps be a remote caufe of
his literary fame. The year 1750 was the commencement
of his literary career. The academy of Dijon had propofed
the following queftion, «* Whether the revival of the arts and
{ciences has contributed to the refinement of manners.’’
Rouffeau, it is faid, at firft inelined to the affirmative fide
of the queftion; but by the perfuafion of Diderot he was
induced to fupport the negative, as mott likely to attract
notice. His difcourfe againft the advantages of the fciences
accordingly having been found to be the bett written, and re-
plete with the deepeft reafoning, was publicly crowned with
the approbation of this learned body, and was generally read
with the intereft ufually infpired by a fplendid paradox.
Several anfwers appeared againit it, one of which was writ-
ten by Staniflaus, king of Poland: it was enough for Rouf-
feau to have made his name known with fo much diftinétion
in the literary world. The part which he took feems to
have made a lafting impreffion upon him, in preference of
the favage to the civilized life, which was fo frequent a fub-
ject of his declamation. Among other attacks which this
difcourfe drew upon him, was that of being ridiculed on the
ftage of. Nancy, by Paliflot, in his « Comedié des Philofo-
phes.”? ‘I'he king of Poland, then duke of Lorraine, was
4
fo much difpleafed with this infult, that he caufed a letter
of apology to be written to Rouffeau, at the fame time ac-
quainting him that he had deprived Paliffot of his place at
the academy of Nancy, and it is highly to the credit of the
philofopher, that he immediately interceded for him and ob-
tained his reftoration.
In 1752 Roufleau wrote a comedy, entitled “ Narciffe, ou
Amant de lui-méme.’”? He alfo compofed a mufical en-
tertainment of “ Le Devin du Village,”? which was repre-
fented with the greateft fuccefs at Paris. His next piece
was “Lettre fur la Mufique Frangoife,’’? which was to
prove that the French had no fuch thing as vocal mufic, and
that, from the defects in their language, they could not haveit.
The letter was written with much tafte, and fhewed a deep
knowledge of the fubje& of which he was treating, but it
brought down upon his head a ftorm of refentment, even to
the burning of him ineffigy. In1754 he returned to Geneva,
where he abjured the Catholic faith, and was reflored to the
rights of citizenfhip. or this favour he made a return by
the patriotic, and truly eloquent dedication to the republic,
of his * Difcours fur les Caufes de l’Inégalité parmi les
Hommes, et fur Origine des Sociétés.’? No one could
give better advice to his fellow-citizens than Rouffeau has
done in his dedication. The work itfelf is full of almoft
unintelligible maxims and wild ideas ; and was written with
a view to prove that mankind are equal; that-they were
born to live apart from each other ; and that they have per-
verted the order of nature in forming focieties. He beltows
the highelt praife on the ftate of nature, and deprecates the
idea of every focial compact. It is, however, rhetorical
rather than argumentative, and is over-run with much idle
declamation in praife of a favage, and depreciation of a
civilized {tate, which the author repeated fo often till he
probably believed the paradox. Our author did not remain
long at Geneva, but returned to France, and lived fome time
at Paris, after which he retired to Montmorency, as a
ftudious folitary, and publifhed, in 1758, his ‘ Lettre’? to
M. D’Alembert onthe defign of eftablifhing a theatre at
Geneva. This tract is written with great force of reafoning,
and fhews that the author had made the moft profound ob-
fervations on life and manners; and he feems to have carried
his point in proving that a theatre could not be neceffary in a
place circumftanced as Geneva was. This work is thought
to have laid the foundation of that hatred which Voltaire
never ceafed to entertain for the .Genevan philofopher.
Replies were written by D’Alembert and Marmontel.
In 1760 Roufleau publifhed his celebrated novel, entitled
“Lettres de deux Amans, &c.’’ but generally known by
the title of « Julie, ou la Nouvelle Héloife.”” This epiftolary
romance, of which the plotis ill-managed, and the arrange.
ment bad, like all other works of genius, has its beauties as
well as its defects. Some of the letters are, indeed, ad-
mirable, from the force and the warmth of expreflion, from
an effervefcence of fentiments, from the irregularity of ideas
which always characterize a paflion carried to its height.
By one critic it has been aflumed that none of the perfonages
of this novel are really interefting. ‘That of St. Preux is
weak, and often forced.
nefs and pity, of elevation of foul, and of coquetry, of
natural parts and pedantry. Wolmar is a violent man, and
almoft beyond the limits of nature. In fine, wheu he wifhes
to change his ityle, and adopt that of the fpeaker, he does
not long fupport it, and every attempt embarrafles the author
and cools the reader. In the Heloife, Rouffeau’s talent of
rendering every thing problematical, appears very confpi-
cuous, as, in his arguments in favour of, and againft, duel-
ling, which afford an apology for fuicide, and a juft con-
demnation
Julia is an aflemblage of tender- ~
ROUSSEAU.
demnation of it; of his facility in palliating the crime of
adultery, and his ftrong reafons to make it abhorred; on
the one hand, in declamations againft focial happinefs, on the
other in tranfports in favour of humanity ; here in violent
rhapfodies againft philofophers ; there by arage for adopting
their opinions; the exiftence of God is attacked by fo-
phiftry, and Atheifts confuted by the moft irrefragable argu-
“ments ; the Chriftian religion combated by the moft {pecious
objections, and celebrated by the moft fublime eulogies.’’
In the preface to this work the author attempts to juftify
his confiftency ; he fays public fpe€tacles are neceflary for
reat cities, and romances for a corrupted people. “I
have,’’ he adds, “ viewed the manners of my age, and have
publifhed thefe letters. Why did I not live at a time when
I ought to have thrown them into the fire.” He affects
alfo to fay that they were not intended for an extenfive circu-
lation, and that they will fuit but few readers. With re-
ard to their effeéts on the female fex, he pretends to fatisfy
Ei con{cience with faying ‘No chafte young woman ever
reads romances ; and I have given this book a decifive title,
that on opening it a reader may know what toexpect. She
who, notwith{tanding, fhall dare to read a fingle page is
undone; but let her not impute her ruin to me—the mifchief
was done before.”? This is mere rant, and the extreme of
vanity. Roufleau rendered his work as feduétive as poffible,
and would have been mortified beyond meafure could he
have believed that it could readily have been laid afide by
any one who had opened it. LBefides, had he been that
moral man which he would affe& to be, he ought, knowing
its tendency, to have committed it to the flames, inftead of
fending it to the prefs. In truth, he affumes in it the tone
of a moral teacher of the highett order, nor will it be
denied that, amidit much improper matter, it contains many
leffons of domeftic prudence and exalted virtue. ‘In
warmth of painting, and eloquence of fentiment, it muft
be allowed to have no fuperior in its clafs; in moral incon-
fittency and improbability, fearcely anequal. With a pro-
found knowledge of the human heart, it joins great ig-
norance of life and manners ; with much fober and ufeful
truth, ali the extravagance of exaggerated feeling. It is a
dangerous work, but has been the parent of others ftill more
dangerous, becaufe affording eafier objects of imitation.”
Rouffeau’s next work was entitled «* Du Contrat Social,
ou Principes du Droit Politique,’ which was faid to be
a mere extract from one on a much larger fcale, which he
had commenced, but which he had long fince abandoned as
beyond his powers. In this he is the fearlefs and intrepid
vindicator of republicanifm, and is fuppofed to have done
much to excite the late difaitrous French revolution. The
work was prohibited in France and Switzerland; and from
its publication may be dated that warfare between the author,
and the fupporters of exifting eftablifhments, civil and re-
ligious, which expofed the remainder of his life to perfe-
cution.
In 1762 Rouffeau publifhed his ‘ Emilie, ou de ’Edu-
cation,” which may be regarded as his principal work, as it
was that in which he moft boldly attacked or oppofed the
commonly received opinions, and, in confequence, excited
againft himfelf the greateft mafs of hoftility. The funda-
mental idea of Roufleau in education is to fuffer the youth-
ful mind to develope by itfelf, rather preventing it from im-
bibing any thing mifchievous, than ha{tening to imprefs it
with leffons of preceptive inftru€tion; prefenting to it
objects of nature rather than of art, and regulating the con-
du& more by reftraints of neceflity than of principle, till a
foundation is laid for the operation of reafon unbiaffed by habit
and prejudice. Roufleau’s pupil is to follow nature in every
thing ; the precepts of the philofopher are expreffed with the
force and dignity ofa mind full of the leading truths of morality.
If he himfelf has not always been virtuous, nobody has
felt its force more, or made it appear to more advantage ;
and he merits great applaufe for the manly and independent
{pirit, the contempt for luxurious indulgencies and idle pa-
rade, which he every where inculcates. he author excited
again{t himfelf almoft all the religious world, by the manner in
which he {poke of the attempts to furnifh the youthful mind
with theological ideas. Yet no one could more eloquently
extol the morals of the gofpel and the charaéter of its founder
than he has done; by this praife, and his fentiments of
piety, he difpleafed the French philofophers, fo that there
was {carcely any party of men to whom he did not ftand in
oppofition. Of thefe, however, the moit formidable of his
antagonifts were thofe pofleffed of authority. The French
parliament condemned this book in 1762, and entered intoa
criminal profecution againft the author, which forced him to
a precipitate retreat. He direéted his fteps to his native
country, but Geneva fhut her gates againit him. Both at
Paris and Geneva, the “* Emile’? was burnt by the common
hangman ; ridiculous attempt of ridiculous governments to
{top the circulation of opinions! The book itill exifts, and,
notwith{tanding the many and ferious objeGtions to which it
is liable, deferves to exift, while its tyrannical perfecutors
have long fince been forgotten, and their puny efforts laughed
at by every man poflefled of an underitanding fuperior to
that of an idiot. Rouffeau was for a time allowed to take
fhelter in Switzerland, where he was moft hofpitably treated
by marfhal Keith. He there publifhed a letter to the arch-
bifhop of Paris, in anfwer to his Mandement for the burning
of the “ Emile :’’ and alfo his “ Lettres de la Montagne,”’
which contained a fevere remonftrance againft the proceedings
of the republic of Geneva in his condemnation, the citi-
zenfhip of which ftate he formally renounced. That he
thought very highly of this work is evident from the fol-
lowing paflage : «* How,” fayshe, “can I enter into a jufti-
fication of this work? I whothink that I have effaced by
it the faults of my whole life; I, who place the evils it has
drawn upon me as a balance to thofe which I have commit-
ted; I who, filled with confidence, hope one day to fay to
the fupreme Arbiter, ‘Deign in thy clemency to judge a
weak mortal :’ I have, it is true, done much ill upon earth,
but I have publifhed this writing.”” In thefe letters he
again exprefled his fentiments concerning revealed religion,
in a manner that excited againft him great indignation among
the clergy of Neufchatel. A confittory was aflembled to
take his opinions into confideration, but government inter-
fered to ftop its proceedings. The protection of the go-
vernment was not, however, fufficient to refcue him from
the obloquy which the clergy excited againft him. They
preached againft the philofopher, and their fermons excited
an uproar among the people. In September 1765, fome
mifguided zealots attacked his houfe and his perfon, and he
fought an afylum in Berne, which was denied him. Neither
the broken itate of his health, nor the approach of winter,
could foften the hearts of his enemies: he entreated them
to fhut him up in their cemmon prifon, which favour they
even denied, and he was under the neceffity of fetting out on
along journey, in the beginning of a very inclement feafon ;
he contrived, however, to reach Strafburg in a very defti-
tute condition. He received from marfhal de Contade, who
was then commander of that place, every accommodation
that could be expe€ted from humanity, compaffion,, and ge-
nerofity. Here he waited till the weather became more au-
{fpicious, when he fet out for Paris, where he appeared in
the habit of an Armenian. The celebrated Hume was o
this
ROUSSEAU.
this time a refident in that capital, as charge d’affaires
from the Englifh court, and having been applied to in favour
of Rouffeau, who was defirous of making England his afy-
lum, he willingly undertook to condu€&t him thither in the
beginning of the year 1766. ‘ At this period,” fays one
of his biographers, “ the perfecutions which he had under-
gone, the hoftility which he had experienced, and with
which he had been hunted from place to place; the acrimony
of his numerous opponents, and the ferment which his pre-
fence had excited in the different places of his refidence, had
fo agitated his fufceptible mind, and inflamed his vanity, that
he imagined himfelf not only the moft important, but almoft
the only important perfonage in Europe, and fancied that a
general confederacy was formed againi{t him of all feéts and
parties. This notion filled him with abfurd fufpicions, and
rendered him prone to view every thing in a wrong light,
and to magnify trifles into matters of great moment. In fhort,
he was under the influence of a perverfion of temper and intel-
leét, nearly amounting to mental derangement : a malady
which, indeed, in a certain degree, feems to have attended him
through life, and which alone can account for his fingularities
and inconfiftencies.’? Without this clue, his conduét to Mr.
Hume mutt appear the extreme of bafenefs and ingratitude.
This gentleman, fenfibly affe€ted with his various misfor-
tunes, procured for him an agreeable fituation in England,
but Roufleau was not long fatisfied with the new place. He
had wifhed for peace, but peace and quiet he was utterly
incapable of enjoying. He did not make fuch an impreffion
upon the minds of the Englifh as he had done upon the in-
habitants of other countries. The freedom of his opinions,
and the fettled melancholy of his temper, were not deemed
very remarkable or fingular here. He was regarded only
as an ordinary man: in the public prints he was fatirized ;
his principles and conduct were reprefented as quite
adapted to a modern Diogenes. He was rather regarded
as an objeét of ridicule than of terror to any of the prevail-
ing parties in England. Roufleau now imagined there was
a plot between Hume and the French philofophers to de-
{troy his glory. He fent a‘ letter to him, filled with the
moft violent abufe, and at the fame time refufed to
accept a penfion from the crown, which had been ob-
tained through the intereft of Mr. Hume. He did not
remain long in England after this, but went to France
mthe year 1767, where he met with various prote¢tors,
with whom he pafled his time in different provinces. At this
period he publifhed his « Di€tionnaire de Mufique,’? which,
though an excellent work, brought upon the author much
feverity of criticifm. In the following year he refumed his
botanical purfuits, by collecting and ftudying the plants
which he found on the mountains of Dauphine. In the year
1769, he married a lady with whom he had lived many years,
and by whom he had already had five children, all of whom
he had bafely fent to the orphan hofpital. This has been
jultly elteemed in this country as one of the greateft flains
upon his charaéter, though his foreign biographers take little
notice of it, and feem to think he was juftified by the indi-
gence in which he lived. But how could a man venture to
talk of morality, and write upon education, who had
abandoned his own children? Notwithftanding his other
merits, he muft in this re{peét be held in abhorrence by every
feeling mind. During the year 1770, he appeared at a
coffee-houfe in Paris in his ordinary drefs, and took much
pleafure in the plaudits of the furrounding crowd. Though
he affeéted the love of folitude, yet he was never eafy un-
lefs he could in fome way or other occupy the public atten-
tion, He could neither accommodate himfelf tothe world,
nor be content to live ont of it. Neverthelefs, fome of
his latter years he feems to have pafled more tranquilly than
any former period of his life, having, in a good meafure,
renounced all farther difcuffion of thofe controverted topics
which had involved him in fo many difficulties, and deter-
mined to keep his philofophy for his own ufe. Still he
fufpected that a confederacy was making againit him, and
he gladly accepted, in May 1778, an invitation from the
marquis de Girardin, to retire with his wife to a{mall houfe
near his beautiful feat of Ermenonville, where he died in the
month of July in the fame year, at the age of 66. His
friend and patron, the marquis, erected a monument for him
in the Ifle of Poplars, in-his pleafure grounds, with an in-
{cription, to which Roufleau was by no means entitled: ¢ Ici
repofe l’ Homme de la Nature et de la Verite.”’
After the death of this philofopher, his ‘ Confeffions’’
were publifhed, which give a minute account of every thing
that happened to him till the 3oth year. This fingular piece
of biography is itfelf a ftriking exemplification-of character,
for there is hardly any work in which circumftances fo de-
grading and humiliating are related with fo little referve,
while the air of importance given to the moft trivial incidents
in which he was any way concerned, and the contempt of
fhame implied by exhibiting himfelf thus naked to the world,
prove it to have been di¢tated more by vanity and {felf-im-
portance than by contrition. He would have paffed for a
better man if this work had not been publifhed, but then he
could not have had any pretext for talking fo much of him-
felf. «+ His Confeffions,’’ fays M. Sennebier, author of the
Literary Hiftory of Geneva, “ appear to mea very dan-
gerous book, and paint Roufleau in fuch colours as we fhould
never have ventured to apply to him. © The excellent analyfes
which we meet with of fome fentiments, and the excellent
anatomy which he gives of {ome actions, are not fufficient to
counterbalance the deteftable matter which is found in them,
and the unceafing obliquities every where to be met with.’’
There is no doubt that he has done much mifchief to the in-
terefts of morality by thefe ‘ Confeffions,”’ as well by the
bafenefs of the vices which he has difclofed, as by the man-
ner in which he united them with the virtues. Among the
other pieces of Roufleau, not already noticed, and which
were publifhed after his death in a new edition of his works,
are, 1. The Reveries of a folitary Wanderer, being a
journal of the latter part of his life. In this he confefles
that he preferred fending his children into hofpitals deftined
for orphans, than to take upon himfelf the charge of their
maintenance, and endeavours to palliate this fhameful dere-
liGion of duty. 2. Confiderations upon the Government
of Poland. 3. The Adventures of Lord Edward, a novel,
being a fort of fupplement to his Heloife. 4. Various
memoirs and fugitive pieces, with a great number of let-
ters. 5. Emilia and Sophia. 6. An opera and a comedy.
4. Tranflations of the firft book of Tacitus’ Hiftory, &c.
&c. Like all the other writings of Roufleau, there are in
thefe pofthumous pieces many admirable and ufeful things ;
but at the fame time they abound with contradictions, para-
doxes, and ideas very unfavourable to religion. In his let-
ters efpecially, we fee a man chagrined with misfortunes,
which he never attributes to his own want of condu@t: heis
fufpicious of every body about him, calling and believing
himfelf a lamb amidft wolves. All his works are marked
with a peculiar warmth and energy of ftyle, and with great
vigour of thinking. He was one of the firft writers who
exercifed the greateft influence upon the opinions of the age,
and in the early periods of the French revolution, they
were referred to as of the higheft authority in political mat-
ters, and his memory was almott deified. His reputation
has fince been much in the wane; but as long as the French
language
“ROU
language remains, he mutt be regarded as one of its great
authors. The beft edition of his works colle¢tively is in
27 vols. gto. The principal authorities for the life of
Roufleau, independently of his own Confeflions, are Senne-
bier Hift. Lit..de Geneve, and Nouv. Dié&. Hitt.
In 1768, Rouffeau’s animated and inftrutive Mufical Dic-
tionary was publifhed, colleéted chiefly from his mufical ar-
- ticles in the Encyclopédie ; and as he gave no quarter in it
to French mufic, the admirers and defenders of that mufic
have treated his opinions with equal feverity. It is, how-
ever, the bufinefs of true critics not only to point out the
errors of a work, but, if it has any, the merit. There
may be miltakes in Rouffeau’s Dictionary, but are there no
good articles, no marks of refined talte and nice obfervation
in {peaking of dramatic mufic? No fhort, clear, and
happy definitions of mufical technica? And is every thing
he has faid of French mufic thought fo abfurd and para-
doxical at prefent, even in France, as it was thirty years
ago? The abbé Rouflier, and his difciple M. de la Borde,
who treat as ab/urd and ftupid whatever feems unfavourable
to their doGtrines, were awed perhaps by the thunder of
Rouffeau’s eloquence, while alive ; but no fooner were they
fure that the lion was dead, than they plucked upa courage,
and boldly attacked him at all points.
We mutt add, in juftice to Jean Jacques, that more good
tafte, intelligence, and extenfive views are to be found in his
original articles, not only than in any former mufical dic-
tionary, but in all. the books on the fubje€& of mufic which
the literature of France can boaft. And his * Lettre fur
la Maufique Frangois,’’ may be fafely pronounced ‘the beft
piece of mufical criticifm that has ever been produced in any
modern language.
It muft, however, be confeffed, that his treatment of
French mufic is very farcaltic, not to fay contemptuous ;
but the mufic, the national charater avantageux, and ex-
clufive admiration of their own mufic, required {trong
language. It had been proved long fince, that they were
not to be laughed out of their bad tafte in any one of the
fine arts: the national architecture, painting, and {culpture,
were, in general, bad, and not what a traveller returning
from Italy could bear to look at: though there have been
now and then individual French artiits of every kind, who
have travelled and ftudied antiquity as well as the great maf-
ters of the Italian fchool ; and it 1s now faid, that at the In-
ftitute they are trying ferioufly to correét their errors, and
to eftablifh a claffical tafte throughout the empire.
Yet, after all our fincere encomiums on-Rouffeau as a
mufical critic, particularly in the melodrama, and though
we fubfcribe to molt of his mrfical opinions, and defend
them, yet we mutt leave him in the hands of his enemies with
refpect to Blainville’s new mode, in recommending which
he is totally indefenfible. But in the year 1751 he was
young in mofical theory, and the laws of compofition; he
had read little, and not ‘itudied much; but in 1768, after
working fo long for the Encyclopédie, in which labour. to
teach others he mult have educated himfelf, nothing but the
ftate of war between him and the intolerant adherents to
Rameau and the old {chool, could have blinded him fo far
as not to fee the abfurdity of Blainville’s pretenfions to the
merit of having invented a new mode, or third key in mufic,
different from the major and minor modes in common ufe.
It may perhaps be alleged, even by the friends and ad-
mirers of his mufical writings, that he was more unwilling,
than fo acute and perfpicacious a logician ought to have
been, to relinguifh his new fyftem of mujical notation, which
he publifhed under the title of « Diflertation fur la Mufique
moderne,”’ in 1743, when very young, and his knowledge
Vor. XXX.
ROU
of mufic fuperficial. Forty years had not weaned him from
his partiality for this juvenile produ@tion ; for he not only
republifhed it in 1768, in his Mufical Di@tionary, but near
the end of his life, in 1778, he ftill perfifted in explaining
and recommending its adoption: as Fontenelle, at near 100,
wrote and publifhed a tra& in favour of the Cartefian, and
Troubillons againft Newton's fyftem of gravitation.
- Lord Stanhope, and Mr. Baldwyn of Chefhire, are now
(1804) at work on a new method of notation, expreflin
by letters of the alphabet what Rouffeau did by niraerseal
figures, with great confidence of fuccefs. But neither
Rouffeau, nor fubfequent ingenious framers of a new mufical
notation, could or would fee the inconvenience and even mif-
chief it would occafion to the art, if ever it was generally
adopted, by rendering all former mufic unintelligible, unlefs
every mufician and mufical ftudent were at the pains of learn-
ing two gamuts, or fyftems of mutical notation, inftead of
one.
Mufic is at prefent an univerfal language throughout Eu-
rope. All nations ufe the fame charaéters, and write and
read them with equal facility. Suppofe a tyrant in any one
kingdom only, were to infift upon the inhabitants relinquifh-
ing at once their native language, and adopting another of
which they were utterly ignorant, it is hardly poffible to
imagine that his mandate would or could be obeyed ; but if
the defpot’s will were attempted to be complied with in his
particular dominions, would all the reft of Europe burn
their books, and fet about learning a new alphabet, a new
{pelling-book, a new grammar, and the art of writing this
new language? nothing but its general and univerfal adop-
tion could render it ufeful to any one nation upon earth.
ROUSSEL, Wittiam, a learned French Benediétine
monk of the congregation of St. Maur, was born at
Conches, a {mall town within the diocefe of Evreux, in
Normandy in the year 1658. He became a member of the
congregation in the year 1680, and direéted his attention
principally to thofe ftudies which would qualify him for the
office of a preacher. Having fine talents, he became very
popular, and the general theme of commendation at Paris,
but preferring retirement, he withdrew to Rheims, and
afterwards to Argenteuil, where he fpent the remainder of
his life in devotion and ftudy. He died inthe year 1717.
He publifhed an excellent tranflation of the Letters of St.
Jerome, in 3 vols. 8vo. the firft two of which appeared in
1704; and the third, containing the critical letters of that
father on the Holy Scriptures, in 1707. They are ac-
companied with a preface and learned notes. He was au-
thor of an éloge on father Mabillon. He had employed
many years of his life in making preparations for compofing
«A Literary Hiltory of France,’’ but death put an end to
his labours, and his papers were placed in the hands of
father Rivet, a member of the fame congregation, who
made ufe of them without acknowledging his obligation.
ROUSSELAER, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Lys, fituated on the river Mandel;
10 miles S. of Bruges.
ROUSSIER, the absé, in Biography, a profound writer
on the theory of mulic, was born at Marfeillesin 1716. He
is author of aconfiderable number of mufical tra&ts, of which
the following are the titles;
1. A Treatife on Chords and their Succeffion, 1764.
2. Obfervations on different Points of Harmony, 1765.
3. Memoir on the Mufic of the Ancients, 1770.
4. A Letter, in two parts, to the author of the Journal
of the Arts and Sciences, concerning the divifion of the
zodiac, 1770. The fecond part to the fame concerning
the Inftitution of the Planetary Week, 1771. :
4M 5. Prace
R ‘OvU
5. Praétical Harmony, or Examples in Tilaftration of the
Treatife on Chords, 1776. :
6. He was engaged, in 4779, as editor of a memoir on
the mufic of the Chinefe, by the abbé Amiot, miffionary
at Pekin. The learned abbé has enriched this memoir with
a great number of notes, obfervations, and a copious index.
See Conese Mufic.
All this profound writer’s treatifes are built upon the
principles of Rameau, but Rameau fublimed. The abbé’s
favourite difcovery and fy{tematic principle is the triple pro-
greffion, upon which he endeavours to prove that the mufi-
eal fyftems of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Chinefe were
founded. By triple progreffion is meant a feries of perfect
fifths, fo that the word temperament equally difturbs his
‘fyftem and his temper. It is to be feared that the good
abbé in this particular, aud in his principles in general, is too
rigid and inflexible a theorift for the fanciful melody, and l-
centious modulation of modern compofers.
The French are always to have champions, uxe homme
armé, to combat the mufic and mufical writers of all other
countries. At the beginning of the laft century, Bonnet
was the redoubted champion of the votaries ef Lulli in the
middle of that century.. The abbé Roufflier, with lefs
fury, but more intelligence, threw down the gauntlet for
Rameau and his bafle fondamentale ; and at the end of the
century, the abbé Faitu, the moit valourous and invincible
of them all, has not only bid defiance to the enemies of
Lulli and Rameau, but te the whole univerfe: a perfe&
Drawcanfir, that {pares nor friend nor foe, who dares be of
a different opinion from himfelf.
ROUSSILLON, in Geography, a province of France be-
fore the revolution, once belonging to Spain, bounded on the
N. by Languedoc, on the E. by the Mediterranean, on the S.
by Catalonia, and on the W. by the Pyrenees, about 18 leagues
in length, and 12 in breadth, and confifting of land that is
generally fertile. Its principal rivers are the Tet and the
Tech, and its capital is Perpignan. It now forms the de-
partment of the Ealtern Pyrenees.
RoussILLon, a town of France, in the department of the
Here, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Vienne ;
g miles S. of Vienne. The place contains 963, and the
canton 11,107 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres,
‘i 21 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Saone and Loire; g miles N.N.W. of Autun.
ROUSSIN, in the Aanege, is a itrong well-knit, well-
ftowed horfe, fuch as are commonly brought into France
from Germany and Holland.
ROUSSING, in Sea Language, is the at of pulling to-
gether upon a cable, hawier, &c. without the affiftance of
tackles, capfterns, &c. It is particularly ufed in the exer-
cife of removing a fhip from one place to another, by means
of ropes and anchors.
ROUT; Rowre, a public road, highway, or courfe ;
efpeciaily that which military forces take.
The word is French, route, formed from the Latin rupta,
or ruta ; or the French roux, an old word for hor/e; or
rather from the old Celtic rout, road.
Sanfon and Ogilby have made maps of the routs and poft-
roads of France and England. Soldiers are prohibited
going out of their routs. Routs are frequently cut in parks,
forefts, &c. both for ornament, and for the conveniencies of
hunting.
Some ufe route for a path cut acrofs a wood; in oppofi-
tron to way, which is a great road.
Rout, in Navigation. See Course.
Rout is alfo ufed for the defeat and flight of an army.
Rout, in Law, is an aflembly or combination of three or
ROW
more perfons, upon a common quarrel, going forcibly to
commit an unlawful a&: fuch ‘as breaking down fences
upon a right claimed of common, or of way, though they
do not aétually perform it.
If they go, ride, or move forwards, after their meeting,
thus making fome advances towards the execution of their
purpofe, it isa rout, though they do not put their purpofe
inexecution ; if they do, it is a riot.
A rout, therefore, feems to be an unlawful aflembly ;
and a riot the diforderly fact committed thereby.
Two things, however, there are in common to rout, riot,
and unlawful affembly ; the one, that there be at leaft three
perfons together; the other, that, being together, they
difturb the peace, either by words, fhew of arms, turbulent
gefture, or actual violence.
For the punifhment incurred by routs, &c. fee Rior.
Rour.of Wolves, among Hunters, denotes a herd of thofe
wild beafts. -
ROUTIER, in Navigation. See WAGGONER.
ROUTOT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Pontaudemer; nine miles E. of it. The place
contains 1169, and the canton 14,721 inhabitants, on a
territory of 110, kiliometres, in 2 communes.
ROUTOU, a town of Thibet; 255 miles E.N.E. of
Latac.
ROUVRAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Céte d’?Or; 11 miles S.W. of Semur en Auxois.
ROUVRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Marne ; 15 miles S.W. of Langres.
ROUVRES, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges ; four miles W. of Mirecourt.
ROUVROY, atown of France, in the department of
the Somme; 15 miles E. of Peronne.
ROU-WADDE. See Ruap.
ROUX, Cars, a cape of Africa, on the coaft of Tunis.
N. lat. 37° 1o!. E. long. 8° 22!
ROUXIERE, La, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Loire; eight miles N.E. of Ancenis.
ROUY, atown of France, in the department of Nievre';
15 miles E. of Nevers.
ROW, a town of Scotland, in the county of Dumbar-
ton; nine miles W. of Dumbarton.—Alfo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Bahar ; 20 miles S. of Bahar. N. lat. 24° 55).
E. long. 85° 52!.
Row-Culture, in Agriculture, that method in which the
crops are fown in rows or drills, and afterwards cultivated
according to that fyitem. See Drizz Hufbandry.
This fort of cultivation is commonly divided into the
narrow and diftant kinds, the former comprifing all forts of
grain, and fome other kinds of crops, which are fown in
rows ‘at not more than fix, eight, ten, and twelve inches
apart ; the latter, all thofe which have large {paces or inter-
vals between the rows, as from a foot to a foot and a half,
two feet and more, fuch as beans, peas, turnips, cabbages,
beets, potatoes, carrots, parfneps, and many others. They
all require to be wrought between fuitable tools, fuch as
hoes and ploughs, at different times, while they are growing
upon the ground. ain
Row-Galley, a long, low, flat-built veffel, furnifhed fome-
times with a deck, and navigated with fails and oars, parti-
cularly in the Mediterranean.
ROW AH, in Geography, atown of Hindooitan, in Bahar ;
eight miles N.W. of Bettiah. :
ROWALE, or Kowarr, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 36 miles S. of Wladiflaw.
ROWAN, acounty of America, and one of the moft
populous
,* Ce Py a, a ee
ROW
populous of North Carolina, in Salifbury diitri& ; bounded
N. by Iredell, and S. by Cabarrus, and containing 21,543
inhabitants. i
ROWE, Euizasern, in Biography, a lady greatly dif-
tinguifhed for her piety and poetical talents, was daughter
of the Rev. Walter Singer, a diffenting minifter near Frome,
in Somerfetfhire. Under the difgraceful reign of Charles II.
this gentleman was imprifoned on account of his non-con-
formity at Ilchefter, where he married, and where his daughter
Elizabeth was born in 1674. From her childhood the dif-
covered a paffion for reading, together with a devotional
turn of mind. At the age of twelve, fhe began to write
verfes, and practifed mufic and drawing. Her poetical
talents excited notice in the neighbourhood, and gave her an
introduétion to lord vifecount Weymouth, by whofe fon, the
honourable Mr. Thynne, fhe was initruéted in the French
and Italian languages. In her 22d year, at the requeft of
her friends, fhe publifhed a volume of mifcellaneous poems,
by which fhe is advantageoufly known. Poflefling an agree-
able perfon, and a large fhare of the accomplifhments of her
fex, fhe attracted the attentions of many admirers, but fhe
appears to have been in no hurry to marry, and it was not
till 1710 that fhe gave her hand to Mr. Thomas Rowe, a
very amiable man, a fcholar, and a poet, with whom fhe
lived in the enjoyment of a large portion of conjugal felicity.
This happinefs was not lafting ; Mr. Rowe, who was of a
confumptive habit, died at Hampitead in 1715, and left his
widow overwhelmed with grief, which nothing but her fen-
timents of pious refignation could enable her to fupport.
From this time fhe paffed her days, for the mott part, in re-
tirement at Frome, but making occafional vifits to the countefs
of Hertford. Her manners and attainments rendered her
perfeétly fuited to the beft company ; and though fhe adhered
tu the laft to the principles of the Diflenters, fhe was entirely
free both from narrownefs of fentiment, and from any for-
bidding aufterity of behaviour. Mrs. Barbauld has, in a
few lines, given the manner in which fhe employed herfelf, and
the perfons with whom fhe affociated.
« Yet inno ufelefs gloom fhe wore her days,
She loved the work, and only fhunned the praife :
Her pious hand the poor, the mourner, blett ;
Her image lived in every kindred breatt,
Thynne, Carteret, Blackmore, Orrery approved,
And Prior praifed, and noble Hertford loved.
Seraphic Kenn, and tuneful Watts were thine,
and Virtue’s noblett champions filled the line.’
Mrs. Rowe compofed feveral works in her retreat, efpe-
eially thofe letters from the dead to the living, which her own
heavy lofs doubtlefs had fuggelted. She was blefled with a
good conititution, and paffed through life with very little
interruption of health. She died fuddenly in February
1737; n the 63d year of her age. A pious book was found
lying open by her, and in her cabinet were found letters. to
feveral of her friends, which fhe intended for them after her
death. Her works were, “ The Hiftory of Jofeph,”? an
heroic poem; ‘ Friendfhip in Death,” &c.; ‘* Devout
Exercifes of the Heart;’? ‘ Mifcellaneous Works,’’ in
two volumes. Few characters have been more juitly efteemed
than that of Mrs. Rowe. With refpeé to her poetical
works, the general charater is correct and melodious verfifi-
eation, flowing language, and tender elevated fentiments.
Among her profe compofitions the moft popular was that
entitled « Friendfnip in Death, in twenty Letters,”’ fuppofed
to be written from the dead to the living. Thefe are
the works of a lively and a feeliag heart, exercifed in pious
meditations, and they are always read with pleafure by the
ROW
young, and thoie who are fufceptible of good impreflions.
They have pafled through many editions, and are ufually
accompanied by other pieces of the author’s of a moral and
religious kind. All her writings, though not calculated to
ftand the teft of exa& criticifm, infpire a favourable idea of
the writer.
Rowe, ‘THomas, the hufband of the foregoing, was the
fon of a diflenting minifter, who afforded him all the ad-
vantages of an excellent education, and he would probably
have become a diftinguifhed literary charaéter, had not his
early marriage been followed by a premature death. He
wrote fome excellent pieces of poetry, oneof which was a
tender ode to his wife, fome years after their marriage-
Hittory was his favourite purfuit, and he formed a defign
of writing the lives of illuftrious chara¢ters in antiquity,
omitted by Plutarch, of which eight were finifhed, and were
publifhed after his death. He died in 1715, at the age of
28. Some of his original poems and tranflations were printed
with Mrs Rowe’s « Mifcellaneous Works.”’
Rowe, Nicuoras, an eminent Englifh poet, the fon of
John Rowe, efg. ferjeant at law, was born in 1673, at
Little Berkford, in Bedfordfhire. After a preliminary edu-
cation at Highgate, he was placed in Weftmintter {chool
under the noted Dr. Bufby, as a king’s fcholar, and purfued
claffical ftudies with eagernefs and fuccefs. His poetical
exercifes in Latin and Greek were particularly admired.
He was removed from {chool at the age of 16, and entered
a ftudent in the Middle Temple, and proceeded fo far in the
purfuit of the law, as to be called to the bar; but the death
of his father, when he was only 1g, gave him liberty to
follow his own inclination, and he devoted himfelf to poetry
and polite literature. At the age of 25 he produced his
firit tragedy, entitled «« The Ambitious Step-mother ;”’ the
{tory of which appears to be founded on that of Solomon
elevated to the throne by the machinations of his mother
Bathfheba, but the {cene and circumftances are totally dif-
ferent. It was a¢ted at Lincoln’s Inn-Fields, and was very
fuccefsful, which is faid to have rendered the author a decided
deferter from the law. His next dramatic work was “ Ta-
merlane,’’ which was aéted in 1702. This was intended to
convey important political impreffions : the tyrant and def{pot
Bajazet being intended as the type of Lewis XIV., then
confidered as the enemy of liberty, civil and religious, and
the Tartar Tamerlane was metamorphofed into a perfe&
prince, intended to chara¢terize the immortal William ITI.
of England. In all the portraits there was much exaggera-
tion, but the purpofe of the piece, and its many elevated
and liberal fentiments, caufed it to be received with great
applaufe. It was frequently a¢ted during that and the fol-
lowing reign, till the year 1710, when different political opi-
nions coming into fafhion, it was for a time intermitted, but
the acceflion of the houfe of Hanover reftored it to the
ftage, and it was for a great number of years reprefented on
the anniverfary of king William’s landing. In 1703, Mr.
Rowe produced his “* Fair Penitent,’’ which is thought to be
his moit ftriking piece ; it is highly interefting, and abounds
with poetry and fine fentiments. Mr. Rowe made an attempt
at comedy in 1706, but did not fucceed. From this time
to 1715, he brought out, in fucceflion, the tragedies of
« Ulyfles ;” «* The Royal Convert ;” ‘‘ Jane Shore,’? and
«« Lady Jane Gray.’? Of thefe, the two Jatt have furvived
on the ftage. Jane Shore is now occafionally aéted ; always
when performed engages fome of the beft aGtors, and never
fails to be viewed with the deepett intereft. During this in-
terval he appeared as an editor of Shakfpeare’s plays, pre-
fixing to this edition an account of the life of that tranfcendant
genius. Rowe was not exclufively engaged in literary purfuits,
4M 2 he
ROW
he was a man of bufinefs, and did not neglect thofe oppor-
tunities of entering into public life, which his reputation -
and conneétions afforded. He had joined the Whig party,
and when the duke of Queenfberry was made fecretary of
ftate, he was appointed by that nobleman his under fecretary.
This poft he held about three years, when the duke died, and
his fervices were no more required during the reign of queen
Anne. It is faid he went, one day, to pay his court to
the lord-treafurer Oxford, who afked him if he underttood
the Spanifh language. He replied in the negative, but
added, that he did not doubt but he could make himfelf
matter of it, fuppofing his lordfhip intended to give him em-
ployment at the court of Madrid. The earl feemed to ap-
prove his intention of ftudying the language: Rowe took
his leave, and retired a few weeks or months to learn it, and
then waited on his lordfhip to acquaint him with what he had
done: “ then, fir,”? replied the courtier, «I envy you the
pleafure of being able to read Don Quixote in the original,”?
and difmiffed him. On the acceflion of George I. the place of
poet laureat was conferred upon him, and he was alfo made one
of the land furveyors of the cuftoms of the port of London.
The prince of Wales conferred upon him the clerkfhip of his
council, and the lord chancellor Parker made him his fecre-
tary for the prefentations. The emoluments of thefe offices,
with his own fortune, enabled him to fupport a very ref{pec-
table ftation in fociety, but he did not live long to enjoy
thefe acceffions to his fortune. He died in 1728, at the age
of 45, and was interred among the poets in Weitminfter-
Abbey. Mr. Rowe was twice married, and had afon by his
firft wife and a daughter by the fecond. He was a handfome
and genteel man; and his mind was as amiable as his perfon.
He lived beloved, and at his death was lamented by Pope,
in an epitaph which is to be found in Pope’s works, though
itis not afixed on the monumental marble at Weitmintter.
Mr. Roweis chiefly known to the public asa tragic poet ; if
he does not poffefs in a very high degree the principal parts
of tragic invention, fuch as the nice difcriminations of cha-
rater, and the fkilful developement and varied play of paf-
fion; his dition is poetical without being bombattic or
affeéted, his verfification is fingularly fweet, and his plays
abound with fentiments, given with fuch force and elegance
as are calculated to dwell upon the mind. In his Jane Shore
he profeffes to be the imitator of Shakfpeare, but nothing
can be more diffimilar than the mode and colour of writing
in the two poets, as nothing could be lefs refembling than
their genius. Mr. Rowe is well known alfo by his poetical
tranflations. He gave verfions of the Golden Verfes of
Pythagoras, and of the firft book of Quillet’s « Callipedia,”’
fee QuitLet ; but his chief labour in this way was a tranf-
lation of Lucan’s ‘ Pharfalia,’’? which was net publifhed
till 1728, ten years after the tranflator’s death, and which
Dr. Johnfon calls “one of the greateft productions of
Englifh poetry ;”” but if critically compared with the
original, it will be found frequently very diffufe. The
“« Poetical Works” of Mr. Rowe, confifting of his plays and
mifcellaneous poems, were publifhed colle&tively in three
vols. 12mo. in 1719; and his tranflation of the Pharfalia
was publifhed foon after his death, with a dedication to the
king by his widow.
Rowe, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in the
N.W. corner of Hampfhire county, Maflachufetts, bounded
N. by Vermont ; watered by Deerfield river, and containing
839 inhabitants; 115 miles N.W. of Bofton.
ROWEL, among Farriers, a kind of iffue, made by
drawing a fain of filk, thread, hair, or the like, through
the nape of the neck, or other part of ahorfe ; anfwering
to what in furgery is called a ton.
ROW
The Rowkxu1nG of Horfesis amethod of cure frequently
had recourfe to, in cafes of inward ftrains, efpecially about
the fhoulders or hips; as alfo for hard {wellings not eafily
to be refolved.
The operation isthus: a little flit being made through the
fkin, about a hand’s breadth below the part aggrieved, big
enough to put a {wan’s quill in ; the ‘kin is raifed from the
flefh, the end of the quill put in, and the fkin blowed from
the flefh upwards, and all over the fhoulder.
Then the hole being {topped by the finger, the place blown
is beaten with a hazel ftick, and the wind fpread with the
hand all over, and then let go.
This done, a ikain of horfe-hair, or red farfenet, half the
thicknefs of the little finger, is put in a rowelling needle
feven or eight inches long; the needle is put into the hole,
and drawn through again fix or feven inches higher; then
the needle is drawn out, and the two ends of the rowel tied
together ; anointing it every day, as well as before the putting
it in, with fweet butter and hog’s greafe, and drawing it
backwards and forwards in the fkin, to make the putrid
matter difcharge itfelf more plentifully. _
Others, difliking thefe rowels, as making too great a fore
and fear, ufe the French rowel, which isa round piece of
{tiff leather, with a hole in the midit, laying it flat between
the flefh and fkin, the hole of the rowel juit againit that in
the fkin ; fewing it witb a needle and thread drawn through
the hole in the fkin ; cleaning it once in two or three days,
and then anointing it afrefh.
Rowe s of a Spur. See Spur. :
ROWEN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Chrudim; 10 miles $.E. of Chrudim.
Rowen-Tree, in Hufbandry, a term improperly applied
to the mountain afh.
ROWENSKO, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Boleflaw ; 6 miles S.E. of Turnau.
ROWET, a name fometimes applied to rouen. See
Rouen. ;
ROWETY-Woot, among wool-dealers, a term applied
to the young wool of {ome forts of fheep, which rifes below
the old fleece.
ROWING, is the aétion of impelling a boat or veflel
along the furface of the water by oars, which are managed
in a direétion nearly horizontal.. See Oar, Boar, &c.
Rowinc-Guard. See Guarp-Boat.
ROWLE, in a Ship, is a round piece of wood or iron,
in which the whip goes, being made to turn about, that it
may carry over the whip the eafier from fide to fide.
ROWLEY, in Biography, a monk, who is faid to haye
flourifhed at Briftol in the 15th century, and whofe poems,
or thole attributed to him, were publifhed, manv years ago,
by the unfortunate Carterton. See his article.
Rowxey, Wiiiiam, who ftands in the third clafs of
dramatic writers, lived in the reign of James I., and was
one of the company of players belonging to the prince of
Wales. Little is known of him, except that he was in
clofe conneétion with all the principal wits and poetieal
geniufes of that age, with fome of whom he joined in their
writings. By Wood he is ftyled ‘* the ornament for wit
and ingenuity of Pembroke-hall, Cambridge.”? He was a
confiderable benefa€tor to the Englifh ftage, having left
five plays of his own compofing, and lent his afiiftance to
feveral authors in the compofition of many others. The
titles of all thefe are given in the Biographia Dramatica ;
which fee.
Row.ey, in Geography, a town of Hindooitan, in Oude ;
18 miles S. of Bahraitch.
Row ey, a townfhip of America, in Effex county, Maf-
fachufetts 3
ROWLEY RAG.
fachufetts; the inhabitants, amounting to the number of
1682, are moftly farmers; incorporated in 1639, and
fituated 4 miles N.W. by W. ot Ipf{wich.
Rowxry Rag, in Mineralogy, a bafaltic ftone from
Rowley, near Dudley, in Staffordfhire. It is ufed for po-
lifhing in fome of the manufactures of Birmingham, and
has been particularly recommended for eating the fpecula
. of refleGting telefcopes. On this variety of bafalt, the fine-
grained grunitein of Werner, fome mott intereiting experi-
ments were made by the late Mr. Gregory Watt, to deter-
mine the important queition refpecting the igneous or
aqueous origin of bafaltic rocks. Perhaps few experiments
in the laft fifty years throw more light on fome of the
myfterious operations of nature in the mineral kingdom,
and have a better claim to the profound attention of philofo-
phers, or are more deferving of being repeated and diverfified.
(See Phil. Tranf. for 1804, p. 279.) Before a fhort account
of thefe experiments, it may be proper to give a defcription
of the ftone itfelf. Rowley rag is a fpecies of fine-grained
bafalt, of a confufed cryltallized texture; its fra¢ture, in
{mall pieces, is uneven; in the large, conchoidal. Its
hardnefs is fuperior to common glafs, but inferior to felfpar ;
its tenacity is confiderable ; its action on the magnetic needle
is ftrong, but without figns of polarity ; its {pecific gravity
is 2.868. The general colour of Rowley rag is a very dark
grey, approaching to black; it refleCts light from a variety
of brilliant points, fome cf which feem to be felfpar, the
others hornblende. According to the analyfis of Dr.
Withering, 1000 parts contain 475 filex, 325 argillaceous
earth, ne 2oc of the oxyd of iron. The magnetic pro-
perty of thefe rocks was firft obferved by Dr. Plott, who
fays they turned the needle 6° from its proper direction.
The fame power of affecting the magnet has fince been dif-
covered in feveral bafaltic mountains, particularly in the
Giant’s Caufeway in Ireland. This {tone is fimilar to the
bafalt of the Clee hills, in Shropfhire, and the bafaltic
{tones in various parts of Great Britain. In its chara¢ters
and chemical compofition it nearly refembles fome of the
compact lavas from /&tna and Teneriffe. It is eafily fufible
into an opaque black glafs, which, however, tranfmits light
through very minute fragments. The texture of this glafs
is completely vitreous, with a few air-bubbles. Its fracture
is conchoidal and undulated; the hardnefs is fuperior to
felfpar, but inferior to quartz. This glafs pofleffes {earcely
any action on the magnetic needle. ‘The {pecific gravity
is 2.749.
For the purpofe of afcertaining the effe&t of a high degree
of temperature on a confiderable quantity of this itone, one
of the common reverberatory furnaces, ufed in iron foun-
deries for the fufion of pig-iron, was ftrongly heated by a
fire maintained feveral hours. About feven hundred-weight
of amnorphous Rowley rag was broken in {mall pieces, and
depofited gradually on the elevated part of the interior of
the furnace, bet ween the fire and the chimney ; from whence,
as it melted, it flowed into the deeper part, in which, in or-
dinary operations, the iron is colleéted. It was obferved
by the perfons attending, that it did not require half the
quantity of fuel to fufe the bafalt that would have been ne-
ceflary to melt an equal weight of pig-iron. When the
whole was melted, it formed a liquid glais, rather tenacious,
from which a large ladleful was taken, which, being al-
lowed to cool, retained the chara¢ters of perfect glafs. The
fire was maintained, though with gradual diminution, for
more than fix hours; after which time, the draught of the
chimney was intercepted, the furface of the aid was co-
vered with heated fand, and the furnace was filled with
coals, which were confumed very flowly. It was eight
I
days before the mafs in the furnace was fufficiently cool to
be extra¢ted, and even then it retained confiderable heat.
The form of the mafs being given by the bottom of the
furnace, approached to the fhape of a wedge. It was
nearly three feet and a half long, and two feet and a half
wide ; about four inches thick at one end, and above eighteen
inches at the other. Owing to this inequality of thicknefs,
and alfo to the unequal diitribution of heat in the furnace,
Mr. Watt f{tates that the cooling of the mafs had been too
irregular to permit it to attain an homogenous texture ;
but this circumftance fortunately difclofed fome very re-
markable peculiarities in the arrangement of the particles of
bodies, pafling from a vitreous to a ftony ftate.
Thefe peculiar changes were difcovered, by infpeéting the
various parts of the wedge-fhaped mafs, which had pro-
greflively cooled, as they were more remote from the fire,
and nearer to the {mall extremity. This circumftance, not
being very diftinGily ftated by Mr. Watt, has led fome of
the readers of the paper to believe that the changes were
obferved by taking a portion of the fubftance out of the
furnace at different times, during the procefs: hence they
have not fufficiently attended to a moft important fact
which this experiment difclofes, namely, that the particles
of bodies in a folid ftate, and at a temperature much below
that of fufion, are capable of a kind of internal motion, and
of affuming a cryftalline arrangement, in all the various
{tages from fluidity to a perfeétly folid ftate.
The tendency towards arrangement in the, particles of
the fluid glafs is firft developed by the formation of minute
globules, which are generally nearly {pherical, but fome-
times elongated, and which are thickly difleminated through
the mafs. The colour of thefe globules is confiderably
lighter than that of the glafs; they are commonly greyifh-
brown, fometimes inclining to chocolate-brown ; and when
they have been formed near the interior furface of the ca-
vities in the glafs, they projeét and refemble a clufter of
{mall feeds. "Their diameter rarely exceeds a line, and fel-
dom attains that fize; as, in general, they are fo near to
one another, that their furfaces touch betore they can ac-
quire confiderable magnitude. In the procefs of cooling,
they adapt their form to their confined fituation, fill up
every interfticé, and finally prefent a homogenous body,
wholly unlike glafs, and equally unlike the parent bafalt.
When the union of the little giobules has been imperfeétly
effected, the fraéture of the mafs indicates its ftru€ture, by
numerous minute conchoidal fraétures, which difplay the
form of each globule. But if the arrangement has extended
a little farther, all thefe fubdivifions are entirely loft; the
ma{s becomes perfectly compat, has an even or a flat con-
choidal fracture, is nearly of the fame hardnefs as the glafs,
is commonly of a chocolate colour, graduating into a
brownifh-black, and the intenfity of the colour increafes in
proportion to the degree to which the arrangement has ex-
tended. Its afpeé is rather greafy ; and it much refembles
fome varieties of jafper, in the compaétne{s of its texture,
and its opacity. Its magnetic aétion is extremely feeble.
Its {pecific gravity appears to be 2.938. From this refem-
blance to jafper, Mr. Watt denominates the mafs in this
{tate jafpideous. ;
If the mafs were now rapidly cooled, it is obvious, fays
Mr. Watt, that the refult would be the fubttance I have
jult defcribed; but if the temperature adapted to the
farther arrangement of its particles be continued, another
change is immediately commenced; by. the progrefs of
which it acquires a more ftony texture, much greater tena-
city, and its colour deepens as thefe changes advance, till it
becomes abfolutely black. Sometimes this alteration is
effected
ROWLEY RAG.
effected by a gradual tranfition, the limits of which cannot
be affigned; but more generally by the formation of fe-
condary {pheroids, in the heart of the compaét jafpideous
{ubftance. Thefe fpheroids differ eflentially from thofe firit
defcribed: the centres of their formation are more remote
from each other, and their magnitude is proportionably
greater, fometimes extending to a diameter of two inches,
and feeming only to be limited by contact with the peri-
pheries of other {fpheroids. They are radiated with diftin&
fibres: fometimes the fibres refemble thofe of brown hema-
tites, and fometimes they. are fafciculated irregularly, {fo as
to be very fimilar in appearance to the argillaeeous iron ores,
rendered prifmatic by torrefa¢tion. They are generally
well defined, and eatily feparable from the mafs they are en-
gaged in; and often the fibres divide at equal diftances from
the centre, fo as to detach portions of the {pheroid in con-
centric coats. The tranfverfe fracture of the fibres 1s com-
pact and fine-grained; the colour black; and the hardnefs
fomewhat inferior to that of the bafaltic glafs. When two
of the {pheroids come in contaét by mutual enlargement, no
intermixture of their fibres feems to take place: they appear
equally impenetrable ; and as neither can penetrate, both
are comprefled, and their limits are defined by a plane, at
which a feparation readily takes place, and each of the fides
is invelted with a rufty colour. When feveral f{pheroids
come in contaét on the fame level, they are formed by
mutual preflure into pretty regular prif{ms, whofe divifion is
perfeGtly defined; and when a fpheroid is furrounded. on
all fides by others, it is comprefled into an irregular poly-
hedron,
The tranfition from this fibrous ftate to a different arrange-
ment, feems to be very rapid, for the certre of moft of the
{pheroids becomes compact before they attain the diameter
of half an inch. As the fibrous ftru€ture propagates itfelf
by radiating into the unarranged mafs, the compact nucleus,
which fupplies its place, gradually extends till it finally attains
the limits of the fpheroids ; and the fame arrangement per-
vades the matter comprehended between them. The mats
has now aflumed a compact ftony texture, and pofleffes
great tenacity. Its hardnefs is fomewhat inferior to that of
the glafs from which it was formed. Its action on the mag-
netic needle is very confiderable. Its fpecific gravity 1s
2.938. Its @lour is black, inclining to fteel grey; it 1s
abfolutely opaque, and only refleéts light from a few minute
points. Though the divifions between the {pheroids are
rendered imperceptible to the eye, they are not obliterated,
and their rufty furfaces are often difclofed by an attempt to
fraGture the mafs.
A continuation of the temperature favourable to arrange-
ment {peedily induces another change. The texture of the
mafs becomes more granular, its colour rather more grey,
and the brilliant points larger and more numerous ; nor is it
long before thefe brilliant particles arrange themfelves into
regular forms ; and finally the whole mafs becomes pervaded
by thin cryftalline amine, which interfect it in every
direction, and form projecting cryftals in the cavities. The
hardnefs of the bafis feems to continue nearly the fame ; but
the aggregate action of the bafis and of the imbedded cryftals
on the magnetic needle, is prodigioufly increafed. It appears
to poflefs fome polarity, and minute fragments are fufpended
by amagnet. Its fpecific gravity is fomewhat increafed, as
it isnow 2.949. The cryftals contained in it, when examined
by a microfcope, appear to be fafciculi of flender prifms,
nearly reétangular, terminated by planes perpendicular to
the axis; they are extremely brilliant, but their colour is
greenifh-black ; they are harder than glafs, and fufible by
the blowpipe ; they are fufpended by the action of a magnet.
9
They are arranged nearly fide by fide, but not accumulated
in thicknefs, fo that they prefent the appearance of broad
thin lamin ; they crofs one another at all angles, but always
on nearly the fame plane ; and the lamine thus formed are
often three or four lines long, and from a line to a line and
a half broad, but extremely thin.
It feems obvious that an equalized temperature would have
rendered the whole fimilar to the fubftance laft defcribed ;
and it may be fairly inferred, that by a continuance of heat
the minute cry{tals would have been augmented in their
dimenfions by the acceffion of fimilar particles {till engaged
in the bafis, or by the union of feveral cryftals, till they ac-
quired fufficient magnitude for their nature to be abfolutely
determined by the ufual modes of inveltigation. It 35
poffible, however, if fuch precautions had been taken as
might have fecured this degree of perfection in the elterior
refult, that the mafs would only have exhibited an uniform
afpect, and that the interefting initial phenomena would not
have been difcovered.
The appearances here defcribed feem deferving of con-
fideration in feveral points of view. Few things can be
more at variance with commonly received opinion, than the
diverfified fucceflion of changes of {truéture which this glafs
exhibits in its paflage to a cryttallized flate. The gene-
ration of the globules which unite to form the jafpideous
fubftance, is what we might be prepared to expe@t by ob-
ferving the cooling of a common iron furnace flag. But it
appears not very obvious to common apprehenfion that the
{pecies of arrangement requifite to form this intermediary
{ubftance, could be compatible with any fluidity permitting
farther motion of the ultimate particles of the mafs ; yet
immediately after the completion of this arrangement, they
receive a new difpofition, and the radiated fibrous {tru¢ture
commences. Sometimes this pervades even the unaltered
glafs ; but Mr. Watt prefumes this only to happen where the
minute globules firft formed were {cattered fo far afunder that
their centres became fibrous before their peripheries came into
contaét. This view of the fubje& is juftified by the ana-
logous operation of the formation of cryttals fimilar to thofe
defcribed in the heart of the radiated {pheroids, while their
exterior {till retained the fibrous texture.
If it be confidered as extraordinary that a change fhould
be effected, converting an apparently folid and homogeneous
mafs into an accumulation of radiated f{pheroids, and that
thefe radii fhould lofe their fibrous {tructure, and affume the
texture, af{peét, and tenacity, of a compact, hard, and ho-
mogenous ftone, it is certainly much more extraordinary
that this ftone fhould permit farther arrangement to proceed,
and fhould enable the cry{talline molecules which it contains
in a ftate of contufed aggregation, to arrange themfelves,
and to form regular cryltals, which, although minute, are
- equal, in the pertection of their forms, and in the brilliancy of
their natural polith, to the moft precious produéts of cryf-
tallization. It is alfo well deferving of obfervation by how
regular a march the magnetic influence of the fubitance
keeps pace with the perfection of its arrangement, till it
becomes fo powerful that fragments of the regenerated {tone
are fufpended by the magnet.
It has been moft juttly remarked by Mr. Smithfon, that
folution, far from being neceflary to cryttallization, efleétually
prevents its commencement ; for while folution fubfitts,
cryttallization cannot take place. It may remain a queftion
whether previous folution be efflential as a preparatory means
of obtaining, by fubfequent evaporation: or cooling, the
{mall parts of bodies difengaged, fo that they may unite
to form regular cryftals. If, by folution be only meant
that fimple action of heat, or water, which merely coun-
teracts
ROW
teraéts the force of aggregation, and relieves the molecules
frem their bonds of union with each other, it certainly is a
requifite; but. if by folution be meant that aétion of
affinities, by which not only the force of aggregation is over-
come, but the combinations which conititute the molecules
are deftroyed, it obvioufly is not only unneceflary, but pre-
judicial, to cryftallization. Mechanical fufpenfion in a fluid
- medium of fuch denfity that the cryftalline polarity may be
enabled to counteract the power of gravity, is, with juttice,
confidered by Mr. Smithfon the only’ requifite for the
formation of cryitals. The circumftances here detailed ap-
pear an additional confirmation of this remark, and perhaps
go ftill farther, by fhewing that even the fluidity (in the
common fenfe of the word) of the fufpending medium is not
an indifpenfible condition. For it appears impoffible to
annex the idea of fluidity to the union of the minute globules
which form the jafpideous fubftance, ftill lefs to that fub-
ftance when formed, or to thofe fpheroids whofe obftinate
impenetrability is fo ftrongly defined. And if, by any
power of imagination, thefe can be fuppofed to be fluid
at the time they retain this conformation; how can it be
fuppofed that the compaét, hard, tenacious ftone into which
they are changed, could retain thefe charaéters in a fluid
ftate? Yet the fubfequent formation of cryftals proves that
either all thefe contradi¢tions muft be, or that the particles
of bodies apparently folid, muft be capable of fome internal
motion, enabling them to arrange themfelves according to
polarity, while they are folid and fixed, as far as they have
reference to the ordinary chara@ters of fluidity.
Initances, even more remarkable, of the motion of the
particles of bodies in a folid ftate, have very long been
known and authenticated, though perhaps they have not
been generally regarded with the attention they deferve.
Glafs veflels are well known to be convertible into Reaumur’s
porcelain by the internal arrangement of their particles
without lofing their external form, and confequently at a
temperature very much below that requifite for their fufion.
The change of glafs into Reaumur’s porcelain does not
arife from an evaporation of the alkali, as has been alleged,
but from a regular arrangement of the particles of the
glafs. It commences by the formation of fibres perpen-
dicular to the furface of the glafs, and penetrating into it.
At nearly the fame time {mall radiated globules are formed
in the interior of the glafs, and the union of thefe with the
fibres, by their mutual increafe, forms the whole into a new
fubitance ; and if the requifite temperature be longer main-
tained, the fibres difappear, and the whole becomes fine-
grained and almoit compaé&. This fubftance, from the im-
proved ftate of its aggregation, is much ftronger and more
tenacious than before, and is not fufible at a heat fufficient
to fufe the glafs it was formed from ; but if that aggregation
be once deftroyed, the glafs refulting from its fufion is
equally fufible with the original glafs; and a repetition of
the procefs will again form Reaumur’s porcelain, which may
be again fufed, and fo on repeatedly ; for the quantity of
alkali evaporated during the operation is extremely {mall.
The hardnefs and brittlenefs of metals rapidly cooled, con-
trafted with the foftnefs and tenacity refulting from their
gradual refrigeration, are all analogous inftances; and all
the proceffes in which annealing is employed, and more re-
markably the tempering of fteel, offer {trong proofs of the
internal motions and arrangements of the particles of matter
at temperatures very much below the heat requifite for their
fluidity. Mr. Watt further adduces the ftruéture and texture
of calcareous {talaétites as offering proofs of the internal
motion of the particles of folid bodies at the common tem-
perature of the atmofphere. Succeflive depofitions of cal-
ROX
¢areous carbonate form a ftalactite which at firft is fibrous.
A continuance of the procefs caufes the fibrous ftru€ture to
difappear, and the ftalaétite becomes irregularly eryttalline.
The irregularities afterwards vanifh, and it becomes per-
feét calcareous {par, divifible into large rhomboids, with the
form peculiar to that mineral, and all the gradations may be
found in the fame fpecimen. For a more particular account
of thefe experiments, and the ingenious obfervations of Mr.
Watt, we muft refer the reader to the volume of the Philo-
fophical Tranfaétions above cited. The proofs and illuf-
trations of the arrangements which take place in the internal
particles of folid bodies, offer the only plaufible explanation,
which has yet been given, of the formation and decompo-
fition of cryftals under various circumitances in which they
occur in mineral veins, and alfo of the prifmatic forms ob-
fervable in currents of lava, and in bafaltic and other rocks.
See Trap, and Votcanic Produds.
ROW-LOCKS, among Ship-Carpenters, {mall {paces left
in the gunwale, where two thoals are let in, at fuch a diftance
from each other, as to admit the oar, at the end of the loom,
to lie on to row the boat.
In the fides of the fmalleft veflels of war, a number of
little fquare holes, called row-ports, are cut for this purpofe
arallel to the furface of the water.
ROWNING, Joun, in Biography, an Englith mathe-
matician and philofopher of confiderable ingenuity, was
fellow of Magdalen college, Cambridge, and afterwards rector
ef Anderby, in Lincolnfhire. He was chiefly known for
mechanical contrivances and inventions. In 1738 he pub-
lifhed a compendious fyftem of natural and experimental
philofophy, in 2 vols. 8vo. which was frequently referred
to thirty or forty years ago, and which has pafled through
many editions, but is now fuperfeded by many other fimilar
works of more value. He has likewife two pieces in the
Philofophical TranfaGtions, one containing a defcription of
a barometer, in which the fcale of variation may be increafed
at pleafure ;. the other, giving direétions for making a ma-
chine for finding the roots of equations univerfally. He
publifhed likewife «* A Preliminary Difcourfe on the Fluxion-
ary Method.” Mr. Rowning died in November 1771, in
the 72d year of his age.
ROWRAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Gohud; 10 miles S. of Raat. :
ROWS of Trees. See PARALLELISM.
ROWSING, in Sea Language, denotes pulling upon a
cable or rope, without the affiftance of capiterns, &c.
ROWT, in Rural Economy, aterm fignifying to low as
cattle.
ROWTEE, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in the
circar of Sumbul ; 15 miles S.S.W. cf Nidjibabad.
ROWTOMPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude;
16 miles S.S.W. of Kairabad.
ROWTY, in Agriculture, a term fignifying over-rank,
or too ftrong.
ROXBOROUGH, in Geography, a townfhip of Phila-
delphia county, in Pennfylvania.
ROXBURGH, a village in Roxburghfhire, Scotland,
was formerly a place of confiderable importance, as may be
conjeétured from the circumftance of its having given name
to the county. It was for feveral centuries a royal burgh ;
and was regarded as one of the firft towns in the Scottifh
kingdom, for opulence, and magnificence of appearance. It
was totally deftroyed by king James II., and never after-
wards recovered ; and as its {cite is now converted into
arable fields, the plough has nearly obliterated all traces of
its exiftence. Some remains of its ancient caftle, however,
are yet vifible about two miles eaftward from the village.
Thefe
ROX
Thefe occupy the fummit of a bold eminence, which rifes
from the plain, near the jun@ion of the Tweed and the Te-
viot. This fortrefs, in ancient times, was of great ftrength,
and was accounted the moft important ftrong-hold on the
Scottifh borders. It was environed by a deep ditch, which
could be filled at pleafure by the garrifon with the waters
of the Teviot, and over which a drawbridge was thrown.
Interior to the ditch was a wall, of which only a few frag-
ments are {tlanding, but enough to atteft its prodigious
thicknefs and folidity. Roxburgh caftle, Pennant informs
us, in his Tour in Scotland, was anciently called Marchidon,
Marchmont, or the Hill on the Marches. The name of its
founder is unknown, as is the period of its erection. The
earlieft mention of it in hiftory occurs in 1132, when a
treaty of peace is itated to have been concluded here, be-
tween king Stephen of England and king David I. of Scot-
land. In 1174, after king William the Lion was made a
prifoner by the Englifh, this caftle, with four others, was
delivered up to king Henry II. as a fecurity for his royal
hoftage doing homage for his crown on his releafe from
captivity. The fucceffor of Henry reftored it to the Scots,
but it was again taken by king Edward I. in 1296. It
was recovered doubtlefs by king Robert I., but appears to
have been foon after poffefled by the Englifh, as it is recorded
to have been furprifed, in 1342, by fir Alexander Ramfay,
who was appointed governor; an honour which the envious
Douglas did not allow him to enjoy long. The Scots
again loft this fortrefs in the reign of Edward III., who
twice celebrated his birth-day here. After this period jit
was taken and retaken feveral times; but the moft diftin-
guifhed fiege was that by king James II., when it was cap-
tured by the Scots; though, previous to the victory, the
king was killed by the buriting of a piece of ordnance. A
hollow tree is faid to ftand on the fpot where the monarch
fell, on the north fide of the Tweed, and at a fhort diftance
below Fleur’s houfe. ‘The queen, who was with the army
when this event took place, obferving that the foldiers were
difheartened, and that the commanders were difpofed to raife
the fiege, ufed every exertion to excite their courage; and,
among other things, told them, that though their king had
fallen, he was but one man, and that fhe would foon give
them another king, her fon, James III., who next day ar-
rived ia the camp, and was crowned at Kelfo, in the 7th
year of his age. This heroic and well-timed addrefs pro-
duced the defired effet; the fpirits of the whole army were
roufed, and the attack having been renewed with redoubled
ardour, the garrifon furrendered in a few days. From that
period the caftle has remained in ruins, though it was i
{ome degree repaired by the lord prote€tor, Somerfet, in the
reign of Edward VI. of England.
The parifh of Roxburgh extends eight miles in length,
and about four in breadth. The general appearance is flat
and floping, and the foil is generally a rich loam, well caleu-
lated, either for the growth of wheat, or for the turnip huf-
bandry. According to the parliamentary returns of 1811,
it contains 225 houfes, and g46 inhabitants. The Statiftical
Account of Scotland, by fir Joha Sinclair, bart. vol. x.
1797. Pennant’s Tour in Scotland, vol. ii. 4to. 1779.
Beauties of Scotland, vol. i. 8vo. 1805.
ROXBURGHIA, in Botany, received that name, at the
fuggeltion of the right honourable fir Jofeph Banks, from
the pen of the late Mr. Dryander, in juft commemoration of
the difcoverer of this genus, Dr. Wiliam Roxburgh, F.L.S.,
member of the Afiatic Society. The refearches of this in-
defatigable and enthufiaftic obferver of nature, among the
botanical treafures of Hindooftan, and his liberal communi-
RO X
to our knowledge of Indian plants: The Eaft India Com-
pany have publifhed his Coromandel Plants in a ftyle worthy
of the materials. From the remote fituation of the author,
many genera and {pecies were left by him for the determi-
nation of his learned editor, to whom all the fources of lite-
rary information in Europe were open. But as the name of
this editor is entirely kept out of fight, a French writer,
De Theis, has been led into the miftake of charging Dr. Rox-
burgh with the unexampled arrogance of dedicating a genus
to his own honour. No man can be further, than our
candid and unaffuming friend, from fuch prefumption, and
we feel it a duty to wipe away the unmerited reproachk—
Dryand. in Rox. Coromand. v. 1. 29. Willd. Sp. Pl.
vy. 2. 321. Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 2.347. Sm. Exot. Bot.
v. I. 111.—€lafs and order, Tetrandriz. Monogynia (O&an-
dria; in Hort. Kew.) Nat. Ord. Sarmentacez, Linn.
Afparegi, Juil.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. none, unlefs the corolla be taken for fuch.
Cor. Petals four, inferior, lanceolate, equal, ribbed, coloured
chiefly on the upper ‘fide, permanent. Svam. Filaments
four, oppofite to the petals, and nearly as long, awl-fhaped,
flefhy, with a double cell at their inner fide, near the bafe ;
anthers two-lobed, oblong, lodged in the cells of the fila-
ments, and each crowned with a fimple lanceolate appen-
dage, much fhorter than the naked fummit of the filaments.
Pift. Germen fuperior, fmall, feffile, ovate; ftyle none ;
ftigma roundifh. | Peric. Capfule of one cell, with two con-
cave valves. Seeds numerous, erect, cylindrical, furrowed,
each fupported on a ftalk clothed with little veficles.
Eff. Ch. Petals four, fpreading. Filaments lanceolate,
keeled, bearing the anthers on their infide, near the bafe,
crowned with an appendage. Capfule {uperior, of one cell,
with two valves, and many feeds.
1. R. viridiflora. Green-flowered Roxburghia. Sm.
Exot. Bot. v. 1. 111. t. 57. (R. gloriofoides ; Dryand. in
Ait. Hort. Kew. v.2. 348. Roxb. Coromand. v. 1. 29.
t.32? R. gloriofa; Curt. Mag. t. 1500. Ubium poly-
poides album; Rumph. Amb. v. 6. book 9. 364. t. 129.)
—Native of low moitt woods and thickets in the valleys of
Hindooftan and Amboyna, flowering in the cold feafon.
Roots being fent by Dr. Roxburgh to the late lady Amelia
Hume, they bore fiowers in April 1805, for the firit time
in Europe. Each root confifts of many oblong flefhy knobs.
The fem climbs fpirally to the height of many feet, without
tendrils, and is branched, angular, {mooth and leafy. Lower
leaves alternate to the height of five feet, the reft oppolite ;
all {preading, on fmooth, channelled fovt/alks, ovate or
partly heart-fhaped, pointed, entire, fmooth, thin and pli-
able, with about feven or nine ribs, and innumerable fine
tranfverfe veins. Szipulas none. Flower-/ralks axillary, {oli-
tary, fhorter than the leaves, fmooth, deflexed, racemofe,
each bearing two, three, or four flowers. Bradeas lanceo-
late, folitary, under each partial flalk, Flowers afcending,
large, fetid like corrupted water, or the Stinking Morel.
(See Puarttus.) Petals near two inches long, coriaceous,
green, with purplifh ribs, efpecially on the upper fide. Sta-
mens violet in the lower part; their points green. The
pollen, confilting of highly polifhed giobules, falls to the
bottom of the Hower, rolling about hke quickfilver.
The figure given by Dr. Roxburgh differs from our
plant, in having much fmaller fowers with tawny petals, and
yellow anthers. He thinks :t likely that there may be more
than one f{pecies of this genus, which he did not diftinguifh
in India. Rumphius defcribes two, his Ubium polypoides
album and nigrum. The former feems beft to agree with our
plant, except that his figure has folitary fowers. He faysits
cations to his friends at home, have added very extenfively /fems extend to the length of 100 fathoms, and that the
roots;
ROX
roots, previoully prepared with lime-water, are candied with
jugar, and taken with tea. Their flavour is infipid.
Our friend Dr. Sims, in Curtis’s Magazine, while he fol-
lows the ideas of preceding authors refpeCting the characters
and affinities of this fingular plant, avows a preference for
the very different view which we have taken ; and we derive
much confidence from his fanétion. It is to be regretted,
‘that, with the beit poflible intention, he has been mifled by
the French botaniits, to change a faulty fpecific name much”
for the worfe. The word gloriofa, whether defignedly or
not, ferves but to perpetuate their unjuit ideas of Dr. Rox-
burgh, as having, by an unexampled inftance of vain-glory,
inferibed a genus to himfelf. We moft wonder at Dr. Sims’s
continuing to apply a fpecific name which, by his own con-
feflion, appears to belong to a different plant, whofe flowers
are * hardly half the fize.”? For this, the original {pecies, we
would, as the leait evil that prefents itfelf, retain the name
of gloriofiformis, which is at leaft correét, and very expref-
five. We had long ago deteéted Rizmphius’s fynonym.
It agrees beft with our viridifora.
ROXBURGHSHIRE, in Geography, one of the
fouthern counties of Scotland, is fituated between N. lat.
55° 7/5 and 55° 42', and between W. long. 1° 39, and
2° 36', from the meridian of London, It is bounded on
the fouth by Cumberland and Northumberland, in England ;
on the eaft by the latter county only; on the north and
north-eait by Berwickfhire ; and on the weit and nerth-
weit, by the counties of Dumfries, Selkirk, and Mid-
lothian. In point of fhape, it is fo extremely irregular, that
it is difficult to define its extent. Its greateft length, from
the junction of the Mare-burn with the Liddel, to the junc-
tion of Carham-burn with the Tweed, is 41 miles; and its
greateit breadth, on a line interfe€ting the above at right
angles, is 29 miles. Its medium length is about 30, and
its medium breadth a little more than 22 miles, making its
contents about 672 fquare miles, or 430,080 fquare acres;
of which, at the time of the laft furvey, in 1796, nearly
three-fifths were in fheep pafture, and the remainder in arable
cultivation, or occupied by woods, pleafure-grounds, towns,
and villages. Politically fpeaking, this county compre-
hends twenty-nine entire parifhes, and a portion of five others,
which, united, contain, according to the parliamentary re-
turns of 1811, 6518 houfes, and 37,230 inhabitants.
Hiftorical Events.—To narrate all the military tranfaGtions
which hiftory and tradition affirm to have occurred within
this county, would be to occupy our pages with an almoft
endlefs detail of petty conflifs and depredatory excurfions,
Roxburghthire being a border diftri@, and uniting, for above
60 miles, with England, was, for feveral centuries, a per-
petual fcene of border warfare; fo that there is {carcely a
{pot throughout its whole extent, where fome feat of valour,
or deed of deftruétion, has not happened. Every parifh
prefents, to the difcerning eye of the antiquary, fome relic
of thofe wretched days when the reftraints of law were
fet at defiance, and rapine and butchery conftituted the
chief delight both of the lord, and of his vaflal peafantry.
Of thofe events which do not bear the charaéter of pre-
datory warfare, the moft prominent are the fiege of Rox-
burgh cattle, by king James II., before-mentioned, and the
battle of Jedburgh, in which the Scots were completely de-
feated by the Erglifh under the earl of Surrey. The latter
event happened in the year 1523.
General A/pe& of the County.—The furface of Roxburgh-
fhire is finely diverfified, and exhibits many fcenes that are
truly beautiful, but few that are romantic or fublime. It
is commonly confidered as divided into four natural diftri&ts ;
Hawick, Jedburgh, Kelfo, and Melrofe. Of thefe, the
Vou. XXX.
‘unequal fize.
ROX
diftri& of Hawick is the moft mountainous; and there is
alfo a chain of hills along the fouthern boundary of the
county. The other divifions prefent to the eye a fucceflion
of hills and vallies. The hills have moftly floping fides, and
are covered witha green {ward to their very f{ummits. Very
few of them are bleak, and none of them rugged or tre-
mendous. The profpects from their higheft points are ex-
tenfive, variegated, and delightful. The numerous vales,
whether of narrow, or of wide extent, are all. watered by
limpid ftreams ; many of them naked, and others fringed
with wood. Some afford excellent pafture, and others are
in high cultivation. They are in general inclofed by very
gentle declivities, though feveral are hemmed in by fteep
banks, over-run with brufh-wood, or adorned with lofty
trees, which form a fcenery rather agreeable than magni-
ficent. In a county fo extenfive, and, on the whole, fo
much elevated, the proportion of heath and mofs is very in-
confiderable, but cannot be calculated with any degree of
exaétnefs, as they are feattered every where in portions of
In Liddefdale, where improvement has made
the leait progrefs, patches of mofs are feen by the edges, and
even in the middle of fertile vales. There are indications of
this having been formerly the cafe in other parts of the county,
on which induftry has now wrought a happy change.
Mineralogy.— Roxburghhhire derives little importance from
its mineral produéts. Coal has been difcovered in feveral
places, but is wrought only in one fpot, near the fouthern
extremity of the diftriét of Liddefdale. Hence the county
labours under the ferious difadvantage of a want of fuel,
which muft be brought from Northumberland, or Mid-
lothian, by land-carriage. Throughout the whole fhire
lime-ftone is abundant, but little of it is calcined for fale,
except in the neighbourhood-of the Liddefdale collieries.
Free-itone alfo is plentiful. The principal ftratum extends
in a north-eatt direGtion from the fartheft point of Liddef-
dale to the neighbourhood of Spronftoun, where it is of a
fine, hard, and durable nature. Different kinds of whin-
{tone appear every where on the furface, in the beds of
brooks, and in inexhauitible quarries. Waft beds of fhell
marle lie feattered throughout the contiguous parifhes of
Roberton, Afhkirk, Wilton, Minto, Luilliefleaf, Bowden,
Galafhiels, and Selkirk. There are likewife large marle
pits at Eckford and Ednam ; and fome lefs confiderable ones
in various places. Pebbles are found in va{t multitudes in
the vicinity of the Cheviot hills. In the parifh of Hob-
kirk, there isa place called Robert’s Linn, where there are
large rocks of pebbles, which are manufa¢tured into feals
and buttons of various kinds. Moft parts of thefe rocks
are of a light blue colour ; but fome portions cf them are
finely varied with ftreaks of red and yellow; and fo much
are they efteemed, that great numbers of them are con-
veyed to Sheffield, Birmingham, and other towns.
Rivers, &Fc.—No county in Great Britain can boaft of
more numerous, or more beautiful rivers and brooks. . One
flows through, and enlivens every little vale. The principal
of them are, the Teviot, the Jed, Tweed, Rule, Kale,
Oxnam, Gala, Slittridge, Ale, Calta, Borthwick, Ednam,
Bowmont, Allan, Leader, Ettrick, Hermitage, and Liddel.
The two laft are difcharged into the Efk, which ruas into
the Solway frith; the others fall into the Tweed, which
empties itfelf into the fea. This river holds a majettic
courfe along banks which, in feveral places, are fteep and
bold, jutting out, at Old Melrofe, into a promontory, and
forming around Dryburgh abbey a peninfula. It partly
bounds, and partly interieéts, the county ; receiving on the
north the Gala, whichis the boundary with Selkirk fhire and
Mid-lothian for five miles; the Leader, which, for nearly
4N the
ROXBURGHSHIRE.
the fame fpace, is the boundary with Berwickfhire; the
Allan, a paftoral rivulet; and the Eden, which takes its
rife in Berwickfhire, but runs a confiderable way along the
fkirts, and through the lower diftrict of this county.
Ettrick, alfo a boundary of Selkirkfhire for two miles, falls
* into the Tweed onthe fouth. ‘Teviot rifes in the wettern
‘part of the county, in a very elevated diftri, and defcends
at firft from the mountains with a rapid courfe; but it after-
wards flows with many delightful windings through a fuc-
ceffion of rich, extenfive, and well cultivated vallies, till it
lofes itfelf in the Tweed between Roxburgh caftle and Kelfo,
one of the moft enchanting {pots which can be well ima-
gined. The Ale and Borthwick are the northern branches
of Teviot. Both of them have their fources in Selkirk-
fhire, and in fome places bound that county and Roxburgh-
fhire. On the fouth the Teviot is augmented by the Ox-
nam, the Jed, andthe Kale. The two laft iffue from the
border hills. The Kale frequently overflows the greater
part of an expanded and valuable plain, adorned by clumps
of trees; while the Jed, rufhing along a rocky channel,
through narrow and thick wooded vales, wafhes the bottom
of feveral high precipices, winds round the town of Jed-
burgh, and terminates another, and {till more extenfive
plain, called Crailinghaughs, through the centre of which
the Oxnam finds its way to Teviot. Nearer to its fource,
the laft-mentioned river receives the Rule; the Slittridge,
and the Allan, all of which rife on the confines of Liddef-
dale. In the number and value of its trees, Rule may vie
with ‘Silvan Jed,”? though not in wild and piCture{que
{eenery. Slittridge is not without the beauties of green
hills, natural wood, and hollow vales. Southern Allan,
like the ftream of the fame name north of Tweed, flows
entirely through fheep-walks. Bowmont, alfo a pattoral
river, has its fource in the fouth-eait diftrict of the county,
and after a rapid courfe of nine or ten miles, enters England.
Bat of all the waters in Roxburghfhire, none are more in-
debted to nature, or might be more improved by art, than
Hermitage, which rifes in the fouthern declivity of the
fame ridge, whence the Allan and the Slittridge iffue in
different directions, and tumbling over a bottom of rough,
fhapelefs ftones, amidit green hills, whofe bafes are gene-
rally fkirted with copfe-wood, lofes itfelf in the Liddel, and
imparts its natural ornament to that larger ftream which is
celebrated by Armftrong in the following {trains :
66 - Such the ftream
On whofe Arcadian banks I firit drew breath,
Liddel, till now, except in Doric lays,
Tun’d to her murmurs by her love-fick fwains,
Unknown in fong; tho not a purer ftream
Through meads more flowery, more romantic groves,
Rolls towards the weltern main. Hail facred flood!
May ftill thy hofpitable fwains be bleft
In rural innocence; thy mountains {till
‘Teem with the fleecy race ; thy tuneful woods
For ever flourifh ; and thy vales look gay
With painted meadows, andthe golden grain.”
There are no lakes of any great extent in this county,
but there are feveral pre-eminent for the beauty of their
{cenery, and the abundant fupply of fine perch and pike
which they contain. Alcmuir-loch, which ranks firft
among the Roxburghfhire lakes, is fomewhat more than
two miles in circumference. ‘routs of various fizes and
flavour abound in all the rivers, and the Tweed and Teviot,
but particularly the former, are crowded with grilfe and
falmon.
Climate—=In.a county of fuch extent as Roxburghthire,
the climate mutt of courfe be extremely various. In pro-
portion to the elevation of the ground, the air is more moiit
and fharp. The warmelt and dryeft months of the year
are July and Auguft, but prodigious thunder fhowers are
very frequent. In September and Oétober the weather
admits of every poflible variation. It is often ferene and
pleafart; but exceffive rains, winds, and frofts, and even
hail and fnow, are by no means uncommon ; and frequently
do incredible damage to the crops. November is nearly of
the fame complexion ; and what feems fingular, in Decem-
ber the weather in general is moderate and uniform. Froft
and {new are feldom fevere or of long duration before
Chriftmas. January and February are the months when
{now is moft common, and froft molt intenfe. With fome
fhort interruptions they very frequently remain till dif-
fipated by the fun in March. Cold ealterly winds prevail
much in. April and May, and- often even in June, either
bringing conftant rain for a fucceflion of days,’ or exhaling
moilture fo rapidly from the earth, as to itint the tender
ftalks both of corn and grafs. But thefe affertions, though
generally true, are at times reverfed. After an open and
foft winter, great quantities of fnow have fallen in March,
April, and May. In other years April has been wonder-
fully mild, May and June the warmett, July and Auguft
the wetteit, and September and Oétober the moft fettled
months.
Soil.—In the patture diftrict of Roxburghfhire the foil
is dry, wet, or heathy. To the eaftward of Jed Water,
the hills are chiefly compofed of red granite, and covered
with a rich {ward of {weet grafs: there is very little heath :
the marfhes are few and not extenfive, and are interfected
by numerous drains. To the weft of Jed Water, including
Liddefdale, the dry foil either refts upon lime-ftone or
gravel. In this diftrict are many moffes and much fenny
land; likewife a large traét of flrong clayey foil, lying on
acold tilth, or hard clay, which is impervious to water. In
the arable divifion of the county the foil is partly light and
partly heavy. The light confifts of a rich loam, or mix-
ture of loam and fand, of loam and gravel, of fand, or
gravel and clay, in every various proportion. The heavy
foil is chiefly clay of different depths and degrees of {tiff-
nefs or mixtures, where clay prevails placed on tilth, or other
matter retentive of water. In very few fpots this furface
lies on a dry bottom; and not unfrequently different and
oppolite foils are ftrangely blended in the fame field. The
light foil, however, is in general formed on low and level
lands, near the beds of rivers, and their branches, and alfo
on feveral eminences of confiderable extent, efpecially in the
parifhes of Linton, Crailing, Ancrum, Maxton, and Mel-
rofe. The heavy foil rarely appears in the vallies, and
chiefly occupies the higher grounds. The largef tract of
it lies immediately fouth of Eildon Hills, including nearly
the whole parifhes of Minto, Lilliefleaf, and Bowden, a
portion of Melrofe, St. Bofwell, Ancrum, Maxton, and
Roxburgh parifhes. It comprehends in all about 10,000
acres, of which at leaft one half is fhallow, cold, and un-
kindly, difficult to labour and uncertain in its produce ; on
which many acres of it have been planted with trees. In
the other half there is much rich and fertile land, which bears
luxuriant crops both of corn and grafs, and not a little of
a middle nature between thefe extremes. In the partfhes
alfo north of the Tweed, the heavy foil is rather moft pre-
valent, and is, in. general, of a good quality. Another
confiderable portion of it runs along the higher grounds
fouth of the Tweed, in the parifhes of Spronitoun, Kelfo,
Roxburgh, and Exford, and there are detached fields of it.
in other parts of the diftri&. In the bofom, or deeply in-
2 dented
ROXBURGHSHIRE.
dented into the fides of thefe clayey traéts, are pieces of
dry land of an admirable quality for producing either white
or green crops. Of the arable diftriG at large, at leatt
two-thirds may be defignated light and dry.
Agriculture.—Farms in Roxburghfhire are of every frze,
from 50 to 6000 acres; yielding from 5o0/. to nearly 3000/.
annuabrent. The arable farms include, in general, from 200
‘to goo acres, but there are fome far lefs and fome much more
extenfive. One tenant frequently pofleffes two or three
farms, and there are inftances of the fame perfons leafing
both an arable and a theep farm, to obtain the double profit
arifing from rearing fheep to a larger fize, by wintering
them.on after-grafs and turnips, and fattening both them
and their lambs earlier, and better, for the market. With
the breeders of that valuable animal, turnips have been for
many years a greater obje@ than formerly, and hence fome
farmers have engaged more deeply in arable hufbandry, in-
flead of accumulating, as before, pafture farms. The
charaéter of farmers in this county, like the extent of the
farms, admits of much variety: but it may be truly faid,
that the greater part of them are men of refpectability and
of agricultural enterprize. Rents are in every cafe paid in
money. One or two clergymen, who have a right to tythes,
have been accultomed from time immemorial to accept of a
fmall fum in lieu of them. Leafes differ in duration and
conditions in the paiture and arable diftri@s. In the former
they extend only from feven to fifteen years; but in the
jatter they are given for nineteen or twenty-one years.
Confiderable tracts of land here, particularly in the ex-
tenfive diftri&t of Liddefdale, remain in a {tate of nature.
The cold wet foil, already noticed, and the expofed fitua-
tion, afford no encouragement for attempting agricultural
improvements. This large traét is therefore wholly under
fheep pafturage, except a few {trips of land on the banks
of the Hermitage and the Liddel. The moft ancient agricul-
ture in this county would appear to haye beer very different
from the prefent. The marks of the plough, and of regu-
lar ridges, are itill every where to be feen upon lofty moun-
tains, where no grain can now be produced, and upon a
foil which has ceafed to be regarded as entitled to the appel-
lation of arable land. Thefe faéts prove that the furface of
the country muift have formerly been in a very different itate
from that in which it now appears. The medern improve-
ments in agriculture are all adopted here by the arable far-
mers. The firft perfon who fet the example of {pirited ex-
ertion was William Dawfon, efq. a farmer’s fon, who, after
receiving a liberal education, was fent by his friends into
England, for the purpofe of obtaining a knowledge of the
pra¢tical agriculture of that part of the united kingdom.
He returned to his native country in 1753,and immediately in-
treduced the pra¢tice of the turnip hufbandry. At firlt his
improvements were confidered as rafh and ipeculative, but
his fuccefs foon effected a change of opinion. Mr. Dawfon’s
neighbour perceiving the advantages of the new plan, be-
came eager to underftand and adopt it. The hinds which
had once been in’his fervice, were fure to find employment ;
his ploughmen were in the utmoft requeft ; they were tranf-
orted to Eait Lothian and evento Angus, and every where
diffufed the improved praétice of that valuable art. Rox-
burghfhire became the fcene of the moft ative agricultural
enterprifes; and Mr. Dawfon, independently of having
acquired a large property, had the fatisfation to live to fee
himfelf regarded, and hear himfelf called, the father ef agri-
culture in the fouth of Scotland.
The rotation of crops ufed in this county have nothing
peculiar, or particularly requiring notice. On a dry foil, it
is confidered an object of importance to throw a large quan-
“eftate.
tityof land under turnip or grafs, efpecially after lime.
One part of Roxburghfhire has long been celebrated for an
early fpecies of oats, denominated Blainfly oats, from the
circumitance of their having been cultivated for time imme-
morial at Blainfly, a large diitri@ in the parifh of Melrofe,
near the northern extremity of the county: the average pro-
duce there is fix to one, but when they are grown on arich
dry foil, it is fometimes 16 or 18 to one. They are fold at
an average of 3s. 6d. per boll dearer than common oats, and
are only obje€tionable in one point of view, viz. that they
are apt to fhake out. Abundant crops of wheat are reared
in the lower and more fertile diftri€ts of the county. Bear is
likewife raifed in confiderable quantities ; but the culture of
peas and beans has become very limited, fince the praétice
of turnip feeding has been fo generally introduced. Of
potatoes, comparatively few are cultivated; neither are
great crops of hay frequent in this county, on account of
the want of towns in which they might find a ready fale.
Little flax is grown, except as an object of domeftic manu-
faéture. It is a remarkable fa&, and a fubje¢t of curiofity
in agricultural hiftory, that this county was at one time
likely to have become noted for the cultivation of tobacco.
It was introduced by Mr. Thomas Mann, and was tried
both at Newttead and at Kelfo with fuch fuccefs, that the
legiflature deemed it requifite to interfere, and put an end
to its culture.
Live Stock.—Very confiderable numbers of cattle are fed
in Roxburghfhire, but fheep is the ftaple animal of the
county. he latter are eftimated at nearly 300,000 in num-
ber, and are moftly of the Cheviot breed. A large quan-
tity of ewe-milk cheefe, of the beft quality, has long been
an obje& of manufa€ture here, but the pratice is now on
the decline. The horfes employed and bred here are either
of the Englifh or of the Lanarkfhire breed. Swine are
reared by almoft every cottager and farm-fervant who is
married ; alfo vaft quantities of poultry. Several cart-loads
of the eggs of dunghill fowls are weekly colleGted by
“‘egglers,” who fell them in Berwick for the London
market.
Inclofures.—A very {mall propertion of the lands in this
county are inclofed. ‘The fence chiefly ufed is ditch and
hedge, of which there are two kinds, namely, the double
and the fingle. The double confiits of two ditches, having
a hedge planted in the embankment between them. Where
ftones can be eafily procured, ftone-dike inclofures are pre-
ferred to the hedge and ditch. One of the mott fubftantial
fences of this kind in the county inclofes about 600 acres,
called the “Deer park of Holydean,’’ on the Roxburgh
It is traditionally ftated to have been conftructed
before the year 1500. Itis about four feet high, and though
built of whinitone only, without lime or mortar, continues
to be a good fence. Ina few places dikes are formed of al-
ternate layers of {tone and turf.
Towns, Villages, and Fairs.—There is only one royal bo-
rough in this county, that of Jedburgh, which, along with
the boroughs of Haddington, Lauder, Dunbar, and North
Berwick, ele&ts a member to ferve in parliament. This
place is the county town, and makes a confiderable figure in
the hiftory of the border wars. (See Jeppurcu.) The
other principal towns and villages are, Hawick, which is
fituated at the confluence of the Teviot and Slittridge, near
the lower part of the upper, or moft mountainous diftri& of
the county ; Kelfo, which ftands on the northern bank of
the ‘Tweed’; and Melrofe, celebrated for its abbey, each of
which the reader will find defcribed under their refpeCtive
names.
The greateft fair in the county is held in the parifh of
4N2 Leffudden,
ROX
Leffudden, or St. Bofwell, whence it is called St. Bofwell’s
fair. Ittakes place’on the 18th of July, andis the princi-
pal mart for fheep and lambs in the fouth of Scotland ;
but horfes, linen, and woollen cloths, are likewife fold in
confiderable quantities. The cuftoms of this fair belong to
the duke of Buccleugh, and may be eftimated at about 5o/.
per annum. Another great fair is held in the vicinity of
Kelfo. It is called St. James’s fair, from the circumftance
of its being holden within the ancient parifh of that name,
which is now merged in the parifh of Kelfo.
Antiquities.-—The veltiges of ancient times {till vifible in
Roxburghfhire are numerous. Mutilated encampments, and
ruinated buildings of {trength, are difcovered in a great va-
riety of fituations, and particularly in the high diftrit of
the county. In the parifles of Cavers, Hawick, and others,
remnants may be traced of what is called the Cat-rail, which
is conjectured to have been a boundary rampart, fimilar to
the Wanfdike and Offa’s dike in England; but whether
erected by the Romans, Saxons, or Britons is’ uncertain ;
though Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter, contends
{trongly that it is of Britifh origin. In the parifh of Ro-
berton, near the fource of the Teviot, is a large fquare
encampment, which is {till denominated fica, and in the
vicinity are feveral f{maller femi-circular intrenchments.
There are likewife encampments on the Eildon. hills, on
Carberry hill, Sidehill, at Ancrum, and on the farm of
Flight, in the parifh of Clintwood. In the fame parifh are
likewife numerous fortifications, called Pi&ts’? works, which
are of acircular form, and conftructed of large ftones. On
the farm of Millburn is a {mall circle of nine upright ftones,
furrounded by a ditch, which is fuppofed to have been a
Druidical temple. Cairns appear in different parts of the
county. Of thefe, the moft remarkable is at Whifgills.
The quantity of ftones is immenfe, and they are moftly of a
very large fize. Nearit isa large upright ftone, called the
‘“‘ ftanding ftone.’? This cairn is fituated in the centre of
an extenfive and deep mofs, where not a {tone is to be difco-
vered except thofe employed in its conftruétion. Another
immenfe cairn is placed on an eminence between the parifhes
of Caitleftown and Canonby. | It is eighty-fix yards long,
and confilts of maffes of free-{tone, of great magnitude.
AA ftanding ftone, thirteen feet in circumference, and feven
feet above ground, is fixed at the north end of it; and there
are five other {maller ones, forming, with the larger ftone, a
circle round the cairn forty-five yards in diameter. How
thefe enormous mafles were originally collected, or for what
purpole, itis very difficult todetermine. At Milnholm, in
the parifh of Canonby, itands an ancient crofs, formed of one
ftone, eight feet four inches high, on which are {culptured a
{word and fome ancient writing ; but the latter is fo much
mutilated, that it cannot be read. On the banks of the
Ale Water, near Ancrum, ts a feries of caves, fome of
which ftill preferve veltiges of fire-places, and holes for the
paffage of {moke. Similar caves are difcovered on the banks
of the Jed.
Roxburghfhire formerly abounded with towers, or petty
fortrefles, ere€ted by the border chieftains, for the defence
of the country from the incurfions of the Englifh borderers.
Few of thefe, however, now remain; indeed the only ones
entire are Delphiftone tower, and another at Mofsburnford.
Of the larger caftles, the principal are Clintwood cattle,
Goldieland caftle, Gofsford caftle, and Roxburgh cattle, the
la of which is mentioned under RoxsureH. In this
county are fituated the ruins of three monatteries, among
the moft important in Scotland, viz. Melrofe, Kelfo, and
Jedburgh abbies. See Mrzrosr, Kexzso, and JeppurGH.
Eminent Natives.—-Roxburghfhire boatts to have been the
RiOWy
birth-place of feveral charaéters diftinguifhed in the annals of
literature and military glory. Of thefe, the moft noted
were Thomfon, author of the Seafons; Armftrong, author
of the « C&conomy of Loye,’’? and various mifcellaneous
poems ; Gavin Douglas, who tranflated feveral of the works
of the Latin poets into Scottifh verfe ; and general Elliot,
afterwards lord Heathfield, the gallant defender of Gibral-
tar, when it was attacked in 1786, by the combined powers
of France and Spain. Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. 1805.
Agricultural Survey of the Counties of Roxburgh and Sel-
kirk, by Robert Douglas, D.D., 8vo. 1800.
ROXBURY, a pleafant town of America, in Norfolk
county, Matlachufetts ; 1 mile S.W. of Bofton. It is now
divided into three parifhes, and was fettled in 1630.
three parifhes contain 366g inhabitants. The firit of thefe
parifhes has been lately connected with Bofton harbour by 2
canal. The famous John Eliot, called the apottle of the
Indians, was the firft minifter who fettled in this place. He
tranflated the Bible, and other pious books, into the Indian
language ; and founded many religious focieties among the
Indians. Some few remain to thisday. He died in 1670, after
being paftor 60 years. —Alfo, a townthip in the W. part of
Orange county, Vermont, containing 361 inhabitants.—
Alfo, a townfhip of Morris county, New Jerfey, on Muf-
conecunk river, 25 miles from its confluence with the Dela-
ware, and 45 miles N. of Trenton ; containing 1563 inha-
bitants. Near it is a mineral fpring.—Alfo, a town in
Litchfield county, Conneticut, containing 1217 inha-
bitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Wafhington county, in the
{tate of Ohio, containing 408 inhabitants.
ROXCESTER. See Wroxetenr.
ROXEN, alake of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland ; 100 miles
W.S.W. of Stockholm.
ROXO, Capr, acape on the S.W. coaft of Porto Rico.
N. lat. 18° 1. W. long. 65° 50’.— Alfo, a cape of Spain,
on the coaft of Valencia. N. lat. 37° 53'. W. long. 0° so’.
—Alfo, the S.E. point of a {mall ifland in the gulf of Mexi-
co, fituated before the mouth of the river Panuco. N.
at. 22° 30! W. long. 100° 11'.—Alfo, a cape on the W.
coaft of Africa. N. Jat. 12° 15!. W. long. 16° 35!.
ROY, Louts Lx, in Biography, a learned profeffor, born
at Conftance, in Normandy, about the beginning of the 16th
century. After having {tudied in Italy and other places, he
fettled at Paris, where, in 1570, he was appointed to the
profeflorfhip of Greek. After this he ftudied the law four
years at Touloufe ; he frequented the bar at the parliament
of Paris, in which he exercifed fome kind of magiftracy.
He fometimes followed the armies; and had vifited the
courts of the emperor, and king of England. His inatten-
tion to domettic affairs reduced him at laft to depend upon
the liberality of others for his daily fubfiltence. He died at
an advanced age in the year 1571, leaving behind him, as
monuments of his learning, many works in the Latin and
French languages. In the former he gained confiderable
reputation, by an elegantly written life of the learned Bu-
deus. He gave good tranflations into the French of the
works, or part of them, of Plato, Ariftotle, and Demof-
thenes, which he enriched with learned commentaries.
Roy, Junren-Davip Ls, an archite& and antiquary, born
at Paris in 1728, was the fon of Julien le Roy, a celebrated
mechanift, who excelled particularly in the art of watch-
making, fo much fo, that his time-pieces acquired the fame
celebrity in France as thofe of Graham in Engiand 3 he
died at Paris in 1759, at the age of 74, leaving four fons ;
of whom Julien, the fubject of this article, was educated for
the profeffion of an archite¢t, in which he became eminent.
He is weli known in the literary world by the following
works ;
The ,
ROY
works; “ Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Gréce ;””
this obtained for the author admiffion into the Academy of
Infcriptions ; ‘* Hiftoire de la Difpofition et des Formes
differentea des Temples des Chretiens;”’ ‘* Objiervations
fur les Edifices des anciens Peuples;’’ ‘* De la Marine des
anciens Peuples.’? He publifhed two other works on the
. conitruétion of the fhips of the ancients ; and a memoir on
cutting mafts in the Pyrenées. This ingenious man died at
Paris in the year 1803, at the age of 75.
Roy, Prrer, brother of the above, was watch-maker
to the king, and publifhed memoirs for the clock-makers
of Paris,—Etrennes Chronometiques—Treatife on the La-
bours of Harrifon and le Roy for the Difcovery of Longi-
tude at Sea. He died in 1785. It is well known, fays
a contemporary biographer, that the Englifh, on ac-
count of their numerous difcoveries in this art, had enjoyed
fuch a reputation for the excellence of their clocks and
watches, that they found every where a market, in prefer-
ence to any others, and that the French themfelves were
obliged to come to England for their time-pieces. Julien
le Roy, the father, had the honour of removing, in part,
this pre-eminence, and of transferring it to the French.
He made many difcoveries in the conftru€tion of repeating-
clocks and watches: in fecond and horizontal watches he
invented an univerfal compafs with a fight ;—an extremely
ufeful and fimple contrivance for drawing a meridional line,
and finding the declination of the needle ; and alfo a new
univerfal horizontal dial. It is to him we are indebted for
the method of compenfating for the effets of heat and cold
in the balances of chronometers, by the unequal expanfion
of different metals, a difcovery which has been brought by
our Englifh artilts to a {tate of great perfe&tion, although
it had been thrown afide by the inventor’s fon, Peter.
Roy, in Geography, a town of Silefia, giving name to a lord-
fhip in the principality of Tefchen ; 6 miles N. of Tefchen.
ROYA, Ex, a town of Spain, in Old Catftile; 10 miles
N.N.W. of Soria.
ROYAL, regal, fomething relating to a king.
The word is French, formed from the Latin regalis, of
rex, king.
In this fenfe we fay, the royal family, the royal blood,
royal line, &c.
In England, the prince and princefs of Wales, the king’s
brcthers, &c. are addreffed under the title of royal highne/s.
Roya dédey, denotes an abbey founded by aking, or by
a prince who is fucceeded by a king.
Royat Academy of Arts. See Loxpon.
Royau Academy of Sciences, &c. See ACADEMY.
Roya Academy of Mufic. See Orrra.
Roya Antler, among Hunters, exprefles the third branch
ef the horn of a hart or buck, that fhovts out from the rear
er main horn above the back-antler.
Royat Army. See Army.
Roya Afent, is that affent or approbation which the king
gives to a thing done by others ; as the election of a bifhop
by dean and chapter, or to a bill pailed in both houfes of
parliament.
The royal affent in parliament being given, the bill is in-
dorfed with thefe words, Le roy /e veut ; that is, it pleafes the
fing. If he refufes it, thus, Ze roy s’avifera, q. d. the king
will advife upon it. See PARLIAMENT’.
Roxar Boroughs. See Boroucu.
Roya Crown, is that worn by kings.
Royax Charter. See Crarter.
Royay African Company. See Company.
Royax Exchange, the burfe or meeting-place of the
merchants in London. ;
See Crown.
ROY
It was firft built in 1566, at the charge of fir Thomas
Grefham ; and in a folemn manner, by herald with found
of trumpet, in prefence of queen Elizabeth, proclaimed the
Royal Exchange. ‘Till that time the merchants met in
Lombard-ftreet.
It was built of brick, yet then efteemed the moft f{plendid
burfe in Europe. A hundred years after its building, at
the great fire, it was burnt down; but it was foon raifed
again in a {till more magnificent manner, the expence of it
amounting to 50,000/. ‘
One half of this fum was difburfed by the chamber of
London, the other by the company of mercers; who, to
reimburfe themfelves, let to hire a hundred and ninety fhops
above {tairs, at twenty pounds each; which, with other
fhops, &c. on the ground, yielded a yearly rent of above
four thoufand pounds; yet the ground it ftands on does not
exceed three-fourths of an acre; whence it is obferved to
be much the richeft {pot of ground in the world.
It is a quadrangular bui sings with walks around, in
which the merchants of the refpeétive countries affociate
themfelves. In the middle of the area, or court, is a fine
marble itatue of king Charles II., in the habit of a Roman
Cefar, erected by the fociety of merchant-adventurers ; the
workmanfhip of Grinlin Gibbons. Around are ranged the
ftatues of the feveral kings fince the Norman Conquett. See
‘Lonpoy. :
Roya Fifbes are whales and fturgeon, and fome add
porpoifes too; which the king, by his prerogative, is to
have, whenever caft on fhore, or wrecked, in all places of
the realm; unlefs granted to fubjeéts by exprefs words.
Roya Foot, Fort, Franchife, Hofpital. See the fub-
ftantives.
Royat Oaé, was a fair-fpreading tree at Bofcobel, in
the parifh of Donnington, in Staffordfhire, the boughs of
which were all covered with ivy; in the thick of which
king Charles II. fat in the day-time with colonel Carelefs,
and in the night lodged in Bofcobel-houfe ; fo that they are
miftaken who fpeak of it as an old hollow oak; it being
then a gay flourifhing tree, furrounded with many more.
The poor remains of it are now fenced in with a handfome
wall, with this infcription over the gate, in golden letters:
FELICISSIMAM ARBOREM, QUAM IN ASYLUM POTENTISSIMI
REGIS CAROLI II. DEUS OP. MAX. PER QUEM REGES REG-
NANT, HIC CRESCERE VoLuIT, &c. Phil. Tranf. N° 310.
Royat Oak, Roebur Carolinum, in Afronomy, one ot the
new fouthern conttellations, the {tars of which, according
to Sharp’s Catalogue, annexed to the Britannic, are 12.
See CoNsTELLATION.
Roya Officers. See Orricer.
Royat Parapet, or Parapet of the Rampart, in Fortifica-
tion, is a bank about three fathoms broad, and fix feet high,
placed upon the brink of the rampart, towards thecountry 5
to cover thofe who defend the rampart.
Roya Poop. See Poor.
Roya Port. See Port Royal.
Royat Society of England, is an academy, or body, of
perfons of eminent learning ; in{tituted by king Charles IT.
for the promoting of natural knowledge.
This illuftrious body had its original in an aflembly of in-
genious men, refiding in London, who, being inquilitive
into natural, and the new and experimental philofophy,
agreed, about the year 1645, to meet weekly on a certain
day, to difcourfe upon fuch fubje&ts. Thefe meetings, it
is faid, were fuggefted by Mr. Theodore Haak, a native of
the Palatinate in Germany ; and they were held fometimes
at Dr. Goddard’s lodgings in Wood-ftreet, fometimes at a
convenient place in Cheapfide, and fometimes in or near
7 Grefham
ROY
Grefham College. This aflembly feems to be that men-
tioned under the title of the « Invifible, or Philofophical
College,”” by Mr. Boyle, in fome letters written in 1646
and 1647. About the years 1648 and 1649, the company,
which formed thefe meetings, began to be divided: thofe in
London continued to meet there as before; and thofe who
were removed to Oxford occafionally joined them. The
latter, viz. Dr. Wilkins, Dr. Wallis, and Dr. Goddard,
in connetion with others, continuing their affemblies in
Oxford, brought the ftudy of natural and experimental phi-
lofophy into fafhion there; meeting firft in Dr. Petty’s
lodgings, afterwards at Dr. Wilkins’s apartments in Wad-
ham College, and, upon his remoyal, in the lodgings of the
honourable Mr. Boyle. The greateft part of the Oxford
fociety coming to London about the year 1659, they met
once or twice a week in term-time, at Grefham College,
till they were difperfed by the public diftractions of that
year, and the place of their meeting was made a quarter for
foldiers. Upon the Reftoration, in 1660, their meetings
were revived, and attended with a larger concourfe of per-
fons, eminent for their charaéter and learning.
They were at length taken notice of by the king, who
was pleafed to grant them an ample charter, dated the 22d
of April 1663, by which they were erected into a corpora-
tion, “ confifting of a prefident, council, and fellows, for
promoting natural knowledge.”
Their manner of electing fellows is by ballotting. Their
council are in number twenty-one, including the prefident,
vice-prefident, treafurer, two fecretaries, and fecretary for
foreign correfpondence; cleven of which are continued for
the next year, and ten more added to them; all chofen on
St. Andrew’s day. Each member, at his admiflion, fub-
{cribes an engagement, that he will endeavour to premote
the good of the fociety ; from which he may be freed at
any time, by fignifying to the prefident, that he defires to
withdraw.
The charges are five guineas paid to the treafurer at ad-
miflion; and thirteen fhillings per quarter, {fo long as the
perfon continues a member; or, in lieu of the annual fub-
feription, a compofition of twenty-fix guineas in one pay-
ment.
Their defign is, to ‘‘ make faithful records of all the
works of nature or art, which come within their reach; fo
that the prefent, as well as after-ages, may be enabled to
put a mark on errors which have been ftrengthened by long
prefcription ; to reitore truths that have been neglected ; to
pufh thofe already known to more various ufes; to make
the way more paflable to what remains unrevealed,”’ &c.
To this purpofe they have made a great number of ex-
periments and obfervations on mott of the works of nature ;
eclipfes, comets, meteors, mines, plants, earthquakes, in-
undations, {prings, damps, fubterraneous fires, tides, cur-
rents, the magnet, &c. Alfo numbers of fhort hittories of
nature; arts, manufactures, ufeful engines, contrivances,
&c. The fervices they have been of to the public are very
great. They have improved naval, civil, and military ar-
chitecture; advanced the fecurity and perfection of na-
vigation; improved agriculture; and put not only this
kingdom, but alfo Ireland, the plantations, &c. upon
planting.
They have regiltered experiments, hiftories, relations, ob-
fervations, &c. and reduced them into one common ftock ;
and have, from time to time, publifhed fome of the molt
immediate ufe, under the title of Philofophical Tranfaétions,
&c. and laid the refl up in public regiiters, to be nakedly
tran{mitted to pofterity, as a folid ground-work for future
fyftems. See TRANSACTIONS.
ROW
They have a library adapted to their inititution ; towards
which Mr. Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk,
contributed the Norfolcian library, and which is, at this
time, greatly increafed by a continual feries of benefa€tions.
The mufeum, or repofitory, of natural and artificial rarities,
given them by Daniel Colwal, efq., and fince enriched by
many others, is now removed to the Britifh Mufeum, ané
makes a part of that great repofitory. Their motto is,
NULLIUS IN VERBA}; and their place of aflembling is So-
merfet-place, in the Strand. Sir Godfrey Copley, bart.,
left five guineas to be given annually to the perfon who
fhould write the beft paper in the year, under the head of
experimental philofophy. . This reward, which is now
changed to a gold medal, is the higheit honour the fociety
can beltow. It is conferred on St. Andrew’s day.
Roxax Society of Muficians. See Mufical Funp, ané
Royal Socirry of Muficians.
Roya Spanifh Academy. See Acapremy.
Roya Sugar. See SuGar.
Roya, in Sea Language, is a name given to the higheit
fail which is extended in any fhip. It is {pread immediately
above the top-gallant fail, to whofe yard-arms the lower’
corners of it are attached. The failis never ufed but in
light and favourable breezes.
Royat Stay. See Svay.
Roya Yard. See Yano.
Royats, in Artillery, are a kind of {mall mortars, which
carry a fhell, whofe diameter is five inches and a half. See
Morvan.
Royat Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.E. of the
ifland of Georgia, between Cape George and Cape Char-
lotte.— Alfo, a bay on the N. coatt of Antigua, a little to
the E. of Peyerfan’s Point.
Royaz, or Minong, Ifland, an ifland about 35 miles
long, and 12 wide, in the N.W. part of lake Superior.
N. lat. 47° 52’. W. long. 89°.—Alfo, a {mall fertile ifland
in the river St. Lawrence, 60 miles below lake Ontario.
N. lat. 44° 46'. W. long. 75° 24/.
Roya Reach, a channel in the ftraits of Magellan, ex-
tending from Fortefcue bay to Paffage Point.
Roya Sound, a large bay on the coaft of Kerguelen’s
land, between Cape George and the Prince of Wales’s
Foreland.
Royav’s River, a river of America, in Cumberland
county, Maine, which runs into Cafco bay, in the townfhip
of North Yarmouth.
ROYALSTON, a townfhip of Worcefter county,
Maflachufetts ; 40 miles N.W. by N. of Worcelter ; in-
corporated in 1665, and containing 1415 inhabitants.
Miller’s river traverfes this town from the eatt.
ROYALTIES, Reeatiriss, the rights of the king;
otherwife called the Ling’s prerogative, and the regalia. See
PreroGATIive and REeGALia.
Of thefe, fome the king may grant to common perfons ;
others are infeparable from the crown.
ROYALTON, in Geography, a townfhip of Windfor
county, in the ftate of Vermont, N.W. of Hartford, on
White river, containing 1748 inhabitants.
ROYAMUNGAL, a river of Bengal, which runs into
the bay of Bengal, N. lat. 21°35'. E. long. 89° 18'.
ROYAN, a town of France, in the department of tne
Lower Charente, on the Garonne; fortified by the Hu-
guenots, and defended fo vigoroufly againit Louis XIII.
in the year 1621, that he was compelled to withdraw his
troops; but he afterwards avenged his difgrace, by demo-
lifhing it fo entirely, that the prefent place is only the
fuburbs of the former; 12 miles S. of Marennes. *
ROYAUMEIZ,
ROY
ROYAUMEIX, a town of France, in the department
of the Meurte; 6 miles N. of Toul.
ROYBON, a town of France, in the department of the
Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of St.
Marcellin; 7 miles N.N.W. of St. Marcellin. The place
contains 2412, and the canton 7373 inhabitants, on a ter-
. Fitory of 190 kiliometres, in 11 communes.
ROYE, a town of France, in the department of the
Somme, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Montdidier; 15 miles S.S.W. of Peronne. The place
contains 3176, and the canton 14,027 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 195 kiliometres, in 39 communes. N. lat. 50° 8/.
E. long. 2° 52!.
ROYENA, in Botany, named by Linnzus in honour of
Adrian Van Royen, profeflér of Botany in the univerfity
of Leyden, who died in 1779, aged 74, and was fucceeded
by his nephew David, who died in 1799.—Linn. Gen. 221.
Schreb. 299. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.631. Mart. Mill. Dia.
v. 4. Ajit. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 61. Thunb. Prodr. 80.
Jufl. Gen. 156. Lamarck Dié. v. 6. 320. Iluftr. t. 370.
Gertn. t. 94.—Clafs and order, Decandria Digynia. Nat.
Ord. Bicornes, Linn. Guaiacane, Juli.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, urn-fhaped,
five-cleft, permanent. Cor. of one petal; tube the length
of the calyx; limb {preading, revolute, deeply cloven into
five, ovate fegments. Sram. Filaments ten, very fhort,
{pringing from the corolla; anthers oblong, acute, twin,
erect, as long as the tube. Pi. Germen fuperior, ovate,
terminating in two ityles, a little longer than the ftamens ;
ftigmas fimple. Peric. Berry invefted with the coriaceous
calyx, flefhy, of four cells, two of them often abortive.
Seed. Nuts folitary, ovate, fomewhat triangular.
Eff. Ch. Calyx urn-fhaped. Corolla of one petal, with
a revolute limb. Berry of four cells, two of them moftly
abortive.
1. R. ductda. Shining-leaved African Bladder-nut. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 568. (Staphylodendron africanum fempervirens,
foliis {plendentibus ; Commel. Hort. v. 1. 187. t. 96.)—
Leaves ovate, roughifh with hairs.—Native of the Cape
of Good Hope, as indeed are all the remaining fpecies. It
flowers in May and June.—The /fem of this evergreen /hrub
is eight or ten feet high, branched in all direGtions. Leaves
generally alternate, on fhort ttalks, ovate, pointed. Flowers
axillary, along the branches, very incon{picuous. Berry red,
and flefhy like an apple.
2. R. willofa. Hleart-leaved Royena. Willd. n. 2.—
Leaves heart-fhaped, oblong, downy beneath.—It flowers
in June and July.—Very fimilar to the laft in habit, but
its branches are more villous. Leaves elliptic or oblong;
heart-fhaped at the bafe; on fhort, hairy ttaiks. Flowers
axillary, nodding, folitary, on villous italks. Bradeas two,
oppofite, ovate, pointed, downy, large, deciduous.
3. R. pallens. Pale Royena. Willd. n. 3.—‘ Leaves
longifh-obovate, obtufe, {mooth.’”’—It flowers in June and
July.—We know not of any defcription or figure of this
{pecies which ftands on the authority of Thunberg, Aiton,
and Willdenow, who merely give its {pecific chiapas.
4. R. glabra. Myrtle-leaved African Bladder-nut. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 568. (Vitis idea zthiopica, buxi minoris folio,
floribus albis ; Commel. Hort. v. 1. 125. t. 65.)— Leaves
lanceolate, {mooth.— Flowers in September.—Svem fhrubby,
five or fix feet high, fending out numerous flender, leafy,
evergreen branches, covered with a purplifh dark. Leaves
rather fmall, ovate, pointed, entire, bright green. Flowers
axillary, along the branches, white. Berry roundifh,
purple, ripening in our greenhoufes in the winter. ‘
5. R. Airfuta. Hairy-leaved African Bladder-nut. Linn.
ROY
Sp. Pl. 568. Jacq. Collect. fuppl. rio. t. 13. fr.
fragm. t. 1. f. 2.”7—Leaves oblong-lanceolate, rather vil-
lous.—Flowers in July.— Stem ftrong and woody, feven or
eight feet high, alternately branched, with a grey dark.
Leaves an-inch long, covered with foft hairs. Flowers on
fhort ftalks, axillary, {mall, of a faded purple colour.
6. R. polyandra. Oval-leaved Royena. Linn. Suppl. 240.
Willd. n. 6.— Leaves elliptical. Flowers polyandrous,
polygamous.—Time of flowering unknown.—The /lem has
knotty, irregular branches. Leaves fomewhat obovate, co-
riaceous, finely downy on both fides. Flowers in fhort,
axillary, downy clutters. .
7- R. anguflifolia. Willow-leaved Royena. Willd. n. 7.
—Leaves lanceolate, acute, fomewhat tity beneath. It
flowers in June and July.—This fpecies is adopted on the
authority of Willdenow, who obferves, that it differs from
all the foregoing ones, in having narrow, lanceolate aves,
fharp at both ends, and fomewhat hairy underneath.
Royena is very nearly allied to Drospyros ; the chief
points of difference eonfilting in the latter genus having
from fix to twelve cells ia the fruit, and fometimes five or
fix divifions in the calyx. Linnzeus’s defcription of the
fruit of Royena is erroneous. See Diosryros.
Royena, in Gardening, contains plants of the fhrubby
evergreen exotic kind for the greenhoufe, of which the
{pecies cultivated are ; the fhining-leaved royena, or African
bladder-nut (R. lucida); the heart-leaved royena, or
African bladder-nut (R. villofa) ; the myrtle-leaved royena,
or African bladder-nut (R. glabra) ; the hairy-leaved ro-
yena, or African bladder-nut (R. hirfuta).
Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are often rather trou-
blefome in raifing, but their culture may be attempted by
cuttings and layers. The cuttings fhould be made from
the young fhoots, and be planted in the early fpring in
{mall pots filled with a loamy earth, plunging them in a
very moderate hot-bed, covering them te with hand-
glafles, refrething them often with water in {mall propor-
tions. When they have itricken roots, and are begun to
fhoot, inure them gradually to the open air, and when they
are well rooted remove them into feparate {mall pots, ma-
naging them afterwards as other rather tender greenhoufe
plants, fuch as the orange-tree, &c.
And the layers may be made from the young bottom
fhoots, laying them carefully down by flitting them as for
carnations, watering them often in the warm feafon, but
very moderately in the cold. When they are become well
rooted, take them off and plant them in feparate pots in
the fame manner as the cuttings, giving them the fame
fort of management afterwards.
The laft fort often fends up fuckers from the roots, and
may fometimes be increafed by planting in the fame way as
the cuttings. They afford variety among other greenhoufe
lants.
ROYERRE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Creufe, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Bourganeuf; g miles S.E. of Bourganeuf.
The place contains 1476, and the canton 6675 inhabitants,
on a territory of 2go kiliometres, in 1: communes.
ROYMATLA, a river of Hindooltan, which is one of
the mouths of the Ganges.
ROYMUNGUL, one of the mouths of the Ganges.
ROYOC, in Botany. See Rotoc.
ROYON, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the {traits of Calais; 10 miles N.W. of
St. Pol.
ROYPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 25 miles
N.W. of Manickpour.—Alfo, 4 town of Bengal; #0
miles
ROY
miles N.N.W. of Midnapour.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Boggilcund; 20 miles E. of Rewah.
ROYSTON, a town fituated partly in Cambridgefhire,
and partly within that of Hertford, is feated at the bottom
of a hill, among the chalk dowrs. The name appears to
have been derived from a crofs, ere€ted in the beginning of
the twelfth century by a lady Roife, or Roifia, and thence
called “ Roife’s Crofs;’? near to which a monaftery for
Auftin canons was afterwards built: the canons being
competently endowed, houfes and inns were erected, and
in time formed a town, called Roife’s Town, which was
afterwards contraéted to Royfton. At the time of the
Domefday Survey, the town was fituated in five parifhes,
and fo continued till the 32d year of king Henry VIII.,
when it was conftituted a diftin€& parifh: and the church
of the diffolved priory being made parochial, was, agree-
ably to the letter of the ftatute, denominated “The Parifh
Church of St. John Baptift in Royiton.’? The eftates
granted to the priory by the founders appear to have in-
cluded nearly all the land on which the town now ftands.
In the firft year of Richard I. the canons obtained the
liberty of holding a weekly market, and alfo an annual fair
during the whole of Whitfun week. Henry III. invefted
them with many additional privileges: and under thefe grants
the trade and population ef the town rapidly increafed. The
greater part of the houfes were deftroyed by fire in the
reign of Henry IV.; but the convenient fituation of the
place as a corn-market contributed to its fpeedy reftoration :
and in the time of Henry VI., according to Hollinfhed,
wheat was fo plentiful here as to be fold for twelve-pence
the quarter. Camden mentions this town as being famous
for the great refort of malt{ters and other dealers in grain ;
and for the incredible quantity of corn to be feen every
market day on the adjacent roads. It is itill celebrated
for its corn trade, notwithftanding the great alteration
which has taken place in the modes of traffic. he {cite
of the priory with its appurtenances and liberties, and
three annual fairs, were granted by Henry VIII., in con-
fideration of 1761/. 5s. od. to Robert Chefter, efq. whofe
pofterity continued to poffefs the fame for feveral gene-
rations: but thefe are now the property of the honourable
Thomas Brand. Only a few remains of the priory build-
ings are now left, excepting the church, which confifts of
a nave, chancel, and aifles, with a low tower. Befides the
priory, there were two other religious foundations in this
town. One of them, an hofpital dedicated to St. Nicholas,
was founded fo early as king John’s reign ; but no parti-
culars of it arenow known. The other, which was alfo an
hofpital or free chapel, was dedicated to St. John and
St. James, and was in exiftence in the twelfth year of
Henry III., as Walter de Gray, archbifhop of York, then
granted indulgences to fuch as fhould contribute to the fup-
port of its fick and weak brethren. Some remains of this hof-
pital are yet extant in a dwelling-houfe. King James I.
built a manfion here, as an occafional refidence for enjoy-
ing the amufements of hawking and hunting. At the com-
mencement of the civil wars Charles I. removed from
Hampton-Court to this houfe. It is ftill called the king’s
houfe, but is fallen to decay. Beneath the market-place
is a Cave, or fubterranous crypt or oratory, which has
been dug out of the folid chalk, and had originally a per-
pendicular aperture rifing to the ftreet, and communicating
with the upper part of the cavity. his was of a circular
form, about two feet in diameter, and had been clofed by a
mill-{tone, which was accidentally difcovered in Auguit
1742. his aperture, or defcent, had holes for the feet
cut into the chalk on each fide; but as the lower part of
ROZ
the crypt was found to be filled with loofe earth and rubbith,
this paflage was quickly enlarged, the curiofity of the
town’s-people being ftrongly excited by the hope of dif-
covering fome concealed treafure. About two hundred
loads of earth were drawn out; but the zeal of the la-
bourers was only repaid by finding a fkull, and other
human bones, greatly decayed. ‘The interior of this fin-
gular fubterraneous apartment is completely circular, finifh-
ed in a kind of dome above, broken only by the original
entrance. Round the lower part of the fides is a feries of
rude carving of the crucifixion, feveral faints, and various
other fubjects from facred and profane hiftory. The
bottom of this cell is furrounded by a raifed feat about one
foot high, and between two and three wide, but divided on
the eait fide by a hollow place, called the Grave. The
prefent entrance is by a regular defcent or paflage, nearly
one hundred yards in length, formed in the chalk from an
adjacent houfe. ‘The diameter of the crypt is about twenty-
five feet ; and the height is between thirty and forty. The
Roman road, called Ichnield Way, pafled by this town.
According to the population returns of the year 1811, the
number of houfes in this parifh was 284, containing 1309
inhabitants. ‘The market is held on Thurfdays; and here
are five annual fairs. Royfton is fituated 20 miles N.E.
from Hertford, and 37 miles N. from London. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. vii. by E. W. Brayley and
J. Britton. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, Cambridgefhire.
Stukeley’s Paleographia Britannica.
ROYTON, a chapelry or townfhip in the parifh of
Preftwich-cum-Oldham, and county of Lancafter, England,
is two miles N. of the town of Oldham. This place
abounds with cotton manufactories, which appear to have
been fettled here in confequence of the abundance. of coal
obtained. According to the population report of 1811,
this townfhip contained 625 houfes, and 3910 inhabitants.
Royton-hall is the feat of Jofeph Pickford, efq. but for-
merly belonged to the Byron family, who poflefled con-
fiderable landed property in the neighbourhood. The
houfe is feated in a deep valley, furrounded by high hills.
Beauties of England, &c. vol. ix. by J. Britton.
ROZANNA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 48 miles S.W. of Novogrodek.
ROZANS, a town of France, in the department of the
Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, 1n the diftri€t of
Gap; 10 miles W. of Serres. The place contains goo,
and the canton 5024 inhabitants, on a territory of 195
kiliometres, in 11 communes.
ROZAS, Las, a town of Spain, in New Caftile; 10
miles N.W. of Madrid.
ROZE, Nicoras, in Biography, mufic-mafter of the
church of the Holy Innocents at Paris, was born at Bourg-
neuf, in the diocefe of Chalons-fur-Saéne, in 1745. At
feven years old he was received as a chorifter in the col-
legiate church of Beaune, in Burgundy. Soon after, he had
initruétions from the abbé Roufleau of Dijon, mufic-mafter
of Tournay. He had the misfortune to lofe this amiable
matter in two years time, who had taught him to fing feveral
motets or anthems in that fhort period. He was after-
wards a confiderable time totally without inftruétions. And
what was {till worfe, he was under the authority of perfons
who prevented him from attempting compofition.
The abbé Hornet, nephew tothe maitre de chapelle of
Notre-Dame, gave him leffons in finging, but he was abfo-
lutely forbidden compofition by this mafter, for fear his
application fhould injure the fine voice which nature had
given him. At twelve years old he again found himfelf
without an initruétor, and going to the college of Beaune
to
ROZ
to finifh his claffical ftudies, and afterwards to the feminary
of Autun, where, during two years’ refidence, he compofed
the chief part of the chants which at prefent are adopted
almoft throughout the diocefe.
At twenty-two years old he went into orders at Beaune.
In 1669, as foon as he was admitted into prieft’s orders,
he compofed a mafs, which he carried to Paris and prefented
- to M. d’Auvergne, mafter of the king’s band. This able
profeffor encouraged him to purfue tompofition, and made
him compofe under his own eye a motet for the Concert
Spirituel.
It was at this period that the abbé Roze began to make
himfelf known ; and this motet procured him the place of
maitre de chapelle of the cathedral of Angers, which he
retained five years.
In 1775 he was appointed to the Holy Innocents, and
from that time he has continued to furnifh the Concert
Spirituel with motets; and though his ftyle is modern, he
has never deviated from the grandeur and folemnity befitting
facred mufic.
The abbé Poze is one of the beft finging matters, in point
of tafte, at Paris. .
He has publifhed a fyftem of harmony, or accompani-
ment, in which he modeftly pretends to no more than to affift
the ftudents in harmony with methodical elementary prin-
ciples, fo clear, that children of eight years old fhall find
no difficulty in them. It often happens that able com-
pofers are unable to teach children the firft elements of
mufic for want of a well digeited method. This the abbé
Roze’s fyftem will be found, with refpe& to accompaniment.
He has traced the chords from the fundamenta! bafe or
key-note, through all the combinations of harmony allow-
able by ancient rules in one key. Laborde, 1788.
ROZESTVEN, in Geography, a town of Ruflia; 32
miles S. of Peterfburg. N. lat. 52°20'. E. long. 29° 50!.
ROZESTVENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk; 16 miles S.E. of Kemfkoi.—Alfo, a
town of Ruffia, in the government of Archangel, on the
Pinega; 4 miles S.E. a Pineg.
ROZETT, Cape, a cape on the weftern coaft of
France. _N. lat. 49° 28. W. long. 2°.
ROZIER, Francis, in Biography, an eminent writer in
economics, was born at Lyons in 1734. His father, who
was engaged in commerce, dying while he was young, and
without property, he entered into the ecclefiaitical order,
though his tafte led him to agricultural and botanical pur-
fuits. He obtained the place of direétor of the f{chool of
Lyons. In this fituation he joined La Tourette in pub-
lifhing, in 1766, “« Elementary Demontftrations of Botany,”
a work that paffed through many editions. In 1771 we
find him at Paris, where he began to publifh the ‘ Journal
de Phyfique et d’Hiftoire Naturelle,’ which was conduéted
a confiderable time with great reputation. In this work he
ave clear and interefting accounts of all new difcoveries
in pbyfics, chemiltry, and natural hiftory. Through the
recommendation of the king of Poland, he was prefented
to a valuable priory, when, being completely at his eafe,
he turned his attention to his favourite project of drawing
up a complete body of rural economy. He now pur-
chafed a domain at Beziers, in the fineft part of France,
and engaged atively in country labours, and at the fame
time employed himfelf in the abridgment of the great
works from which his compilation was to be formed. This
was at length finifhed, under the title of «* Cours d’Agri-
culture,” in 10 vols. 4to., of which the laft did not appear
till after the author’s death. In 1788 he went to Lyons,
and was admitted a member of the academy, while the
VoL. XXX.
RUA
government gave him the dire€tion of the nurfery ground
of the Generality. On the unfortunate revolution, Rozier
was one of its earlieft partizans, but without ever eatering
into its excefles. He was, however, one of its viétims ; in
September 1793, during the fiege of Lyons, a bomb falling
upon his bed, buried his body in the ruins of his houfe.
He was author, likewife, of feveral treatifes on the method
of making wines, and diftilling brandy, on the culture of
turnip and cole-feed, on oil-mills, and other machinery.
Rozier, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of
Canada, in the gulf of St. Lawrence; 9 miles W. of cape
Gafpe.
ROZIERES. See Rostrres.
ROZOY, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Coulommiers. The place contains 1507, and the canton
13,199 inhabitants, on a territory of 3124 kiliometres, in
28 communes.
Rozoy en Thierache, a town of France,
ment of the Aifne; 21 miles N.E. of Laon.
ROZVALINA, Toraaal, a town of Ruffian Tartary,
near lake Kargaldzin. N. lat. 52°44’. E. long. 68° 54’.
RSESCHOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ;
70 miles W. of ee
RUA, La, a town o
of Orenfe.
RUAD, Rovap, or Rou-Wadde, an ifland of the
Mediterranean, anciently celebrated under the name of
Aradus or Arad. N. lat. 34° 42', E. long. 35° 57/.
See ARAD.
RUADOK, or Ruiwaenpoe, a village of North Wales,
in the county of Merioneth, where a battle was fought
between the Welfh, under Llywarch Hen and the Saxons ;
2 miles E. of Bala.
RUALGO, a town of Italy, in the Cadorin; 4 miles
S. of Cadora.
RUANEL, a town of Ceylon; 38 miles S.S.W. of
Candy.
RUARUS, Marri, in Biography, was born at Krem-
pen, in Holftein, about the year 1587, and being defigned
for a Lutheran minifter, he was educated in the principles
profefled by the difciples of Luther. But at Altdorf he
became a convert to the Socinian doétrine, as taught in 2
private manner by profeffor Sonerus. When he was re-
proached and threatened by his family for deferting the
principles of his forefathers, he juftified his condu&t, and
defended the caufe of free inquiry in matters of religion.
Of his fincerity no doubt could be entertained, as he fub-
mitted to the lofs of his patrimony rather than make a
facrifice of what he confidered to be truth. He travelled
over the greater part of Europe, and acquired refpeé& and
efteem wherever he went, by his great learning and excellent
moral charaGter. He was offered fituations of truit and
honour in England and Silefia, but declined them all. At
length he became principal of the college of Racow in
Poland; after which, about the year 1635, he became
paftor to the Socinian church at Dantzic. In the year
1646, Calixtus ufed all his endeavours to bring him back
to his original principles, but without effe&. He died at
Dantzic in 1657, at the age of 70. He wrote notes on
the catechif{m of the Socinian churches in Poland, which
were added to the addition of that work printed in 1665.
Two volumes of his letters, each containing one hundred,
were publifhed after his death at Amfterdam. They are
faid to be curious and interefting, not enly as they throw
light on the hiftory of Socinianifm, but as they furnifh the
reader with yaluable literary anecdotes. Among the author’s
40 corre:
in the depart-
‘Spain, in Galicia; 25 miles N.E.
RUB
corref{pondents were father Merfenne, Hugo Grotius, and
De Bergius.
RUATUN, or Rattan, in Geography, an ifland in the
bay of Honduras, about 30 miles in length and 12 in
breadth, furrounded with rocks and fhoals ; with a harbour
capable of containing a large fleet of fhips. The English,
in the year 1742, formed a fettlement here for the purpofe
of carrying on the logwood trade, but it was foon abandoned.
N. lat. 16° 24/. W. long. 87° to’.
RUBASS, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Agra; 14 miles W. of Fattipour.
RUBBER, a large coarfe file.
Rosser of Pencil Strokes. See CAouTcHouc.
Russer, in EleGricity. See EvectricaL Machine.
Ruspers, among Shepherds, a difeafe in fheep. See
ScaB.
RUBBING-Post, a poft fet up for the purpoie of
cattle, hogs, or other animals, rubbing themfelves upon.
Mr. Marfhall, in his “* Rural Economy of Norfolk,’’ fays,
it is an excellent cuftom of the Norfolk farmer to ere&
rubbing-pofts in the different parts of the inclofure he is
feeding or teathing ; they keep the ftock from the fences,
and furnifh them, no doubt, with an agreeable, and. per-
haps a falutary, amufement. Some he faw draw the crown
of a tree, with the lower part of the boughs left on, into
the middle of the clofe: this is lefs trouble than putting
down a, poft, is eafily rolled out of the way of the plough,
and feems to. be ftill more agreeable to the cattle. They
are alfo ufeful in hog-fties. g
Thefe forts of pofts may probably be found of great
fervice in the feeding pafture, for the purpofe of the fatten-
ing ftock rubbing themfelves upon, as they tend to keep
them eafy and quiet, as well as to afford them that kind of
agreeable feeling which may be of utility in promoting their
progrefs towards a ftate of fatnefs.
RUBBIO, in Commerce, a meafure for corn in Italy,
containing 8 lappa, which are equal to 72 Englifh bufhels.
RUBBLE Srone, Grauwacke of Werner, Gres gris of
the French, is a particular kind of fand-ftone, containing
not only grains of quartz, filiceous {chiftus, or horn-ttone,
but alfo feraps of blueifh argillite in a clayey cement, of
which there is often no more than is barely fufficient to
hold the grains together, fometimes with and. fometimes
without mica; commonly compact, fometimes flaty in the
ofs. Its colour is yellowifh, or blueifh-grey, or dark
reddifh-brown mixed with grey. Fra€ture, in the fmall,
fine {plintery, or earthy ; hardnefs from 7 to g, rarely Io.
Sp. grav. from 2.64 to 2.685, but when withered only
2,60. See Tranfition Recks.
RUBECULA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Motactlla ;
which fee.
RUBEFACIENT, in Medicine, from rubor, rednefs;
and facie, I make, or produce, a term which is ufed to denote
thofe fubftances which, when applied externally, by fric-
tion or otherwife, excite the aCtion of the fuperficial veflels,
and, by filling them with red blood, occafion a fuffufion of
rednefs in the part.
The operation of a rubefacient is, therefore, analogous to
that of a blifter, but confiderably lefs efficient as a remedy ;
fince it produces, in fa&, but a {mall degree of the incipient
effet of a blifter, viz. a very flight and fuperficial diftenfion
of the blood-vellels, fcarcely amounting to inflammation.
Rubefacients. are employed under the fame indications as
blifters, and are intended, like them, to relieve fome internal
pain or inflammation, by exciting a counter-irritation, or,
as'fome explain it, by revulfion; i.e. by drawing the fluids
from the difeafed to the external parts. The Prdlions by
RUB
means of which the rubefacient is ufually applied, contri-
butes alfo to the fame effe@.
The fubftances, by which this effect is produced, are of
an acrid or itimulating nature, fuch as ammonia, turpentine,
camphor, vinegar, the effential oils, fpirits, &c.: and the
difeafes, which they are ordinarily ufed to relieve, are the
flighter degrees of local internal inflammation. Thus, for
the relief of a flight fore-throat, or inflammation of the
tonfils, it is cuftomary to rub the front of the neck with hot
vinegar, or ammonia and oil; and the more external rednefs
it produces, the more effectual is the internal relief. Slight
pains in the cheft are often materially alleviated by the ufe of
a warm liniment or platter, or by the ufe of the ointment of
tartarized antimony, which excites not only rednefs, but
puftules. And rheumatic affeGtions of the joints are often
more effectually removed by fri€tion with a rubefacient, than
by any other means. See REVULsIoN.
RUBELLIO, in Jchthyology, a name given by fome au-
thors to a {mall fea-fifh of a red colour, caught in the Me-
diterranean, and more ufually called by writers on thefe fub-
jects the erythrinus.
RUBELLITE, in Mineralogy, is confidered as a fub-
fpecies of tourmaline, of a reddifh-violet colour. It differs
from tourmaline, .being infufible under the blowpipe, but it
lofes its colour and tranfparency. Its {pecific gravity is 3.1.
It contains, according to Klaproth,
Silex < = 43.5
Alumine - - 42.25
Soda - eS 9
Oxyd of iron and manganefe 1.5
A fpecimen analyfed by Vauquelin gave 7 parts in the
100 of oxyd of iron and manganefe. This itone is fome-
times ufed in jewellery. In the Greville colle€tion of mine-
rals in the Britifh Mufeum, there is a magnificent fpecimen
of the red rubellite, originally prefented to Col. Symes by
the king of Ava. It has been valued at. ro0o/.
RUBELLUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome
authors to the common roach, and by others to the rudd
or finfcale.
RUBENACH, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhine and Mofelle, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrit of Coblentz. The place contains 567,
and the canton 6935 inhabitants, in 19 communes.
RUBENS, Sir Peter Pav, in Biography. This moft
fingularly accomplifhed man, and extraordinary painter, was
the fon of John Rubens and Mary Pipelings, both defcend-
ants of diftinguifhed families of the city of Antwerp. His
father was one of the principal magiftrates of that place,
when civil war defolated. Flanders; and its calamities ap-
proaching the precinéts of his abode, he left it for Cologne,
in which city our artift was born in 1577. The day of his
nativity was the feaft of St. Peter and St. Paul, and from
thence he received, at the baptifmal font, the names of thefe
apoftles. From his infancy he difcovered prompt and lively
talents, which were cultivated by his parents with great care,
in every branch of polite and claffical literature; and he
amply repaid their care by the high degree of fuccefs he
attained.
The views of his parents were otherwife direfted than
to the arts, and Rubens was placed, when his education was
completed, as a page to the countefs of Lalain; a fitua-
tion too humble, and attended with occupation too trivial,
to engage or detain long, in its obfequious frivolities, fuch
amind as he poffeffed : and on the death of his father, which
happened foon after, he obtained permiffion of his mother
to purfue the bent of his inclination, and became a pane
°
RUBENS.
To forward this view, he placed himfelf as a difciple of
Tobias Verhaecht,.a landfcape painter of fome note, but
foon left him, to ftudy hiftory painting under Adam Van
Oort. As the vulgar and brutal deportment of that artift
were little congenial to the elevated and gentle mind and dif-
pofition of Rubens, he foon quitted him alfo, and then en-
tered the fchool of Otho Venius, who poffeffed aoe
both as a man and an artift, far more fuited to his tafte ;. and
he became attached to this his lait preceptor, in the warmett
and mott refpectful degree.
When Rubens had attained his twenty-third year, Otho
had the candour to tell him that he could no farther promote
his progrefs ; and advifed him to travel to Italy, and gather
the rich fruit of higher cultivation in art, at that rich ttore-
houfe and fertile nurfery of tafte and talent. This wife and
parental advice of his mafter correfponded fo entirely with
his own inclination, that he immediately prepared for the
journey ; and having received ftrong recommendatory letters
from the archduke Albert, governor of the Netherlands,
to Vincenzio Gonzaga, duke of Mantua, he fet forth for
Italy.
Bisvoting a fhort time to the examination of the fine
works at Venice, he proceeded to Mantua, where he received
moft marked attention from the duke, who was no lefs
pleafed with his polite accomplifhments, than with his fkill as
an artift, and foon after appointed him one of the Cee
men of his chamber. His refidence with this prince afforded
him every defirable means of feeing and ftudying the great
works of Giulio Romano, in the palace del T, with which
he is faid to have been peculiarly delighted ; and he had con-
tinued with him two years, when he requefted permiffion to
o to Venice, the empire of colouring, for the purpofe of
itudying ftill farther the works of Titian and others, which
had fo much engaged his attention as he paffed through that
city. On his return to Mantua he evinced how much he
had benefited by ftudying the rich and brilliant produ€tions
of the Venetian fchool, in the three magnificent pictures he
painted for the church of the Jefuits; which, in bravura of
execution, and freedom of force in effe@, rank nearly among
his bett produétions. His patron afterwards gave him a
commiffion, which afforded him the means of purfuing his
itudies at Rome, where he had not yet been, which was to
make copies for him of fome of the moft celebrated pictures
there, and he received it with gratitude and delight. Dur-
ing his refidence there he executed feveral of thefe tran-
{cripts with uncommon fuccefs, and they were efteemed by
the duke almott equal in value with the originals.
In 1605, Rubens was honoured by his friend with another
commiffion, which {till further affifted to advance his know-
ledge of the art, whilit it ferved the views of the prince.
He was fent on an embafly from Mantua to the court’ of
Spain, and went to Madrid, carrying with him magnificent
prefents for the duke of Lerma, the favourite of Philip III.
He executed his miffion with the fuccefs which attends abi-
lity and integrity ; and while intent upon the political part
of his employment, did not negle& to employ his piftorial
talents with full power, gaining the efteem and admira-
tion of the king of Spain, whofe portrait he painted,
and from whom he received the moft flattering marks of
approbation.
Soon after his return to Mantua, he revifited Rome,
where he was engaged to adorn the tribune of Sta. Maria,
in Valticella; there he painted three admirable pictures, in
which he appears to have imitated the ftyle of P. Veronefe.
From Rome he went to Genoa, where the reputation he
had acquired greatly excited public curiofity, and he was
engaged to paint many pictures. Among them he executed
two for the church of the Jefuits, the fubjets of whick
were, the Crucifixion, and St. Ignatius performing a mi-
racle, which gave univerfal {atisfaGtion and delight.
Having been abfent from his native country eight years, he
was fummoned home by the reported illnefs of This mother 5
but though he haftened with all {peed, he did not reach An-
twerp in time to afford his beloved parent the confolations
of his prefence and affe€tions. The lofs of her affedted
him deeply, and he intended, when he had arranged his pri+
vate affairs, to go and refide in Italy; but the archduke
Albert, and the Infanta Ifabella, exerted their intereft to
retain him in Flanders, and in their fervice. He confe-
quently eftablifhed himfelf at Antwerp, where he married
his firft wife, Elizabeth Brants, and built a magnificent
houfe, with a faloon in form of a rotunda, which he enriched
with antique ftatues, bufts, vafes, and pi€tures by the moft
celebrated painters: and here, furrounded by works of art,
he carried into execution thofe numberlefs produGtions of his
prolific and rich invention, which once adorned his native
country, but now are become the fpoil of war, and the
tokens of conqueft and ambition, fhining with equal luftre
among other fuper-eminent produétions of painting in the
gallery of the Louvre.
The amazing fuccefs of Rubens in his art, and the
honours and wealth which were accumulated upon him, ex-
cited the envy and malignity of many among his rivals, who
afcribed the moft meritorious parts of his works to the
ability of his pupils, among whom were Jordaens, Van
Uden, Snyders, Wilden, &c. and forgetting that fuch men
would not confent to work for another whom they did not
regard as pre-eminent to themfelves. Cornelius Schut abufed
him for lack of invention. Abraham Janfens had the au-
dacity to defy him to a trial of ftrength. Rubens anfwered,
that he would contend with him when he had fhewn himfelf
to be a worthy competitor. A more friendly offer was re-
jected by him with equal wit. A chemift offered him a
fhare of his laboratory, and of his hopes of obtaining the
philofopher’s ftone. He carried the vifionary into his paint-
ing room, and told him his offer came twenty years too late,
for fo long, faid he, is it fince I found the art of making
gold with my palette and pencils.. The abufe of Schut and
of Rombouts, who joined in it, he anfwered by relieving
their neceffities, and procuring them employment ; and by
engaging m thofe varieties of art, landfcapes, lion and cro-
codile-hunting, and other mifcellaneous fubjeGts, he decidedly
eftablifhed his claim to the title of an univerfal painter, and
covered his calumniators with fhame and confufion.
In 1620, when his talents had procured him univerfal
renown, he received a commiffion from Mary de Medici
to adorn the gallery of the palace of the Luxembourg.
There, in Malanencs, he executed the works fo well
known; in which he reprefented, with the moft rich and
varied imagination, by very ingenious allegorical and em-
blematical defigns, the principal events in the life of that
princefs. The whole were executed at Antwerp, except
two pictures, which he painted at Paris in 1623, when
he went there to arrange the whole in the gallery: and
thus, in the fhort fpace of three years, amidit innumerable
other engagements, was this large feries of compofitions,
extenfive in their defign, and rich in number of figures and
in variety of colouring, completed: exhibiting an aitonifh-
ing proof of the vivacity of his imagination, and the fkill
and dexterity with which he controlled the materials of his
art. It was at this period that he became known to the
duke of Buckingham, as that nobleman pafled with his
matter, prince Charles, through France on his way to
Madrid. He afterwards became the purchafer of Rubens’s
402 rich
RUBENS.
nich mufeum of works of art, for which he is faid to have
given 10,000). fterling.
On the return of Rubens to Antwerp, he was honoured
with feveral conferences with the Infanta Ifabella, and was by
her difpatched on a political miffion to the court of Madrid,
where he arrived in 1628, and was moft gracioufly received
by Philip IV. He acquitted himfelf in his novel capacity
to the fatisfa€tion of that monarch, and his_minifter, the
duke de Olivares, by both of whom he was highly efteemed ;
and while his talents as a diplomatift met with the fuccefs
they merited, thofe of the painter were not neglected.
The duke de Olivares had juft completed the foundation
of aconvent of Carmelites at the fmall town of Loeches,
near Madrid, and the king, as a mark of his favour to the
minifter, commiffioned Rubens to paint four pictures for
their church, which he executed in his grandeft ftyle, and
the richeft glow of his colouring. The firft is an alle-
gorical defign of the triumph of the new Law, which he
has perfonified by a figure of Religion, feated on a fuperb
triumphal car, drawn by four angels, with others bear-
ing the crofs, with charaGteriftic fymbols; four figures,
expreffive of Infidelity or Ignorance, over which Religion
is f{uppofed to triumph, follow the car like flaves or cap-
tives bound in chains. The group is crowned with beau-
tiful cherubims, that hover in the air with chaplets in their
hands, difpofed with fingular art andthe mott charming effect.
The companion picture reprefents the interview of Abra-
ham and Melchifedech, who offers him bread and the tenth
of his fpoils. The other two pictures, of equal excellence
with the above, reprefent the four doétors of the church,
and the four evangelifts, with their diftin@ive emblems:
they are all of very large dimenfions, and in compofition
and expreffion are not excelled by any of his works. He
alfo painted eight grand pi€tures for the great faloon of
the palace at Madrid, which are regarded among the moft
brilliant of his produétions. Their fubjeéts were the Rape
of the Sabines ; the battle between the Romans and Sabines ;
the Bath of Diana, Perfeus, and Andromeda; the Rape
of Helen; the Judgment of Paris, Juno, Minerva, and
Venus ; and the Triumph of Bacchus. He alfo painted a
large portrait of the king on horfeback, with other figures ;
and a picture of the martyrdom of the apoftle St. Andrew,
which was in the church dedicated to that faint. For thefe
extraordinary produétions he was richly rewarded, received
the honour of knighthood, and was prefented with the
golden key as gentleman of the chamber to the king. In
1629 he returned to Flanders, and thus, in the fhort {pace
of little more than nine months, he defigned and executed
fo extenfive a feries of piCtures; a labour which, to any
other artift not poffefled of his extraordinary powers, mult
have required the exertion of many years. When he had
rendered the account of his miffion to the Infanta, fhe dif-
patched. him to England, to found the difpofition of the
government on the fubje€t of a peace. There for a time
he concealed the pewers granted to him to negociate upon
the fubje&. Charles, in the interim, honoured this great
painter with his notice, and commiffioned him to paint the
ceiling of the banqueting-houfe at Whitehall, where he has
reprefented the apotheofis of king James I.
During one of the frequent vifits with which Charles
honoured Rubens, whilft he was engaged in this great work,
the latter, with infinite addrefs, took a favourable oppor-
tunity of touching on the fubje& of peace with Spain;
and finding that the monarch was no ways averfe to it, at
length produced the credentials with which he was fur-
nifhed. Tbe king appointed fome members of the council
ge negociate with him; and the bufinefs was {peedily
by
brought to a conclufion. Charles, delighted both with
the man and the artift, munificently rewarded Rubens, and
on the 21ft of February 1630, conferred upon him the
honour of knighthood. Soon afterwards, the important
object of his miffion being happily effeéted, he returned to
the Netherlands, where he was received with all the honours
and diltinétions due to exalted merit.
Rubens continued to enjoy his well-earned fame and
honours, with uninterrupted fuccefs, till he arrived at his
58th year, when he was attacked with ftrong fits of gout,
which debilitated his frame, and unfitted him for great ex-
ertions: he abandoned, therefore, all larger works, and
confined himfelf to eafel painting. Yet he continued to
exercife his art until the year 1640, when he died, at the
age of 63. He was buried, with extraordinary pomp, in
the church of St. James at Antwerp, under the altar of
his private chapel, which he had previoufly decorated with
a very fine picture. A monument was ere¢ted to him by
his wife and children, with an epitaph in Latin, eulogizing
his talents and virtues, and difplaying their fuccefs.
The victorious yet barbarous irruption of the French re-
publicans into the Netherlands, robbed Flanders generally,
and no place. more than Antwerp, of the fine hiftorical
works of Rubens, of which at this period the gallery of
the Louvre exhibits a moft aftonifhing difplay ; no lefs
than fifty-two of his pictures, and among them feveral of
the higheft quality, being now expofed to view there. It
is difficult to fay which branch of the art molt fuccefsfully
employed his talents, in hiftory, portraiture, animals, land-
{cape, or ftill life: in all, his brilliancy of imagination, and
wonderful fkill in execution, are equally apparent. From
his birth he had evinced a lively and uncommon portion
of genius, which met the advantages furnifhed to him in his
progrefs through life, with an ardour and fuccefs of which
hiftory {carcely affords a parallel. Both the number and
merit of the works of Rubens are calculated to excite ex-
traordinary attention. His fame is extended over a large
part of the continent, and it may be truly faid, that he has
enriched his country, not only by the magnificent examples
of art which he left, but alfo by what fome may deem
a more folid advantage, the wealth which continued tilk
lately to be drawn into it, by the concourfe of itrangers
from all parts of the world to view them.
Rubens is not one of thofe regular and timid compofers,
who efcape cenfure and deferve no praife. He produced
no faultlefs monfters; his works abound with defects as
well as beauties, and are liable, by their daring excentrici-
ties, to provoke much criticifm. But they have, neverthe-
lefs, that peculiar property, always the companion of true
genius, that which feizes on the {peétator, commands atten-
tion, and enforces admiration, in {pite of all their faults. His
produétions feem to have flowed from his pencil with more
than freedom—with prodigality : his mind appears to have
been inexhauttible ; his hand never wearied: the exuberant
fertility of his imagination was, therefore, always accom-
panied by a correfpondent fpirit in the execution of his
work.
“ Led by fome rule, which guides but not conftrains,
He finifhed more through happinefs than pains.”? _
No man ever more completely laid the reins on the neck
of his inclinations, no man ever more fearlefsly abandoned
himfelf to his own fenfations, and depending on them, dared
to attempt’ extraordinary things, than Rubens. ‘To this,
in a great meafure, muft be» attributed that perfeét ori-
ginality of manner, by which the limits of the art may be
faid to have been extended. Endowed with a full com-
prehenfion
RUB
prehenfion of his own charaéter, he waited not a moment
for the acquifition of what he perhaps deemed incompatible
excellence: his theory once formed, he {feldom looked
abroad for affiltance; there is confequently in his works
very little that appears to be taken from other matters, and
if he has occafionally ftolen any thing, he has fo well digefted
.and adapted it to the reft of his compofition, that the
theft is not difcoverable. But though it. muft be allowed
that he poffeffed, in many refpeéts, the true art of imitation,
though he looked at nature with a painter’s eye, and faw
at once the charatteriftic feature by which every object is
diftinguifhed, and rendered it on canvas with a vivacity ef
touch truly aftonifhing ; though his powers of grouping and
combining his objeéts into a whole, and forming his mafles
of light and fhadow and colour have never been equalled ;
and though the general animation and energy of his at-
titudes, and the flowing liberty of his outline, all contri-
bute to arreft the attention, and infpire a portion of that
enthufiafm by which the painter was abforbed and carried
away ; yet the {peGtator will at laft awake from his trance,
his eyes will ceale to be dazzled, and then he will not fail
to lament, that fuch extraordinary powers were fo often
mifapplied, if not entirely caft away: he will enquire, why
Ruben3 was content to waite fo many requifites to the
perfeétion of the art? why he paid no greater attention to
elegance and correétnefs of form, to grace, to beauty, dig-
nity, and propriety of character?) Why every fubje&, of
whatever clafs, is equally adorned with the gay colours of
{pring, andevery figure in his compofitions indifcriminately
fed on rofes. Nor will he be fatisfied with the ingenious,
but furely unfounded apology, that thefe faults harmonize
with his flyle, and were neceflary to its complete uniformity,
that his tafte in defign appears to correfpond better with
his colouring and compofition, than if he had adopted a
more correét and refined ftyle of drawing ; and that per-
haps, in painting, as in perfonal attra¢tions, there is a
certain agreement and corref{pordence of parts in the whole
together, which is often more captivating than more regular
beauty.
The redemption of what he wanted, is found in the uni-
verfality of his power as an executive painter. In the
fmalleft fketch, the lightnefs and tranfparency of his touch
and colour, are no lefs remarkable than the {weeping rapidity
and force of his brufh in his largeft works: and in all kinds
of fubjeéts, he equally keeps up his wonted fuperiority.
His animals, particularly his lions and horfes, are fo ad-
mirable, that it may be faid they were never properly, at
leaft poetically, painted, but by him ; his partraits rank with
the beft works of thofe painters who have made that branch
of art their fole ftudy ; and-his landfcapes remind us of the
luftre of Claude Lorraine and the grandeur of Titian. -In
the latter clafs of his works, thé pictwrefque forms of his
rocks and trees, the deep tones in his fhady glades and glooms,
the watery funfhine, the dewy verdure, the airinefs and
facility of his touch, exhibit a charm, and fhew a variety of
invention, which fafcinate the obferver, and leave him no in-
clination to dwell on the defeéts, though they are often nei-
ther few nor {mall.
As a colourift, Rubens, in comparifon with Titian, the
great matter of the Venetian fchool, will rife or fall, ac-
cording to the tafte of the amateur. If he is lefs chafte than
the Venetian, he is more brilliant ; and if not by the truth
of his colours, yet he claims our applaufe by the luftre and
{plendour of his tints. The latter, in his execution, min-
gled his hues as they are found in nature, in fuch a manner
as to make it impoflible to fay where they begin or termi-
mate; Rubens, on the other hauad, laid his colours in their
UAB
places, one by-the fide of the other, and then very flightly
mixed them by a touch of a foft pencil; not unfrequently
leaving his prepared ground vifible through parts of the
colours, to produce an harmonizing tone. OF thefe different
ftyles, the only correé&t mode of judging is by reference to
the fpecific obje& of art, the imitation of nature, and then Ti-
tian’s will be regarded as the moft correct, though Rubens
may be more alluring.
Rusens, Atsert, fon of Peter Paul, was born at
Antwerp in 1614, and fucceeded his father in his pott as
fecretary to the council, devoting his leifure to literary pur-
fuits. He died in 1657, leaving behind him many works,
as monuments of his great learning and found judgment, of
which the following may be mentioned. ‘ Regum et Im-
peratorum Romanorum Numifmata,”’ which is a commen-
tary on the medals of the duke of Arfchot: De Re
Vettiaria Veterum:’’ ‘ Diflertatio de Gemma Tiberiana
et Auguftea—de Urbibus Neocoris—de natali Die Czfaris
Augutti,”’ which were publifhed by Grevius in the The-
faurus Antiq. Roman.
RUBENTIA, in Botany, fo called by Commerfon,
from the vernacular name of the tree in the Mauritius, Bois
Rouge; fee ELtmopenpruM. See alfo Ruamnus penta-
phyllus, where we ought to have obferved that the plant of
Desfontaines and Beccone is very different from Eleodendrum
Argan, to which the fynonyms of Linnezus and Jacquin
moit probably belong, as cited in our vol. 12th. ;
RUBEOLA, the diminutive of Rubia; Tourn. Init.
130. t. 50. See AspERULA and CRUCIANELLA.
RUBETA, or Toap, in Zoology, a {pecies of Rana;
which fee.
RUBETRA, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Motacilla;
which fee. It is alfo a name by which Gefner and fome
others have called that fpecies of the cenanthe, commonly
known by the names of the /lone-chatter, flone-/mick, or moor-
titling. (See Moracitia Rubicola.) Other fpecies of Mota-
cilla are alfo called by the fame name. See alfo Muscicapa
and Pipra.
RUBIA, in Botany, derived from ruber, red, on account
of the fine fearlet colour afforded by its root ; which is well
known to dyers ayd tanners under the name of Madder.—
Linn. Gen. 52. Schreb. 69. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 603.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 181. Prodr. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 97. Ait. Hort. Kew. v..1. 242.
Juff, Gen. 197.. Tournef. t. 38. Michaux Boreal-Amer.
v. 1. 81. Purh v. 1. 102. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 60.—
Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellate,
Linn. Rubiaceae, Juil.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, four-
toothed, very {mall, or none. Cor. of one petal, bell-
fhaped, four-toothed, or more frequently five-cleft, without
a tube. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, fhorter than
the corolla; anthers fimple. Pi. Germer inferior, twin ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, cloven at the top; fligmas two, capi-
tate. Peric. Two f{mooth berries united into one. Seeds
folitary, roundifh, umbilicated.
Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, bell-fhaped, fuperior.
Berries two, combined, each with a fingle feed.
1. R. tinforum. Dyer’s Madder. Linn. Sp. Pl. 158.
Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 141. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 68.
—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, annual, about fix in a whorl,
rough at the keel. Stem prickly.—Native of the fouth of
Europe, flowering in June. Roof perennial, widely fpread-
ing, much divided and branched at the top, fucculent, its
bark principally affording a fcarlet dye. Stems herbaceous,
annual, decumbent, widely {preading, branched, leafy, ob-
tufely quadrangular, prickly, with little hooks at the eR
gles
RUBIA.
eles. Leaves {preading, acute, an inch and half long,
roughifh above, narrowed at the bafe into a fhort, broad
foorltalk ; at the margin and back of the rib rough with
{pines, which for the moft part point backwards, but in a
contrary way towards the tip. Flowers yellawifh-green, in
axillary, terminal, trichotomous, leafy or braéteated, rough
anicles, longer than the leaves. Berries dark-purple.
The cultivation of this ufeful plant in Great Britain by no
means keeps pace with the demand for it. That grown in
Holland is the moft efteemed by our dyers and calico-
printers. Dr. Sibthorp tells us it is much cultivated in the
neighbourhood of Athens.—Madder has the property of
tinging, with its bright colour, not only the milk, but
‘even the bones of fuch animals as feed upon it.
2. R.chilenfis. Chili Madder. Willd. n. 2. « Molina
Nat. Hitt. Chili. 118.’? (Rubiaftrum, Cruciate folio et
facie, vulgo Relbun; Feuillée Peruv. 60. t. 45.)—Leaves
annual, four ia awhorl. Stalks axillary, folitary, fingle-
flowered. Stem f{mooth.—Native of Chili, on mountains.
Root perennial, much divided and f{preading, affording a
dye like the lait. Stems rouad, flender, fomewhat creeping.
Leaves ovate, four together, forming a crofs,.rough and
fticking to the clothes. F/owers axillary, folitary, {talked,
white. Berries roundifh, red.
3. R. peregrina. Wild Englifh Madder. Linn. Sp. Pl.
158. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 851.—Leaves about
four in a whorl, elliptical; fhining and fmooth on their
upper fide. Flowers five-cleft. Not uncommon in the
fouth-weft of England, among bufhes, on a rich loamy
foil, flowering in July, and ripening its berries about OGo-
ber.—Root perennial, red, or orange-coloured. Stems
branched, diffufe, f{quare, rough at the angles, perennial.
Leaves four, rarely fix together, evergreen, pointed, rough,
with teeth at the margin, and nerves on the under fide.
Flowers in forked panicles, terminal, yellowifh, always
five-cleft and pentandrous, without a calyx. Berries black,
one of them generally abortive.
It is remarked in the Flora Britannica, that Rubia, n. 708
of Haller, which has been confounded with this fpecies,
is unqueftionably R. tiaGorum of Linneus, having. ovato-
lanceolate /eaves, rough on the upper fide, and flowers
which are moftly four-cleft, deftitute of a calyx.
R. ducida. Shining-leaved Madder. Linn. Syft.
Nat. ed. 12. v. 2.732. Willd. n. 4. Sm. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. t. 142.—Leaves elliptical, evergreen, fix in a whorl,
fmooth at the keel. Stem without prickles. Native of
Majorca, and the iflands of Zante and Cyprus. It flowers
in July. Roof perennial, branched, much divided at the
crown. Stems rather fhrubby, a little fpreading, much
branched, unarmed, clothed with roughifh down; jointed,
roundifh, leaflefs and grey in the lower part; leafy and
fquare inthe upper. Leaves fpreading, recurved, half an
inch long, feffile, pointed, {mooth on both fides, thickened
at the margin, rough with {pines pointing forwards.
Flowering in axillary, numerous, trichotomous panicles, of
a yellowifh-green.
g. R. fruticofa. Prickly-leaved Madder. Willd. n. 5.
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 25.—Leaves evergreen, elliptical, cari-
nated; prickly at the margin. Stem fhrubby, rough.—
Native of the Canary iflands, and flowering at Kew in Sep-
tember.—Stem woody, round, much branched, of a greyith-
brown colour ; the younger dranches angular, very rough,
green. eaves from three to feven together, {mooth, ex-
cept at the edges and back of therib. #Yowers on axillary,
fhort ftalks, folitary or three together, pale yellow. Ber-
vies roundifh, black, with purple pulp.
6. R. anguftifolia. Narrow-leaved Madder. Linn.
Mant. 39. Willd. n. 6,—lLeaves evergreen, linear, {mooth
on the upper fide.—Native of Minorca, and introduced at
Kew, in 1772, by M. Richard, where it flowers in July and
Augult.—Stems diffule, very rough, {quare. Leaves four
or fix in a whorl, linear, acute, their keel and margin
fringed with {mall prickles, and rugged along the rib of the
upper furface. flowers yellow, flat, five-cleft.
7. R. cordifolia. Heart-leaved Madder. Linn. Mant.
197- “ Pallas. It. v. 3.715. t. Le f.'1.2 (R. cordata ;
Thunb, Japon. 60,)—Leaves perennial, four in a whorl,
heart-fhaped.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, Siberia,
China, and Japan ; flowering at Kewin July.—Whole herd dif-
fufe, or flightly climbing. Svem {quare, branched, with
recurved prickles at the angles. Leaves four, rarely fix,
together, ovate, acute, revolute at the edge, rugged all
over and. dotted, on quadrangular ftalks. //owers white,
in {preading, axillary, terminal panicles. Thunberg in-
forms us that this {pecies is ufed in Japan for dyeing.
8. R. Brownei. Brownean Madder. ‘ Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. 1. 81. Purfh 102. (R. peregrina; Walt. FI.
Carol. 86.—R. fubhirfuta feandens vel reclinata, foliis cru-
ciatis floribus fingularibus ad alas ; Brown Jam. 141.—Va-
lantia hypocarpa; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1491.)—Leaves four ina
whorl, oval. Flowers on ftalks, folitary.—Found in fhady
woods from Carolina to Florida, and on the cool mountains
of Jamaica. Stem herbaceous, from one to three feet high,
loofe, branched, grooved, rugged. Leaves fefiile, fmall, entire,
convex, hifpid with hairs, on fhort downy ftalks. Flowers
axillary, {mall, yellow, like thofe of a Galium. Berries
minute, tawny, or purplifh, fingle-feeded.
Rusia, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies motftly
cultivated is the dyer’s madder (R. tin€torum).
It may be noticed, that madder is fo eflential to dyers and
calico-printers, that thefe bufinefles cannet be carried on
without it.
Method of Culture.—The young plants of this kind are
increafed by off-sets or fuckers, from the roots of the old
plants in the {pring, as April or the following month; which
fhould be flipped off foon after they appear above ground,
by opening the earth round the roots, and taking off the
fide fuckers with as much root-part and fibres to each as
poffible, preferving the tops entire ; which fhould be planted
directly, in the manner direéted below. The ground being
well prepared by frequent deep ploughing, or trenching
over, and the proper quantity of fets or fuckers provided,
they fhould, with a dibble, be planted in rows two feet
afunder, and one diftant in the row, putting each plant low
enough in proportion to the length of its root, leaving moit
of the green top out of the ground, and clofing the earth
well about each fet, asthe work proceeds. Some {et thefe
plants in beds, three rows length-ways, at two feet diftance,
with wide alleys between bed and bed, in order for landing
up the crowns of the roots two or three inches deep in winter.
They fhoot up into italks the fame year in either mode, but
the roots require two or three years’ growth before they are
large enough for ufe; during which period they fhould be
kept clean from weeds all the fummer by broad-hoeing, in
dry weather ; and in autumn,when the ftalks decay, cutting
them down, and then flightly digging the ground between
the rows, raifing it fomewhat ridge-ways along the rows of
the plants, an inch or two thick over their crowns; or, if
they are in beds; they may be landed up from the alleys to
the fame depth; the fame culture being repeated till the
autumn of the third year, when the roots will be fit for
taking up for ufe. This is performed by trenching the
ground the way of the rows, beginning at one end of ©
an
RUB
and opening a two-feet-wide trench clofe along by the firit
row of plants, digging down to the depth of the roots to
get them clean out to the bottom; then opening another
trench clofe to the next row, turning the earth into the firtt ;
and fo on, trench and trench, till the whole is taken up and
removed.
It is found that, in the garden culture, thefe plants fucceed
beft in a light rich deep foil ; the roots are fometimes ufed
frefh for dyeing, being prepared by wafhing and pounding ;
but commonly when Shield for keeping, or to be fent to
a diftance, are dried in fome covered airy fhed; then all the
mould being rubbed off, andthe roots made fufficiently dry,
are fold to thofe wha manufaéture them for ufe, if not per-
formed by the cultivator ; this confifts in drying them in a
kiln or fome ftove-houfe, &c. then thrafhing them to beat off
the outer fkin, in order to feparate it from the inner part of
the root, as being of an inferior quality. The roots being
then dried in a kiln about twenty-four hours, are removed to
a mill or pounding-houfe, where they are pounded in a long
hollow oaken block, with ftampers kept in motion by the
mill; and when thus reduced to powder, fifted, and put in
cafks, as may be more fully feen under the head Mapper, in
Agriculture.
But thefe plants are fometimes employed for variety in the
borders or other open parts of gardens or pleafure-grounds,
when of large extent.
Rupr, inthe Materia Medica, &c. See MAppER.
Rusia, in Geography, a town of Auttria, in the county
of Goritz, on the Vipao; four miles S.E. of Goritz.
RUBIACE&, in Botany, one of Juffieu’s largeft and
moft important natural orders of plants, which has grown
out of the Linnzan Sre//ute, and is named from Rubia, a
genus belonging to the latter. Linnzus, in fubordinate
fe@tions of his Stellate, has indicated fome genera, as akin
to what more {triétly appeared to him to conftitute that order.
But his ideas wandered between this tribe and the Contorte,
to which laft he referred fome genuine Rubiaceae ; as Cinchona
and Gardenia. Juffieu, taking a more accurate and com-
prehenfive view of the fubject, has greatly extended the
order, while he has, at the fame time, better defined it than
any preceding botanift. This order is the 57th of his feries,
the 2dof his 11thclafs. We referthe reader to Drpsacem®
for the charaéters of that clafs. Cotyledons two. Flowers
monopetalous, fuperior. dnthers diltinét; &c. The order
of Rubiacee is thus defined. _
Calyx of one leaf, fuperior, fimple; its limb divided,
or occafionally undivided. Corolla regular, moftly tubular,
with a divided limb. Stamens definite, four or five, feldom
more, inferted into the tube of the corolla, alternate with
its fegments, and equal to them in number. Germen in-
ferior ; ftyle one, very rarely double; ftigma generally
double. Fruit in fome cafes of two lobes, or grains, each
lobe fingle-feeded, not burfting, but having the appearance
of a naked feed; in othersa fimple capfular or pulpy fruit,
often of two cells, in each of which the feeds are either fo-
litary or numerous ; in a few inftances there is but one cell,
in fome others many ; the fruit, of whatever defcription, is
either crowned with the permanent limb of the calyx, or
marked with arim, or fear, where the latter had been. The
corculum is oblong, flender, inclofed in a large, horny, lateral
albumen. Stem herbaceous, fhrubby, or arboreous. Leaves
in a few initances whorled, in moft oppofite, their foot/alks
generally conneéted at the bafe, through the medium of a
limple pair of /ipulas, or fometimes a fringed kind of fheath,
embracing the ftem or branch. Plants of this order are
readily known, even without flowers, by their /eaves or
RUB
Jfipulas. The fhrubby and arborefcent kinds are principally
natives of tropical climates, where they greatly abound.
SeGtion 1. Fruit two-lobed, with two feeds. Stamens
generally four. Leaves moftly whorled; {tem almoft uni-
formly herbaceous.
Sherardia, Afperula, Galium, Crucianella, Valantia, Rubia,
and Anthofpermum.
Seét. 2. Fruit two-lobed, with two feeds. Stamens four,
rarely five or fix. Leaves mottly oppofite, conneéted by 2
fringed fheath ; {temin general herbaceous.
Houftonia, Knoxia, Spermacoce, Diodia, Galopina, Richardia,
and Phyllis.
Se&t. 3. Fruit fimple, with two cells, and many feeds.
Stamens four. Leaves oppolite. Stem either herbaceous or
fhrubby. Hedyotis ; Oldenlandia of Plumier and Linnzus,
which is not diftinét from Hedyotis, as we have fhewn in its
proper place ; Carphalea of Juffieu, Lamarck Illuttr. t. 59; °
Coccocypfelum of Browne and Schreber ; Gomozia; Manettia
of Linneus, for which Juffieu prefers Aublet’s name Na-
cibea ; Tontanea of Aublet, fuppofed to be Schreber’s Bel-
lardia ; Petefia of Browne and Linneus; Fernelia of Com-
merfon, Lamarck Illuftr. t. 67; and Catefbea.
Se&t. 4. Fruit fimple, with two cells, and many feeds.
Stamens five. Leaves oppofite ; ftem often fhrubby.
Randia, which is a Gardenia; Bellonia; Vire@a; Ma-
crocnemum; Bertiera of Aublet and Schreber ; Dentella of
Forfter ; Muffenda; Cinchona; Tocoyena of Aublet, La-
marck Illuttr. t. 163 ;. Pofoqueria of the fame authors,
which is Cyrtanthus of Schreber; Rondeletia ; Genipa of
Plumier and Linnzus, which is a Gardenia; Gardenia ; and
Portlandia.
Se&. 5. Fruit fimple, with tao cells, and many feeds.
Stamens fix, or more. Leaves oppofite; {tem fhrubby or
arboreous.
Coutarea of Aublet, which is Portlandia hexandra of
Linneus; ffillia; and Durota.
Sect. 6. Fruit fimple, with two cells and two feeds.
Stamens four. Leaves oppofite; ftem for the moft part
fhrubby.
Chomelia of Jacquin; Pavetta; Ixora; Couffarea of
Aublet ; M/alanea of the fame, which is Schreber’s Cun-
ninghamia ; and Antirrhea of Commerfon.
Sect. 7. Fruit fimple, with two cells and two feeds.
Stamens five. Leaves oppofite ; {tem fhrubby or arboreous.
Chimarrhis of Jacquin ; Chiococca ; Pfychotria; Coffea ;
Canthitim of Lamarck, which is a Gites Ronabea of
Aublet, Lamarck Illuftr. t. 166; Pederia; Coprofma;
and Aublet’s Simira.
Sect. 8. Fruit fimple, with many cells, each containing a
Jolitary feed. Stamens four, five, or more. Leaves oppofite ;
ftem often fhrubby.
Nonatelia of Aublet, which is fcarcely different from
Pfychotria; Laugeria; Erithalis ; Pfathura of Commerfon,
Lamarck IMluttr. t. 260; Myonima of Commerfon, ibid.
t. 68; Pyroflria, ibid. t. 68; Vangueria, ibid. t. 159;
Matthiola of Plum. and Linn. ; and Guettarda.
Se&t. 9. Fruit fimple, with many cells, cach containing
many feeds. Stamens five, or more. Leaves generally oppo-
fite ; item either fhrubby or herbaceous.
Hamellia ; Patima of Aublet, Lamarck Tlluitr. t. 159;
and Sabicea of Aublet, which is Schreber’s Schwenkfeldia.
Sect. 10, Flowers aggregate upon a common receptacle ; the
fruit fometimes, but rarely, confluent. Leaves oppofite ; ftem
arboreous or fhrubby, rarely herbaceous.
Mitchella ; Canephora of Juffieu, Lamarck Iluftr. t. 151 5
Patabea of Aublet ; E£vea of the fame, alfo Tapogomea, both
compre-
Row. B
comprehended by Schreber under Callicocca; Morinda ;
Nauclea ; and Cephalanthus.
Sect. 10. Rubiaceous genera, with the nature of whofe
vuits Juffieu was not, as yet, fufficiently acquainted.
f Ogee GH ee Bott Hane Tiluite. t. 151, which
L’Heritier named Buchozia ; and found to have a berry with
two feeds; Pagamea of Aublet, Lamarck Illuftr. t. 88;
Faramea of the fame, ibid. t. 63; and Hydrophylax of
Linn. Suppl.
RUBICAN, inthe Manege. A horfe is faid to be of a
rubican colour, that is a bay, forrel, or black, with a light
grey or white upon the flanks, but fo that this srey or white
is not predominant there.
RUBICILLA Americana, in Ornithology, a name
given by Mr. Ray to the guiratirica, a Brafilian bird, of the
bull-finch kind, very beautifully variegated with red, black,
and grey.
RUBICOLA, a {pecies of Motacilla ; which fee.
RUBICON, in Geography, a river of Italy, famous in
Roman hittory, now a diminutive ftream, and called b
fome Fiumefino, and by others Pi/atello (which fee), which
enters the Adriatic about eight miles N. of Rimini.— Alfo,
a department of Italy, compofed of part of the Romagna.
It contains about 105,000 inhabitants, who elect 12 deputies.
The capital is Rimini.
RUBICULUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Fi-
gulus and fome others to that {pecies of fifh which we call
the roach. It is of the cyprinus kind, and is diltinguifhed
by Artedi under the name of the red-eyed cyprinus, with
the tail and belly-fins red. See Cyprinus.
RUBIELOS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Ara-
gon; 22 miles S.E. of Teruel.
RUBIERA, a town of Italy, inthe department of the
Panaro ; five miles W. of Modena.
RUBIFYING, formed of rubens, ruddy, and fio, I be-
come, in Chemifiry, &c. the at of turning a thing red by
force of fire, &c.
Red arfenic is common white arfenic rubified by a mix-
ture of fulphur and copper.
RUBIGALIA, or Rosicatia, in Antiquity, a feaft
celebrated by the Romans, in honour of the god Rubigus,
or the goddefs Rubigo ; to engage thofe deities to preferve
the corn from blafting and mildews.
The Rubigalia were inftituted by Numa in the eleventh
year of his reign; and were held on the feventh of the
calends of May, which is our twenty-fifth of April; being
about the time when the blight or mildew, called by the
Latins rubigo, ufes to attack the corn.
Varro fixes it to the time when the fun enters the 16th
degree of Taurus. Indeed the true time feems rather to
have been on the 18th day before the equinox, and the true
reafon, becaufe then Canicula, or the Little Dog, fets;
which is efteemed a malific conttellation.
Hence they facrificed a dog to Rubigo: Ovid fays, the
entrails of a dog, and thofe of a fheep; Columella, only
afucking puppy. Feftus infinuates, that the viim muit
alfo be red,
RUBIGO, or Rosico, a difeafe incident to corn, po-
pularly called mildew.
The rubigo is a fpecies of blight.
Rust of corn. :
RUBIN of Antimony, in Chemifiry, a kind of liver of
antimony, made with equal parts of nitre and crude anti-
mony detonated together, to which is afterwards added an
equal quantity of common falt. It is alfo called magnefia
opalinds
See Brigut, and
RUB
Rusiy, or Roboan, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the
coaft of Arabia, at the entrance ofthe ftraits of Babel
mandeb, near a projecting cape of the continent, and accef-
fible by fording at low-water. Pilots are obtained here to.
navigate veflels through the ftraits, and to different ports in
the Red fea.
RUBINELLI, Giovanni, in Biography, an Italian
opera finger of the firft clafs for voice, figure, aétion, and
knowledge, arrived in England, from Florenee, in April,
1786. His journey hither from Rome, where -he fung
during the carnival of this year, was not very propitious, as
the weather was uncommonly inclement; and he was not
only overturned in his chaife at Macon, in France, but
after quitting the fhip, in which he failed from Calais to
Dover, the boat that was to have landed him was overfet
near the fhore, and he remained a contiderable time up to
his chin in water, to the great riflc of his health, his voice,
and even his life. The firft time we meet with his name in
the dramatis perfone of an opera is in ¢ Caliroe,”’ fet by
Sacchini, for Stutgard, in 1770, where he performed the
part of fecond man. He feems to have continued at. the
court of Wirtemberg, in no higher ftation, feveral years, as
Graffi and Muzio are named before him in the « Indice de’
Spettacoli Theatrale.”?. His name does not appear as firft
ferious man in Italy till 1774, when he fung at Modena, in
Paefiello’s ‘* Aleflandro nell’ Indie,’? and Anfoffi’s ** De-
mofoonte.’?. After this, he appeared as principal finger in
all the great theatres of Italy, till his arrival in London.
The firft opera in which Rubinelli appeared in England was
a palticcio, called “ Virginia,’? May the 4th. His own
part, however, was chiefly compofed by Angiolo Tarchi,
a young Neapolitan, then advancing into eminence with
great rapidity. Rubinelli is in figure tall and majeltic, in
countenance mild and benign. There is dignity in his ap-
pearance on the ftage; and the inftant the tone of hie voice
is heard, there remains no doubt with the audience of his
being the firft finger. It is a true and full contralto from
C, in the middle of the fcale, to the o€tave above. He
fometimes, however, goes down to G, and up to F; but
neither the extra low notes nor the high are very full. All
above C is falfet, and fo much more feeble and of a different
regifter from the reft, that we were uneafy when he tranf-
cended the compafs of his natural and real voice. His
fhake is not fufficiently open; but in other ref{pects he is an
admirable finger. His flyle is grand, and truly dramatic.
-His execution is neat and diftin&. His tafte and embellifh-
ments are new, felet, and mafterly. His articulation is fo
pure and well accented, in his recitatives, that no one who
underftands the Italian language can ever want to look at
the book of the words, while he is finging. . His cheft is
fo ftrong, and his intonation fo perfeé&t, that we have very
feldom heard him fing out of tune. His voice is more clear
and certain in a theatre, where it has room to expand, than
in a room. He hada greater variety of embellifhments
than any finger we had heard, except Pacchierotti, who
not only furpaffes him in richnefs of invention and fancy,
but in the native pathos, and touching expreflion of his
voice. Yet Rubinelli, from the fulnefs of his voice, and
greater fimplicity of ftyle, pleafes a more confiderable num-
ber of his hearers than Pacchierotti, though none perhaps,
fo exquifitely, as that finger ufed to pleafe his real ad-
mirers. Rubinelli finding himfelf cenfured on his firft ar-
rival in England for changing and embellifhing his airs, fun
** Return, © God of Hofts,”? at Weftminiter Abbey, in
fo plain and unadorned a manner, that thofe who venerate
Handel the moft, thought him bald and infipid. Indeed,
we
) a. Fi Dh ae
st
BeeEEE
iz |
RUB
we pafled feveral appoggiaturas, which we remember Mrs.
Cibber to have introduced, who learned to fing the air from
the compofer himfelf; and who, though her voice was a
thread, and her knowledge of mufic very inconfiderable,
yet from her intelligence of the words and native feeling,
fhe fung this admirable fupplication in a more touching
manner, than the fineft opera finger we ever heard attempt
_ it; and Monticelli, Guadagni, Guarducci, and Pacchierotti,
were of the number.
He remained here only one feafon; for in 1787 we find
him finging at Brefcia and Venice; and in 1788 he likewife
performed in that city ; in 1789, at Rome and at Milan ; in
1790, at Genoa. He was fucceeded in England by Mar-
chefi.
RUBINUS Venus, from ruber, a true carbuncle.
RUBIO, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the N.W. coait
of the ifland of Ivica. WN. lat. 39° 5’. E. long. 1° 21’.
RUB
~RUBIS, in Ornithology, guainumbi or humming-bird.
See Trocuitus Colubris.
RUBLACEDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old
Caftile ; 18 miles S. of Frias.
RUBLE, in Commerce, a money of account in Ruffia, con-
taining 100 copecks, or kopeeks. The ruble is alfo divided
into Lo grievens, 33+altins, or 50 grofchen; and the copeck
is likewife divided into 2 denufhkas, or 4 polufhkas.
The gold coins are the imperial and half imperial, of 10
and 5 rubles; double and fingle ducats, formerly worth
44 rubles and 23 rubles, but raifed in value, in 1764, the
double ducat to 5 rubles 60 copecks, and the fingle to
2 rubles 80 copecks. The filver coins are rubles of 100
copecks ; alfo poltins of 50 copecks; polpoltins of 25 co-
pecks; double and fingle grieven of 20 and 10 copecks ;
and pieces of 5 altins or 15 copecks; and peyte-copecks,
of 5 copecks each, now out of circulation.
Affay and Value of Rubles.
Ruble of the reign of Peter the Great
Ruble of Catherine I. (1725) - .
Ruble of Peter II. (1727) - -
Ruble of the emprefs Ann (1734) -
Ruble of the emprefs Elizabeth (1750)
Ruble of Peter III. (1762) . -
Ruble of Catherine II. (1780) - —-
Ruble of the emperor Paul (1799) -
Ruble of Alexander (1802) - -
Ruble of Alexander (1805) -~ -
Poltin, or half ruble, of the emprefs Ann
Poltin of the emprefs Elizabeth - = -
Poltin of Catherine II. - -
Poltin of Paul - - -
Poltin of Alexander (1804) —-
Polpoltin, or quarter ruble, old
Polpoltin of Paul - = -
Polpoltin of Alexander (1802)
zo-copeck piece (1767) -
20-copeck piece (1784)
15-copeck piece (1778) +
10-copeck piece .
1o-copeck piece (1798)
to-copeck piece (1802)
5-copeck piece (1801)
‘ ' ee ' Biv ' '
1 cide aera ey eek ake
Gold Coins.—The ruble, and alfo the double and half
ruble, bear the fame impreflions as the ducat, viz. the
head of the reigning emperor or emprefs, with the name
and titles in Ruffian charaGters, thus tranflated: “ Peter
by the grace of God emperor, or Elizabeth by the grace
of God emprefs, and fovereign of all the Ruffias ;”? but on
the reverfe of the ruble the value is written, ‘* New coin,
2 rubles or 1 ruble ;” and the half piece bears on its reverfe
the cypher of the emprefs Elizabeth, with the word “ Pol-
tina,”’ which means half a ruble. Thefe coins, as well as
the ducats, are now nearly out of circulation.
The imperial has the head of the reigning fovereign, with
name and title as above; reverie, a crofs formed by five
efcutcheons, with the four figures of the year of coinage in
the four angles; legend, “ Imperial Ruffian coin, value
10 rubles ;”” and on the half imperial, ‘* Vaiue 5 rubles.’
VoL. XXX.
|
|
2 Contentsin| Value in
Affay. Weight pure Silver.| Sterling.
oz. dwt. | dwt. s. d
sult Whe a2 6% -1ae 2c
-| W. 2 45/97 3.78
-| W...2 12 | 18 3 79¢
-| W. 141 | 16 3 8%
eres) L, 72186 2.49
a Wie 2 2) ie 3 23
zl We," ke” Rema J a> 3 24
-| W. 0 14 | 13 3 3
-| W. 013 | 13 72
=| We 50 26. /|"12 OA:
ail Wie, ck LO 7 ty 9
LP ee DPS 8 I 10
ail ne” “Cae 1 7%
-| W. o 15 I 74
=0|/ Wi 0.54, , nS
3 (OW. 7.2. Oy Seg ° Io
-| W.. 0 th. a8 o of
-| W. 0135] 3 ° Io
SAS ete B o 82
SH Nie Og 2 See °o 8
- GROSS: 2 16 °o 54
-| W.%2 6 Pt Oo 42
-| W. o 143) t 9 °o 4
| SWeso Tate t S82] cose,
-| W. 0 132] 0 165] 14.3 | 0, 2
But the half imperials of Paul I. have on one fide a {quare,
with ornaments, containing the infcription, ‘* Not unto us,
not unto us, but unto thy name ;’’ reverfe, a crofs and four
crowns, with a capital I in the centre, and the figure 5 in
the four angles of the crofs.
Silver Coins.—The ruble has the head of the reigning
fovereign, with the name and title as on the gold coins; re-
verfe, a two-headed eagle crowned, with an efcutcheon on
its breaft ; legend, ** New coin, value 1 ruble,”’ or fimply
* Coin 1 ruble,’’? and the date. Some rubles of Peter I.
and Catherine I. bear on the reverfe a crofs and four crowns,
with four I’s, or four double II’s in the four angles, and
the date within the crofs.
The ruble of Paul I. (1799, &c.) bears the fame im-
preffions as the half imperial of the fame period, except
that the legend on the reverfe is ‘* Coin, value 1 ruble.””
4P The
RUB
The ruble of Alexander (1802) bears on one fide the eagle
and legend, as above; on the reverfe, «* Coin of the Ruffian
empire, ruble,’? encircled with a branch of laurel, and one
of vak, having a fmall crown at the top.
The poltina, or half ruble, bears the fame impreffions as
the ruble, according to the period at which it was coined,
except that the mf{cription contains the word poLTINA, in-
fiead of RUBLE; and the quarter ruble is marked poLuroL-
TINICK- 5
The 20-copeck piece has the head, name, and title of
the reigning fovereign, as above; reverfe, a two-headed
eagle, with the number 20 on its breaft, and no legend.
The 1§-copeck piece bears the fame impreffions, but it is
marked 15. ; i
The 10-copeck piece has the two-headed cagle ; reverfe,
the value of the piece, 10 COPECKS.
The 5-copeck piece has-a Ruffian P, with a crown over
it, and under which is an I; reverfe, 5 coprcKs, and two
laurel branches. Kelly’s Univerfal Cambitt.
RUBRIC, Rusrica, in the Canon Law, denotes a
title, or article, in certain ancient law-books; thus called,
becaufe written, as the titles of the chapters in our ancient
Bibles are, in red letters. 3
Rusrics alfo denote the rules and direCtions given in the
Liturgy ; for the order and manner in which the feveral
parts of the office are to be performed.
They are called rubrics from the Latin ruber, red; be-
caufe formerly printed in red ink, to diftinguifh them from
» the reft,of the office, which was in black ; as they ftill are
in the Roman miffals, &c.
The great rubric for the celebration of Eafter, prefcribed
by the Nicene council, is to this purpofe: Eafter-day to be
the Sunday which falls upon, or next after, the firft full
moon which immediately fucceeds the vernal equinox. Dr.
Wallis has a particular difcourfe on the ancient rubrics for
the fealt of Eafter, in the Philofophical Tranfactions.
RUBRICA. See Repprz.
RUBUS, in Botany, an ancient Latin word, certainly
of the fame origin as ruber, which appears to be the Celtic
rub, red. (See Ruvs, Rosa, and’ Rusia.) The red
hue, more or lefs prevalent, in various parts of the different
kinds of Bramble, of which the prefent genus confifts,
readily accounts for the application of the above name.—
Linn. Gen. 254. Schreb. 342. Willd. Sp. Pl. v2. 1080.
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 541. Prodr. Fi.
Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 349. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 267.
Purth 346. Jufl. 338. Tourn. t. 385. Lamarck Illuftr.
t.q41. Gertn. t. 73.—Clafs and ordet, Jcofandria Poly-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Senticofe, Linn. Rofacee, Jul.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flattifh, in
five oblong, {preading, fimple, permanent fegments. Cor.
Petals five, roundifh or oblong, fomewhat fpreading, in-
ferted into the calyx, and ufually about the length of its
fegments. Stam. Filaments numerous, fhorter than the
corolla, inferted into the calyx; anthers roundifh, com-
prefled. Pi/?, Germens numerous, altogether fuperior ;
{tyles {mall, capillary, one fpringing from the fide of each
germen; fligmas fimple, permanent. Peric. Berry com-
pound, confilting of feveral roundifh pulpy grains, each of
one cell, colle€ted into a convex head, hollow underneath,
inferted upon a conical {pongy permanent receptacle, and
at length deciduous. Seeds folitary, oblong, compreffed.
Obf. The feparate juicy grains, which compofe the ge-
neral berry, are ufually fo attached to each other, that they
cannot be difunited without tearing. In R. /avatilis they
are diftint. R. Chamemorus is not, as Linneus . firft
thought, dioecious, but monoecious; Dr. Solander having
-ceous.
RUB
obferved that the male and female flowers grow from one
root, though on feparate ftems. Each flower of this {pecies
has indeed both ftamens and piftils, though, in one or other
flower, one part is imperfect.
Eff. Ch. Calyx in five fimple fegments. Petals five.
Berry fuperior, compofed of fingle-feeded grains, deci-
duous. Receptacle permanent.
This numerous genus partakes confiderably of the beauty
and elegance prevalent throughout the whole order of Ro-
Jacee, and is befides valuable, in many inftances, for its
wholefome and highly grateful fruit. The flem is moft
generally fhrubby ; fometimes herbaceous ; more frequently
trailing than ere€t ; in fome of the fhrubby kinds biennial
only, not perennial. Both /fem, flalks, and even the ribs
of the /eaflets, in many of the fhrubby fpecies, are prickly.
Leaves either lobed, digitate, pedate, or pinnate. Flowers
either folitary, racemofe, of panicled, red or white. Fruit
black, blueifh, red, or yellowifh, often highly fragrant.
Moft of the {pecies grow in cool climates, or mountainous
fituations. We have feveral to add to Willdenow’s, which
amount to 31 in number.
Section 1. Stem woody.
1. R. rofefolius. Rofe-leaved Bramble.—Leaves pin-
nate, of five, or three, doubly ferrated leaflets; green, and
flightly downy, on both fides. Stem and footftalks prickly.
Flowers folitary.—Sm. Plant. Ic. fafe. 3. t. 60. Willd.
n. I. Gathered by Commerfon in the ifle of Mauritius,
and communicated by Thouin to the younger Linneus.
c
We have alfo a fine fpecimen from fir Jofeph Banks, with-—
out any account of its native country. he /fem is fhrubby,
round, finely downy like the whole of the herbage, but no
part is hoary or white. Prickles fomewhat hooked, yel-
lowifh, rather fmall, copioufly fcattered over the ftem and
leaf-ftalks. Leaflets ufually five, ovato-lanceolate, taper-
pointed, deeply, fharply, and doubly ferrated ; befprinkled
with minute refinous particles, and of the fame colour, on
both fides. Svipulas in pairs on the bafe of each footitalk,
linear-lanceolate, narrow and acute. lowers folitary,
‘ftalked, either axillary, or oppofite to the leaves, one of
them terminal. Segments of the calyx ovate, taper-pointed,
longer than the petals, denfely downy, efpecially on the
inner fide. We know nothing of the fruit. ‘The minute
globular refinous particles, {cattered, more or lefs copioufly,
over both fides of the /eaves, feem peculiar to this f{pecies.
2. R. fraxinifolius. Ath-leaved Indian Bramble. Poiret
in Lamarck Did. v. 6. 242. (R. moluccus parvifolius ;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 88. t. 47. f. 1.)—Leaves pinnate,
of feven, or five, doubly ferrated, parallel-veined leaflets ;
quite {mooth on both fides. Footftalks prickly. Panicles
terminal, fmooth, widely fpreading.—Gathered by Com-
merfon in Java. If we are right in the fyronym of Rum-
phius, about which there feems little doubt, and which is
certainly mifapplied by Linneus to his R. parvifolius, this
fpecies is common in Amboyna, growing in low fituations
near rivers. He fays the fruit is red, but watery and in-
fipid. The whole plant im our fpecimen is, except the
downy infide of the calyx, quite fmooth, and of fo. itriking
an appearance with its large afh-like /eaves, marked with
numercus, ftraight, parallel veins, that we cannot’ but
wonder at its having fo generally efcaped the notice of In-
dian botanifts. The /fem is round, flightly, or not at all,
prickly ; though the foot/alts, and now and then the rib of
a leaflet, bear {mall hooked prickles. Szpudas almoit feta-
Panicles terminal, many-flowered, repeatedly com-
pound, widely fpreading ; their flalks flender, unarmed,
with feveral, {cattered, oblong, {mooth bradeas, toothed at
the end. Segments of the ca/yx broadly ovate, we ne
flender
a
iemaiineee i
a
WA apaainy 2
RUBUS.
flender point ; partly downy on the outfide, and denfely fo
within. Petals not obferved. Fruit of very numerous
{mall grains. Seeds curioufly reticulated or corrugated.
Rumphius’s figure is about half the fize of nature.
3. R. pinnatus. Wing-leaved Cape Bramble. Willd.
n. 2. Alt. n. 10.—‘* Leaves pinnate. of five or three ru-
ofe leaflets; {mooth on both fides. Stem, footftalks, and
fowdggalalks prickly. Clufter terminal.””—Native country
unknown. Willd. Cape of Good Hope, and ifland of
St. Helena; from whence it was introduced by fir Jofeph
Banks in 1789. diton. A fhrubby green-houfe plant,
flowering in June and July. Branches villous, green, with
hooked prickles. Leaflets ovato-lanceolate, green, fharpl
and doubly ferrated; their mid-ribs, like the Sootfalk,
prickly beneath. Cluffer fimple. Floqwer-flalks villous, very
prickly. Calyx villous, longer than the petals. Willd. We
refume the above authors both mean the fame plant, though
Willdenow is not cited by Aiton, and we have no {pecimens
from either. We fhould fufpeét that the above-mentioned
fpecimen of rofefolius, communicated by fir Jofeph Banks,
might be Mr. Aiton’s pinnatus, were not the latter, as well
as Willdenow’s, faid to have {mooth leaves.
. R. auftralis. New Zealand Bramble. -Forft. Prodr.
4o. Willd. n. 3.—* Shrubby. Flowers dioecious. Leaves
‘pinnate, of five, or three, leaflets. Stem and footitalks
rickly. Clufters fimple, axillary.””—Native of New Zea-
and. Jorfter.
5. R. rigidus. Rigid Cape Bramble. — Leaves pin-
nate, of five, or three, partial-{talked leaflets; {mooth
above; very downy beneath. Stem downy, minutely
prickly. Clufter terminal, twice compound.—Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. We know it only by an unnamed
fpecimen, from thence, in the Linnean herbarium. The
flem, footfalks, flower-flalks, calyx, and under fide of the
leaves, are all very denfely clothed with fine, fhort, velvet-
like down. Leaflets ufually five, ovate, doubly and un-
equally ferrated near an inch and a half long, each on a
fhort, thick, partial ftalk; the upper fide green, fmooth,
ftriated with funk ribs and veins, which projeét on the
downy under fide. Stipulas lanceolate, downy. Flowers
numerous, rather fmall. Calyx with fhort thick points.
_ The fetals feem to be awl-fhaped, and very fmall. We are
unacquainted with the fruit.
6. R. lafiocarpus. _Woolly-berried Bramble.—Leaves
pinnate, of feven, or five, leaflets; fmooth above; white
and very downy beneath. Stem nearly fmooth, with curved
prickles. Clufter terminal, fimple. Fruit downy.—Native
of Myfore and the neighbouring hills. Sent by the Rev.
Dr. Rottler, under the name of Rubus indicus. It appears
to be no where defcribed. At firft fight the plant refembles
our Rafpberry, but the /eaflets are generally feven, the odd
one large, often three-lobed ; their upper furface ftrongly
ftriated with veins, which are occafionally hairy ; the under
very white and woolly, with yellowifh, hairy ribs and veins.
Stipulas awl-{haped, hairy. Prickles of the ftem numerous,
ftrong, a little curved. Clujler of few flowers, downy and
prickly. Fruit clothed with denfe, white, woolly down.
Seeds reticulated. Poflibly R. apetalus of Poiret, Lamarck
Dié&. v. 6. 242, may be allied to this.
q. R. ideus. Rafpberry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 706. Willd.
n.4. ‘Ait. n. 1. Purfh nx. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl.
Bot. t. 2442. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 188. Fl. Dan.
t. 788. Ger. Em. 1272. Math. Valgr. v. 2. 357.—
Leaves pinnate, of five, or three, ovate, rather angular
‘leaflets, very downy beneath. Footftalks channelled. Stem
*with briftly prickles. Clufters terminal, lax, fomewhat
compound, Native of mountainous or ftony woods and
fhire.
thickets throughout Europe. Mr. Purfh fays it occurs alfo
in hedge-rows, from Canada to Pennfylvania; and Dr.
Buchanan gathered what we cannot confider as a diftin@
{pecies, in the woods of Nepaul. It flowers every where
in April, May, or June, ripening fruit about fix weeks
after. The /lems are ereét, fhrubby, though only biennial,
with creeping perennial roofs. They are pale brown, ufually
rough with {mall briftles rather than thorns; fometimes
they are quite fmooth. Lower /eaves pinnate, with two
pair of leaflets and an odd one; upper ternate only ; leaflets
broad-ovate, partly rhomboid, unequally and fharply fer-
rated and cut, more or lefs pointed; greyifh-green, and
nearly {mooth, above; white with denfe cottony down be-
neath, like the calyx and flower-flalks. Footflalks rather
downy, with a ftrong furrow along their upper fide,
prickly, like the flower-flalks. Stipulas fetaceous. Cluflers
terminal, for the moft part fimple, lax, rather drooping,
Flowers pendulous. Ca/ya with taper points, variable in
length, Petals ere&t, obovate, white, fmall. Fruit crim-
fon, of numerous pulpy grains, befet with the permanent
ftyles. Its rich fweetnefs, and highly perfumed flavour,
render this fruit generally agreeable, both recent and pre-
ferved. Rafpberry jam 1s an acceptable prefent, even in
India. There are feveral cultivated varieties, differing in
fize and Juxuriance, as well as the colour of the berries,
which are fometimes of an amber hue. Mr. Purth fays
there are a number of wild varieties:in America; a circum-
ftance which we have not much remarked in Europe. There
is ufually a fecond crop of the fruit in gardens. The flavour
of the wild kind is thought fuperior to the cultivated ; at
leaft in Wales.
8. R. fubereéus. Red-fruited Bramble. Engl. Bot.
t. 2572. Ait. Epit. Hort. Kew. 373. (R. neffenfis ;
Hall in Tr. of R. Soc. Edinb. v. 3. 20.)—Leaves pinnate,
of feven, five, or three ovate leaflets ; hairy beneath. Foot-
{talks channelled. Stems afcending. Prickles minute, nearly
ftraight. Flowers axillary and terminal, fomewhat panicled.
—This fpecies, firft obferved in Scotland near Loch Nefs,
has fince been found in other parts of that kingdom by Mr,
George Anderfon, F.L.S. as well as in Wales and York-
It is often intermixed with corylifolius, hereafter
defcribed, which it refembles in habit, efpecially in the
pubefcence, fize, and hue of the foliage, though more
naturally allied to R. ideus. The ffems are biennial, not
quite upright, brittle, reddifh, nearly round, with {preading
branches. Prickles {cattered, fmall. Leaves light green
on both fides ; {mooth above. Panicles racemofe, rather lax,
terminal. and axillary. Petals larger and more fpreading
than in the laft. Calyx finally reflexed. Fruit deep red,
agreeable in flavour, later than the Rafpberry, and perhaps
for that reafon, as Mr. Anderfon fuggetts, not unworthy of
cultivation.
9. R. bifflorus. Two-flowered Bramble. Buch. MSS.—
Leaves pinnate, of five or three acute jagged leaflets ; hairy
above ; white and downy beneath: the odd one three-lobed.
Stem and footftalks prickly. Flower-{talks downy, termi-
nal, in pairs, fingle-flowered.—Native of wet fituations,
about banks of rivers in Upper Nepaul. Gathered by Dr.
Buchanan at Chitlong, April 13, 1802. The fems are
partly procumbent, branched, angular, a little zigzag,
armed with fcattered, ftraight prickles. Leaves on ‘onc,
hairy, prickly italks; their leaflets deeply ferrated. and
jagged, ufually five, the terminal one nearly feffile, more
or lefs diftinétly three-lobed, or even pinnatifid, though
fometimes confluent with the two next, fo as to make with
them one deeply three-cleft leaflet ; they are all very hairy,
though green above ; {now-white, with greenifh hairy veins,
4P 2 beneath,
RUBUS.
beneath. Svipulas linear. Flowers in pairs at the end of
each branch, drooping. Segments of the calyx broad-
ovate, very downy, with fhort naked tips. Petals broad
and roundifh, as long as the calyx. Of the fruit we are
ignorant. : 2
10. R. frigofus. Rough-ftalked American Bramble.
Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 297- Purfhn. 3. (R. pen-
fylvanicus; Lamarck Did. vy. 6. 246.)—‘ Leaves pinnate,
of five, or three, oval, pointed leaflets; downy and white
beneath. Stem ereét, very briftly, without thorns. Flowers
axillary, folitary; their {talks and calyx hifpid.’’—Native
of the mountains from ‘Canada to Virginia, flowering in
June and July; berries very agreeably flavoured. Pur/b.
The branches, flalks, and ribs of the leaves, flower-flalks and
calyx, are all very hifpid, but not prickly. AZichaux.
11. R. Commerfonii. Commerfonian Bramble. Poiret in
Lamarck Dia. v. 6. 240.— Leaves pinnate, of feven, or
five, leaflets, {mooth on both fides. Stem prickly. Flowers
terminal or axillary, nearly folitary. Calyx with long
points.’?—Found by Commerfon in fhady mountainous parts
of the ifland of Java. Poiret fays it has fome relationfhip
to R. ideus, but the leaflets are {maller, fmooth on both
fides, and the flowers larger. Prickles nearly flraight, fcat-
tered. Leaflets narrow, cut and ferrated ; the odd one
fometimes lobed. octffalks cylindrical, prickly. Petals
white, roundifh, fcarcely longer than the calyx. Fruit red-
difh, the fize of rafpberries, but with a much lefs agreeable
tafte and {mell. We have feen no f{pecimen.
12. R. occidentalis. Virginian Rafpberry. Linn. Sp. Pl.
406. Willd. n.5. Ait. n. 2. Purfhn.6. (R. idezus,
frudtu nigro, virginianus; Dill. Elth. 327. t. 247.)—Leaves
ternate, taper-pointed, doubly ferrated; downy and white
beneath. Footftalks nearly cylindrical; prickly and glau-
cous, like the ftem. Prickles hooked. Clutters terminal,
very prickly.—Native of rocky mountainous fituations,
from Canada to Carolina, flowering in May and June.
Cultivated in Chelfea garden, before the year 1696, accord-
ing to Plukenet. The /fem is round, confpicuous for its
peculiarly fine glaucous bloom, even ina dried ftate. Leaves
all ternate, the fide leaflets often furnifhed with a lateral
notch, or lobe. Prickles on the Pabelatag remarkably
numerous, and hooked. Petals {mall, white, commonly
emarginate. Fruit black, fometimes red, fweetifh, but not
highly flavoured. Seeds wrinkled.
13.. R. ¢triphyllus. Three-leaved Japanefe Bramble.
Thunb. Jap. 215. Willd. n. 6.—Leaves ternate, rounded,
cut and coarfely ferrated; entire at the bafe; downy and
white beneath. Branches, footftalks, and flower-{talks hairy
and prickly. Flowers fomewhat racemofe.—Gathered by
Thunberg in Japan. Stem round, fmooth, purplifh, with
flender, fpreading, wavy branches, which are hairy and mi-
autely prickly. Leaflets rounded, broad and abrupt, nearly
fmooth above, of athin and pliant fubftance. Flower-/lalks
very fhaggy jult under the ca/yx, which is downy and white,
with long taper points. Petals ere&t, obovate, crenate, with
tong claws. This fpecies is in reality more akin to our
Rafpberry than any other, though perhaps fufficiently dif-
tin&. We have no knowledge of the fruit.
14. R. tomentofus. Welvet-leaved Bramble. Willd. n. 7.
Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 349. (R. etneus, tri-
folius rectus candicans ac pilofus; Cupan. Panphyt. v. 1.
t. 149.)—-Leaves ternate, or quinate, obovate, unequally
ferrated, all over hoary, very foft and downy; paler be-
neath. Stem and footftalks with hooked prickles. Panicle
downy, many-flowered. Braéteas linear-lanceolate, fome-
times thr e-cleft.—Native of Germany, Switzerland, the
neighbourhood of Conftantinople, and the country about
5
mount Etna. We know no figure of this {pecies, except
in the very rare old work of Cupani, where it is extremely
well reprefented, nor does any fy{tematic author but Will-
denow defcribe it. Botanifts have molt unaccountably con-
founded it with the common R. fruticofus, from which, and
every other known fpecies, it is diftinguifhed by the pecu-
liar and uniform foft pubefcence of ts eaves, equalling
that of the Marfh Mallow. The deaffets vary in fhape, but
are always contracted towards their bafe. They are ufually
three, the lateral ones fometimes lobed at the lower edge.
We have a f{pecimen with five diftin& leaflets, the Jower-
moft pair {malleft, growing out of the partial footftalks
of the next. The /fem is angular, doway, with many uni-
form, rather fmall, {trongly hooked prickles, fuch as occur
alfo on the footftalks. #/owers large and abundant, with
obovate, white, fpreading feta/s, twice as long as the
calyx; whofe fegments are ovate, finely downy, with
{mall points. The érafeas are more pale and mem-
branous than in fruticofus. Stipulas linear, very narrow,
hairy. This fpecies is unknown in England, either wild
or cultivated.
15. R. cuneifolius. "Wedge-leaved American Bramble.
Purfh n. 5. (R. parvifolius ; Walt. Carol. 149.)—*‘* Leaves
digitate, of three or five obovate-wedge-fhaped leaflets ;
unequally toothed upwards, plaited, entire at the margin,
revolute; downy beneath. Stem, footftalks, and flower-
ftalks downy, with fcattered recurved prickles. Clufters
terminal, panicled; the partial flower-ftalks divaricated,
and almoft naked.”?—In fandy fields and woods, from New
Jerfey to Carolina, flowering in June and July. A ftrag-
gling briar, of a grey afpe€t; the berries hard and dry.
Purfh. Not having feen this plant, we have given, as
nearly as poffible, a tranflation of Mr. Purth’s fpecific cha-
racter, though we do not quite underltand what regards
the leaves.
16. R. ellipticus. Oval-leaved Indian Bramble.—Leaves
ternate, elliptical, finely ferrated ; downy and hoary be-
neath: the lower ones fimple, fomewhat three-lobed. Stem
and footftalks hifpid, downy, and prickly. Panicle denfe,
hairy. —Gathered by Dr. Buchanan, in January and April
1802, about the ftony banks of rivulets in Nepaul. This
JSorub is ten or twelve feet high, with long, climbing, an-
gular, zigzag, leafy branches, not only clothed with foft
down, and copious rigid prominent brittles, but alfo bear-
ing {cattered, hooked, itrong, though not large, prickles.
The foot/lalks are fimilarly furnifhed. Leaflets much re-
fembling thofe of a common Proyins Rofe in fhape and
ferratures, but rather larger, and only three to each leaf;
{mooth above; their under furface grey or whitifh with
fine down; the veins parallel, itraight, ftrongly marked.
Stipulas {etaceous. The lower /eaves, and {mall axillary
ones, are fimple, occafionally three-lobed. Panicle termi-
nal, denfe, fhorter than the /eaves, compound. Flowers
not very numerous. Calyx downy. Petals white, longer
than the calyx. Berries yellow, pleafantly flavoured. Seeds
wrinkled, numerous.
_ 19. R. hifpidus. Briftly American Bramble. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 706. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 3. Purfh n. 7.—Leaves
ternate, ftrongly ferrated, {mooth on both fides. Stems
trailing, round, hifpid as well as the footftalks. Clufters
terminal, flender, fomewhat -hifpid, of few flowers.—Ga-
thered in Canada by Kalm, whofe fpecimen is before us,
The /fems are very long and trailing, clothed with copious,
brown, reflexed briftles, without prickles, as are alfo the
footftalks. Leaflets of a fining green; the middle one
obovate; the others dilated, and often lobed at the outer
edge; all acute, unequally ferrated. Flowers few, with
linear;
RUBUS.
linear, fometimes three-cleft, dradeas. Berries of few
grains, with large wrinkled /eeds. Perhaps this ought to
be arranged among the herbaceous fpecies, near /axatilis
hereafter defcribed.
18. R. ¢rivialis- Common American Dewberry. Mi-
chaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 296. Purfh n. 8.—* Leaves
ternate, or quinate, oblong-oval, acute, unequally ferrated,
rather downy. Stems trailing. Flower-ftalks folitary,
elongated, rough, like the footitalks, with recurved prickly
briftles. Stipulas awl-fhaped. Petals obovate, thrice the
length of the calyx.’’—Common in old fields, from New
England to Carclina, blofloming in May and June.
Flowers large. Berries black, large, very agreeably fla-
voured, known by the name of Dewberries. Pur/h.
1g. R. flagellaris. Long Trailing American Bramble.
s¢ Willd. Enum. 549.” Purfh n. g. (R. trivialis; Ait.
n. 7. Pur/b.)—Leaves ternate, unequally ferrated, {mooth
on both fides. Stems trailing, round, hefet, like the foot-
ftalks, with recurved prickles. Clufters terminal, lax, flen-
der, downy, of few flowers.—Native of fields and fandy
woods, from Virginia to Carolina, flowering in June and
July. Purfh. Very nearly akin to R. hi/pidus, n. 17, but
the /eaves are fmailer, and the /fem is rather prickly than
briftly. The hooked prickles on the footfalks are few, and
widely fcattered. Peta/s more orbicular than in the latt ;
whether they accord with thofe of 4i/pidus, we have not ma-
terials to determine ; but we are greatly inclined to think
the prefent is but a variety of that {pecies.
20. R. inermis. Smooth American Bramble. « Willd.
Enum. 548.” Purfhn.1o. ,( R. hifpidus ; Walt. Carol.
149 ?””)—<** Leaves ternate, ovate, acute, unequally ferrated ;
downy beneath ; the lateral leaflets fomewhat cut. Stem,
footitalks, and flower-italks unarmed. Stipulas narrow-
awl-fhaped.”’—Native of Pennfylvania. We have feen no
fpecimen of this fpecies, nor did Mr. Purfh himfelf meet
with it in America.
21. R. parvifolius. Small-leaved Indian Bramble. Linn.
Sp. Pl.707. Willd. n. 9; excluding the fynonym of Rum-
phius, which has no affinity to this fpecies, but rather belongs
to our fraxinifolius, n. 2. — Leaves ternate, wrinkled, rounded,
cut, and crenate ; fomewhat hairy above ; downy and fnow-
white beneath. Branches and foot{talks downy, with {hort
hooked prickles. Stem round. Panicles downy and hairy,
of few flowers.—Gathered by Ofbeck in China. A mifer-
able fpecimen from him, without flowers, exiits in the Lin-
nean herbarium ; but we have very complete ones collected
by Dr. Buchanan, at Chitlong in Nepau], April 10, 1802.
Their firlt appearance accords very much indeed with our
Common Rafpberry, but the /eaffets are all ternate, rounded,
not pointed, crenate rather than ferrated, as well as more
wrinkled ; and their upper furface, though green, is clothed
with extremely foft hairs, feeling like velvet. The flowers,
though few together, are panicled rather than fimply race-
mofe ; their very woolly ca/yx is deftitute of long points ; and
their /la/ks are hairy as well as woolly. We have no account
of the fruit. The fhort, but {trong and hooked, prick/es more-
over afford an effential diftinction between this fpecies and
Ruideus.
22. R. fan@us. Bramble of the Holy Land. Schreb.
Dec.’ 15. t. 8. Willd. n. 10. (R. creticus triphyllus,
flore parvo; Tourn. Cor. 43. Pococke’s Trav. v. 2. pt. 2.
190.)—Leaves ternate, or fimple, downy and white be-
neath. Branches and foot{talks downy, with hooked prickles.
Stem angular. Panicles downy, many-flowered. Native
of Crete and Palettine. This has a general refemblance to
our Britith R. fruticofus, but bas {maller, more rounded,
and fewer /eaflets. The flowers, and whole plant, are alfo
of {maller dimenfions. We do not however profefs to be
well acquainted with the limits of thefe two {pecies, nor has
the prefent one been properly inveftigated.
23. R. jamaicenfis. Jamaica Bramble. Linn. Mant. 75.
Willd. n. rr. Swartz Obf. 205. (R.n. 1; Browne Jam.
242. R. foliis longioribus, fubtus molli lanugine obduétis et
incanis, flore et fruétu minoribus ; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 10g.
t. 213. f. 1.)—Leaves ternate, or pedato-quinate, pointed,
fharply ferrated ; white and finely downy beneath. Branches,
footitalks, and flower-italks downy, with hooked prickles.
Panicles lax.—Native of Jamaica; frequent in the moun-
tains of St. Mary’s, and thofe beyond mount Diad/e, towards
St. Ann’s, but feldom feen in any other part of the ifland.
Browne. Sloane juitly remarks, that any arguments in fa-
vour of the coldnefs of the air in parts of Jamaica, or Hif-
paniola, where this bramble occurs, prove nothing, becaufe
it is a different fpecies. from our European one. Poflibly
however they may be more nearly related than he was aware.
The pubefcence of the back of the /eaves, though very
fine, foft, and white, is often approached in thofe particu-
lars by that of our fruticofus, even on the fame ftem, with
leaves that are almoft green underneath. The infertion of
the ftalks of the fourth and fifth /eaflets, when prefent,
upon thofe of the next pair, making a pedate leaf, is charac-
teriftic of the Jamaica Bramble, but even this is occafionally
to be deteétedin our’s. The fower and fruit are faid to be
{maller than in fruticofus. 1n the Linnzan fpecimen the
flowers are double, quite as large as thofe of the latter.
The ribs of the leaflets are prickly in both ; nor are the fer-
ratures at all more deep in one than the other.
24. R. rofeus. Red-flowered Peruvian Bramble. Poiret
in Lamarck Di&. v. 6. 245.—Leaves ternate, or fimple,
fmooth. Stipulas oval, obtufe. Flowers axillary, nearly
foltary. Calyx fmooth, flightly fringed. Stem, flower-
ftalks, footftalks, and ribs of the leaves very prickly.—
Gathered by Dombey in Peru. The dranches, according to
Poiret, are woody, ftriated, fmooth, zigzag, prickly.
Leaves very large, moftly ternate, oval or lanceolate, un-
equal, fmooth on both fides; a little paler beneath. The
terminal leaflet is four or five inches long, and three broad.
Stipulas large, almo{t half embracing the ftem. Floqwer-
Jfalks long, plentifully furnifhed with ftrong, reddifh, re-
curved prickles. Calyx large, with bluntly-pointed feg-
ments, a little fringed at the margin. Petals rofe-coloured,
roundifh, fhorter than the calyx, furnifhed with claws.
We have feen no fpecimen, but the above defcription leaves
no doubt of this being a moit diftin& {pecies.
25. R. urticefolius. Nettle-leaved Peruvian Bramble.
Poiret m Lamarck Di&. vy. 6. 246.—Leaves ternate, or
fimple, ovate, fharply ferrated; filky beneath. Stem,
flower-italks, footitalks, and ribs of the leaves denfely
hifpid and fomewhat prickly. Paniclescompound, many-
flowered. Calyx filky.—Gathered at Lima by Dombey,
from whom we have a{pecimen. This is faid to be of very
lofty growth. The dranches are angular, remarkable, like
all the fla/ks, for a denfe ruity coating, refembling coarfe
pluth, among which fome few fhort hooked prickles are in-
terfperfed. The /eaflets are large, denfely, fharply, and
rather unequally ferrated ; in Poach ovate, or fomewhat
elliptical; their upper fide green, minutely downy ; the
under very denfely covered with fhining filky pubefcence,
which is faid by Dombey to be of a filvery whitenefs when
frefh, though rather tawny in our fpecimen. Stipulas almoft
fetaceous. Panicle large, denfe, many-flowered. Bradeas
ovate, filky externally, as wellas the calyx. Petals pre
white,
RUBUS.
white. Fruit black, of numerous grains, with reticulated
feeds.
Mutis fent Linnzus a {pecimen from Santa Fé, which
agrees in every effential particular with that of Dombey,
except the /eaflets being {maller, and in fome inftances five in
number.—The {pecific name does not appear to us very ap-
propriate ; holofericeus would haye been better, for we have
met with nothing of fe filky an afpeét in the genus
befides.
26. R.cefius. Common Dew-berry. Linn. Sp. PI.
706. Willd. n.12. Ait.n.4. Fi. Brit.n.2. Engl. Bot.
t. 826. Bulliard t. 381. (R. minor, fruétu czruleo;
Bauh. Hitt. v. 2. 59.)—Leaves ternate, hairy beneath ; the
lateral leaflets lobed externally. Stem prickly, proftrate,
glaucous. Calyxembracing the fruit.—Native of Europe,
in groves and bufhy places; not rare in England; about
thady hedges and the borders of fields, flowering in June
and July, bearing fruit throughout Auguft and September.
The ftems are round, weak and trailing, befet with flender
flightly curved prickles, and confpicuous for a vivid glau-
cous bloom, ealily rubbed off. ‘Though woody, they are
only annual, or at moft biennial. Leaflets three, of a broad,
rounded, ovate figure, acute, fharply and doubly ferrated,
light green; downy and a little paler, but not hoary, be-
neath ; the lateral ones feffile, generally lobed on the outfide.
Footftalks prickly and downy. Stipulas lanceolate. © Flowers
few together, in flender, terminal or axillary, prickly
panicles. Segments of the calyx ovate, or obovate, long-
pointed, downy, fpreading the flower, clofed about the
fruit, which laft charaGter is neglected in Bulliard’s, other-
wife characteriltic, plate. Petals obovate, longer than the
calyx, fpreading, waved and crumpled, white, rarely
reddifh. -Fruit of few and rather large grains, black with
a bright blue tinge, like a plum; its flavour very agreeably
acid, though not perfumed, and deftitute of the mawkith
flavour of the common Black-berry.
27. R. corylifolius. Hazel-leaved Bramble. Fi. Brit.
n.3. Engl. Bot. t. 827. Ait. n.5. (R. major, fruétu
ugro; Schmidel Ic. t.2. R. montanus repens, farmentis
longiflimis et rotundis, {pinis tenuiflimis exa{peratis, amplo
coryli folio, flore albo, fruétu nigro crafliore ; Mich. Hort.
Florent. 82. Till. Pis. 149 ?)—Leaves quinate, or ternate,
rounded, hairy beneath; the lateral leaflets feffile. Prickles
ftraightifh. Calyx of the fruit reflexed.—Native of England,
Germany, and probably of Italy. We cannot difcover
that Dr. Sibthorp met with this {pecies in Greece. Dille-
nius feems to hint at it in his edition of Ray’s Synopfis, 467,
as differing from the common bramble, in having “ earlier,
larger, and white blofloms,” which is corretly true. Mr.
Crowe, ever attentive to the ufeful parts of botany, was led
to diftinguifh our corylifolivs, by obferving that thatchers
rejected the /fems, on account of brittlenefs, and felected the
true frutico/us to bind down their thatch, that {pecies being
truly fhrubby and perennial ; while the /fems of the prefent
are, like thofe of the Rafpberry, biennial, and far more
brittle than fruticofus. They are moreover roundifh, all
the prickles nearly ftraight, not hooked. The kajfets are
large, phant, doubly ferrated, always of a bright green
on both fides; hairy, but never white or cottony, be-
neath. Some of them fo exaétly refemble the leaves of a
hazel, that we have puzzled good botanilts to diftinguifh one
from the other. The flowers appear early in July, and are
white, forming an oblong cylindrical panicle. Fruit earlier,
of a browner black, of rather fewer grains, and more grate-
fully acid than in fruticofus, being intermediate, as it were,
between the Dew-berry and Common Black-berry. Its
reflexed calyx diftinguifhes it readily from the former. Our
corylifslius is fuppofed to be the fruticofus of Hoffmann’s
German Flora, and perhaps of many other botauifts.. Will-
denow has it not.
28. R. fruticofus.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 707.
Common Bramble, or Black-berry.
Willd. n. 13. Ait.n.6. Fl. Brit.
n.4. Engl. Bot. t.715. Mill. Mluitr. t. 45. (R. major,
fructu nigro; Bauh. Hift. v. 2.57. Rubus; Ger. Em.
1272. Camer. Epit. 751.)—Leaves moftly quinate, downy
beneath ; leaflets ftalked. Stem angular, befet, like the
footftalks and flower-ftalks, with hooked prickles. Calyx
of the fruit reflexed.Common in hedges and- thickets
throughout Europe ; flowering with us in July and Augutt,
and ripening fruit in September and O&tober. Dr. Sibthorp
found this {fpecies extremely abundant in Greece, and con-
ceived it to be, as generally fuppofed, the true B2to:, or
Bramble, of Diofcorides, the fame name being given to it
by the modern Greeks. The /fem is truly fhrubby and pe-
rennial, long and arching, purplifh, ftrongly angular, armed
with very powerful hooked prickles, fuch as occur, of a
fmaller fize, on the ftalks and ribs of the /eaves, as well as
on the flowerffalks. ‘The leaflets, ufually-five, are of a
narrower, more oblong, and pointed form than the laf;
dark green above ; very white and cottony beneath; though
fpecimens may occafionally be found which have, on one and
the fame branch, fuch white-backed leaves, with others that
are pale green, or barely hoary. All the /eaffets have com-
monly very confiderable partial footftalks, the outermoft
more or lefs combined with the next. The fowers in long,
cylindrical, compound, denfe, and rigid panicles, are of an
elegant blufh or rofe-colour, feldom white. Calyx downy,
moderately pointed, always reflexed both in flower and fruit.
Berry of very numerous crowded grains, of a violet black
when ripe, with a fweet but mawkifh tafte, acceptable only
to children, whofe
« Pretty lips with black-berries,
Are oft bef{meared and dyed.”’
There is a fuppofed variety of R. fruticofus with jagged
leaves, green beneath, and double white fawers.
29. R. villofus. Hairy American Black-berry. Ait.
n. 8. Willd. n. 14. Purfh n. 2.—Leaves quinate, or ternate,
ovate-oblong, taper-pointed, fharply ferrated, finely hairy
on both fides. Stem and footftalks hifpid, and fomewhat
prickly. Clufters fimple, lax, hairy, and glandular ; fome-
times leafy.—In old fields and commons, from New England
to Carolina, frequent, flowering in June and July, and known
by the name of Black-berries. Pur/h. It appears to have
been introduced into the gardens of England and France
about the fame time, near 40 yearsago. In the latter it was
called R. vulpinus. The /eaves are rather large, properly
confifting of five leaflets, green on both fides, of which the
terminal one has a very long partial ftalk, and the two hind-
moft very fhort ones, all the partial italks radiating from
one point. In fome of the upper leaves the lateral leaflets
are combined for almoft their whole length ; the next leaf to
thefe is ternate ; and the uppermoft of allfimple, diminifh-
ing into a leafy braGea under each flower-/falz, but ftill
accompanied by /ipulas. The flowers are rather {mall, and
feem to be white.
30. R. canadenfis. Purple-ftalked Canada Bramble.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 707. Willd. n. 15. Purth n. 4.—Leaves
digitate, of from ten to five, or three, lanceolate, taper-
pointed, fharply ferrated, partial-ftalked leaflets, {mooth on
both fides. Stem without prickles.—In rocky barren woods
of Canadaand New England, flowering in June and July.
9 The
RUBUS.
The flemand old branches are purple. Pur/b. This is very
unlike all the reft, having fo many J/eaffets, all fmooth on
both fides ; paler beneath, where they are marked by ftrong,
prominent, parallel veins. /oo//lalks channelled, purplith,
nearly or quite fmooth. Svipulas {etaceous. Flowers in
fimple, denfe, terminal; downy c/ufers, with ovate, pointed,
fmooth bradeas. Calyx of the fruit reflexed, flightly downy.
Berries of a few large grains, with wrinkled feeds. Lin-
neus by miftake cites the very fame figure of Miller,
which a few lines below, he properly refers to R. odoratus.
This error Willdenow implicitly copies, without doubt or
remark.
31. R. fpedabilis. Elegant American Bramble. Purfh
n. 11.t. 16.—Leaves ternate, ovate, acute, doubly ferrated ;
downy beneath. Stem fmooth and unarmed. Stalks eo
flowered, folitary. Petals ovate-—Gathered by Mr. Men-
zies on the north-weft coalt of America, and by governor
Lewis on the banks of the Columbia ; flowering in April
and May. Purfh. Anelegant /brud, four or five feet high,
Stem {mooth, deflitute of prickles; the branches flender,
round, very {mooth. Leaves large, on downy, channelled,
occafionally fomewhat prickly /la/ks, ternate ; the lateral
leaflets feflile, oblique at the bafe, and lobed at the outer
fide. Stipulas awl-fhaped. Flowers as large as in the fol-
lowing fpecies, of afullandrich crimfon. Segments of the
calyx downy, oblong, with fhort points. Petals full twice
as long as the calyx. :
32. R. odoratus. Flowering Rafpberry. Linn. Sp. Pl.
7o7. Willd. n..16. Ait. n. 9g. Purfh n. 12. Curt.
Mag. t. 323. Mill. Ic. t. 223. Cornut. Canad. 149.
t. 150.—Leaves fimple, with three or five acute lobes. Stem
ere&t, hifpid, unarmed. Corymbs terminal, fpreading,
hifpid and glutinous. Petals nearly orbicular. Calyx with
linear leafy points.—This, according to Mr. Purfh, is found
in the woods of Canada, and onthe Allegany mountains,
from New York to Carolina, bloffoming in June and July.
In the gardens of Europe it has been cultivated for above a
century, being, though a greenhoufe plant in Sweden, per-
feétly hardy with us, and generally admired in fhrubberies
for the beauty of its copious, large, crimfon flowers, with
fingularly white /famens ; as well as for the cedar-like fra-
grance of its glutinous, rough, brown flowerfalks and
calyx. The flems are a yard high, or more, biennial like
R. ideus. Leaves ample, ferrated, roughifh, of a fine
teen. The fruit is f{carcely ever formed in England.
Riitles defcribes it as reddifh, infipid, of numerous {mall
rains. Mr. Purth fays “ the derries are yellow, of a very
Ene flavour and large fize, but fcarcely ever produced in
the gardens.’”
3. R. alceefolius. Hollyhock-leaved Bramble. Poiret
in Lamarck Diét. v. 6. 247.—Leaves fimple, fomewhat pal-
mate, fharply ferrated, rugofe; downy beneath. Cluiters
axillary and terminal, prickly. Bra¢teas in many capillary
fegments. Calyx very hairy, inflated. Branches angular.
Gathered by Commerfon in Java. The /lems are about as
tall as R. ideus, divided into very hairy, almoft quadrangu-
lar, branches, furnifhed with reddifh prickles. Leaves
lobed, almott palmate, fharply toothed, very broad; rough
and wrinkled, but not hairy, on their upper furface ; downy
beneath, with yellowifh reticulated veins. ootfalks, as
well as the principal ribs of each leaf, prickly. Cluflers
fhort, prickly, very hairy. Bradeas hairy, divided into
numerous capillary fegments. Calyx inflated, almoft glo-
bular, divided half way down into’five oval fegments ; white
within ; clothed externally with denfe, tawny, woolly
hairs. Petals roundifh, white, foon falling. We know
nothing of this {pecies but from Poiret’s defcription, which
is very clear and well marked. Wehave altered his {pecific
character by that defcription, for the purpofe of contrafting
its effential particulars with the following.
34. R. rugofus. Rugged-leaved Bramble.—Leaves fim-
ple, heart-fhaped, roundly lobed, crenate, rugofe ; downy
beneath. Clutters axillary and terminal. Braéteas ovate,
cut. Calyx very hairy, branches round, prickly.—Ga-
thered by Dr. Buchanan, July 18, 1802, at Sembu, in
Upper Nepaul, where it is called, in the Parbuttie language,
Jogi Ayfoalu, and by the Nawars Cumbatafhi. The lem is
climbing, with round, downy éranches, armed with {mall,
{cattered, hooked prickles. Leaves as broad as the palm of
the hand, heart-fhaped, acute, with about five or feven
rounded, fharply crenate, rather fhallow lobes ; the upper
fide green, teffellated with numerous wrinkles, rather hairy ;
the under white and downy, reticulated with innumerable
veins. Footfalks round, downy and prickly, as well as the
principal ribs. Stipulas oblong, ovate, toothed, downy.
Clufters {hort and denfe, chiefly axillary, not fo long as the
footftalks, of few flowers; the terminal one larger. . Brac-
teas broader than the ftipulas, hairy, flightly cut or toothed.
Flowers large. Calyx denfely covered with long filky hairs ;
its fegments ovate, acute, recurved, downy within. Petals
white, erect, almoft as long as the calyx, ovate, obtufe,
finely toothed, furnifhed with claws. Fruit red. The
round branches, lefs divided /eaves, and more entire bradeas,
feem to render this effentially dittin@ from Poiret’s alceefo-
lius, to which it is evidently next akin.
35- R. tiliaceus. Lime-leaved Bramble.—Leaves heart-
fhaped, rounded, acute, fharply crenate, very obfcurely
lobed ; white and downy beneath. Clutters axillary. Seg-
ments of the calyx lanceolate, downy. Stem and footftalks
round, downy, flightly prickly. Gathered by Dr. Bu-
chanan at the fame place as the laft, June 2, 1802. The
leaves fomewhat refemble thofe of the American Tilia alba.
They are fometimes nearly orbicular, but generally have
indications of a flight lobe at each fide ; the upper furface
is green, naked, and tolerably even; the under clothed with
very foft fine white down. All the ftalks, like the calyx,
are more cottony than filky. The latter is deeply divided,
{preading, or infome degree recurved. Petals {mall, fpatu-
late. Seeds wrinkled. The cluflers ave more lax, and the
flowers very much fmaller than in R. rugofus. Small dif-
perfed prickles may be felt, rather than feen, here and there
on the downy éranches and foot/lalks. The braéeas are
{mall, woolly, deeply jagged.
36. R. moluccanus. Molucca Bramble. Linn. Sp. Pl.
707. Willd. 17. (R. moluccus latifolius; Rumph. Am-
boin. v. 5. 88. t. 47. f. 2.)—Leaves fimple, heart-fhaped,
fomewhat lobed, crenate ; white and downy beneath. Cluf-
ters axillary and terminal, aggregate. Bratteas deeply pal-
mate. Calyx filky. Stem and footftalks round, downy,
prickly.—Native of Amboyna and the Molucca iflands.
Very nearly allied to the three preceding {pecies, but the
Jeaves are more elongated and acute than in any of them, with
a pair of rounded, more or lefs diftin&, lateral lobes towards
the bafe. The deeply palmate, or digitate filky bra&eas
feem nearly to agree with thofe of the alceefolius. The
flowers ave plentiful. Calyx filky, with deep, lanceolate,
taper-pointed fegments. Petals obovate, crenate. Fruit
red, eatable, but rather infipid.
37- R. microphyllus. Small-leaved Japan Bramble. Linn.
Suppl. 263. (R. palmatus ; Thunb. Jap. 217. Ki Itzigo;
Kempf. Ameen. Exot. 787. )— Leaves fimple, heart-fhaped,
obtufe, three-lobed, {mooth. Stem and footftalks prickly.
Flowers folitary. Outfide of the calyx naked. Gathered
by Thunberg, in hilly places, between Miaco and Quana in
Japan,
RUBUS.
Japan, flowering in April. The femis fhrubby, erect, two
or three feet high. Branches round, wavy, {mooth, pur-
plith, befet with prominent, rather afcending, fcattered
prickles. Leaves feveral together from each lateral bud, on
fhortifh, channelled, rather prickly /lalés, heart-fhaped,
rounded, fharply crenate, more or lefs three-lobed, ftrongly
veined and fomewhat plaited, {mooth on both fides; paler
beneath ; their length about an inch. Flowers folitary from
each bud, ftalked. Calyx {mooth and angular at the out-
fide; downy within; its fegments lanceolate, acute. Pe-
tals twice as long as the calyx, obovate, white, wrinkled,
with long claws. Fruit yellow, very well flavoured.
38. R. incifus. Cut-leaved Japan Bramble. Thurb.
Jap. 217. Willd. n. 19.—Leaves fimple, heart-fhaped,
obtufe, cut, fmooth. Footftalks with hooked prickles.
Stem prickly. Flowers folitary. Outfide of the calyx
naked.—Native of Japan. We have feen no {pecimen.
This fpecies feems, from Thunberg’s defcription, very near
the latt, differing chiefly in the divifions of the /eaves.
We here find in Willdenow the R. japonicus, Linn. Mant.
245. Suppl. 263. This the Linnzan herbarium fhews to
be no other than Corchorus japonicus of Thunberg, a beau-
tiful fhrub, now becoming common in our gardens, where
it is quite hardy. The double yellow flowers are much ad-
mired. Linneus, by his fpecimen, fuppofed the petals to
be white. He knew nothing of the fruit, and judging by
the habit, was not inexcufable in referring the plant to Ru-
dus. See CORCHORUS, N. 12. P
39. R. corchorifolius. Corchorus-leaved Bramble. Linn.
Suppl. 263. Willd. n. 21. (R. villofus; Thunb, Jap.
218.)—Leaves fimple, oblong-heart-fhaped, pointed, fer-
rated, fomewhat hairy. Stem round, downy, prickly.
Flowers folitary. Outfide of the calyx hairy. Native of
Japan, between Miaco and Jedo, flowering in April. The
fem is fhrubby and upright, finely downy, with a few dif-
tant, flightly recurved, prickles. Foot/alks hairy and
prickly. Leaves longer, and much more pointed, than in
mierophyllus or incifus, with finer more copious ferratures ;
their ribs and veins efpecially hairy. F/owers on the young
branches, ftalked, folitary, much like the two latt {pecies,
but the calyx is both downy and hairy on the outfide. No-
thing is faid of the fruit. The /eaves are defcribed by
Thunberg as elegantly plaited before they fully expand.
40. R. elongatus. Long-cluftered Bramble. Sm. Plant.
[c. t. 62. Willd. n. 22.—Leaves fimple, heart-fhaped,
pointed, doubly crenate ; white and downy beneath. Pani-
cle elongated, racemofe. Segments of the calyx rounded,
obtufe. Gathered by Commerfen in Java. The branches
are round, downy, with minute difperfed prickles. Leaves
very {mooth and even on the upper fide; their margin fur-
nifhed with a row of broad fhallow notches, or ferratures,
with {mall, rather acute, intermediate ones. Panicle ter-
minal, long, lax, zigzag, finely downy or filky, in every
part, as well as the calyx. Braéeas oblong, jagged at the
end, deciduous. Flower-/lalks fhort and thick, aggregate,
cluttered, or fomewhat umbellate. Segments of the calyx
remarkably rounded. Petals orbicular, white. Fruit red.
at. R. paniculatus. Spreading Panicled Bramble.— Leaves
fimple, heart-fhaped, pointed, flightly lobed, fharply and
finely crenate: white and downy beneath. Panicle twice
compound, fpreading. Segments of the calyx ovate, taper-
pointed. Gathered by Dr. Buchanan, at Narain hetty, in
Nepaul, Nov. 18, 1802. The round, downy branches,
with {mall feattered prickles, agree with the laft, as well as
with moluccanus, rugofus, &c. The woolly foofffalks alfo
bear very fmall hooked prickles. The /eaves are as broad as
the hand, more finely and fharply crenate than thofe of R.
elongatus, with {ome irregular, fhallow, oblolete, acute lobes.
Panicle very large, lax and f{preading, twice, or even thrice
compound, downy, its ultimate ftalks partly umbellate, but
all much more long and flender than in the foregoing. The
calyx alfo differs eflentially in its tapering fegments, downy,
not filky on both fides. Petals {mall, obovate. Fruit
black.
42. R. pyrifolius. Pear-leaved Bramble. Sm. Plant. Ic.
t. 61. Willd. n. 23.—Leaves fimple, elliptical, pointed,
ferrated, fmooth. Panicle corymbofe, downy. Calyx
partly jagged. Petals minute.—Found in Java, by Com-
merfon. ‘The branches are flender, round, flightly zigzag,
minutely hairy, armed with {mall recurved prickles. Leaves
on-fhortifh hairy /alks, coriaceous, three inches long, and
one broad, coarfely ferrated ; the ribs and veins only hairy
on both fides. Panicle terminal, large, twice compound ;
its branches corymbofe and downy. BraGeas linear, deeply
jagged, deciduous. Segments of the calyx ovate, taper-
ointed, downy on both fides; the points of two or three
of them deeply divided into three or four parts, while the
reft are entire. Petals very f{mall, abrupt and jagged,
fearcely a quarter the length of the calyx. wit of a few
large grains, with wrinkled /eeds.
43- R. acuminatus. Pointed-leaved Bramble.—Leaves
fimple, ovate, taper-pointed, ferrated, fmooth. Panicle
racemofe, not downy. Petals as long as the calyx.—
Found by Dr. Buchanan, in the woods at Sembu in Upper
Nepaul, flowering early in July, 1802. This f{pecies is
related to the lalt, but very diftin@. The fem is climbing,
unarmed. The branches are minutely prickly, but not
hairy. Leaves four or five inches in length, fearcely coria-
ceous, {mooth and fhining on both fides, paler beneath,
fimply or doubly ferrated, remarkable for their long taper
oints. Jootfalks channelled, prickly, as well as the
midrib, hardly pubefcent. Svipulas awl-fhaped, toothed,
{mooth, deciduous. Panicle terminal, elongated, zigzag,
compound, accompanied by fome leaves; its ultimate
branches often three-flowered. Flower-/falks warty, but
not downy. Bra&eas awl-fhaped, fimple or divided,
{mooth. Calyx warty and downy, with a fhort fimple
point to each fegment. Petals ovate, acute, the length of
the calyx, white. Fruit of a very bright red, larger than
the calyx.
Se&. 2. Stem herbaceous.
44. R. pedatus. Pedate Bramble. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 63.
Willd. n. 24. Purfh n. 17.Leaves_ pedate, of five
bluntifh, nearly fmooth, cut and ferrated leaflets. Flower-
{talks capillary, fimple, bra¢teated in the middle. Calyx
{moothifh, partly cut, reflexed.Gathered on the north-
weit coaft of America, by Mr. Menzies, to whom we are
obliged for fpecimens. ‘This is an elegant, delicate, her-
baceous plant, with creeping roots, throwing up, at in-
tervals, fhort fimple fems, with one or two /eaves, on long,
flender, channelled foot/falks, and one, rarely two, flower-
Jialks, nearly the fame length, but more flender, bearing a
pair of little roundith draéeas, about half way up. Stipulas
in pairs, roundifh, fringed, larger than the dradeas. Flowers
folitary, {mall. Calyx deeply divided ; its fegments oblong,
fome of them three-cleft. Peta/s the fame length, elliptical,
rather abrupt or jagged; whether white or yellow we are
doubtful. If the latter, it would greatly confirm Mr.
Purth’s fufpicion of this plant being a {pecies of Dalibarda,
provided that genus fhould be eftablifhed, a point on which
we fhall touch at the conclufion of this article. We know
nothing of the fruit of our R. pedatus.
45. R. faxatilis. Stone Bramble. Linn. Sp. Pl. 708.
Willd. n..25. Ait. on. 11. Purfh n. 13? Fl. Brit.
R. 5.
RUBUS.
n. 5. Engl. Bot. t.2233. Fl. Dan. t. 134. Ger. Em.
1273.—Leaves ternate, acute, flightly downy, doubly and
unequally notched. Runnerscreeping, herbaceous. Panicle
of few flowers. Stipulas ovate.—Native of ftony, rather
mountainous, dry woods and thickets, in the north of Europe,
chiefly confined with us to Scotland, Wales, and the mot
northern and hilly part of England, flowering in June.
The whole herb is of a flender delicate habit, light green,
flightly downy, not at ail white or hoary. It fpreads ex-
tenfively by means of long trailing fhoots, either naked or
leafy, which do not bloffom till their extremities have
taken root. The flowering /lems are folitary, ereét, fimple,
a fpan high, flightly angular, leafy, hairy, befides a few
occafional, very tender, horizontal. prickles, often prefent
alfo on the footflalks. The leaflets are in fome meafure rhom-
boid, fharply and coarfely crenate ; the fide ones now and
then lobed at the lower margin, and very rarely two at
each fide. C/u/ler termmal, downy, of from three to five
{mall inconfpicuous flowers. Segments of the calyx lan-
ceolate, downy, acute. Petals erect, lanceolate, bluntith,
cream-coloured or greenifh. Berries of a very few large,
crim{fon, globular grains, pleafantly acid. Seeds comprefled,
wrinkled.
Mr. Purfh, following Michaux, confiders as a variety of
this a plant fouad in Canada, and on the mountains from
New York to Virginia, which has {mall black berries. The
flowers are about three, on long partial ftalks. Its runners
accord with our /axatilis, but we fhould prefume that an
accurate comparijon of thefe two plants might prove them
to be diitiné f{pecies.
46. R. obovalis. Mofs American Black-berry. Michaux
Boreali-Amer. vy. 1. 298. Purfh n. 14.—Leaves ternate,
oval, rounded, ferrated, naked. Stem hifpid. Cluifters
fomewhat corymbofe, of few flowers. Stipulas fetaceous.
—Found in fwamps, among bog-mols, on the mountains
from New York to Carolina, flowering from May to July.
The flem is defcribed as rather fhrubby, hifpid with rigid
heirs. Flower-falks elongated. Bradeas ovate. Berries
with only a few large grains, black and {weet. The name,
and definition of the /eaves, foliolis obovalibus, are incorre&t.
Ain oval is of the fame breadth at each end. We prefume
Michaux meant obovate. E
47- R. aréicus.. Dwarf Crimfon Bramble. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 708. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 170. t. 5. f..2. Willd. n. 26.
Ait. n. 13. Purfh n. 15. Fi. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot.
t..1585. Curt. Mag. t. 132. Fl. Dan. t. 488.—Leaves
ternate, fmooth, bluntly ferrated. Stem, moftly fingle-
flowered, without prickles. Petals roundifh, notched.—
Native of Lapland, alfo of Labradore, and about Hud-
fon’s Bay ; as well as of the ifle of Mull, and the moun-
tains of Ben-y-glo, in Scotland, flowering in May and
June. The root is perennial and creeping, but without
feyons. Stems unarmed, ereét, leafy, from four to eight
inches high, almoft invariably fimple and fingle-flowered,
though fometimes from luxuriance an axillary bloflom oc-
curs at the fecond leaf, as drawn in Engl. Bot. Leaflets
always three, ovate or rhomboid, bluntifh, with broad
roundifh ferratures. Stipulas ovate, entire. Flower ter-
minal, ftalked, of a beautiful crimfon. Calyx downy,
often with fix or feven fegments, with which the ee
agree in number. The latter are moftly emarginate, fome-
times much jagged. Berry of a few large grains, amber-
coloured, with a purplifh tinge, about as big as a rafpberry,
but far fuperior in flavour, partaking of that fruit and the
ftrawberry, with a lufcious fweetnefs. Linnzus juftly ex-
tols this fruit, and acknowledges his obligation to it, when
fatigued with the labours of his Lapland tour. Syrup,
Vou. XXX.
elly, and wine are made of it in Sweden, which are efteemed
Tichly. ‘Thefe berries are often ripened in our gardens,
provided the plant be allowed to grow with luxuriance.
The feeds are fcarcely perceptibly wrinkled.
48. R. piffillatus. Clofe-ftyled Bramble. Sm. Exot.
Bot.\'v. ‘22° 53. 't. 86. “Ait. n. 12°) Purfhn. 16." (RI
acaulis; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 298.)—lLeaves ter-
nate, {mooth, fharply ferrated. Stem fingle-flowered, without
prickles. Petals oblong, entire. Styles cluitered together.
—Native of Labradore; and, according to Mr. Purfh, of
the bogs of Canada, as well as the north-weft coait of
America, flowering in June and July. It was firft culti-
vated in England by Mr Dickfon, in the garden of the late
Rt. Hon. Charles Greville at Paddington, about the year
1802. This moft refembles the aréicus in habit, but is of
more humble ftature, though by no means deftitute of a ftem.
The /eaves are more acutely ferrated, and rife above the
flower, which is crimfon, large, and handfome, on a terminal,
downy, fimple falk. Calyx with fix, or more, lanceolate,
narrow fegments, rather downy. Petals as numerous, and
twice as long, elliptic-oblong, with taper claws. Stamens
club-fhaped and obtufe, which is likewife the cafe in the
arGicus, but in the prefent there is more of a capillary ftalk
to the anther. Germen deprefled. Styles few, crowded to-
gether, looking like a fimple one. We know nothing of
the fruit.
49- R. geoides. Avens-leaved Bramble. Sm. Plant. Ic.
t. 19. Willd. n. 29.—Leaves fimple or ternate, obtufe,
ferrated, fmooth; the odd leaflet very large. Stems de-
prefled, fingle-flowered. Petals roundifh.—Gathered by
Commerfon at the ftraits of Magellan. This is a humble
depreffed herb, with very fhort flems. Footfalks long,
channelled, flightly hairy, each bearing two awl-fhaped
Jipulas, a good way above the bafe. Leaves moftly coms
pofed of one large, heart-fhaped, rounded, abrupt, un-
equally ferrated, {mooth, terminal leaflet, and a pair of,
much {maller, ftalked ones, which laft are fometimes want-
ing. Flower terminal, folitary, on a thick downy ftalk,
Segments of the calyx oblong. Petals nearly orbicular.
Fruit unknown. Commerfon obferved the /famens and
piftils to be always prefent together in each flower, in which
this plant differs from R. Dalibarda and Chamemorus, here-
after defcribed.
50. R. ¢trifidus. Three-cleft Japan Bramble. Thunb.
Jap. 217. Willd. n. 27.—Leaves fimple, three-cleft, cut
and ferrated, {mooth. Stem without prickles, nearly
fimple, ereét. Flowers ftalked, folitary. Calyx white
and downy.—Found by Thunberg, near Quana in Japan,
flowering in April. The fem is faid to be rather zigzag,
round, moftly fimple, purple, and fmooth. Leaves flalked,
heart-fhaped, roundifh, nearly as broad as the palm of the
hand; their lobes cut, and unequally ferrated. Flowers
from the fame bud with the leaves, folitary, on a fimple,
rarely divided, /falk, which is like the foot/alks, about a
finger’s length, and villous. Fruit red, eatable, agreeably
flavoured. By the above defcription, taken from Thun-
berg, it fhould feem that there are more flowers than one
on each {tem ; but we have feen no fpecimen.
gt. R. flellatus. Starry-flowered Bramble. Sm. Plant.
Ic. t.64. Willd. n. 28. Purfh a. 18.— Leaves fimple, three-
lobed, rugofe. Stem fingle-flowered. Segments of the calyx
awl-fhaped. Petals lanceolate.—Gathered by Mr. Menzies,
near Foggy Harbour, on the north-weit coaft of America.
The roots are perennial and creeping. Stems annual, folitary,
ere&t, fimple, leafy, downy, without prickles, about two
inches high. Leaves two or three, alternate, on long
downy ftalks, heart-fhaped, broader than they are long,
4Q more
RUBUS.
more or lefs deeply three-lobed, rather acute, fharply fer-
rated, rugofe, veiny, flightly hairy ; paler beneath. Svipulas
roundifh, or ovate, fomewhat notched. Flower large, ter-
minal, folitary, much overtopped by the foliage, crimfon,
ona fhort downy ftalk. Calyx hairy, with from five to
ten long, taper fegments; its bafe angular and ribbed.
Petals as many, lanceolate or obovate, with taper claws.
Berry compofed of feveral grains. The calyx fometimes
remains through the witter, elevated on the elongated dried
Jfiem, as in the plate above cited.
52. R. Chamemorus. Mountain Bramble, or Cloud-
berry. Linn. Sp. Pl..708. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 173. t. 5.
f.x. Willd. n. 30. Ait. n. 14. Purfh n. 1g. FI.
Brit. n.7. Engl. Bot. t.. 716. Lightf. Scot. 266. t. 13.
f. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 1. (Chamemorus; Ger. Em. 1273.
Vaccinia nubis; ibid. 1420, very bad.)—Leaves fimple,
lobed, rugofe. Stem fingle-flowered. Segments of the
calyx ovate. Petals roundifh.—Native of alpine turfy bogs
in the north of Europe, frequent in Lapland, Denmark, .
Siberia, &c., as well as on the higheft mountains of Scotland,
Wales, and the north of England, flowering in June. It
occurs alfo in Canada and New England. The roots are
long and creeping, throwing up here and there folitary
flems, about a {pan high, fome bearing folitary male flowers,
others female ones. Leaves fhaped like thofe of a mallow,
or currant, heart-fhaped at the bafe, ftrongly veined, plaited,
{mooth, unequally ferrated, one er two on each ftem.
Fooifalks flightly hairy. Stipulas ovate, obtufe. Flower
on a long downy /la/g, rifing above the leaves, white,
elegant. Calya tawny, downy, with five broad ovate feg-
ments. Petals about twice as long as the calyx. Berry
of many large grains, amber-coloured, with a pleafant acid
flavour refembling that of tamarinds, though rather mucila-
ginous. Lightfoot fays, thefe berries are brought to table
in the highlands. Linnzus {peaks of them as much efteemed
by the Laplanders, who preferve them through the winter,
buried under the fnow.
53. R. coriaceus. Coriaceous Peruvian Bramble. Poiret
in Lamarck Did. v. 6. 237.— Leaves fimple, ovate-oblong,
undivided, {mooth, ferrated. Stem and footftalks fome-
what prickly. Flowers axillary, folitary. Segments of
the calyx lanceolate. Petals roundifh.—Found by Dom-
bey in Peru. Defcribed by Poiret, from Juffieu’s herba-
rium. The /lems are ereét, nearly fimple, herbaceous, red-
difh, comprefled, very {mooth, except a few {mall fcattered
prickles on their upper part. Leaves alternate, diftina,
thick, and coriaceous, rather obtufe; fhining on the upper
fide; their footffalks furnifhed with fome imall prickles.
Stipulas oval, toothed. lowers axillary, towards the top
of the ftem, on fimple, thickifh fa/ks, armed with very
fine prickles. Calyx large, broad at the bafe, with five
{mooth, lanceolate, pointed, greenifh fegments. Petals
rounded, fhorter than the calyx, crenate at the extremity,
appearing yellow when dry.
54. R. Dalbarda. Violet-leaved Dwarf Bramble. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 708. Willd. n. 31. Sm. Plant. Ic. t. 20. La-
marck Illuftr. t. qq1. f. 3. (Dalibarda repens; Linn.
Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 491. Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 6. 250.
Purfh v. 1. 350. D. violeoides; Michaux Boreali-Amer.
v. I. 299. t. 27. Adit. v. 3. 271.)—Leaves fimple, heart-
Shaped, undivided, crenate, hairy. Stems creeping. Stalks
fingle-flowered. Petals ovate. Gathered by Kalm in
Canada. Mr. Purfh fays it is found in the fhady woods
and bogs of that, country, and on the high mountains of
New England and Pennfylvania, flowering in May and June.
The herbage much refembles that of fome {pecies of violet.
The rest is perennial and creeping, fending forth feveral
deprefled, creeping, round, leafy, downy ffems. Leaves
rounded, about an inch in diameter, finely hairy on both
fides, on long, flender, hairy foot/alks. ‘Stipulas oblong,
with feveral terminal awl-fhaped fegments. F/ower-/lalks
nearly radical, about as long as the foot{talks, but more
flender, fimple, hairy, each bearing a {mall white flower,
not unlike a fingle hepatica, but about halt the fize. Seg-
ments of the calyx lanceolate, acute, downy, fometimes
partly notched, nearly equal to the petals. Stamens capillary.
Styles five, above half as long as the ftamens. They are
erroneoufly defcribed * very fhort’”? in the Plant. Ic.
Fruit of five, or not fo many, pale, dry, ovate, obtufe
grains, minutely downy, and flightly wrinkled.
The want of pulp im the fruit firft induced Linneus to
feparate this plant, as a genus, from Rubus ; but he after-
wards altered his opinion. His original determination has
been followed by Michaux, Purfh, and Aiton. The
queftion is difficult, but there are many different degrees of
pulpinefs in the feveral fruits of acknowledged Rudi, and
Mr. Purfh himfelf defcribes his cuneifolius, fee n. 15, with
“hard and dry Jderries,’” though no perfon furely would
think of placing that {fpecies any where elfe. Tull, there-
fore, we can judge for ourfelves, by tracing the growth of
the fruit in queftion, and comparing it with others, we had
rather follow Linneus. Michaux fays Dalibarda differs from
Rubus, nearly in the fame manner as Potentilla from Fra-
garia ; but this is incorrect. Thefe latter are diltinguifhed
by the deciduous flefhy receptacle of Fragaria; the others
merely by more or lefs pulp in the berry ; for Dalibarda has
not naked feeds, or ‘ /emina exfucca,’? but poflibly bacca ex-
Jfucca, a very different matter. We fhall recur.to the fubje&
again under the following {pecies.
55- R? fragarioides. Strawberry-leaved Bramble. (Dali-
barda fragarioides; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 300. t. 28.
Curt. Mag. t.1567. Purfhv.1.350. Ait. v. 3.271. Poi-
ret in Lamarck Dit. v. 6. 250.)—Leaves ternate ; leaflets
all feffile, wedge-fhaped, notched and ferrated, fringed.
Stalks radical, many-flowered. Calyx tubular at the bafe.—
Native of fhady beech woods in Canada, and of the Alle-
gany mountains, flowering in May and June. We have
feen no fpecimen, but by the above plate, the root appears
to be fimple, oblong, woody and perennial. Leaves all
radical, on longifh flender ftalks; the middle /eaffet feflile
like the reft, and very little larger. Flower-flalks longer
than the leaves, fomewhat panicled, bearing about five
flowers, the fize of the lalt. Calyx remarkably elongated,
and inverfely conical, at the bafe, with ovate, finally re-
flexed, fegments. Petals ovate, faid to be yellow. Stamens
numerous ; their filaments permanent, erect. Of the parti-
cular ftruture of the fruit we find no account. This
fpecies, with its yellow flowers, and tubular caly2, to fay
nothing of the herbage, is fo unlike the other Dalibarda, that
it weakens, inftead of confirming, that fuppofed genus.
We prefume not to fay, without actual examination, what
it moft refembles. Pallas, it feems, made this plant a Dryas.
We place it here merely for further enquiry. Dr. Sims in
Curtis’s Magazine remarks that the calyx fometimes betrays
an inclination to have intermediate fegments, a very curious,
though puzzling, circumttance.
56. R. radicans. Creeping Peruvian Bramble. Cavan.
Ic. v. 5. 7. t. 413. Poiret in Lamarck Did. v. 6. 249.
—Leeaves ternate ; leaflets all ftalked, heart-fhaped, villous,
ferrated. Stem creeping, prickly. Stalks radical, fingle-
flowered. Calyx notched. Gathered by Lewis Née, in
the woods of Chili, growing at the roots, or on the rotten
trunks, of trees, bearing flowers and fruit in February.
The /lem is quite prostrate, armed with fhort prickles, {pread-
ng
RUBUS.
ing to a great extent, and fixing itfelf here and there, as it
runs, by fibrous roots. Leaves feveral from each part where
the roots are produced, forming a tuft, accompanied by a
folitary, long-ftalked, pale red flower, rifing above the
leaves, and fucceeded by an ovate greenifh Jerry, compofed
of numerous grains, all together the fize of a currant, and
faid to be very agreeably Rice. The calyx is reflexed
- when in fruit, its fegments oblong, acute, with many deep
notches. Petals roundifh, obtufe.
Rusus, in Gardening, contains plants of the under-
fhrubby and herbaceous perennial kind, of which the {pecies
cultivated are, the rafpberry (R. ideus); the Virginian
rafpberry (R. occidentalis) ; the flowering rafpberry (R.
odoratus) ; the common bramble (R. fruticofus) ; the
briltly bramble (R. hifpidus) ; the dewberry bramble (R.
cxfius) ; the dwarf crimfon bramble (R. aréticus) ;' and
the mountain bramble, or cloud-berry (R. chamemorus).
In the firlt {pecies the varieties are, the red-fruited, the
white-fruited, the twice-bearing, of which the firft crop
ripens in July, and the fecond in OGtober, thofe of the latter
feafon having feldom much flavour ; the fmooth rafpberry,
and the large Antwerp. But the forts moftly cultivated, ac-
cording to Mr. Forfyth, are, the early white, the double-
bearing white, the large common white, the large red, the
red Antwerp, the large white Antwerp, the {mooth cane
double-bearing, and the Woodward’s new rafpberry.
In the fourth fort there are feveral varieties ; but that
which is chiefly introduced as a garden fhrub, is the double-
flowered bramble.
Method of Culture.—In the firft fort and varieties of thefe
plants it may be effected by fuckers and layers. The plants
fhould always havea portion of ground to themfelves, being
planted at the diftance of about fix feet from row te row,
and four in the rows, with the exception of the early white
fort, which may be fet out clofer. And according to Mr.
Forfyth, the ground fhould firft be well trenched over and
dunged; then, making choice of the ftrongeft and fineft
plants that come out from the fides of the ftools, where they
have been ftanding for fome years, or encouraging the
itrongeit plants that come out betwixt the rows after digging,
which fhould be done annually, they may be planted out as
above. In digging the ground, it frequently happens that
the roots are cut with the fpade, which occafions a great
number of {mall plants to come up; of thefe the ftrongett
and fineft fhould be feleéted, hoeing up all the fuperfluous
ones. But he prefers laying down fone of the ftrongeft out-
fide fhoots in the month of March; as, by the following
autumn, they will make fine roots, and may be planted out
in a quarter, or piece of ground, where they are intended
toremain. Thefe will not be fo liable, he thinks, to throw
out fuckers as thofe which are produced from fuckers. The
frefh pieces of ground fhould always be planted in moift
weather, as the roots are very delicate, and liable to hurt,
when expofed to a dry air. If, however, they are planted
in dry weather, he advifes that care be taken to moilten the
roots with water, and cover them well with wet litter, or
leaves, during the time in which they are planting out. In
performing the work, a trench fhould be opened with a
{pade, along the line where the fuckers or layers are to be
planted, cutting off all the {mall tibry roots with a knife,
leaving only the itronger roots; putting them into the
trench, and covering them with fome earth ; then watering
them well, and throwing the remainder of the earth over
them, letting them remain till you have finifhed planting the
piece ; then, where you firkt began to plant, beginning to
tread the ground with the foot as hard as poflible along each
of the trenches, and in the fame direétion as planted; then
_nerate, and bear {mall fruit.
with a {pade levelling all the ground fmooth, and running it
over with arake, taking off any {tones and rubbifh that may
be left on the furface, fo as to render it perfe&ily even.
The plants fhould be watered two or three times a week,
when the feafon is dry, till they have taken root; and it
will be neceflary to flake the Antwerp, and other ftron
growing forts, with {tout ftakes, running a couple of fail
rails at top to tie the branches to, which will prevent their
being broken by the wind, or beaten down by the rain.
The early white, and {maller forts, may be plaited together
at top, tying them round with the {mall yellow willow,
which will keep them together. Some of the early rafp-
berries may be planted between the trees on a welt afpe@, to
produce early fruit before thofe in the quarters come in.
The Antwerps thrive exceedingly well againft north walls
or palings, and produce late crops. Such as are planted
again{t walls or palings fhould be tacked to them, to keep
them in their places.
And it is adyifed that where any of the finall red and
white forts are found, they fltould be deftroyed, planting
the large red, the {mooth cane double-bearing, the large red
and white Antwerps, the large common white, the double-
bearing white, and Woodward’s new raf} berry in their ftead.
In refpe&t to the cutting or pruning of thele plants, fome,
Mr. Forfyth remarks, prefer pruning them in autumn, a
practice of which he by no means approves. As they
bear the fruit on the wood of the preceding year, they are,
he thinks, very liable to be killed by the froft in fevere
winters ; but, by deferring the pruning till the month of
February, there will be a great choice of fine wood for
bearing the following fummer, being careful to root out or
cut down all the wood that bore fruit the preceding year,
which generally dies, feleéting only from five to feven of the
moit vigorous and {trong fhoots from the laft year’s wood to
bear fruit the enfuing feafon. Thefe fhoots may be pruned
to the length of three or four feet, according to their
ftrength, when they are of the {mooth cane double-bearing
fort (which generally bears a fecond crop in autumn, and
will, in fine feafons, continue bearing from June to No-«
vember) ; but, if the large Antwerp, the fhoots fhould be
left five or fix feet long in thefe prunings.
But in regard to the early white, which never grows fe
{trong as the above forts, it fhould be fhortened to two feet
and a half, or three feet. Thefe fhould be planted in rows
about three feet diftant from each other, and two feet from
plant to plant in the rows; always remembering to keep
them clear of fuckers, and to cut out the dead or laft year’s
wood, as above; making choice of the ftrongeft fhoots for
bearing wood. Great care fhould, however, be taken not
to cut off the little fpurs on the fides, which bear the fruit
in this kind. Plants of this fort continue in bearing five or
fix years; by which time a frefh plantation fhould be in
readinefs to fucceed them. The young plants often bear
fome fruit the firft year, and come into full bearing in
the fecond after planting. If they be fuflered to remain
more than five or fix years on the {ame ground, they dege-
And much care fhould be
taken not to leave above eight or ten of the itrongett fhoots,
rubbing off or pulling up all the fuperfluous ones ; and keep.
ing the ground well hoed and cleared of weeds between the
rows, as well asin other places.
Alfo in the other forts the increafe may be effeGted by
fuckers, layers, cuttings, and dividing the roots, and in the
two lait, or tet cenamtisnda, by feed. The fuckers fhould
be taken up in autumn, winter, or {pring, with roots; and
the ftrongett be planted at once into the fhrubbery, and the
others in aurfery-rows for a year or two, or till wanted for
4Q2 planting.
RUB
planting. The layers fhould be made from the fhoots,
which may be done almoft any time, as they readily emit
roots at every joint, and become fit to plant out in the
autumn following. And the cuttings fhould be taken off
from fome of the younger fhoots, and divided into lengths
a foot long, and planted in a fhady border, either in the
{pring or fummer feafon. The roots in any of the rafp-
berry and herbaceous forts, when increafed into large
bunches, may be divided or flipped into feveral diftiné& fets,
and planted out feparately.
The laft two forts may likewife be raifed from feeds,
which fhould be taken from the ripened fruit, and fown in a
moift fituation where the plants are to remain, keeping the
young plants clean afterwards.
Both the firlt {pecies, and all the varieties, are highly ufe-
ful for their fruit; for the table, preferving, and other
culinary purpofes.
And moft of the other forts afford variety in the borders,
clumps, and other parts of pleafure-crounds, among other
hardy plants. ,
Rusus, in Ichthyology, a name given by Joannes Cuba,
Albertus, and fome other writers, to the fpecies of ray,
ufually called the /Rate, or faire. See Rata (Baris and
Rusus).
RUBY, Spinelle, Fr., in Mineralogy, a precious ftone,
much valued by jewellers ; but under this name a variety of
minerals have not unfrequently been fold, which differ
effentially in their chara@ters. Mineralogifts have alfo
difagreed much in the claffification of fubftances to which
they have giventhe name of ruby. The oriental ruby is, in
fa&t, a red variety of the fapphire, and is defcribed under
the article Gems. It poflefles greater hardnefs than the
common ruby, and differs from it inits cryttallization. The
primitive form of the cry{tals of the common ruby is the
regular oftahedron, from which the fecondary forms vary
but little. Two cryftals are fometimes united, and form a
macle. The colour is red, varying from fearlet to violet
and yellowifh-red, and fometimes a dark red. It is in-
fufible by the blowpipe, nor does it lofe its colour by the
heat. The fraéture is flatly conchoidal ; it has a fplendent
vitreous luftre. The ruby poflefles a confiderable degree of
hardnefs, though its principal conftituent ingredient is alu-
mine. According to Vauquelin, it contains
Alumine - - - 84.47
Magnefia - - - 8.78
Chromic acid - - - 6.18
To the chromic acid the common ruby owes its colouring
matter. A variety of ruby has received from Hatiy the
name of Pleonafte; it differs from the above in containing
iron in place of chromic acid, and the colours vary from a
purple to blue and green. Another gem nearly refembling
the ruby, the fpinelle zinfifere of Haiiy, called alfo auto-
malite, has been claffed as a fub-{pecies of ruby, but it differs
from it greatly in its conftituent parts.
Automalite, like the common ruby, has the oétahedral
cryftallization, with lamine parallel to the faces of the
cryftal ; its colour is a dark blueifh-green, nearly opaque.
The conttituent parts, according to Vauquelin, are,
Alumine i i = 4 42
Silex - z a 3 4
Oxyd of zinc - = - 28
Oxyd ofiron - S e i
Sulphur - - say
‘The ruby, in its moft perfe& ftate, is a gem of very
great beauty and value. It is often found perfetly pure,
and free from all {pots or blemifhes ; but it is much more
frequently debafed by them, and greatly brought down in
RUB
its value, efpecially in the larger fpecimens. It is of very
great hardnefs, equal to that of the fapphire, and fecond
only to the diamond. It is various in fize, but is lefs fub-
jet to variations in its fhape than moft of the other gems.
It is moft frequently found very fmall; its common fize
being that of the heads of the larger fort of pins ; and when
of this fize it is very cheap; but it is alfo found of four,
fix, or ten carats; and fometimes, though but very rarely,
up to twenty, thirty, or forty; nay, we have accounts of
fome of more than a hundred. It is never found of an
angular or cryftalliform fhape, but always of a pebble-like
figure, often roundifh, fometimes oblong, and much larger
at one end than the other, and in fome forts refembling a
pear, and is ufually more or lefs flattened on one fide.
Tt is commonly fo naturally bright and pure on the
furface as to need no polifhing: it is worn in rings, and
in the crowns of princes, in its rough or native ftate. Its
colour is red in very different degrees, from the deepeft
garnet colour to that of the paleft red diamond, but it
ever has with the red more or lefs of a purplifh tinge.
This is very plainly diftinguifhed in the deeper coloured
{pecimens, but in the pale ones is gradually lefs and lefs to
be diftinguifhed in proportion to their -degree of colour.
Thefe are the diftinguifhing characters of the ruby, and by
thefe it is eafily known from the garnet, carbuncle, and
other red gems.
Our jewellers are very nice, though not perfeétly deter-
minate in their diftintions; knowing this gem, in its dif-
ferent degrees of colour, under three names; the firft is
fimply the ruby: this is the name they give to it in its
moft perfeét and ftrongeft coloured ftate.
The fecond is the /pinel ruby. Under this name they
know thofe rubies which are of a fomewhat lefs deep and
much lefs vivid colour than what they call the true ruby,
or fimply the ruby.
The third is the Ja/a/s ruby, a name derived from Bala-
keia, the name of a country where the paler rubies are
principally found. Under this name they exprefs a pale,
yet avery bright ruby, with a fmaller admixture of the
purple tinge than in the deeper coloured one, and fome-
thing refembling the colour of the damafk rofe. This is
of a confiderable value, but lefs than the deeper, or, as
they call it, the true ruby.
Befides thefe, they know alfo two other ftones under
the general name rubies, calling them the rock ruby, and
the rubacelle. But thefe are not truly of the ruby kind ;
the firft being a very beautiful fpecies of garnet, and
having a tinge of blue with its red; and the other a
hyacinth, having a manifeft catt of yellow. See Gems.
There are but two places in the Ealt where the ruby is
found; the kingdom of Pegu, and the ifle of Ceylon.
The mine in Pegu, where it is found in greateft plenty,
is in the mountain Capelan, twelve days’ journey from
Siren, the refidenee of the king of that country. The
fineft rubies brought hence do not exceed three or four
carats ; the king referving all the larger to himfelf.
In Ceylon the rubies are found in a river which de-
f{cends from the mountains towards the middle of the ifland :
fome few are alfo found in the ground. The rubies of
Ceylon are ufually brighter and more beautiful than thofe
of Pegu, but they are rare ;. the king of Ceylon prohibiting
his people to gather them, or traffic with them. There are,
as fome fay, rubies alfo found in Europe, particularly in
Bohemia and Hungary, efpecially the former, in which is
a mine of flints of divers fizes ; which, upon breaking, are
fometimes found to contain rubies, pretended to be as fine
and hard as any of the Eaftern ones. 7
e
RUC
The Greeks call the ruby azvewto:, g. d. refifting the
fire. The ancients, out of their credulity and fuperftition,
attributed many virtues to the ruby; as that it expels
poifons, cures the plague, abates luxury and incontinence,
banifhes forrow, &c.
It is faid the inhabitants of Pegu have the art of heighten-
ing the rednefs and brilliancy of rubies, by laying them ia
the fire, and giving them a proper degree of heat ; but this
feems a very erroneous account.
The ruby is formed in a ftony fubftance, or bed, of a
rofe-colour, called mother of ruby; it has not all its colour
and luftre at once, but comes to it by degrees. At firlt it
is whitifh ; and, as it approaches to maturity, becomes red.
Hence we have white rubies, others half-white, half-red,
and others blue and red, called /apphire rubies. When a
ruby exceeds twenty carats, it may be called a carbuncle ;
the name of an imaginary ftone, of which the ancients and
moderns have given us fo many defcriptions.
They have feveral modes of counterfeiting rubies ; and
fome have carried the imitation to that length, that the
mott able lapidaries, till they come to try the hardnefs, are
fometimes deceived.
Frutiere aflures us very pofitively, that there have been
rubies in France of two hundred and forty carats. Taver-
nier tells us he faw one in the Indies of fifty carats, which
he had a mind to have bought. He adds, that the king of
France has finer and larger rubies than any in the aie
of the great Mogul.
The largeft ruby that is known to be in the world was
brought from China to prince Gargarin, governor of
Siberia. It came afterwards into the hands of prince
Mentchikof, and is at prefent one of the ornaments of the
imperial crown of Ruffia.
Rupy, Sapphire. See Sapputre and Gems.
Rusy, Counterfeit. See Gems, Ruby Gass, and Ruby
Paste.
Rosy, in Chemifry, is a name given to feveral prepara-
tions of natural bodies, becaufe of their red colour : as,
Rusy of Arfenic, kc. See REALGAR.
Rusy, in Heraldry, denotes the red colour with which
the arms of noblemen are blazoned ; being the fame which,
in the arms of others, not noble, is called gules.
Rusy-Throat, Latham, in Ornithology. See MoTaciLya
Calliope.
RUCCELLA, La, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in
the valley of Demona; 7 miles S.W. of Cefalu.
RUCELLAT, Bernarpo, in Bingraphy, was born of a
noble family at Florence in 1449. At the age of feventeen
he married Nannina, daughter of Piero, and fifter of the
illuftrious Lorenzo de Medici, which gave him great in-
fluence, and raifed him to the higheft pofts in the republic.
In 1480 he was appointed to the office of gonfalonier of
juftice ; and four years afterwards he went as ambaflador
to the ftate of Genoa. In 1494 he was deputed, in the
fame quality, to Ferdinand, king of Naples, and afterwards
to Charles VII. king of France. With his public em-
ployments he joined that cultivation of polite literature,
which was frequent among the Florentines in the age of
the Medici. He was intimately acquainted with Mar-
figlio Ficino, of whofe academy he was at firft one of the
chief ornaments, and afterwards the firmeft fupport. After
the death of Lorenzo he was the munificent patron and
protector of the Platonic academy, for the ufe of which he
erected a fumptuous edifice, with fine gardens and groves,
furnifhed with monuments of antiquity, ferving as well for
‘ornament as inftruGtion.
lowed the fubverfion of the Medici intereft, Rucellai in-
In the revolutions which fol- -
RUC
curred the charges of ambition and inconftancy, by favour-
ing fometimes one party and fometimes another: but, ac-
cording to Mr. Rofcoe, his crime, in the eyes of the
Florentine hiftorians of the fucceeding century, was ‘‘ an
ardent love of liberty, which he preferred to the claims of
Kindred, and the expeétations of perfonal aggrandizement.””
On the acceflion of Leo X. he declined the office which his
countrymen would have conferred upon him of going as
public orator to congratulate the pontiff, forefeeing, pro-
bably, in his elevation, the ruin of the liberties of Florence.
He died in 1514, and was buried in the church of St. Maria
Novella, the front of which, begun by his father, was
finifhed by him with great magnificence. The following
are the works of this patron of literature: “ De Urbe
Roma,’’ which is a commentary on the defcription of Rome
by Publio Vittore, in which he colieGed from all the
ancient writers whatever would ferve to convey a jult idea
of the grandeur of that capital; “* De Magiitratibus Ro-
manis ;”’ * De Bello Italico ;”? and ‘* De Bello Pifano :’’
thefe have been compared with the hiftory of Salluit.
Bernardo was a poet in his own tongue; and a piece of
his, entitled “ Trionfo della Calumnia,’? was printed
among the “ Canti Carnafcialefchi,”’ at Florence in 1759.
Rofcoe’s Lorenzi de Medici.
Rucetxiai, Giovanni, fon of the preceding, a diftin-
guifhed Italian poet, was born in 1475. Improving the
advantages which he uattrally enjoyed under his father’s
roof, he became a diftinguifhed {cholar, and in 1505 the
republic of Florence nominated him ambaflador to the
Venetian ftate. He took a very active part ia the tumult
raifed by the younger citizens in the year 1512, to promote
the return of the Medici to Florence. Upon the elevation
of pope Leo X., who was his relation, Giovanni, in hopes
of preferment, repaired to Rome, and entered into the
ecclefiaftical order: and in 1515 he attended Leo on his
vifit to Florence, on which occafion the pontiff was enter-
tained in the Rucellai gardens with the reprefentation of
the tragedy of “* Rofmonda,”’ written by Giovanni. Leo
fhewed the greateft attachment to his relation, and fent him,
at a very critical period, as nuncio to the court of Francis I.,
where he was at the death of Leo X. On that event he
returned to Florence, and was fent to Rome to congratulate
the new pope Adrian VI. on his acceflion. In this, as well
as in the pontificate of Leo X., and alfo in the fucceeding *
one of Clement VII., to whom he was related, he had the
moit fanguine hope of promotion to a cardinalate. He
died in 1526, without attaining to the object of his am-
bition. As an-author, Giovanni is known by “ Le Api,’
The Bees, which is a dida€tic poem in unrhymed verfe,
and bears a high rank among Italian compofitions in that
clafs. His tragedy Refmonda, already noticed, and his
Oreites, are imitations, the former of the Hecuba of
Euripides, the latter of the Iphigenia in Tauris. Rofcoe’s
Leo X.
RUCHENWALDE, in Geography, a town of Bran-
denburg, on the Ucker Mark ; 2 miles N.E. of Storkow.
RUCHT, a river of France, which runs into the Roer,
near Hermbach.
RUCK, in Rural Econemy, a provincial term, fignifying
a rude heap or bundle of any thing.
RUCKENSTEIN, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Carniola; 6 miles W. of Gurkfeld.
RUCKERSDORYF, a town of Bavaria, in the territory
of Nuremberg ; 8 miles W. of Lauf.
RUCKERSWALDE, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Neifle ; 5 miles E.S.E. of Neifle.
RUCK-
RUD
RUCKINGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Ifenburg, on the Kinzig ; 5 miles N.E. of Hanau.
RUCTATION, Ructus, in Medicine, belching, an
‘ involuntary difcharge of flatus from the ttomach, fornetimes
accompanied with a portion of the folid or liquid contents
of that organ.
This is ufually one of the fymptoms of indigeltion,
whether arifing from a morbid condition of the ftomach, or
from a temporary overloading of it with too much food,
or with food of an acrid, heavy, or indigeftible quality, or
fuch as is difpofed to pafs into fermentation. ‘There is a
natural tendency in the food, efpecially the vegetable por-
tion of it, to the procefs of fermentation, and the confe-
quent evolution of air; but by the influence of the gaftric
juice, when it is fufficient to accomplifh the digeitive procefs,
this tendency is countera¢ted, and no air is evolved.
Whence the bett remedy for eruétation is the improvement
of the digeftive power, and the avoiding of fermentative
food. See INDIGESTION.
RUD, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus Caraffius, and
Cyprinus Lrythrophthalmus.
Rup, in Rural Economy, a term provincially fignifying
a fort of red ochre.
RUDAW,, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Natangen ; 12 miles S.W. of Lick.—Alfo, a town
of Pruffia, in the province of Samland, formerly fortified
with a caftle, now in ruins. Some monuments of Pagan
idolatry ftill remain in the vicinity of Rudaw; and alfo a
ftone pillar in a field near Tranzou, ereted in commemo-
ration of a victory obtained by the knights of the Teutonic
order in 1370, over Kinftud, great duke of Lithuania; 12
miles N.N.W. of Konigfberg.
RUDBECK, Joun, in Biography, a learned Swedifh
bifhop, was born about the year 1581. After having ob-
tained the elementary parts of education, he was entered at
the univerfity of Upfal, where he made fuch progrefs in the
higher branches of learning, that before he had completed
his twenty-third year he was appointed profeflor of mathe-
matics, which, in 1610, he exchanged for his profeflorfhip
of Hebrew. On the coronation of Guitavus Adolphus, he
took his degree in theology, and in 1619 he was nominated
to the bifhopric of Vetteras. In confequence of fome ttrong
expreflions which he made ufe of in a public oration, a
violent difpute took place between him and profeflor Mef-
fenius, which was carried fo far, that the king was obliged
to interfere, and to allay the angry paffions of the difputants,
his majefty appointed Meflenius affeffor in one of the courts
of juttice ; and in 1613 he made Rudbeck one of his own
chaplains. It was owing, in a great meafure, to the zeal
and exertions of this prelate, that the Swedifh bible, known
among the learned as the Bible of Guftavus Adolphus,
was publifhed in 1618. He is alfo known and highly
efteemed in his own country for the confiderable donations
which he made to the gymnafium of Vefteras, and for his
aid in the improvement of other ufeful inftitutions ; he died
in 1646. He was author of feveral theological works, of
which the titles are given in the General Biography.
Among thefe was one, entitled ‘ Privilegia quedam Docto-
rum, Magiftrorum, Pracalaureorum, Studioforum, et Scho-
larum omnium, &c.’? This work, which excited great
attention, had nearly proved the author’s ruin, and was,
very foon after the publication, prohibited by a decree of
the fenate. Upon this occafion, one of the members of
the fenate aflerted, that a more dangerous book had fcarcely
ever appeared, and that it was neceflary the publifher
fhould make oath that he had not retained a fingle
copy. It prevented the promotion of the prelate, who
13
RUD
‘would otherwife probably have been raifed to the rank of
archbifhop.
Rupsrck, Otor, or Oxaus, a man of very extenfive
learning and accomplifhments, who if not, ftrictly fpeaking,
the father of natural fcience in Sweden, muft be reckoned
among its earlieft and moft diftinguifhed patrons and cul-
tivators, was the fon of John Rudbeck, bifhop of Vefteras ;
an honeft and uncourtly bifhop, who fpoke truth, and was
never promoted. The fon had a great and vigorous mind,
fomewhat over-luxuriant in fpeculation and hypothefis, but
fagacious in difcovery, and indefatigable in application.
He was born in 1630, and educated at Upfal. Anatom
was his earlieft ttudy, and he profecuted it with fuch fuccefs,
that at the age of nineteen or twenty he made the important
difcovery of the lymphatic veflels in the liver, and, foon
afterwards, of thofe of other parts of the bedy. His in-
augural diflertation, in 1652, treated of the circulation of
the blood. Bartholine contended with Rudbeck. for the
originality of the difcovery of the lymphatic fyftem, and
they appear to have made it independent of each other ;
though Haller gives the priority, in point of time, to
Rudbeck. See BarTHoLine, THoMmAs.
The univerfity of Upfal was, at this time, advancing
rapidly towards that celebrity which it has now fo long
maintained. Enriched with the patrimonial eitates of the
great Guftavus Vafa, its funds have ever been ample, and
the good fenfe of its diretors has generally led them to a
right, application of thefe refources. Rudbeck, however,
having made Botany a part of his purfuits, contributed,
out of his own means, to the advancement of that {cience.
He founded a garden, which he afterwards gave to the
univerfity. He vifited Holland in 1653, but returning
home next year, devoted himfelf to the ftudy, and, we
prefume, to the practice of medicine, as well as to the in-
{tru€tion of his pupils in anatomy. In 1658 he was ap-
pointed profeffor of medicine, and was fixed at Upfal for
the remainder of his life. It appears that he married be-
fore the age of thirty, his fon, the fubje&t of our next
article, having been born in 1660, but we have no par-
ticular account of Rudbeck’s domeftic hiftory. Befides
the attention which he gave to the above-mentioned pur-
fuits, he very early addited himfelf to the ftudy of lan-
guages, hiltory, antiquities, archite€ture, and mufic, as well
as the practical art of drawing. He fo far took the lead
in matters of tafte, tkat the public feltivals and decorations,
at the coronation of the young king Charles XI., in 1660,
were put entirely under his dire¢tion.
The firft botanical publication of Rudbeck feems to
have been his Catalogue of the Upfal Garden, printed in
1658, the year after the eftablifhment of that colleGtion.
To this little volume a preface in Latin and Swedifh is
prefixed, treating of praétical horticulture, and recom-
mending botany for its agreeablenefs and utility. The
lift is, of courfe, not very ample, but contains feveral exotic
{pecies and varieties; and when the author complains of a
fharp froft on the 24th of July, we cannot but allow the
protection of ftoves and greenhoufes to have been of the
mott imperious neceffity, fo that he could fearcely, in one
year, have fufficiently provided them. An Appendix to
this catalogue was printed in 1666, the garden having been,
by that time, confiderably enriched. The fame year, 1666,
not, as Linneus has it, 1664, another fimilar work appeared,
Delicie Vallis Jacobee ; a catalogue, alphabetical like the
former, of a garden at Jacob’s Dahl, near Stockholm, be-
longing to count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, chancellor
of the kingdom of Sweden, as well as of the univerfity of
Upfal. This, though anonymous, is attributed by Linnzus,
to
RUDBECK.
to Rudbeck. Itisa little book of extreme rarity, infomuch
that Haller fpeaks of it by report only. A Latin poem is
prefixed to the work, defcribing the beauty of this villa,
its orangery, aviary, plantations, and fountains.
We know not at what period of his life Rudbeck firft
conceived the vaft projeét of his Campi Elyfii, in which all
the plants in the world, as far as they had been difcovered,
were to be reprefented by wooden cuts, in twelve folio vo-
lumes, difpofed according to Bauhin’s Pinax. For this
ftupendous work he is faid to have prepared ten or eleven
thoufand figures. The firft and fecond volumes were al-
ready printed, when a dreadful fire reduced almoft the whole
town of Upfal to afhes, inthe year 1702. Three copies
only of the firft volume efcaped the fire, two of which re-
main in Sweden, and the third is preferved in the Sherardian
library at Oxford. A few leaves of this laft copy, having
been deficient, are fupplied in manufcript. A number of
the blocks of this very volume, which confifts of es
and their allies, came into England with the Linnzan col-
leGtion ; and having been compared with the Oxford copy,
an impreffion of them was given to the public in 1789, under
the title of Religuie Rudbeckiane, the appropriate letter-
prefs of each figure, and the Linnean names, being fub-
joined. An hiftorical preface is prefixed to this edition, as
well as a dedication to Dr. John Guftavus Acrel, Profeffor
of Medicine at Upfal, who was entrufted with the fale of
the Linnean mufeum and library. (See Linnzus.) The
obje& of the dedication is to bear teftimony to the honour-
able condu@& of this gentleman, who, becaufe he would
not a& unjuftly, was accufed of having received a bribe of
1oo pounds, fo moderate is the ftandard of bribery in
Sweden, to betray the intereft of the proprietors. Perhaps
this report arofe from his rejeting, for them, the offer of
the fame fum, frem another quarter, to forfeit their engage-
ment to the perfon with whom they had treated, and to
whom he indignantly communicated the propofal.
The fecond volume of the Campi Eiyfi came from the
prefs a little before the former; fo that feveral copies, hav-
ing got abroad, efcaped the deftruction of the refit. Even
this, however, is a very rare book, the price of which can
hardly be eitimated. A copy was bought by profeffor
Jacquin in Germany, many years ago, for about 30 guineas.
This volume is in the Linnean, Bankfian, and Sherardian
libraries. Containing liliaceous plants, and the Orchis tribe,
it is much more {plendid than the firft. The figures are
copied from all quarters, though feveral are original, and
amount to about 600 in all, many of them executed with
great correétnefs and elegance, more efpecially after the fine
engravings of the Hortus Malabaricus. There are, of
courfe, feveral repetitions of the fame fpecies, and abundance
of garden varieties of Tulips, &c. The Orchidee are nu-
merous, but inferior, as to the correétnefs of their flowers,
to fome other plants, a defe& arifing from their fingularity
or minutenefs. The preface attributes the anticipated pub-
lication of this volume to the greater popularity and attrac-
tion of its contents; and feenies of many of the intended
figures of the whole work, as to be executed from drawings
made by the author himfelf, after original {pecimens, either
preferved in Burfer’s fine Swifs herbarium, or obtained from
other quarters. The author fpeaks of his fon and nephew,
each of the fame name with himfelf, as his coadjutors, and
the deftined continuators of this laborious undertaking.
The deftruction of his materials is extremely to be regretted ;
for fuch a repofitory of the botanical knowledge of the time,
would have been highly valuable to fucceeding writers ; par-
ticularly as illuftrating the plants of Bauhin, fo many of
which are to be determined from Burfer’s herbarium only.
The volume im queftion ftands alone, like the fingle un-
rivalled column of the temple of peace at Rome, a perpe-
tual caufe of regret, and a monument of irrevocable de-
ftru€tion.
Another great work of our author, on which, moft of
all perhaps, his literary celebrity depends, is entitled Af-
lantica, and ought to confift of four volumes in folio; but
of thefe the fourth, at leaft, if we miftake not, is to be met
with in manufcript only. The others are extremely rare,
probably from the accident of the fire above-mentioned.
One alone, compofed of wooden cuts, is in our pofleffion.
The aim of this fingular, but profoundly learned, perform-
ance, was to prove that Sweden had been the terreftrial
paradife of our firft parents, the Ardantis of Plato, and the
fource of all learning, ancient mythology, arts, and f{ciences.
By a pafflage in Linneus’s Lapland Tour, v. 1. 19, it
fhould feem that Rudbeck had fixed the fcene of the Trojan
war at a village in Geftrickland, which bears the name of
Troye. The reader will no longer wonder at this, when,
in one of our author’s illuftrative maps, he finds Helicon
ftationed in Lapland; the Fortunate Iflands at the Ork-
neys; and Acheron at the Maelitrom, off the coaft of Nor-
way. The church of eld Upfal, certainly a hyperborean
temple of the fimpleft form, and the moit remote antiquity,
is fuppofed to have been a fane of Apollo. It is {quare,
with two round-arched door-ways at each fide, but no win-
dows. Rudbeck compares it with the temple of Janus at
Rome, and fhews how the prefent cathedral of Upfal ori-
ginated from the plan of a fimilar edifice. In thefe points
his remarks are well worthy of attention. Thofe who can-
not help {miling at the wildnefs of fome of his hypothefes,
mutt refpeé his learning and ingenuity, and his work is faid
to have excited much attention when it firft appeared. At
prefent it ranks chiefly among the baubles of mere colle&tors,
for the fake of its rarity.
This great man did not long furvive the wreck of all his
hopes and labours, in the fire at Upfal. He died in 1702,
aged 72, having, nine years before, refigned the Profeffor-
fhips of Botany and Anatomy to his fon. In the frontif-
piece of his Atlantica he is reprefented, with rather an
agreeable and fenfible countenance, of a plump and fleek
habit of body, with long ftraight hair, and the habiliments
of our profeflors and divines in the time of the Common-
wealth. He is demonftrating his peculiar opinions to a
circle of ancient philofophers and poets, and Plato is lend-
ing the delighted Hefiod a pair of fpeétacles. Rudbeck is
faid to have been a man of a mild and amiable character,
much efteemed for his perfonal qualities, as well as for his ”
boundlefs erudition. We can fcarcely call him the founder
of Botanical Science in Sweden, becaufe he was preceded
by Chefnecopherus, under whofe prefidency at Upfal, in
1621, a phyfical differtation on plants was publifhed and
defended by Starbeck, a native of Smoland, which evinces
the deep attention this branch of philofophy had even then
excited, in that famous fchool. The curious reader may
trace, in this differtation, many ideas, fuppofedto have a
more modern origin. Rudbeck’s Works. Hialler’s Bibl.
Bot. and Anat. Aikin’s Gen. Biog. S.
Rupseck, Otor, junior, fon of the preceding, was born
at Upfal in 1660. Having been directed by his father to
his own favourite ftudies of medicine, botany, and anti-
quities, he proved worthy of fuch a parent, friend, and
preceptor. He excelled likewife in the art of delineating
natural objets, and found great advantage from this talent
in his fubfequent purfuits. Having travelled to Holland,
he took his degree of doGtor of phyfic, at Utrecht, in 1690,
publifhing on that occafion an able differtation, de Funda-
mentak
RUD
RUCKINGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Ifenburg, on the Kinzig; 5 miles N.E. of Hanau.
RUCTATION, Ructus, in Medicine, belching, an
‘ involuntary difcharge of flatus from the ftomach, fometimes
accompanied with a portion of the folid or liquid contents
of that organ.
This is ufually one of the fymptoms of indigeltion,
whether arifing from a morbid condition of the ftomach, or
from a temporary overloading of it with too much food,
or with food of an acrid, heavy, or indigeftible quality, or
fuch as is difpofed to pafs into fermentation. There is a
natural tendency in the food, efpecially the vegetable por-
tion of it, to the procefs of fermentation, and the confe-
quent evolution of air ; but by the influence of the gaftric
juice, when it is fufficient to accomplifh the digeitive procefs,
this tendency is countera¢ted, and no air is evolved.
Whence the beft remedy for eructation is the improvement
of the digeftive power, and the avoiding of fermentative
food. See INDIGESTION.
RUD, in Ichthyology. See Cyrrinus Caraffius, and
Cyprinus Erythrophthalmus.
Rup, in Rural Economy, a term provincially fignifying
a fort of red ochre.
RUDAW,, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Natangen ; 12 miles S.W. of Lick.—Alfo, a town
of Pruffia, in the province of Samland, formerly fortified
with a caftle, now in ruins. Some monuments of Pagan
idolatry ftill remain in the vicinity of Rudaw; and alfo a
ftone pillar in a field near Tranzou, ereéted in commemo-
ration of a victory obtained by the knights of the Teutonic
order in 1370, over Kinftud, great duke of Lithuania; 12
miles N.N.W. of Konigfberg.
RUDBECK, Joun, in Biography, a learned Swedifh
bifhop, was born about the year 1581. After having ob-
tained the elementary parts of education, he was entered at
the univerfity of Upfal, where he made fuch progrefs in the
higher branches of learning, that before he had completed
his twenty-third year he was appointed profeflor of mathe-
matics, which, in 1610, he exchanged for his profeflorfhip
of Hebrew. On the coronation of Guitavus Adolphus, he
took his degree in theology, and in 1619 he was nominated
to the bifhopric of Welteras. In confequence of fome itrong
expreffions which he made ufe of in a public oration, a
violent difpute took place between him and profeflor Mef-
fenius, which was carried fo far, that the king was obliged
to interfere, and to allay the angry paflions of the difputants,
his majefty appointed Meffenius afleffor in one of the courts
of juttice ; and in 1613 he made Rudbeck one of his own
chaplains. It was owing, in a great meafure, to the zeal
and exertions of this prelate, that the Swedifh bible, known
among the learned as the Bible of Guftavus Adolphus,
was publifhed in 1618. He is alfo known and highly
efteemed in his own country for the confiderable donations
which he made to the gymnafium of Veiteras, and for his
aid in the improvement of other ufeful inftitutions ; he died
in 1646. He was author of feveral theological works, of
which the titles are given in the General Biography.
Among thefe was one, entitled ‘ Privilegia quedam Dodto-
rum, Magiftrorum, Pracalaureorum, Studioforum, et Scho-
larum omnium, &c.’? This work, which excited great
attention, had nearly proved the author’s ruin, and was,
very foon after the publication, prohibited by a decree of
the fenate. Upon this occafion, one of the members of
the fenate aflerted, that a more dangerous book had fcarcely
ever appeared, and that it was neceflary the publifher
fhould make oath that he had net retained a {ingle
copy. It prevented the promotion of the prelate, who
ES:
RU B
‘would otherwife probably have been raifed to the rank of
archbifhop.
Rupsrcx, Otor, or Oraus, a man of very extenfive
learning and accomplifhments, who if not, ftriétly fpeaking,
the father of natural fcience in Sweden, muft be reckoned
among its earlieft and moft diftinguifhed patrons and cul-
tivators, was the fon of John Rudbeck, bifhop of Vefteras ;
an honeft and uncourtly bifhop, who fpoke truth, and was
never promoted. The fon had a great and vigorous mind,
fomewhat over-luxuriant in fpeculation and hypothefis, but
fagacious in difcovery, and indefatigable in application.
He was born in 1630, and educated at Upfal. Anatom
was his earlieft ftudy, and he profecuted it with fuch fuccefs,
that at the age of nineteen or twenty he made the important
difcovery of the lymphatic veflels in the liver, and, foon
afterwards, of thofe of other parts of the bedy. His in-
augural diflertation, in 1652, treated of the circulation of
the blood. Bartholine contended with Rudbeck. for the
originality of the difcovery of the lymphatic fyftem, and
they appear to have made it independent of each other ;
though Haller gives the priority, in point of time, to
Rudbeck. See Bartuotine, THOMAS.
The univerfity of Upfal was, at this time, advancing
rapidly towards that celebrity which it has now fo long
maintained. Enriched with the patrimonial eitates of the
great Guftavus Vafa, its funds have ever been ample, and
the good fenfe of its direftors has generally led them to a
right, application of thefe refources. Rudbeck, however,
having made Botany a part of his purfuits, contributed,
out of his own means, to the advancement of that fcience.
He founded a garden, which he afterwards gave to the
univerfity. He vifited Holland in 1653, but returning
home next year, devoted himfelf to the ftudy, and, we
prefume, to the practice of medicine, as well as to the in-
itruétion of his pupils in anatomy. In 1658 he was ap-
pointed profeffor of medicine, and was fixed at Upfal for
the remainder of his life. It appears that he married be-
fore the age of thirty, his fon, the fubje&t of our next
article, having been born in 1660, but we have no par-
ticular account of Rudbeck’s domeftic hiftory. Befides
the attention which he gave to the above-mentioned pur-
fuits, he very early addiéted himfelf to the ftudy of lan-
guages, hiftory, antiquities, archite€ture, and mufic, as well
as the pratical art of drawing. He fo far took the lead
in matters of tafte, taat the public feltivals and decorations,
at the coronation of the young king Charles XI., in 1660,
were put entirely under his dire¢tion.
The firft botanical publication of Rudbeck feems te
have been his Catalogue of the Upfal Garden, printed in
1658, the year after the eftablifhment of that colle&ion.
To this little volume a preface in Latin and Swedifh is
prefixed, treating of practical horticulture, and recom-
mending botany for its agreeablenefs and utility. The
lift is, of courfe, not very ample, but contains feveral exotic
{pecies and varieties; and when the author complains of a
fharp froft on the 24th of July, we cannot but allow the
protection of ftoves and greenhoufes to have been of the
mott imperious neceffity, fo that he could fearcely, in one
year, have fufficiently provided them. An Appendix to
this catalogue was printed in 1666, the garden having been,
by that time, confiderably enriched. The fame year, 1666,
not, as Linnzus has it, 1664, another fimilar work appeared,
Delicie Vallis Jacobee ; a catalogue, alphabetical like the
former, of a garden at Jacob’s Dahl, near Stockholm, be-
longing to count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, chancellor
of the kingdom of Sweden, as well as of the univerfity of
Upfal. This, though anonymous, is attributed by Linnzus,
to
RUDBECK.
to Rudbeck. Itisa little book of extreme rarity, infomuch
that Haller fpeaks of it by report only. A Latin poem is
prefixed to the work, defcribing the beauty of this villa,
its orangery, aviary, plantations, and fountains.
We know not at what period of his life Rudbeck firft
conceived the vait projeét of his Campi Elyfit, in which all
the plants in the world, as far as they had been difcovered,
were to be reprefented by wooden cuts, in twelve folio vo-
lumes, difpofed according to Bauhin’s Pinax. For this
ftupendous work he is faid to have prepared ten or eleven
thoufand figures. The firft and fecond volumes were al-
ready printed, when a dreadful fire reduced almoft the whole
town of Upfal to afhes, inthe year 1702. Three copies
only of the firft volume efcaped the fire, two of which re-
main in Sweden, and the third is preferved in the Sherardian
library at Oxford. A few leaves of this laft copy, having
been deficient, are fupplied in manufcript. A number of
the blocks of this very volume, which confifts of grafles
and their allies, came into England with the Linnean col-
leétion ; and having been compared with the Oxford copy,
an impreflion of them was given to the public in 1789, under
the title of Religuie Rudbeckiane, the appropriate letter-
prefs of each figure, and the Linnzan names, being fub-
joined. An hiltorical preface is prefixed to this edition, as
well as a dedication to Dr. John Guftavus Acrel, Profeffor
of Medicine at Upfal, who was entrufted with the fale of
the Linnean mufeum and library. (See Linnzus.) The
objec of the dedication is to bear teftimony to the honour-
able condu& of this gentleman, who, becaufe he would
not a&t unjuftly, was accufed of having received a bribe of
roo pounds, fo moderate is the ftandard of bribery in
Sweden, to betray the intereft of the proprietors. Perhaps
this report arofe from his rejeGting, for them, the offer of
the fame fum, from another quarter, to forfeit their engage-
ment to the perfon with whom they had treated, and to
whom he indignantly communicated the propofal.
The fecond volume of the Campi Elyfi came from the
prefs a little before the former; fo that feveral copies, hav-
ing got abroad, efcaped the deftruétion of the reft. Even
this, however, is a very rare book, the price of which can
hardly be eftimated. A copy was bought by profeffor
Jacquin in Germany, many years ago, for about 30 guineas.
This volume is in the Linnean, Bankfian, and Sherardian
libraries. Containing liliaceous plants, and the Orchis tribe,
it is much more {plendid than the firft. The figures are
copied from all quarters, though feveral are original, and
amount to about 600 in all, many of them executed with
great correctnefs and elegance, more efpecially after the fine
engravings of the Hortus Malabaricus. There are, of
courfe, feveral repetitions of the fame fpecies, and abundance
of garden varieties of Tulips, &c. The Orchidee are nu-
merous, but inferior, as to the correétnefs of their flowers,
to fome other plants, a defe& arifing from their fingularity
orminutenefs. The preface attributes the anticipated pub-
lication of this volume to the greater popularity and attrac-
tion of its contents; and fieuies of many of the intended
figures of the whole work, as to be executed from drawings
made by the author himfelf, after original {pecimens, either
preferved in Burfer’s fine Swifs herbarium, or obtained from
other quarters. The author {peaks of his fon and nephew,
each of the fame name with himfelf, as his coadjutors, and
the deftined continuators of this laborious undertaking.
The deftruction of his materials is extremely to be regretted ;
for fuch a repofitory of the botanical knowledge of the time,
would have been highly valuable to fucceeding writers ;_par-
ticularly as illuftrating the plants of Bauhin, fo many of
which are to be determined from Burfer’s herbarium only.
The volume in quelftion ftands alone, like the fingle un-
rivalled column of the temple of peace at Rome, a perpe-
tual caufe of regret, and a monument of irrevocable de-
ftrution.
Another great work of our author, on which, moft of
all perhaps, his literary celebrity depends, is entitled f-
lantica, and ought to confift of four volumes in folio; but
of thefe the fourth, at leaft, if we miftake not, is to be met
with in manufcript only. The others are extremely rare,
probably from the accident of the fire above-mentioned.
One alone, compofed of wooden cuts, is in our pofleffion.
The aim of this fingular, but profoundly learned, perform-
ance, was to prove that Sweden had been the terreftrial
paradife of our firft parents, the Ar/antis of Plato, and the
fource of all learning, ancient mythology, arts, and {ciences.
By a paflage in Linneus’s Lapland Tour, v. 1. 19, it
fhould feem that Rudbeck had fixed the fcene of the Trojan
war at a village in Geftrickland, which bears the name of
Troye. The reader will no longer wonder at this, when,
in one of our author’s illuftrative maps, he finds Helicon
ftationed in Lapland; the Fortunate Iflands at the Ork-
neys; and Acheron at the Maelitrom, off the coaft of Nor-
way. The church of eld Upfal, certainly a hyperborean
temple of the fimpleft form, and the moft remute antiquity,
is fuppofed to have been a fane of Apollo. It is fquare,
with two round-arched door-ways at each fide, but no wim-
dows. Rudbeck compares it with the temple of Janus at
Rome, and fhews how the prefent cathedral of Upfal ori-
ginated from the plan of a fimilar edifice. In thefe points
his remarks are well worthy of attention. Thofe who can-
not help fmiling at the wildnefs of fome of his hypothefes,
mutt refpeé his learning and ingenuity, and his work is faid
to have excited much attention when it firft appeared. At
prefent it ranks chiefly among the baubles of mere collectors,
for the fake of its rarity.
This great man did not long furvive the wreck of all his
hopes and labours, in the fire at Upfal. He died in 1702,
aged 72, having, nine years before, refigned the Profeffor-
fhips of Botany and Anatomy to his fon. In the frontif-
piece of his Atlantica he is reprefented, with rather an
agreeable and fenfible countenance, of a plump and fleek
habit of body, with long ftraight hair, and the habiliments
of our profeflors and divines in the time of the Common-
wealth. He is demonftrating his peculiar opinions to a
circle of ancient philofophers and poets, and Plato is lend-
ing the delighted Hefiod a pair of fpettacles. Rudbeck is
faid to have been a man of a mild and amiable character,
much efteemed for his perfonal qualities, as well as for his ~
boundlefs erudition. We can fcarcely call him the founder
of Botanical Science in Sweden, becaufe he was preceded
by Chefnecopherus, under whofe prefidency at Upfal, in
1621, a phyfical differtation on plants was publifhed and
defended by Starbeck, a native of Smoland, which evinces
the deep attention this branch of philofophy had even then
excited, in that famous fchool. The curious reader may
trace, in this differtation, many ideas, fuppofed to have a
more modern origin. Rudbeck’s Works. Haller’s Bibl.
Bot. and Anat. Aikin’s Gen. Biog. S.
Rupseck, Otor, junior, fon of the preceding, was born
at Upfal in 1660. Having been directed by his father to
his own favourite ftudies of medicine, botany, and anti-
quities, he proved worthy of fuch a parent, friend, and
preceptor. He excelled likewife in the art of delineating
natural obje&ts, and found great advantage from this talent
in his fubfequent purfuits. Having travelled to Holland,
he took his degree of doGtor of phyfic, at Utrecht, in 1690,
publifhing on that occafion an able differtation, de vdeo
mentah
RUD
mentalt Plantarum Notitid rit2 acquirendd. In this he aflerts
the neceflity of arranging and diltinguifhing the genera of
plants by their fruétification alone, and prefers {uch leading
principles as are derived from the fruit, rather than from
the corolla. He rejeéts habit, colour, fenfible qualities,
time of flowering, &c. on which fo much ftrefs has been
laid by fuperficial obfervers; while, on the other hand, he
declines being implicitly led by the more abitrufe principles
of certain more philofophical botanifts. Some unfortunate
errors of the prefs occur in pages 12, 13, &c. the terms
gymno- ind angio-/perme being often tranfpofed. Rudbeck
extends his remarks to nomenclature, and very much to the
purpofe. He had previoufly, at Upfal, in 1686, defended
a thefis, de Propagatione Plantarum, which is le{s original,
though highly creditable as a fchool exercife. The Upfal
garden was founded immediately on his return, and enriched
with feeds obtained from the collections in Holland.
On the 2rft of May 1695, profellor Rudbeck, junior,
fet out from Upfal on a tour to Lapland, accompanied by
two young men, the fons of Count Gyllenborg. After
his return he prepared a very ample account of his journey,
having made a number of drawings for the purpofe. The
firft part, publifhed in 1701, in Latin and Swedifh, is de-
dicated to king Charles XII. in a Latin, as well as Swedifh,
poem, and ornamented with a magnificent wood cut of the
Pedicularis. Sceptrum-Carolinum. But this volume, a thin
quarto, goes no further than the province of Upland. The
re{t of the materials, except a collection of drawings of
plants, which ftill exift, and perhaps rather belong to the
Campi Elyfi, feem to have perifhed in the fire of Upfal.
Such indeed was the fate of moft of the copies of the work
juft mentioned, entitled Laponia illufirata, which is there-
fore an extremely fcarce book.
In 1720 Rudbeck, in conjunétion with Benzelius, after-
wards archbifhop of Upfal, founded the Swedifh Academy
of Sciences, as it was then called, though fubfequently,
when other fimilar eftablifhments arofe at Stockholm, Lund,
&c. the original one was entitled the Royal Academy of
Upfal. This inftitution ftill flourifhes, and has produced
feveral volumes of Tranfations in Latin. In the frit,
printed in 1720, is a catalogue of plants, obferved by Rud-
beck in Lapland, with cuts of Lobelia Dortmanna, and
Linnea borealis.
Several curious differtations came forth, from time to
time, from this learned man, which evince his deep erudi-
tion, though he betrays, like his father, fomewhat of a
paradoxical turn. He was particularly {killed in oriental
literature, and was hence led to undertake the explanation
_of fome of the moft obfcure fubjeéts of natural hittory in
the facred fcriptures. He contends that Borith, mentioned
by fome of the prophets, is neither an herb, nor any kind
of foap, but a purple dye. He alfo undertook to demon-
{trate that the Dudaim were Rafpberries. (See Dupatm.)
The perufal of thefe erudite {peculations, inftead of afford-
ing inftru€tion on the fubjeét difcuffed, rather leads us to
the conviction, that a man who has fo many tools at com-
mand, can turn and mould any fubjeét as he pleafes. The
two diflertations in queftion appeared in 1733, in quarto.
The author had previoufly given to the world three others,
the inaugural eflays of fome of his pupils. Thefe were on
Hedera, in 1707, in 4to.; on Mandragora, in 17023; and
on the Rubus ardicus of Linneus, in 1716, both in 8vo.,
with good cuts. His moft elaborate and eccentric per-
formance of ail, perhaps, is a diflertation on the bird Sé/av,
which our tranflation of the bible renders a quail. Some
have thought it a locuft, but Rudbeck will have it a flying-
Sth; and as Johnfon malicioufly fays of Milton, he is never
RUD
at a lofs for a reafon. Abundance of profound remarks
are interfperfed in this treatife. Amongft other things, the
affinity of the Hebrew, Chinefe, and Gothic languages is
difeufled. "The younger Rudbeck died in 1740, highly
refpected. He left in manufcript a fort of univerfal lexicon,
which has never been printed. Rudbeck, jun.’s Works.
Haller Bibl. Bot. Aikin’s Gen. Biog. Dryand. Bibl.
Banks. S.
RUDBECKITA, in Botany, was dedicated by Linnzus
to the memory of his great countrymen, Olof Rudbeck,
father and fon, his predeceffors in the botanical chair at
Upfal. (See Rupseck.) A genus allied to Hehanthus was
well chofen for this purpofe, a Sun-flower having been the
emblem, or, fome fay, a part of the coat of arms, of the
perfons commemorated.—Linn. Gen. 440. Schreb. 574.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2246. Mart. Mill. Di. v.4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 5. 130. Purfh v. 2. 573. Juff. 189.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 705. Gertn. t. 172.—Clafs and
order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fruftranea. Nat. Ord. Compo-
Sie oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx a double row of flat, broadifh,
fhort fcales, fix in each row. Cor. compound, radiated.
Florets of the conical difk numerous, perfect, tubular-
funnel-fhaped, five-cleft in the border; thofe of the radius
about twelve, female, ligulate, very long, lanceolate, flat,
pendulous, with two or three terminal teeth. Stam. in the
perfeét florets five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united
into a cylindrical tube. Pi/. in the perfeét florets, germen
fquare ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the partial co-
rolla; {tigma deeply divided, revolute : in the female florets,
germen minute; ityle and {tigma wanting. Peric. none, ex-
cept the unchanged calyx. Seeds in the perfect florets only,
fohtary, oblong, each crowned with a membranous four-
toothed border. Recept. chaffy, conical, longer than the
common calyx. Scales the length of the feeds, ere, of a
concave or channel-like form, deciduous.
Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy, conical. Seed crowned
with a four-toothed border. Calyx of a double row of
{cales.
1. R. laciniata. Broad Jagged Rudbeckia. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1279. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n.1. Purfhn. 12, (Aconi-
tum helianthemum canadenfe ; Cornut. Canad. 178. t. 179.)
—Lower leaves pinnate ; leaflets ovate, unequal at the bafe,
toothed, fomewhat three-lobed: upper ones undivided or
three-cleft, ovate-oblong. Crown of the feeds four-toothed.
—Native of North America. On the edges of {wamps and
ditches, from Canada to Virginia, flowering from Auguft
to Oétober. Purfh. A hardy perennial in our gardens,
where it has been known for nearly two centuries, flowering
in autumn. The /fems are from five to eight or ten feet
high, ere&t, branched, furrowed, fmooth. Leaves alter-
nate, deep green, minutely rough, like a file, to the touch,
pointed, varioufly divided. Flowers large, terminal, on
long folitary /ralés, ere&t; their radius of a full yellow;
diflkk ovate, brown.
2. R. columnaris. High-crowned Rudbeckia. Purfhn. 11.
Curt. Mag. t. 1601.—Stem fimple, ftraight, with a few
flowers, on long ftalks, at the top. Leaves pinnatifid, cut,
with linear fegments. Calyx fimple, five-leaved. Ditk cy-
lindrical, elongated.—Found on the banks of the Miffouri,
by Mr. Frafer, who has brought it to England. The fin-
gular appearance of the receptacle, which is quite cylindrical,
flat at the top, diftinguifhes this from all other known f{pe-
cies. The rays are from five to eight, lax, elliptical, jagged
at theend. Leaves narrow, roughifh.
3. R. digitata. Narrow Jagged Rudbeckia. Mill. Di&.
n.6. Ait. n. 2. Purfh n. 13. (Chryfanthemum ameri-
canum
RUDBECKIA.
canum majus, foliis magis difleGtis; Morif. v. 3. 22. fee. 6.
t. 6. f. 54.)—Lower leaves pinnate ; leaflets pinnatifid :
upper ones deeply three-cleft, lanceolate, partly cut. Crown
of the feeds crenate. Stem {mooth.—Found on the moun-
tains of Virginia and Carolina, flowering from Augutt to
OGober. Purfo. This refembles the fir fpecies, but has
_ {maller fowers, and much narrower, rather {moother, /eaves.
The crown of each feed, befides having four teeth, is finely
jagged, or crenate.
4. R. pinnata. Fragrant Pinnated Rudbeckia. Venten.
Hort. Cels. t. 71. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 73. t. 38. Ait.
n. 3. Purfh n. 14. Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 144.
(R. digitata; Willd. n. 2.)—Leaves pinnate, fomewhat
f{ubdivided. Crown of the feed entire at the edge. Stem
rough.—Native of the weftern parts of Carolina and Geor-
gia, where it flowers from July to Oétober. Purfh. With
us it is a hardy perennial, having been introduced, from the
garden at Madrid, by feeds fent to the late lady Amelia
Hume. Every part of the herbage is minutely rough.
Flowers \arge and handfome, with the fcent of anife ; their
rays deep yellow ; numerous, broad, downy, pointing down-
wards; dific ovate, dark purple, almoit black. Ventenat
miftook this for the digitata of Miller and Aiton.
5- R. triloba. Three-lobed Rudbeckia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1280. Willd. n.3. Ait. n.4. Purfh n.g. (Chryfan-
themum cannabinum virginianum hirfutum, difco nigro, pe-
talis aureis radiato; Pluk. Almag. 100. Phyt. t. 22. f. 2.)
—Leaves f{patulate ; the lower ones three-lobed ; the upper
undivided. Stem hairy, much branched. Calyx leafy.
Scales of the receptacle with prominent points.—An inha-
bitant of the mountains of Virginia and Carolina, flowering
in Auguft and September. Purfb. Stem four or five feet
high, much branched and fpreading, leafy, ftriated, rough
with pale, rigid, deflexed hairs, which are more erect on
the branches. Leaves more or lefs fhaggy with fimilar hairs.
Flowers not much above an inch in diameter, pale yellow
according to Mr. Purfh, but partly orange, or tawny, in
our dried fpecimens. Outer fcales of the calyx leafy, as
long as the radiant florets. Di/e convex, hardly conical,
remarkable for the projeéting needle-like points of the
feales, between the florets. This has long been cultivated
in France as well as England, where it is biennial, though
fometimes perennial in Carolina.
6. R. fubtomentofa. Downy Rudbeckia. Purfh n. to.
(R. triloba 2; Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 144.)—
“ Downy, with fhort pubefcence. Branches ereét, many-
flowered. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute, fomewhat fer-
rated ; the lower ones three-lobed. Scales of the calyx
clofe-preffed, fhorter than the rays.””—Native of mountain
meadows, in Virginia and the country of the Illinois,
flowering in Auguit and September. Perennial, not, near
fo tall as the preceding, from which it is very diftin@.
Purfh.
ae Radula. File Rudbeckia. Purfh n. 8.—s¢ Stem
hifpid below ; fmooth, and nearly naked, above. ‘Stalks
very long, fingle-flowered. Leaves ovate, tapering, tuber-
cukated, hifpid. Calyx imbricated; with ovate, pointed,
fringed fcales—Gathered by Bartram in Georgia. Mr.
Purth deferibed it from the Bankfian herbarium. The
root is marked as biennial. We have examined no {pecimen.
8. R. hirta. Great Hairy Rudbeckia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1280. Willd. n.4. Ait. n. 5. Purfh n.7. (R. foliis
lanceolato-ovatis, alternis, indivifis, petalis radii bifidis ;
Mill. Ic. t. 224. f. 1. Obelifcotheca integrifolia, radio
aureo, umbone atro-rubente; Dill. Elth. 295. t. 218.)—
Rough with briltly hairs. Stem flightly branched, fingle-
flowered. Flower-{talk elongated, naked. Leaves undi-
Vor. XXX.
vided, ovate, fomewhat f{patuiate, triply ribbed, ferrated.
Calyx leafy. Scales of the receptacle lanceolate, hairy.—
Found on the mountains from Virginia to Florida, flower-
ing from July to September. Purfh. Root biennial. Herb
about two feet high, rough and hairy. Flower rather
large, with a dark brown difk, and long yellow rays.
g. R. fulgida. Small Hairy Rudbeckia. Ait. n. 6.
Willd. n. 5. Purfh n. 6.—Stem hifpid. Branches ftraight,
fingle-flewered. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, triply ribbed,
toothed, rough ; contraéted, and fomewhat heart-fhaped,
at the bafe. Calyx leafy. Scales of the receptacle lanceo-
late, fringed.—In mountain meadows and woods, from Pen-
fylvania to Carolina, flowering from July to Oétober.
Purfb. Said in Hort. Kew. to have been introduced inte
England, by the late Meflrs. Kennedy and Lee, in 1760.
This differs from the laft in having a perennial root ;
branched /flem ; and {maller flowers, whoie rays are of a
deep orange-colour, and the difk dark purple. The {cales
of the calyx are fhorter, broader, and more ovate.
10. R. denfifolia. Crowded-leaved Rudbeckia.—Stem
rough. Branches fingle-flowered. Leaves oppofite, ftalked,
elliptic-lanceolate, rough, fomewhat toothed. Calyx clofe-
prefled, not half the length of the rays.—Gathered by
Commerfon, on rocks at Monte Video. The Jjtem feems
rather fhrubby, branched, round, clothed with numerous
leaves, and very rough with minute depreffed prickles, fuch
as cover every part of the herbage. Leaves about an inch
and half long, more or lefs acute, fometimes diftantly
toothed ; the upper ones partly fcattered. Flowers large,
on long, rough, nearly leaflefs /falks. Scales of the calyx
ovate, rough and fringed. Rays numerous, broad, yellow,
afcending, almott thrice as long as the calyx. Dik brown,
or purplifh. °
11. R. decumbens. Decumbent Rudbeckia.—Stem de-
cumbent, creeping. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, linear-{patu-
late, nearly fmooth. Flower-italks ered, folitary, angular,
very long and flender, flightly hairy.—Found by Commer-
fon on the rocks of Monte Video. The /lems are woody,
creeping by means of numerous radicles, afcending at the
extremity only, but producing, as they go, a dente affem-
blage of fhort leafy fhoots or branches. Leaves very va-
rious in fize and breadth, obtufe, triply ribbed, rather
flefhy, very flightly and occafionally hairy, nearly entire.
Flower-ftalks terminal, folitary, fimple, fingle-flowered, ere&
and itraight, naked, near 2 {pan long, being ten times
the length of the leaves, of equal thicknefs throughout.
Flowers about an inch in diameter, yellow in the di/é as well
as radius. Scales of the calyx ovate, acute, clofe-preffed,
fringed with briftles, and about half the leagth of the rays.
We have no means of inveitigating the receptacle, or feed-
crown, but we prefume, from the habit of every part, the
gems can fearcely be doubtful.
12. R. bellidioides. Daify-like Rudbeckia.—Stem de-
cumbent. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, ovate, rough-edged.
Flower-ftalks ere@, iolitary, very long; {welling and very
downy at the top.—This likewife was gathered by Commer-
fon, at Monte Video. Roots creeping, with thick flefay
fibres. Stems trailing, with fhort leafy branches, forming
a fort of tuft, much as in the foregoing, but the leafy part
does not appear to take root. Leaves tolerably uniform,
from one and half to two inches long, and half an inch
wide, obtufe, triply ribbed, entire ; very rough on the ribs
and margin ; tapering down at the bafe into a broad fringed
footflalk. Flower-flalks four or five inches long, fituated
as in the lait fpecies, but ftouter, efpecially towards the
flower, where they are denfely covered with fhort, rigid,
clofe-preffed hairs. Flowers entirely yellow, the fize of the
4R latt,
Rh Uap
laft. Scales of the calyx clofe-prefled, ovate, half the length
of the radius, fmooth, except a flight marginal fringe ;
ftrongly ribbed, or furrowed, at the bafe. The younger
Linnzus, as well as Commerfon, thought this a Rudbeckia,
nor have we fufficieat doubts on the fubje& to fpoil a flower
by diffection.
13. R. arifata. Awn-{caled Rudbeckia. Purfh n. 5.—
s© Stem hifpid. Branches elongated, corymbofe, fingle-
flowered. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, ferrated, hifpid. Difk
of the flower nearly hemifpherical. Scales of the feed-crown
awl-fhaped, awned.’?—Native of South Carolina; defcribed
by Mr. Purfh from the Bankfian herbarium. The flowers
are {fmall, deep yellow. If there be no error in the above
definition, and the feed be really crowned with feparate awl-
fhaped fcales, this fpecies does not well anfwer to the cha-
ra¢ter, or idea, of a Rudbeckia. The analogy of other
[pecies would lead us to fuppose the fcales of the receptacle
were meant, had not the words “ paleis pappi’’? been fo
precife.
14. R. /patulata. Spatulate-leaved Rudbeckia. Michaux
Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 144. Willd. n. 6. Purfh n. 4.*—
‘‘ Slender, finely downy. Stems fingle-flowered. Leaves
obovato-{patulate, entire. Calyx fpreading, imbricated.
Radiant florets three-toothed.’”?—Gathered by Michaux on
the mountains of Carolina; by Bartram in Florida. It is
biennial, flowering in July and Auguft. Pur/b.
15. R. difcolor. Two-coloured Rudbeckia. Purfh n. 4.
—‘ Branches corymbofe, fingle-flowered. Flower-{talks
naked, elongated. Leaves lanceolate, nearly entire, rough
with rigid hairs. Calyx-fcales ovate, acute. Petals lanceo-
late, entire, of two colours, as long as the calyx.’?— Ga-
thered in Florida, by Bartram. Perennial. Flowers {mall ;
their rays yellow above, deep orange or purple underneath.
Purfo. We have not examined a {pecimen of either of the
two laft, both which Mr. Purfh defcribed from fir Jofeph
Banks’s herbarium.
16. R. Jevigata. Smooth Rudbeckia. Purfh n. 3.
— Quite fmooth all over. Stem polifhed, panicled.
Branches corymbofe. Stalks elongated, fingle-flowered.
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, pointed at each end, triply ribbed,
polifhed, nearly entire. Scales of the calyx lanceolate, the
length of the rays.”,—Found by Mr. Lyon, in Georgia.
Perennial. The /eaves have occafionally one or two teeth.
Rays pale yellow, fhort. In Mr. Lambert’s herbarium.
urfh.
16. R. amplexifolia. Stem-clafping Rudbeckia. Jacq.
Coll. v.5. 155. Ic. Rar. t. 592. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 7.
Purfh n.2. (R. perfoliata; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 27. t. 252.)
—Leaves elliptic-oblong, heart-fhaped at the bafe, naked,
rough-edged ; the lower ones ferrated. Stem {fmooth,
ftriated. Difk nearly cylindrical.—Native of Lower Loui-
fiana, on the banks of the Miffifippi, flowering in July and
Auguift.. We had a {pecimen, in 1793, fromthe garden of
Mr. Salifbury, who received feeds the preceding year, faid
to have been collected by Michaux, in New Orleans. The
root is annual. Stem ereét, branched, round, leafy, about
two feet high. Leaves of a pale glaucous green, acute, al-
ternate, reticulated with veins, very fmooth, except at the
edge, which is befet with minute clofe prickles. Flowers
folitary, at the fummit of each branch, ereét, with broad,
dependent, deep yellow rays, each terminating in two or
three blunt teeth; and an elongated, obtufe, dark green or
blackifh diz.
17. R. purpurea. Purple Rudbeckia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1280. Willd.n.8. Ait. n.§. Purfhn.1. Curt. Mag.
t. 2. Chryfanthemum americanum, doronici folie, &c. ;
Pluk. Phyt. t. 21. f.1. Catefb, Carol. v. 2..t. 59.)—
ite)
RUD
Leaves rough, ovate, tapering at the bafe, undivided,
toothed; the upper ones lanceolate, entire. Rays very
long, pendulous, cloven.—On the mountains from Virginia
to Florida, flowering from Auguft to OGober. Purfh.
This elegant and hardy perennial plant has been more than
a century in our gardens. It thrives beft in a rich moitft
foil, and is propagated by parting the roots. The /fems
are three or four feet high, ereét, round, ftriated, {mooth,
moftly purplifh. Leaves triply ribbed, near a {pan long,
rough and harfh to the touch ; the lower ones on long ftalks.
Flowers terminal, folitary, very large, and of a beautiful,
as well as fingular, afpe& ; the di/R obtufely conical, brown,
befet with the long, prominent, rigid, fpinous fcales of the
receptacle ; radius of numerous, linear-lanceolate, pink or
light crimfon florets, each three inches long, pendulous,
acute and cloven at the extremity. Mr. Curtis obferves
that the /eeds are rarely perfeéted here, nor do the roofs in-
creafe very faft. Linneus has ftrangely erred, in referring
to this {pecies, Miller’s yellow-flowered figure, which be-
longsto R. hirta; fee n. 8. :
R. anguftifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1281. Willd. n. 9, proves
the very fame plant with Helianthus angu/tifolius of the fame
authors.
R. oppofitifolia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1280, is, according to
Mr. Purfh, the fame as Helianthus levis, Linn. Sp. Pl.
1278, and Silphium folidaginoides, ibid. 1302. Perfoon has
eltablifhed it as anew genus, by the name of Heliopfis levis,
and ke is followed by Purfh, p. 563. The /eaves do not
amfwer to the fpecific name, being rough with briitly
warts. ;
R. alata, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 593, is Helenium quadridenia-
tum, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2121. Purfh 560. See He-
LENIUM.
RupRrckiA, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba-
ceous, biennial, and perennial kinds, of which the fpecies
cultivated are, the broad jagged-leaved rudbeckia (R. Ia-
ciniata) ; the narrow jagged-leaved rudbeckia (R. digitata) ;
the hairy rudbeckia (R. hirta) ; the purple rudbeckia (R.
purpurea) ; the narrow fimple-leaved rudbeckia (R. anguf-
tifolia) ; and the three-lobed rudbeckia (R: triloba).
Method of Culture.—All\ the forts of thefe plants may be
increafed by off-fets, parting the roots and feeds. The off-
fets in the perennial forts fhould be taken off, and planted
out in the early autumn: when the ftems decay, the roots
may alfo be divided, and planted out at the fame time, or
in the early {pring months. And as thefe plants are often
liable to go off foon, fome fhould be frequently raifed to
keep up the ftock; and others have a tendency to become
biennial, and decay without increafing the root ; they fhould
have the flower-items cut down in the early fummer, to en-
courage the crowth of the root off-fets, for flipping in the
following autumn.
However, all the forts may be raifed from feed, and the
biennial forts muft always be raifed annually in that way ;
hkewife fuch of the perennial kind as are biennially inclined,
fowing the feeds in April, in a border of light earth, raking
them in; and when the plants are two or three inches high,
pricking them out in nurfery-rows till autumn, then plant-
ing them out where they are to remain. They fhould have
alight dry foil, and rather warm fituation. They all af-
ford much ornament and variety in the borders and clumps,
among other flowering plants.
RUDDER, in Navigation, a piece of timber turning on
hinges in the ftern of a fhip ; and which oppofing fometimes
one fide to the water, and fometimes-another, turns or di-
rects the veffel this way or that.
The rudder becomes gradually broader, in proportion to
its
RUDDER.
its diftance from the top, or to its depth under water. The
back, or inner part of it, which joins to the ftern-poft, is
diminifhed into the form of a wedge through its whole
length, fo as that the rudder may be the more eafily turned
from one fide to the other, where it makes an obtufe angle
with the keel. The hinges, which are bolted round the
ftern-poft to the after-extremity of the fhip, are called
googings, and are furnifhed with a large hole on the after-part
of the ftern-poft. The other parts of the hinges, which are
~ bolted to the back of the rudder, are called pintles,, being
ftrong cylindrical pins, which enter into the googings, and
reft upon them. ‘The length and thicknefs of the rudder are
nearly equal to thofe of the itern-poft. The rudder is
turned upon its hinges, by means of a long bar of timber,
called the #i/ler, which enters nearly in an Pecisiaetal direc-
tion into the fhip, pafling under the upper or middle deck
tranfom ; ‘and its operation is direéted by the tiller-rope,
which in large veffels is wound about a wheel. (See
Titter.) The power of the rudder is reducible to that of
the lever, and the oblique action of the water upon it is to
be determined by the refolution of forces.
In order to explain the action of the rudder on the fhip,
it fhould be confidered that if, inftead of leaving the rudder
exa@tly in a right line with the keel, fo as to be a kind of
prolongation of it, it be turned to one fide or the other, as
BD (Plate IV. Navigation, fig. 4.), it receives an imme-
diate impulfe from the water, which glides along the fhip’s
bottom, in running aft from A to B; and this fluid impels
it towards the oppofite fide, while it continues in that fitua-
tion, fo that the itern, to which the rudder is confined, re-
ceives the fame movement ; and the fhip receiving an impulfe
fideways, her ftern turns accordingly from B to 4, on any
point whatever C, while her head paffes from A toa. It
muft be obferyed, that the water ftrikes the rudder ob-
liquely, and only with that part of its motion which aéts ac-
cording to the fine of incidence, in impelling it in the direc-
tion N P, with a force which depends not only on the rapi-
dity of failing, but alfo on the greatnefs of the fine of inci-
dence ; a force which is confequently in the compound ratio
of the fquare of the greater or leis velocity of the fhip’s
motion, and of the fquare of the larger or f{maller fine of
incidence, which depends upon various circumftances. So
that, if the veffel runs three or four times more {wiftly, the
abfolute fhock of the water upon the rudder will be nine or
fixteen times ftronger under the fame angle of incidence, and
will be augmented in a greater proportion, if the fine of in-
cidence be increafed, This impulfion, or, what is the fame,
the power of the helm, is always very feeble, when it 1s
compared with the whole weight of the veffel; but it acts
with a very long armof a lever, which occafions it to work
very advantageoufly in turning the fhip; for the helm is
fixed at a very great diftance from the centre of gravity G,
as well as from the point C, upon which the fhip is fup-
pofed to turn, with refpe& to the point of percuffion B:
and if the direction P N of the impreffion of the water upon
the rudder be prolonged, it is evident that it will pafs per-
pendicularly at the point R, widely diftant from the centre
of gravity G; therefore the abfolute effort of the water is
very powerful. It is not therefore furprifing, that this
machine imprefies the fhip with a confiderable circular
movement, by forcing the ftern from B to 4, and the head
from A to a, and even much farther, when the velocity of
the fhip is preferved ; becaufe the effe& of the helm always
keeps pace with the rapidity of the fhip’s way.
Amongft all the obliquities which may be given to the
rudder, there is one fituation which is more favourable than
any of the others, to make it produce with more rapidity
the effe& of turning the fhip, in order to change her courfe.
To be convinced of this, we have only to confider that, if
the obtufe angle ABD (fg. 4.} were to be leffened, the
impulfe of the water on the rudder would augment, at the
fame time that it would more oppofe the failing of the fhip,
fince the angle of incidence would be more open, and would
prefent a greater furface to the fhock of the water, by op-
pofing its paflage more perpendicularly : but then the direc-
tion N P of the effort of the helm upon the fhip would pafs
at a {maller diftance from the centre of gravity G towards
R, and would lefs approach the perpendictlar NL; ac-
cording to which, it is abfolutely neceflary that the power
fhould a& with greater effe& to turn the fhip. Therefore,
it is evident, that, if the obtufe angle A B D were too much
leffened, the greater fhock of the water could not counter-
balance the lofs occafioned by the diftance between the di-
reQion NP and NL, or by the great obliquity which
would be given to the fame direétion N P of the abfolute
effort of the helm with the keel AB. If, on the other
hand, the angle A B D were made more obtufe, the direc-
tion N P of the effort of the rudder would become more ad-
vantageous to turn the fhip, fince it would approach more
the perpendicular N L, and fince the prolongation of N P
would augment G R, by paffing at a greater diftance from
the centre of gravity G. But the rudder would then be
ftruck too obliquely ; for the angle of incidence would be
more acute; fo that it would only prefent a {mall part of
its breadth to the fhock of the water, and would of courfe
receive but a faint impulfion. All this proves that the
greateft diftance GR from the centre of gravity G will
not counterbalance the too great obliquity of the fhock of
the water. Whence it muit be concluded, that when the
water ftrikes the rudder too obliquely, or too perpendi-
cularly, a great deal of the impulfion, or of the effe& it
fhould produce, is loft. Therefore, between thefe two ex-
tremes, there is a middle pofition, which muft be the meft
favourable.
The diagonal N P of the reGtangle IL (fig. 4.) repre-
fents the abfolute dire€tion of the effort of the water upon
the rudder: NI exprefles the portion of this effort which
oppofes the fhip’s head-way, or which forces her a-ftern in
the direGtion of the keel. It is eafy to perceive that this
portion NI of the whole power of the helm contributes
little to turn the veffel; for, if IN were prolonged, it
would be feen that its diretion paffes at a very {mall dif-
tance G V from the centre of gravity G, and that the arm
of the lever B N = GV, to which the force is as it were
affixed, is at moft equal only to one half of the breadth of
the rudder. But it is not fo with refpe& to the relative
force N L, which aés perpendicularly to the keel. If the
firit force, N 1, is almoft ufelefs, and even hurtful, by re-
tarding the velocity ; the fecond, N L, is capable of a very
great effeét, fince it is applied at a great diitance from the
centre of gravity G of the fhip, and a&s on the arm of a
lever GE, which is very long. Thus it appears, that,
between the two effe&ts NL and NI, which refult from
the abfolute effort NP, there is one which is always op-
pofing the fhip’s head-way, contributing but little, there-
fore, to the motion of her turning ; whilft the other alone
produces that movement of evolution, without retarding her
velocity.
As to the moft advantageous angle made by the helm,
with the line prolonged from the keel, geometricians have
fixed it at 54° 44’! (See Dynamics, Mecuawics, and
WinpmitL.) But it has been faid, that, in determining
4R2 this
RUDDER.
this angle, they have prefumed that the fhip is as narrow at
her floating line, or at the line defcribed by the furface of
the water round her bottom, as at the keel; whereas all
veflels increafe in breadth from the keel upward to the
extreme breadth, where the floating line, or the higheft
water-line, is terminated; and, therefore, the angle above
ftated is too large. For the rudder is imprefled by the wa-
ter, at the height of the floating line, more direétly than at
the keel, becaufe the fluid exactly follows the horizontal
outlines of the bottom; fo that a particular pofition of the
helm might be fuppofed neceflary for each different inci-
dence which it encounters from the keel upwards. But as
a middle pofition may be taken between all thefe points, it
will be fufficient to confider the angle formed by the fides
of the fhip, and her axis, or the middle line of her length,
at the furtace of the water, in order to determine afterwards
the mean point, and the mean angle of incidence, The
angle 54° 44’, it is faid, is too open, and very unfavourable
to the fhip’s head-way, becaufe the water aéts upon the
rudder there with too great a fine of incidence, as being
equal to that of the angle which it makes with the line pro-
longed from the keel below; but above, the fhock of the
water is almoft perpendicular to the rudder, becaufe of the
breadth of the bottom, or that of the fhip’s fides. If then
the rudder is only oppofed to the fluid, by making an angle
of 45°, or 45° t/, with the line prolonged from the keel, the
impreflion, by becoming weaker, will be lefs oppofed to the
fhip’s head-way, and the direGtion N P (fic. 4.) of the ab-
folute effort of the water upon the rudder, approaching
nearer to the lateral perpendicular NL, will be placed
more advantageoufly, fince the prolongation of the abfolute
effort pafles at a greater diflance GR from the centre of
gravity of the fhip. To which it is added, that experience
daily teftifies, that a fhip fteers well, when the rudder makes
the angle D BE no more than 35°. If this angle be made
45°, and the abfolute effort NP be difcompoted, we hall
have N I equal to the other fide N L of the fame fquare; fo
that the part of the whole power which oppofes the head-
way of the fhip would be only equal to that which pro-
duces the movement of rotation ; inftead of which, if DBE
were 54° 44', NI would become much greater than N L,
in proportion to the fines of the angles which are oppofed
to them in the triangles PIN or PLN, and the fhip
would lofe much more of her velocity than in the firft fitua-
tion of the rudder, which is thought to be beit adapted to
veflels in general, fubje€&t, however, to occafional altera-
tion, as they fhall make an angle more or lefs cpen with
their fides a-ftern, Hence it has been concluded, asa ge-
neral pofition, that the moft advantageous angle will always
be found between 35° and 45°. From Bouguer’s treatife
(ubi infra), it appears, that, in moft fhips, the angle of the
rudder with the prolonged line of the keel fhould be 46° 40’.
L. Euler recommends an obliquity fomewhat lefs than 54°
44', for the greateft aGtion of the rudder; and eftablifhes
this rule, that an obliquity of about 48° will, in general,
produce the beft effort.
Thofe who duly confider the action of the Jelm and tiller
(for an account of which, fee thofe articles) will eafily
conceive, that the greater the fhip’s velocity is, the more
powerful is the action of the rudder, fince it aéts again{t the
water with a force which increafes as the {quare of the ve-
locity of the fluid, whether the fhip has head-way, or ftern-
way ; obferving always, that in thefe two circumftances the
effects are contrary ; for, if the fhip goes a-ftern, the rudder
will be ftruck from Ito N (fig. 4.); and, inftead of being
puthed from N to P, it will be fo from N to R; fo that the
9
ftern being moved in the fame dire€tion, the head will take
a contrary one, and move towards the fame fide as the
tiller BF.
It fhould be obferved, in the ufe of the rudder, that there
is one part of its effort which impedes the fhip’s failing,
when it is ftruck by the water which runs rapidly along the
fhip’s bottom. If it makes an angle of 45° with the keel
prolonged, it receives only half the impulfion it would, if
aéted upon perpendicularly ; becaufe the abfolute impulfe
diminifhes from two caufes. ‘The furface which oppofes the
fhock, of the water is reduced to a lefs extent than it was at
firft, and the angle of incidence diminifhes likewife ; fo that
by this, the impulfe has diminifhed one half. Confidering
next the impulfion NP, which remains (fg. 4.), it will
appear that there is only one part NI which is oppofed
to the failing, and which is lefs than N P, in the proportion
as the fine total is to the fine of 45°, the meafure of the
angle of incidence VNB equal to NPI; for the angle
V NL is right, as well as the angle PNB; fo that, if
you take away the common angle LNB, the two angles
PNL and VNB will remain equal between themfelves ;
but, as the angle IPN is equal to its alternate angle
PNL, it follows that IPN is always equal to VNB,
whether the angle made by the rudder be more or lefs open
with the keel prolonged. So that, if the furface of the
cudder which receives the fhock be 80 feet {quare fuper-
ficies, it will firft be reduced, by its being expofed to the
courfe of the fluid, to an effort of 40 feet furface, then to
28 or 29; becaufe, in the firft place, there is only one part
of the velocity of the water which contributes to the fhock,
and that is proportional to the relation of the fquare of the
fine total to that of the fine of incidence ; and, fecondly, be-
caufe out of the abfolute impulfe N P, which refults from
this laft oblique fhock, there 1s only a part NI which op-
pofes the velocity of the fhip proportional to the abfolute force
NP, in the fame relation as there is between the fine total
and the fine of incidence; that is to fay, that when the
rudder makes, in the largeft fhips, an angle of 45°,. it im-
pedes the fhip’s rapidity of failing, in the dire€tion of the
keel, with an effort NI, equivalent to the impulfion which
a furface of 28 or 29 feet fquare might receive, if it were
expofed perpendicularly to the fhock of the water. So
that, if the fhip fails 12 knots an hour, or 19 feet a fecond,
the effort of the rudder N1, which oppofes the fhip’s way,
will be 12,499 or 12,945 pounds; falt water weighing .*th
more than frefh.
It follows, from all that has been faid of the rudder, that
it ought to be employed as little as poffible ; that is to fay,
the fhip and her fails ought to be fo difpofed, that the
fmalleft motion of this machine may bring her to her courfe,
if fhe deviates from it, or make her perform any evolution
which may be thought proper. ‘
The ingenious writer of the article Seaman/bip in the
Enc. Brit. fuggelts, that the theory of M. Bouguer and
fome other French mathematicians is founded on principles
that are erroneous. They aflume, as we have. above fup-
pofed, that the impulfe of a fluid is in the proportion of the
{quare of the fine of the angle of incidence; and alfo that
its aCtion on any {mall portion, fuch as a fquare foot of the
fails or hull, is the fame as if that portion were detached
from the reft, and were expofed, fingle and alone, to the
wind or water in the fame angle. Both thefe principles, it
is aflirmed, are erroneous; and the error is very confiderable
in cafes which molt frequently occur in practice, that is, in
the {mall angles of inclination. The error of this theory,
efpecially in cafes of great obliquity, may be feen in the
following
RUD
following table: in which the firft column exhibits the
angle of incidence; the fecond, the impulfions really ob-
ferved; the third, the impulfes, if they had followed the
duplicate ratio of the fines; and the fourth, the impulfes
according to the fimple ratio of the fines.
Impulfes in dup. | Impulfes in fimple
Ratio of Sines. |_ Ratio of Sines.
Impulfions
Angle of
obferved.
Incidence.
1000 Icco
989 995
|
|
|
|
The error in the fecond principle of the theory is ftill
greater, and the action on one part of the fail or hullis fo
greatly modified by its action on another adjoining part, that
a ftay-fail is often feen hanging like a loofe rag, although
there is nothing between it and the wind; and this merely
becaufe a great fail in its neighbourhood fends off a lateral
ftream of wind, which completely hinders the wind from
getting at it. Till the theory of the aétion of fluids be
eltablifhed, therefore, we cannot tell what are the forces
which are aéting on every point of the fail and hull:
therefore we cannot tell either the mean intenfity or direction
of the whole force which a&s on any particular fail, nor the
intenfity and mean direGion of the refiftance to the hull ; cir-
cumitances abfolutely neceffary for enabling us to fay what
will be their energy in producing a rotation round any par-
ticular axis. In like manner, we cannot, by fuch a compu-
tation, find the {fpontaneous axis of converfion {fee Rora-
TION), or the velocity of fuch converfion. In fhort, we
cannot pronounce with tolerable confidence a priori what will
be the motions in any cafe, or what difpofitions of the fails
will produce the movement we wifh to perform. The ex-
perienced feaman learns by habit the general effets of every
» difpofition of the fails; and though his knowledge is far
from being accurate, it feldom leads him into any very
blandering operation. Perhaps he feldom makes the beft
adjuftment poflible, but feldomer ftill does he deviate very
far from it; and inthe moft general and important problems,
fuch as working to windward, the refult of much experience
and many corrections has fettled a trim of the fails, which
is certainly not far from truth, but (it muft be acknow-
ledged) deviates widely and uniformly from the theories of
the mathematician’s clofet. The honeft tar, therefore, mutt
be indulged in his joke on the ufelefs labours of the mathe-
matician, who can neither hand, reef, nor fteer.
Bouguer Traité de la Manceuvre des Vaifleaux. Falco-
ner’s Moeer Di. art. Heim; and Euler’s Complete Theory
of the Conftruétion and Properties of Veffels, tranflated by
Mr. Watfon, 1776, book ii. chap. vii. viii. ix. ad
A narrow rudder is beft for a thip’s failing, provided fhe
can feelit, that is, be guided and turned by it 5 for a broad
rudder will hold much water when the helmis put over to
RUD
any fide; but if a fhip have a fat quarter, fo that the water
cannot come quick and ftrong to her rudder, fhe will require
a broad rudder.
The aftmoit part of the rudder is called the rake of the
rudder.
Large canal boats have cla/p-rudders, about half their
length being moveable on hinges, fo as to fold and fhorten
them before the entering of a lock.
Rupper-Coats, are coverings made of well-tarred canvas,
to prevent the water from running in at the rudder-hole.
Rupper-Jrons, in a Ship, are the cheeks of that iron
of which the pintle is part, which is faftened and nailed
down about the rake of the rudder.
Rupper-Pendants. See PENDANTS.
Rupper-Rope. See Rope.
Rupper-Tackle. See TACKLE.
RUDDIMAN, Tuomas, in Biography, was born in
the parifh of Boyndie, Banffshire, in the year 1674, where
he received the firft rudiments of his education, and in 1690
he was fent to King’s college, Aberdeen, wherc he obtained
a burfary. He took the degree of M. A. in 1694, and in
the following year he was elected matter of the public {chool
of Laurence-Kifh. In 1700 he removed to Edinburgh, and
two years afterwards he was appointed librarian to the
faculty of advocates. In 1709 he publifhed Johnfon’s me-
trical paraphrafe of Solomon’s Song, and foon after he added
a very accurate gloflary to the folio edition of Gawin
Douglas’s tranflation of the Eneid. His fituation at the
advocates’ library was fo favourable to his literary purfuits,
that he declined an invitation from the magiftrates of Dun-
dee, to the office of reGtor of the ar-{chool in that
town. In 1714 he publifhedhis “ Rudiments of the Latin
Tongue,” which became a very popular book in Scotland,
and was ufed in many {chools in South Britain. » In 1725 he
edited “* Buchanani Opera omnia,”? in 
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